Statistics of coal : the geographical and geological distribution of mineral combustables or fossil fuel, including, also, notices and localities of the various mineral bituminous substances employed in arts and manufactures ...

Taylor, Richard C. (Richard Cowling) · 1848 · Historical

Statistics of coal : the geographical and geological distribution of mineral combustables or fossil fuel, including, also, notices and localities of the…

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Statistics Of Coal.

The Geographical And Geological Distribution

or

iilineral €ombii0tible£i or fossil ImU

IirCLUDIVO, ALIO, HOTIcn AHD LOCALZmS OF THE VABI0U9

.Mineral Bituminous Substances,

EMPLOYED IN ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, ILLUSTSATaD BT KAP8 AND DIAGRAMS;

FROM OFFICIAL REPORTS OF THE GREAT COAL-PRODUCING COUNTRIES, THE RESPECTIVE AMOUNTS OF THEIR

Production, Consumption And Commercial Distribution,

IX ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD; TocrruxA with their

Prices, tariffs, Duties anb ifnUmational Ucgulations.

Accoxpahied Bt Nearly

Fonr nundrrd Statiitical Tablrs, and EleTen Hondred Analyses of Ninrral Comlmstiblcs

INLII'KNTAL STATILMENTS OF THE STATISTICS OF IRON MANUFACTRE, DERIVED FROM AUTHENTIC AUTHORITIES.

Prefabed By

Richard Cowling Taylor,

OF THE r.EOIOOlCAL JIOriBTT OF LOHDOH. MEMBER OF THE AMEEICAM PHILOaOPlllr Al

-ovILTY. THI. HISTOEICAI. MOriETY OF PEJfSiVLVAMIA, OF THE ACAUFMV OK XATUIAL

!ICIE! OF rHILADKLPHIA, OF THE AI.HAXY ISISTITTTE. MEW \OBK.

ASID or VABIOtS OTHEB 0C1ETIB8 IB Bl'BOPE ABO AMEBICA.

i'.nor vi "INDEX MONASTICUS, in Ihc Ancient Kingdom of East Anglia, lS-21."

Philadelphia: Published By J. W. Moore, 193 Chestnut Street.

nSSOilf

17 f, :.'i'cri/ /t

Entered aooovdmg to Act of Coogren in the year 1848, BY RICHARD C. TATLOR, In the CIeik*e Office of the District Court for the Etitem Diitrict of Pa

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Preface.

I did not set about this work under the persuasion that I was the most fitting person for a task so arduous ; or that I possessed either the necessary facilities for so wide a field of Statistics, or could appropriate sufficient time to its preparation. The fiict is, at the outset, it was the result almost of necessity ; a preparation for temporary and specific pur- poses, of a series of comparative detaib relating to the coal trade of the United States and of certain other countries. The information required was not accessible m any single work, nor even in a number of works ; it was no where to be found. The materials, therefore, had to be col- lected and arranged by degrees, and to be drawn from original sources; and in this manner, the data sought for became the nucleus which has gradually expanded into the substance and capacity of a considerable Tolume. Of the incompleteness, the multifold imperfections of such a work, especially its first edition ; the tendency to error ; the innumera- ble gaps and blanks that remain to be filled up, no one can be so well awaie, probably, as its author. An unequal acquisition of statistical details is the inevitable result of all such undertakings. It will not, we admit, be difficult to point out these deficiencies, and critics may suggest abundant omissions and emendations, in this volume. How- ever, as there must be some limit to the accumulative process and some cessation from the collector's toil, it has now become necessary to bring it to a close, and to commit it to the indulgence of the public.

R. C. T.

Contents Of The Introduction.

Section I xiii

latrodaetory Sketch— Proportionate areai of coal land in Enrope and America. ProportioBate aroaa of coal formationi in tho United Statei. — General ammarT of eoalitatistica — Earope. — United Sutei of America. — Prodnction of combiutiblei.

of tatistica of mineral foel. — Increaaed prodnction of American coal aad aatbraciteProdoction of iron.Railroadi.

Section II xxx?i

ICaceUaiMow notea is relation to coal.veographical diitribntion of coal— Com- parative Taloe of gold and silTer, and of coal and iron. — Employment of mineral comboftiblet.— Geological position of coal beds. — Local position and arrangement of beds of coal. — Accidents, faults, and irregularities of coal beds.— 'Varieties of coaJ, with reference to their adaptation to Uie making of iron. — Classification of mineral coals. — Adaptation of different Tarieties of coal to the purposes of steam naTigatioo. — Adaptation of coal to steam power. — Depths of coal mmes. — Systems for working coal mines. — Ventilation of coal mines. — Means to destroy or check the fire-damp or grisou in subterranean works. — Local ventilation. — Ventilation of fiery collieries.— Ventilation of collieries in Scotland and the north of England.—* Medical treatment after explosion.Drainage of coal mines. — Tracing of coal beds in the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania. — On the maps or plans of mines.— Mine surveying. — Iron ore of the coal formation.

Section III Ixxxi?

Foesil botany and geological distribution of vegetable remains.— Fossil botany:— Cotjledonec — I. Dicotyledones. — II. Monocotyledoneae. — III. Acotyledones, or imperfect. — Microscopic observations on the structure of coal, lignite and peat. Miscellaneous notes as to coal and fossil vegetation. — Usual position of stigmaris, in the floors of coal beds. — Cupriferous lignites.- — Turbaries, peat-bogs — Tour- Ineres, peat-moeaea.— Organic remains in the carboniferous period.

Section IV cxviii

Mining casualties and provident institutions. — Belgium. — Germany. — The Prussian Sutet.— Great Britain,— Scotland.— South Wales.— France.— United Sutes of America.

Plan Of This Work.

Tn growu demand for the species of practical information which it haa been our object in the firing pages to concentrate, has oAen suggested itidf to the anthor, and doubtless to numberless others. Perhaps in no eoontry hare more fireqnent inquiries been made in relation to Coal ; to its infinite TarietieSy adaptations and modifications ; its innumentble depositories and its geographical distributiony than in the United States of America.

This desire, probably, originates in the circumstance that in no country has sndi rapid progress been made in the development of mineral fuel, not only far an domestic purposes, but as a powerful agent in every department of mandactnring industry ; notwithstanding that enormous and almost unbroken foresu still overshadow the land. The increasing demand and corresponding supply, the rapid expansion of the field of mdustrial operations, have no doubt awakened this solicitude for information — locals general, statistical, commer- cial and scientific, on the subject of coal.

We have reason, however, to be assured that the demand for this species of knowledge is not limited to the country from whence we date. It prevails more or less in every quarter of the globe where that inestimable substance haa been investigated and brought into the service of man. It was obvious that a statistical work, embodying all the important details in relation to the mineral combustibles of the world, would be an acceptable contribution to practical science.

Until some such work appeared, it were a fruitless task to seek for details which no one had undertaken to collect in the compass of a single volume; and which yet remained, like the mmeral itself, scattered throughout all the countries of the earth.

Acting under this impression the author has sought and gathered together the materials— -a great number at least, to remedy the deficiency of which we speaL

Hii design, at the outset, was limited to the collection of such coal statis- - tics as seemed sufficient for his private guidance. As in all labours of this description, the materials, during the progress of the undertaking, accumulated to an extent far greater than was anticipated. An extended arrangement led to gready increased labour. The sources of information as regards foreign oooatrifls, being remote, its acquisition is neoessarilly uncertain and tedious :

f iii PLAN OF THIS WORK.

in fact it has no limit, for eyery day fumishes new facts to be rste The process never ends, because the elements are inexhaustible. We reminded, howeyer, by the bulk of the matter on hand that we have reac a point at which we may consign the work to the press.

Preparing these pages in the United States, we are not umfWare of disadvantages which result from the want of access to many official Euroj documents, and of reference to minor authmties such as rarely find their i into American libraries. We may, in some degree, counteract these i ciencies by communicating to Europeon inquirers a great amount of in mation which our position has enabled us to acquire in America. Tt persons cannot but contemplate with interest the enormons extent of North Americ n coal-fields, whose very existence, scarce a quarter of a tury back, was unknown, even on their actual sites.

Of the surprising impulse to the interests of the New Worid which been communicated by this recent knowledge, this newly acquired pon of the influence it has manifested in many of the oommercid and on al the industrial departments ; of the moral consequences which are percept m a thousand forms, we shall hereafter submit abundant proofii. It wiS much more difficult to speculate as to the position to which these combi elements of prosperity may conduct us in the next quarter or half cenli We draw the most sanguine inferences with relation to the future, bees the experience of the past twenty-five years fully justifies such flattei anticipations. In that comparatively small period, the consumption of mi ral fuel in America has wonderfully augmented : and yet, in the correspc ing time in Europe, we are not less astonished to observe the parallel adva in the production of coal, and in the extension of manufactures through all the principal countries. In fact, the whole civilized work! seems to fa made a simultaneous advance in productive industry. It will be our tasi point out the exact relative proportions of the progren thus made by e country, during a long series of years and in several successive periods intervals.

Something further yet remains to be said in relation to the objects conti plated in this volume, and of the several matters to which we have give place therein.

Our range would have been but narrow had we limited the investigatioi mineral coal alone. It is well known that vast deposits of combustible s stances have been denominated and described as coal, which the lighti science now shew belong to a more recent class, and to a variety of geolog ages or epochs. We refer to the brown coal or lignite class, so abundax distributed.

In a large portion of Europe, such as the Austrian, Belgian, French Prussian dominions, the distmction is perfectly well understood, and all q cial minipg statisties are, in these eoontrioh tmiformly arranged under tl

PLAN OF THIS WORK. jx

appropriate dassificatum. Id many cases where errors have prevailed, we haTe been enabled to correct them by the aid of recent geological investiga- . Stili, modern science has not yet penetrated every where. There fcmains, at nnmeronSv but rarely visited points, vast fields of so-called coal, whoee true geological age we have yet to learn. For the present, therefore, we are unable to dass these combustibles either with the true coals as the dder seiies, or with the tertiary lignites as the newer, or with any intermediate deposits. This being the case, it was obviously inexpedient to exclude the Liamrxs from our pages, independently of their intrinsic value as combusti- bles. Brown coal is a valuable substitute for the older coal where there is a earaty of the superior variety, as we shall have many opportunities of bowing.

In like manner, while describing the lignites, Pbat seemed to demand a proportionate share of our attention, and to claim a place in our columns. The transition from one condition of these combustibles to another is often- time so imperceptible that they seem to have almost equal claims on our nociee. In its remarkable diffusion over the northern hemisphere where artificial heat is so indispensable, and where timber and other descriptions of fbei are so little abundant, turf or peat forms a substitute of inestimable worth. In its adaptation to numberless useful purposes, such as the manufacture of iron, the production of gas, modem science has shown that it possesses qualities which heretofore were but little suspected. Thus, it will be seen, our list comprehends a large series of valuable products ; extending upwards from carbonized peat at one extremity to hard coals and compact anthracites at the other.

So dosely do some bituminized coals approach to the mineral bitumens,, some of which have even been denominated coal, as those in the West Indies and South America, that we have found it advisable to include the bitumi Hors AND RXsiNOUs viivxRALS. We were unwilling to reject this numerous daas, which comprises the solid bitumens of the tropics ; the asphalts of France, of Italy, of Syria and numberless other countries ; the petroleum of Arabia, of Persia, of Birmah and Ava ; the Naphtha of Rangoon, and Tartary and Geora; the amber of Pomerania, of Saxony and Siberia; the mellite or honeystooe of Thuringia, and the retinites of Moravia and England. A number of these substances accompany the carboniferous formations ; others arise from the midst of primary and roetamorphic and igneous rocks, while still oiore accompany, or are embedded m the lignite beds and tertiary coals of every part of the world.

We have even added, to complete our series of combustibles, ofiicial returns of the annual amount and value of the wood and timber furnished by the fomts of France, Austria, the Tyrol, Styria, Illyria, Galicia, Bohemia, A.-

We did not contemplate, in preparing this work, to enter extensively into

X Plan Of Thi8 Work.

the important topic of the statistics of iron, but we have (bund it so in woven with matters essential to our main subjecty that a considerable m of information has been necessarily incorporated in our pages, where wUj found the latest estimates and returns of the amount of manufactured iroi all the principal producing countries, illustrated hj a diagram of their reap ive proportions.

Explanatory tables of the current monies, weights and measures of all leading nations ; a variety of statements of commercial facts ; details of respective tariffs, customs and mtemational regulations, in relation to o the progress of raikoads and canals ; of steam power and navigation, an vast series of analytical tables, besides the maps and diagrams, also oco portions of the present volume. Among other duties, that of bringing to form denominations and a conmion standard the weights, measures and rency of so many nations, is by no means the lightest. The principal rea in our tables have been calculated in the three standards of France, £n and the United States.

Where the range of inquiry is so wide, the number of documents w) we have had to investigate is correspondingly large. We have endeavoi to designate our authority for every material fact which we have ado; This recognition, we conceive, is not only in strict justice due to those thorities, but it bestows the sanction of their names, and the weight of t testimony to every page and paragraph of this volume.

Let us add further, that the practice is attended with a convenience w every inquirer can appreciatethe enumeration of standard authors and direct reference to their pages. The whole series thus forms, in the gate, a copious catalogue of statistical and scientific authorities. The In we cannot but think, will be found to concentrate a vast mass of informi which has heretofore been dispersed through hundreds of volumes in diffi languages, and constitutes of itself an epitome or condensation of the e work.

Of course some embarrassments have, from time to time, beenexperie in the arrangement of our statistics. Discrepancies, for instance, frequi appear m the conunercial returns of different countries. Thus the retun the coal exported to France from Great Britain do not strictly corrcs] with the French tablee of imports from the latter country. In hke mai similar variations appear in the official reports of Belgium, Prussia France. Under the different circumstances of commercial dassificaUo of local registration, and probably of occasional changes of destinatio would be unreasooahle lo expect exact conformity.

In a recent bulletin of the central statistical commission of the kingdo Belgium, something is said on the difficulty which exists in comparing d ments drawn up at different sources. Great Britain, it is remarked, ha corps of state engineers, notwithstanding that a desire has been express

PLAN OF THIS WORK. xi

liferent times, even by persons yersed in the art of mming operations. In Beiom and in France those who are engaged in this branch of industry oecopy themsdves with energy in its details, but submit to the control of the administratioo, by whose agents every important particular is ascertained and carefully registered. In England, the information of necessity is less precise. The produce of her coal mines is estimated by the number of tons trans- ported by sea to foreign or domestic ports, and on the canals and railroads iobnd, chiefly to the port of London. A rough estimate remains to be made of the amount conveyed in the interior or consumed upon the spot. It is impossible therefore, to be precise as to the quantity really produced annually in that country.

One European government in the public mining returns, confines itself only to statements of total production, as In Prussia. In this country they gJcttlate the value of the combustibles at the places of extraction : m that at the centres of consumption ; and in a third, at the places of embariLation. Here, the tables furnish the estimated value of the crude minerals ; there, their value aAer they have undergone different preparations. The elements of comparison are often wanting.

It can scarcely be expected that in so new and extensive a country as the United States of America, any organized system is in efiective operation for determining the amount of coal yearly raised there. In regard to anthracite, the great avenues from the mines to tide water admit of exact returns of the quantity annually transported, and means exist, in fact, of ascertaining, through the returns of the mining establishments, the true yearly production.

Not so with the production of bituminous coal in the interior. Of this we are wholly uninformed, and the area of the coal-fields is so large, that it seems futile to hazard even the roughest calculation. In 1840, an official attempt was made to acquire that information through the instrumentality of Che Census Act, but it proved, as might be expected, a decided and acknow- ledged failure. In 1845, the Secretary of the Treasury, in conformity with the direction of the Senate, made a report of 419 pages, 6th January, in rela- tion to the statistics of the United States. From no county or state in the Union was a single return obtained as to the coal mines. During the same year, the Secretary of the Treasury, pursuing the inquiry, with reference to the settlement of the proposed tarifl*, issued circulars throughout all the states, asking information, among odier statistics, as to the mines, their produce and prices. His report thereon of 967 pages, dated 3d December 1845, elicited DO useful result on this head, nor a single return relative to coal.

The wide distribution of property in America is unfavourable to the coUec- tkm of such statistics. The process must, at all times, be unpopular, and the remits extremely uncertain. This species of investigation savours too much of tcmtiiiy into the private concerns of men, and is unsuited to the spirit of wepoMkm institntions.

Introduction.

Section I.

Introductort Sketch.

Wi uke ibr granted that every one who may chance to peruse the sum- fflary of statistics of nUnerai fuel which we have embodied in the present lection, will be impressed with the immense importance of those substances, particularly as developed of late years ; how vastly enlarged the area and bulk of their production in all countries ; how essential they now are to the eomfort of the human fiimily; how much they have done towards the exten- sion of the useful arts; how gloriously they have aided the progress of invention and improvement; how mighty are the results which have followed their increased application I For ourselves, we may remark, that during the investigation into the geographical distribution of coal and the subordi- nate combHiistibles, nothing has struck us more forcibly than the abundant supply with which Providence has furnished the inhabitants of our globe, particularly in its northern hemisphere. We were astonished at the almost numberless positions where mineral fuel is attainable ; especially in North America and Europe. With very inadequate guides at the outset, we have brought together an enormous mass of geological and statistical details, which exhibit an amount and variety of fossil combustibles which far ex- ceeded our original expectations. We have seen how recent is the know- ledge of the existence of immense regions occupied by coal, and that every year new positions, new deposits, become known to the traveller, or are demonstrated by the geologist Through them, and the enterprise of the miner, a rich store of intelligence has been acquired, yet much remains behind. We are yet in the infancy of our knowledge as regards vast areas of country. Busy as the geologist has been during the last half century, how much is yet to be investigated ; how wide the space yet untrodden ; bow ample the fields yet open to the scientific explorer 1

The last quarter of a century has, more especially, been prolific in the discovery of the sites of useful mineral combustibles, and in the extended application of their products to the service of the community. Man has not only been taught increased facilities in adapting them to the useful arts, but practical science has apprised him of the great value of substances heretofore accounted of little worth, yet inexhaustibly abundant, and almost every where within his reach. He has acquired, for example, many new facts rative to the value of ptat, hitherto among the humblest of the combusti- bles, yet the almost universal production of cold or temperate climates, and of regions which are entirely incapable of producing a growth of timber or of the larger plants. Independent of its applicability to the usual domestic and agrieoltora] purposes, he has seen that it can be successfully applied for

xiv INTItODUCTION.

gas-lighting, for steam engines, for evaporation, and for every branch o! iron manufacture, commencing with smelting in the high furnaces, ending with the most delicate manipulations practised in the workin, steel. Thus, in compensation for the absence of the supposed superioi scriptions of fuel, coal, for instance, nature has been bountiful of anoi where most needed; and one, loo, which, unlike fossil coal, is reproduct always renewable and renewing. The fear, therefore, entertained by s theorists, that the earth will be exhausted of its mineral combustibles, be alleviated by the contemplation of that enormous supply of vegetable which prevails where eventually it will be most needed.

It would be no difficult task to show in figures how vastly more profit is the application of labour in the mining and working and transportin coal, than in that of the precious metals. The annual production of all gold and silver mines of North and South America was estimated by Bi Humboldt at ;,243,000, and at present at less than ;f5,000,000. the value of the coal produced annually, in Great Britain alone, is puted at near 10,000,000 at the pit's mouth, and at from 15,000,00 ;20,000,000 sterling at the places of consumption. At the same time, value of the iron, lm>ught into a manufrctured state through the ageni this coal, is 17,000,000 more. We shall enter more particularly into subject in a future page. We cannot but mark also the superior chart and condition of the inhabitants of the coal producing and consuming o tries, such as those of the northern hemisphere, especially since the duction of steam power, to. that of the people of the soathem and tro] latitudes, to whom coal has either been wholly denied, or is not applic any use. The industry, activity, moral culture and intelligence concenti around any of the great depositories of coal and iron in the temp< regions — in the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania, for instance — hav parallel in the countries from which such treasures have been withheld.

The two important mineral substances, coal and iron, have, when n available, afforded a permanent basis for commercial and manufactu prosperity. Looking at the position of some of the j;reat depositories of and iron, one perceives that upon them the most m>uri8hing populatio concentrated— the most powerful and roagnifieent nations of the earth established. If these two apparently coarse and unattractive substances 1 not directly caused that high eminence to which some of these coun have attained, they, at least, have had a large share in contributing to it

In preparing this volume, our investigations have in great measure I directed to one only of these simple mineral substances, coal, although iron has not altogether been lost sight of. We will take the liberty of roinating this passage, in the words of M . Aug. Vischers.

Coal is now the indispensable aliment of industry ; it is a prin material ; engendering force ; giving a power superior to tfiat which nat

Let ai be pennitted to eite a veiy intereftiot Uleitratioii of the foregoinf remark, the tute orPenofjWanU, jatt rarerred to. In 1$S5 comoMnoed the first nininff oper in Schujlkill coaoty, and the first cooceotration or tettlers from all coantries. Id 1841 central town of PotHrille, originating at a later date than we have quoted, conuinec following esubljahinenti for the edacation of the children of the miners and newly ee residents.

Six private schools, nambering 479 pupils ; eight public schools, numbering 472 pupi the annual average eipense for each pupil being only $6.82 ; eight Sunday schools, t bering 1137 papiis{ teachers, 166{ toul, 2254, with a library of 1699 volumes.

It is but just to add, of the Catholic school, comprising 439 of this number, a individual had taken the pledge of toul abstinence firom intozicatiog drinks /or /(c.--lt from the Sfiner't Joamal of PottatUle, Jasnary 1, 1842.

niTJROIKJCTION.

Xf

igfots, such as water, air, c, procure. It is to industry what oxygen is to the lungs, water to the plant, nourishment to the animal. It is to coal we ove steam and gas ; it replaces, in the workshops and the domestic hearths, the charcoal which had become too costly. Under the last head, in our northerly latitudes, it is destined always to acquire increasing and more general use. The employment of coal will henceforward be no other than a question of cheapness ; and, in the present age, the first interest of industry ii, above all, to see ameliorated the ways of communication ; to lower the tolls upon the routes and the canals. If custom-house officers still oppose shackles on manufiictured products, they lower their barriers for the passage of the raw material."

Proportionate Areas Of Coal Land In Europe And America.

The following table shows the relative magnitude of the principal coal piodacing countries, and their respective areas of coal land, together with the proportions which they severally bear to each other. Those of France and Spain are consideraUy less than the actual amount. Coal occurs in ilmoot every principal subdivision of Spain, but we have only included the Astnrias region.

BaUrt area each coun-

Area of

Proportions ! Proportions,

try.

coal land.

of coal to their whole

relaUvt parts of

CoaBtriM.

8q. mllea.

Square

areas.

1000 of coal

EnglUh.

mllei.

areas

Great BnUia, Ireland, Scotland and Wales,

120,290

11,859

Spain, 'Atahas region]

177,781

3,408

Fraoce, firea of fixed concessiom] in 1845,

203,736

1,719

BelfiQin conceded lands,

11,372

51S

PenoffjlTania, U. States,

43,960

16,437

Provinces of New Brunswick, Nova

Scoua, Cape Breton, and Newfoundland,

81,113

18,000

PrastiaB Dominions,

(107,937

Aoflinan ProT. conuining coal or lignite,

150,000

The railed States of America,

2,280,000

The twelve principal coal producing Statea,

665,283

133,132

184,073

Hence, as regards European countries, Great Britain takes the first rank : Belum, as regards territorial proportion, occupies the second rank, although in relative coal area she is the least of the four. Pennsylvania, in respect of territorial proportion, is higher than any of these, being relatively one third: but in absolute area of coal formation, the four eastern colonies of British America united exceeds them all, being larger than that of Great Britain, France, Belgium and Spain conjoined. This table is not strictly perfect ; since we possess the areas of the concessions only in France ; and, in Spain, only the single coal region of Asturias. We add the areas of Prussia and Austria, but cannot state the proportions of coal formations therein. The American area of coal is nearly three fourths of the whole aoaount in our table.

Proportionate Areas Of Coal Formations In The United States.

The Ubie we here add will be observed with great interest, on account of the enormous breadth of coal formations, in the United Sutes. There are

Xfl

Introduction.

yet several coal producing States not enumerated, of which we possess imperfect information.

Ar. ofth

C0nl

S. A.Mlt-

ar*&x.

Ppspor*

chfeLt.

itot) of

flq. oinos.

q. Diltei.

60,S75

bimmiaoui coil.

Georgia p

56,200

about tbo laiDfi Amoaat la

!T. CtrotI

44J20

4,300

Mo

4. KeaiQCly,

39,015

I3,ft00

6, Virgmia,

64,000

21,195

6. Bfiif jkad

10,S29

b&Q

7. Ohio*

3li,S50

11,900

8. Indmniif

34,S4)0

7,700

9. IJiinotfl,

£9,1 30

44,000

10,. PennijlTOfiiij

43,960

16,437

13

UitfimiQOttB kbA otbricit

] L. Micbifan,

60,520

&,000

V2. Mitwurij

6,000

Mo

133,133

Mlhof lSSutei

In the persuasion that the diagram form always conveys more acci impressions than mere tables which embrace a number of figures, we prepared the annexed diagram showing the Coal Areas of vai countries, and the best illustration of the preceding statement details of the coal areas in the United States of America follow in the table.

Diagrtmu of the superfitiai Coal AreoM of varmu Ctmniries.

I'mffti .Staff tjf Arrtfi/rciJ

/33J3Z .w, /Hi Us

Antbncitc of Penaftjrlirantft,

1 437 aq, isitc

1S473& q. ittils, eil of the Mil* mi'ipppi liver* 8,37 milci, wcit of the JVlLCioiarl nrer*

gptin, 340S M. mil

Bitumlnout coal, IgOOOtq.W. 1-4501.

Fntice, 1719 q.Qi. UU3UI.

q.m. l-32d.

Great Hriuis bilutninouicoal, 8139 tq, mUu.

CtL Btitim ind IroUi 3730 vq. m. aiithroi and culm. 1-lOiinjfl wbole are*.

We ha?e Adopted, in the eolomn of iqatre mUet, the areu of Mitchell, publk 1836, rather than thoee of Derby or MeCvUoch.

IRTRODncmQlC. iivit

The mijoritj of these States show a far greater proportion of coal than io those of Europe. We omit from the above table some detached coal ueas in Arkaosas, Missouri territory, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, respecting which our information is incomplete.

General Subocary Of Coal Statistics.

We present, in this place, a comparative ? iew of the coal operations of the larger coal-producing countries of the world. We should have pre- ferred to baye arranged the results simultaneously, in all of these countries ; bot u the dates of the latest returns are not, generally, contemporaneous, we are compelled to a slight deviation from an arrangement otherwise desirable. In geoeraJ, we adopt the year 1845, for the purposes of comparison.

Europe.

Belgium. — In 1844-5 there were in full operation 212 mines, and not in work 97 others, making in all 309 mines, comprising 540 coal piu in ope- ntion and construction; and employing 3800 miners and 500 steam- csgines, of an aggregate force of 22,841 horse power. The product of their labour was 4,445,240 tons, which were returned at the value of 3944,191 Cranes, at the places of extraction ; equal to 97,689,900, or to jf 1,660,000 iterliog. In 1845, the quantity raised was 4,960,077 tons.

Pbcsma. — In the year 1840 there were about 752 mines or pits of coal, anthracite and lignite in operation. These employed 24,024 miners, and produced 3,245,607 tons, whose value is given in the official returns at 19,687,704 francs, equivalent to 83,806,289, or to j6793,860 sterling.

In 1844, the four coal provinces of Prussia produced 3,650,000 tons, of tbe value of 22,500,000 francs. Three German States of the Zollverein yielded 250,000 tons of the value of 2,250,000 francs.

Tbe Prussian collieries in 1844 employed 25,000 miners: — these returns ippear to be incomplete.

FsAXCE. — During the year 1845, there were, according to official docu- ment*, 449 coal mines worked and unworked ; employing 30,778 miners, lod producing 4,141,617 tons of mineral fuel. Their value at the pit's mouth was 39,705,432 francs 97,663,000, or to <£1, 603,106 sterling.

The average quantity raised in each of these three kingdoms in 1845 was reiDirkably similar ; but there is a material difference in the value assigned to the coal at the point of production.*

Great Britain. — As the details of the production and distribution of the coal in this country, [except as regards the coasting trade and foreign expor- tation,] are not officially registered, as in the continental states we have previously cited, an exact comparison with them can scarcely be instituted. We may sUte, however, that about 1845-6 the current estimate of the total production of coal in the British mines was thirty-one and a half millions of tons; whose value at the place of extraction was considered to be /9, 100,000 sterling,! 232,000,000 francs, or $44,000,000 annually.

The PniMUii officid valoations and the English estimatef are lower than those of France or Belgium. While the aggregate cost of all descriptions of mineral fuel in France vu fttad at more than 111 franca per English ton, the coal and anthrite of Pmssia were at 7 francs, nad lignite only 3 franca. While the coals of France are valued at 14 fVanca per ton, and tboee of Belgium at 133 francs, those of Great BriUin have only been nomi- lied at 7.43 CmBCt.

tMr.TaaMstfla 184ff.

Xfiii INTRODUCTION.

We hare before us, howe? er, another statement, in which the produc for the year 1845, is rated as high as 34,754,750 tons ; of which one t was exported or shipped coastwise, and two thirds were consumed in interior. The value assigned is ;£9,450,000, equal to 945,738,000.

Austria. — The fifth European government in whose provinces co lignite abounds, and in which there has been a considerable increase ii extraction of those substances of late years, is the Austrian Empire, are, however, unable to institute, with accuracy, a comparison with t countries we have just cited. The provinces which contain coal and lij comprise an area of about 150,000 English square miles, but how mu* this is covered by coal formations does not appear to be determined, ei partially. In 1845, there were only 659,340 tons produced. The sumption, since that period, has greatly increased, owing to the extei of iron works, manufactures, railroads, and steam navigation on the Dai on the Adriatic, &c. Bohemia alone produces the greater half of this

United States Of America.

One of the most characteristic features of this immense country, ii of the enormous areas of forest and mountain, which remain almost in primitive solitude. Within these regions, vast ranges of coal formi exist ; their limits, imperfectly defined by the geologist, and scarcely productive now than at the period of the earth's first occupation by the riginal races. Under such a condition of things, it were scarcely ju compare them with the well worked fields of European industry. It suffice that we exhibit the proportionate extent of surface, occupied b; formations, as compared with the aggregate area of the whole country.* we have partly effected in a previous page, and we can, to some extent, an approximate estimate of the annual production.

In a few of the older states which border on the Atlantic, the extri of mineral fuel commenced, as it were, but yesterday. Yet has it advi with a rapidity unprecedented in the world, and already has attained a portance among the industrial occupations, which it would be diffic estimate in figures.

ProportionaU areas tf coal to the whole of the United States, and coal producing states.

Square miles. Acr

The United States contains, exclusive of

Texas and Oregon, 2,%0,000 1459,2(

The exact boundaries or areas of coal and anthracite formations cannot yet be exactly defined, in each state : in a pre- vious table we have detailed the closest approximation to those results, at pre- sent attainable.

The aggregate area of the twelve coal

producing states is, 565,283 361,7

The United States coal area is thus shown to be one seventeenth i the entire area of the states, (with the exceptions stated,) and to I fourth part of the aggregate area of the twelve principal coal states.

If we are to credit the census returns in 1840, the relative proporti

133,132 a 85,2(

Introduction.

xn

eapiul empbjed in ooal mining, iron making, and lead and other minerals

Biined, was, then as follows, fiz. : —

Emplojed in the iron trade in the United States, - 20,432,131

In lead and other minerals, 1,0,061

In coal operations, 6,224,464

28,476,656

We shall demonstrate, in the progress of this volume how rapid and enormous has been the increase in these matters, but e>ecially as relates to coal operations in the United States.

Production of coal and anthracite in the United States. — By returns to Congress, made under the census act of 1940, the following summary of the coal trade of that year was obtained.*

Kmber of tons of SS40 Ibi. each, Hiabcr of workmen emplojed, Ctpital iBTested, Freportioa of capital to prodoction,

Anthracite.

863,4S9

4,356,60S

♦6 per ton.

Bitaminom coal

28 baaheli to one

ton.

986,828

3,768

1,868,862

$2 per ton.

Total.

1,849,317

6,811

6,224,464

We well know that these returns are, in general much understated, and it is also understood that no returns whatever were received from whole dis- tricts, 8o that, for statistical accuracy, few persons place any reliance upon the results. The difficulty arose, partly from inattention in the agents, but still more from a natural unwillingness among individuals concerned, to make known their private affairs, their capital, and the amount of their business undertakings.

Production of anthracite in 1845, 2,023,052 tons, entirely derived from Pennsylvania. In 1846, 2,343,992 tons. In 1847, 2,982,309 tons.

Of the amount of bituminous coal annually consumed it is impossible to haztrd even a guess, but it is doubtless considerably less than that of anthracite.

Were we to offer a very rough approximation to the result for the year 1847, we might say, aggregate of anthracite and bituminous coal nearly 5,000,000 tons. Value at the place of production, $7,500,000. Value at the place of consumption, $20,000,000.

Id each case, being probably below the actual result.

Among all the states in the American Union we can only make selection of one, which admits in strict fairness of being compared, in its details, with the coal countries of Europe. This comparison is interesting, and gires a striking proof of the remarkable mineral importance and the flat- tering prospects of a country so advantageously circumstanced.

Pe.NNSTLVANiA. — Unlike the countries of continental Europe, mineral statistics are here, owing to the free character of its political institutions, attainable with considerable difficulty. There are no records of the number of mines in operation, of the number of workmen employed, the popula- tion supported in the coal districts, the amount of production, its cost, and nomeroas details of interest with which the periodical returns of France, Prossia, Belgium, &c., minutely abound. The attempt to acquire this in-

Regitter of 1840, p. 369 ; alio HoBt't Merchanfi Mag. 184J, p.S87}mim Baltuaora Kaport, Hot. 16, 1843.

xz

Intboduction.

formation dnrinff the pcocen of taking the United States census of 16 was only partialTj successful. The objections and difficulties attending former inquiry, will scarcely be obviated even by a more perfectly digei plan, and a more eflfectif e organization on a future occasion.

Pennsylvania couUins 4360 square miles 88,134,400 acres. 1 areas in this state which are occupied by anthracite, semi-bituminous ) bituminous coals, equal to 9,862,(K)0 acres.

Hence, it appears, that Pennsylvania has more than one-third of whole superficies covered by productive coal formations ; a proportion n than three times greater (relatively) than Great Britain, the most produo of the European countries, and almost double the proportionate coal i of the British American coal producing provinces. Our previous table shown that there are three other states, in the Union, namely, Kentm Virginia and Ohio, that preserve the same ratio of one-third, as Pennsy nia. Indiana has one-fifth, and Illinois has no less than three-fourths of entire area occupied by the carboniferous strau. These six sovereign st comprise 279,755 square miles, and average each 46,026 square mi approaching nearly to the size of England, which has 49,643.

Production in 1840. — The census return shows of anthracite,

Of bituminous coal, returned in bushels,

Tom.

859,686 415,023

Mil

In Pennsylvania, - 144,709 4

The foregoing abstsacts illustrate the coal statistics of the most impor countries in the world. We now proceed to present the details for purposes of comparison, in a concentrated form. The resulu, for the time brought under review, are of a very interesting nature.

Production Of Combustibles.

Table of the Comparative Production of the Six Principal Coal Count in the Worlds in the year 1845. — To enable us to exhibit the rela annual production and value of the coal, anthracite and lignite or br< coal, in the six great coal-producing countries of our globe, in the year which is the latest year in which we can now present a series of cont poraneous statistics, we have prepared the following illustrative statem It is scarcely necessary to observe, that in the two succeeding years, the time of publishing this work, a regular increase has been siroultaneo going on, in all the countries enumerated, and apparently at about a coi ponding ratio. The present table shows the relative proportions, in € 1000 parts, yielded by each country, in 1845.

Order

in

GoWTBtSi.

of Coal For-

MtlOM.

roRf or Fuel rttotd In llM /Mr 184ft.

RtlatliF* pnruof

looo.

OfltotalttttoMled vtloe at placat of prodactlon.

UntlMl Sutta Dollan.

Bn.,.. S

Great Britain, Belgium, United States, Franee.

Prussian States, Austrian States,

11,859

133,139

1,719

not defined,

do.

31,500,000 4,960,077 4,400,000 4,141,617 3,500,000 659,340

45,738,000 7,689,900 6,650,000 7,663,000 4,199.945 800,000

je9,450,(

1,660,(

1,373,S

1,603,1

856,2

Total,

49,161,034

79t663e45

U,10S,

Hie ccowfupyini staple and iateliigilNe ibrou

HfTROMJCnO!!. xxi

represents these proportiooate results in a

§9f therdathtamounU of produdion of Mineral ComhutHbkainthe Six Friidpai Cod-pndueing CawUrieB of the World, in the year 1845.

Bflyiiun.

4-. 961X077

Fiaiire

4,141,617

United Slaitb of

America. Anthracit € 3,650,000 tons

Btium-Voat l.?5aOO0 tm

Tuns

xzii HfTRODUCnON.

The retorna of the prodaclion of coal during the years 1846 and have not all reached us : those received will be found under their ap| priate heads.

Comparatioe ratio of Increased Production in Twenty Years,— li i matter of very great statistical interest, in illustration of the condition c highly important branch of industrial economy, to ascertain the actual gress which has simultaneously been made, in the demand for, and coi quent consumption of, the mineral combustibles, during some. years p With a view to eflect such a result, and thereby to indicate this progres a comprehensive form, we have computed the contemporaneous advance five principal coal producing countries, during the space of twenty y prior to 1st January, 1846 — that is to say from 1825 to 1845 inclua For a portion of these countries we have official returns for 1846, and c as late as 1847 ; but we are constrained to omit them in this uble, beci their insertion would prevent a just and accurate comparison with the r more especially as the latest years show a greatly accelerated ratio of incre The following table exhibits the advance, per centum, during the twenty y aforesaid, in the mining countries named.

IncrMM per in tweotj

I. Pennsylvania, production of anthracite only, that of

bituminous coal being unknown, 5654

II. Great Britain, the production and general consump- tion are not reistered.

Exports to foreign countries and British

settlements abroad, 713

General shipments at the mines, for ex*

portation and for home consumption, 07

Brought into the port of London, 63

III. Prussia, indigenous production, 124

IV. France, do. do. It:! V. Belgium, do. do. Ill

Hence it appears that as regards the highest rate of increase, Pennsyl v far outstrips all her contemporaries of the old worid within the coroi period of twenty years. It is to be regretted that no means exist for ascen ing the advance, made in her production, by Great Britain, during same interval. The increase, whatever it may be, is well known to be siderable, and it certainly must bear some analogous proportion to enlargement of the manufacturing departments. The home consumptio coals in South Wales alone is not less than 5,000,000 tons per annum, our next table we shall pursue this subject of accelerated production more in detail.

Onward ntooemaU of the Coal 7Va<&.— The purport of the folloi comprehensive statement b to show the advance, per cent,, in the proi tion, the importation, the exportation, and the consumption, of mineral in the principal countries of Europe and America. We have compute where practicable, during three periods; that is to say, during the ten, fifteen, and (he twenty-five years prior to 1846: — the first period being I 1835 to 1845, and the second from 1830 to 1845, and the third from 1 to 1845 inclusive. The production of Great Britain cannot be exi known and compared ; we therefore merely exhibit the increase in reli to shipments, exports, consumption in LondoUi &c

HfTBODUCnOK.

iVMrfMiMle iar€au,per untum, of the Production, InfmiaHon, Export tahom, amd Qmiumpium of Mineral Combustibles, in contenoraneoui periods.

o

d

CovntriM.

n

Importa-

B ?

PMuMj iT&niif

la

ditninM,

incraasing. to Canada.

General ohip'ig,

f.

iiiereaB$i

It GfMI BHiuii,'

Pon of Landau,

;:

Foreign ExportB,

:;

nL Aitititt,

; ;

Is

mpimce.

S30

T.

5U

TLPtnMti,

777*

It is scarcely necessary to remark, that these proportions bear no relation to the ammtnt of production, &c , in any of the countries named ; but, as already announced, they simply represent the comparative periodical pro- gress made, per centam, in each of those countries. We have, in the fore- going tables, made our computations on the four epochs of ten, fifteen, twenty and twenty-five years ; because, by such subdivision, we are enabled to illustrate more faithfully the contemporaneous increase than if the com- parison had been limited to a single term.

We have now placed before the reader, in the most concentrated form of which the matter is susceptible, the means of judging, with perfect accuracy, of the wonderful increase in the mining and commercial disposition of mineral fuel that has taken place in our own times. We here observe, for instance, that in the fifteen years prior to 1846, Belgium increased 95 tons CO every 100, in 1830; that Prussia added 112 to every 100; that France added 125 to every 100 ; and Austria's rate of increase was not less than 410 on each 100. The ratio of Great Britain cannot be pointed out, except that flhe increased her foreign exportation ftve-fold in the same space of time. But the most remarkable advance on record is in the case of Pennsylvania, where, on every 100 tons of coal produced in 1830, the absolute increase it represeoted by 1057 tons in 1845.

Summary Of Statistics Of Mineral Fuel.

The (bllowing pages conuin a resum of what we have elsewhere exhi- bited m deUil; viz. of the entire range of our present knowledge, regarding the pffodoctioD, importation, exportation, and consumption of fossil fuel, Tkb M tb iBcraated ezporUlion to France only. Thit to Holland it greater.

xxif UfmoDucnoif.

within all the principal coal producing and coal consaming coantries in world ; together with their periodical rates of increase down to the prei time ; deri? ed from every official return accessible to us.

Great Britain — Increased General Produciian. — Owing to the abse of official records, applying to the general production of the collie throughout the United Kingdom, we are constrained to leave this as a i ter of inference, from the results which we have to adduce. We kn however, that its rate of increase has been rapid, especially in all the mi facturing districts ; probably even much more so than that of exportatioi

Increased Shipments for Home and Foreign Consumption, from the P of Production.— From 4,365,000 tons in 1619, to 11,254,750 tons in 18 being at the rate of 158 per cent, in twenty-six years. This quantil supposed to be about one-third of the entire production of the United K doro. The declared value advanced from 145,943 in 1828, to JTO, in 1645 ; or 569 per cent in seventeen years.

Increased Exportation of Coal. — To the colonies and British posse8si< from 71,000 tons in 1619, to 375,302 tons in 1645; or 426 per cent 26 years; to France, from 39,180 tons in 1625, to 647,967 tons in U 1561 per cent in 20 years; do. from 24,600 tons in 1620, to 647; tons in 1645, 12 per cent in 25 years; to Russia, 1450 per ceni 25 years ; do. 375 per cent in 15 years ; Denmark, 1600 per cent is years; Pruasia, 1214 per cent in 15 years; United States, 267 per c in 15 years; do. British and Colonial, 164 per cent in 15 years; 1 Indies and Ceylon, 2025 per cent in 15 years ; British West Indies, per cent in 15 years; Germany, 417 per cent in 14 years; Italy, 323 cent, in 9 years. Increased number of British vessels laden with coal foreign ports, in the six years from 1840 to 1846 inclusive, 142 per cen

Increased Shipments from the Collieries of the North of England from the ports of Newcastle, Sunderland, and Stockton on Tees, for fon and home consumption collectively. — From 820,620 tons in 1710 6,123,262 tons in 1642, 646 per cent in 132 years; from 2,965, tons in 1610, to 6,123,262 tons in 1842, 151 per cent in 32 ye from 3,160,956 tons in J632, to 6,123,282 tons in 1842, 93 per cent 10 years. For home consumption, 50 per cent in 18 years, ending 164S

For Foreign Consumption only. — From 157,014 tons in 1820, to 1,7 988 tons in 1845, 1036 per cent in 25 years. In 1773, there v only 13 collieries in the Newcastle district, which number increased 168, to 59, with an annual productive power of 6,123,922 tons. In this productive power was estimated at 13,000,000 tons, and the nun of collieries had increased to 124, and of pits, to 192; besides 6 other lieries in other parts of the same field, and 300,000 tons which were su seded by the inland coal. The shipments of coal to foreign parts, from district, has increased from 50605 tons in 1610, to 184,988 tons in 18 being at the rate of 3468 per cent in 35 years.

Increased Importation of Coal into the port of London by Sea and Li —From 1,667,301 tons in 1822, to 3,461,199 tons in 1845, 108 cent, in 23 years; from 300,000 tons in 1699, to 3,461,199 in 1645, 1037 per cent in 146 years; from 2,079,275 tons in 1630, to 3,461, tons in 1845, a 66 per cent in 15 years.

Increased fkfreign Shipments of Coal from Hull.—7,4GQ tons in 1839 42,769 tons in 1845, a 477 per cent in 12 years. From Liveip 50,561 tons in 1833, to 123,456 tons in 1845, -i 146 per cent in 12 ye

INTAODUCnOK* XXT

ScoTLANi— Has a greatly increased production of coa), bat for the same reason as in the case of England, we possess no precise returns of the ag- gregate. This enlarged production is, in great measure, applied to the pur- poses of home coosomption, especially to the ? arious departments of iron making, which has advanced with surprising rapidity since the discovery of the Black Band ore.

Esariaiiom to Fdrtign parts increased from 31,0 tons, in 1828, to 339513 tons in 1845; equivalent to 617 per cent, in seventeen years. Bot the recent excess of production is mainly reserved for home use.

South Wales. — We have no returns in relation to the advanced pro- dacliocL Judging from the increased number and power of the Welsh iron works, the home consumption of coal must be greatly augmented. It has been asserted, in 1844, that one third of the iron consumed in the known world, is produced in the mineral basin of South Wales, and upwards of fire millioa tons of coal are annually consumed in its manufacture, and for ocher parpoees, within the coal-field.

Forgn Exports. — The exports of South Wales, in 1833, amounted to 34381 tons. In 1845, fonr only of the principal ports exported 237,577 tons. The entire increase, probably, does not fall short of 1000 per cent, in twelve years.

SUpmsemts to 2>md(m— Increased from 34,000 tons, in 1828, to 81,725 tons, in 1843, or 172 per cent, in fifteen years.

Inereastd General Shipments for Home and Foreign consumption* — From 904396 tons, in 1828. to 1,700,000 tons, in 1841, 88 per cent, in thir- teen years.

The shipments, therefore, do not keep pace with the home consumption required for the iron works, d&c.

FaA.NCB. — Increased Indigenous Production of Coaly Anthracite and Usnite, in 29 3rar5.~From 869,410 tons, in 1815, to 3,639,446 tons, in 1843, the ratio is 203 per cent.

Taibk of the relative Increased Production of Mineral Combustibles in France; representing the production in 1787 as 1.00.

Yean. Fuel, Time, Proportion.

Dmte. Tona. Years.

1787 212,910 1.00

1820 1,078.560 33 4.06

1830 1,836,950 43 7.62

1840 2,960,015 53 12.89

1843 3,639,446 56 16.09

1845 4,141,617 58 19.45

Increased value of Indigenous Production in France, in 28 (tnd 31 years.

In 1814. In 1842. In 1845.

Value in Francs, 6,082,447 33.497,779 39,705,432

U. S. Dolls., 1,316.950 6,476.237 7,663,000

Engl. Sterling, 272,097 1,352,472 1,603.106

Increased ratio of value in 28 years 397 per cent. : in 31 yesrs, 489 per cent

D

Introduction.

In 1846. Tons.

Increased Importation of Mineral Fuel into France, sinu 18M.

Peroei S5j6i

24.800 to 647,907 251 224,100 to 1.376.100 51

27,500 276,400

Imported in 1820, Tons.

to

to to to

647,967 1,376,100

237,200 2,116,272

From Great Britain to France, From Belgium "

From Prussia

Total imported into France,

And an increase on the total importation, since 1802, of 1756 per cen 43 years.

Ratio of increased Constaitian of Mineral Combustibles in France- tinguishing the indigenous fuel from the indigenous and imported bined, in the periods of thirty and fiAj-eight years, prior to 1846.

Ditct.

General Couomptioo.

Tons.

Periods of

Increaie per ceot.

Tons.

locreate per cent.

919,910

869,410

4,141,617

399,130 1,096,890 6,951,790

Belgium. — Increased number of C6alpiis in operaiion or in construe —From 314 pits or points of extraction, in 1830, to 660 in 1840.

Number of BTtners increased from 29,253 in 1830, to 38,490 in 184'

Production, — Within about thirty years there have been one or tw< riods of ebb and flow. Thus, from 1802 with 2,635,000 tons, to 183 was rfc/uc€(f to 2,249,000 tons, or 17 per cent decrease in thirty years; from 2,249,000 tons in 1832, increaud to 4,960,077 in 1845, or 120 cent gain in thirteen years.

The increased value in the same interval being from 16,95700 fir in 1832, to 55,400,000 francs in 1840, or 226 per cent, in eight years.

Liege, 1830 to 1845, 537,100 t Hainault, " " 1,757,346

Namur, " " 111,873

Increased annual production in the Belgian Provinces, '

Total increase from 2,553,000 tons in 1830, to 4,960,000 tons in 11 or 94 per cent in fifteen years.

Increased Importation from Great Britain-From 770 tons in 183! 36,440 in 1841, and about 20,000 tons in 1847. The import trade, b of subordinate importance, was reduced to only 11,071 tons from Engl and about the same quantity from France, in the year prior to 1847.

The manufacture of iron has advanced so rapidly that there were o tons produced from the furnaces of a single province, Hainault, in 1846, i in the entire kingdom of Belgium, only five years before.

Increased Exportation of Bituminous Coal from Belgium, chiefs /Vonrc.— Advance from 621,560 tons in 1830, to 1,356,973 in 1846,a' per cent in sixteen years. Upwards of 1 ,700,000 tons in 1847.

In the fifty-eight years from 1787 to 1845, the exportation of coal f Belgium into France increased twenty-seven fold ; or 2708 per cent. 1 to the Low Countries, in the seven years between 1835 and 1842, advan nineteen fold. To other countries no advance.

UfTAODUCnON. xxni

hurmsed amuud Omsumpiian of Coal in Be'ton.— Advance from 2,162,000 tons in 1830, to 2,670,000 in 1640. The domestic consumption io 1847 wwB probably upwards of 4,000,000 tons.

Holland. — The quantity of coal received from England has increased azty-MTen per cent in tbe ten years between 1831 and 1841, since which it hii diminished forty-eight per cent, in 1846.

Ttiat from Belgium has augmented 1940 per cent, in tbe seven years from 1835 to 1842. There is a large increase from the Prussian provinces.

KiifODOM OF Prussia.— /jiereasecf Importation of Bituminous Coal, — Ad- Tance, 154 per cent in twenty-six years; from 1832 to 1844, 112 per cept. in twelve years.

Imertasid Importation of Coal from England. — From 15,956 tons in 1831, to 184,487 tons in 1845, about ten fold, or 1050 per cent., in four- teen yearsL

Rhenish Provlvces op Prussia. — Eiportation to France, — From 27,500 loos in 1820, to 237,200 in 1845 ; 777 per cent, increase in 25 years.

In tbe fifty-eight years from 1787 to 1845, the exportation into France advanced twenty-three fold, or 2322 per cent, increase.

Increased production of bituminous Coal in the provinces of the Lower Rhone— SaarMuk.— From 233,000 English tons in 1817, to 700,000 tons in 1844, 200 per cent in twenty-seven years.

Wrstpualia. — Increased production of Coal, — From 370,268 English tons in 1819, to 1,200,000 tons in 1844, 224 per cent.

Prcssian Silesia. — Increased production of bituminous Coal — From 285,000 English tons in 1817, to 850,000 tons in 1844, 200 per cent, in tweoty-eeven years.

Prussun Sazont — Has doubled her production in twenty-one years.

Hanse Towns. — Increased Importation of Coal from Great Britain, — From 26,500 tons in 1789, to 227,539 tons in 1845, 759 per cent in fifty-six years. See Zollverein.

DcufifARK. — Increased Importation from Oreat Britain, — From 61,392 tons in 1828, to 168,153 tons in 1845, 170 per cent, in seventeen years.

Norway. — Increased Importation of bituminous Coal from England, — From 3771 tons in 1831, to 15,894 tons in 1841.

Sweden. — From Great Britain. — Increase from 6150 tons in 1831, to 26,941 tons in 1841.

KvssiA.Increased Importation of bituminous Coal from England. — From 42,061 tons in 1835, to 150,422 tons in 1845, 257 per cent.

2,316 " 1810, " " " =1150 do. in 25 years.

1820 " " " =7400 do. in 28 years.

Hungary. — Increased production of bituminous Coal, — From 1823 (aver- age of ten years) 14,500 tons, to 33,076 tons in 1845; 207 per cent, in twenty-three years.

Bohemia. — Increased consumption of Coal in Prague in ten years.— From 10,000 French tonnes in 1830, to 24,000 in 1839.

Production.— Advunced from 122,000 tons in 1832, to 340,000 tons in

1845, 170 per cent, in thirteen years.

Austria. — Increased production of coal in the empire, from 1838 to

1846, 216 per cent.

xxfiii iNTRODUCnoir.

Increased consumption of Coal in Vienna in ten years, — From 9 French toonea in 1830, to 10,000 in 1839.

Upper and Lower Austria increased production 47 per cent, in four from 1830 to 1834.

Increased production of combustibles in the Austrian Empire, from S 000 tons in 1832, to 700,000 tons in 1646, 234 per cent in 14 yeai

Gerbian States. — Prussian or German Custom-house League — Deutsche oiherein. — Increased importation from Great Britain, from 033 tons in 1831, to 227,539 tons in 1845, being 417 per cent in foot years.

General exportation from the Zolherein. — 218,440 tons in 1834, to i 150 tons in 1843, being 60 per cent in nine years.

Genera] movement of coals in the states of the German Associatio from 282,760 tons in 1834, to 605,900 in 1843, 1 1 1 per cent, of incn in nine years.

Spain.— Notwithstanding our inability to illustrate with precision mining statistics of Spain, we must not o? erlook the fact that it seems tined to become one of the most faluable of the continental coal-proda countries. In superficial area, the Asturian coal-field is probably no ceeded by any other on the continent, and as regards the number and qu of its coal seams, it is no less distinguished, although it is one of the li brought into operation.

Great expectations have been formed as to the national value of this trict, and much enterprise has already been attracted to the developmei its important mineral resources; especially those of bituminous coal iron ore.

The coal business is comparatively in its infancy, but promises a i progress in future. Thus the amount shipped coastwise from the Pc Gijon, in 1842, was 14,100 tons, and in 1844 was 41,400 tons.

United States of America. — Imported CdaL — The only countries which coal ever finds its way into the United States, are Great Britain British America, and the contributions from thence appear to be ann diminishing. For a time there was an increasing foreign importation ; from 22,123 tons in 1821, to 1811 tons in 1839. By the operatic the American tariff, this advance was not only checked, but a retrog movement was produced, so as in 1843 to amount to only 41,163 ton the United Sutes returns. By the last annual return, that for 1847 entry of foreign coals, whether from Europe or from British America, 148,021 tons ; of which from 12,000 to 15,000 tons were re-exported, fo service of the English steam ships.

Increased Production Of American Coal And Anthracite.

Bituminous Coal. — We have already indicated that we possess no aul tic data for determining the progressive production of this descriptic fuel, in the United States. Such informal details as have reached us, appear in the proper place ; and we can only remark here that the ra increase is evidently very rapid.

Anthracite, — Of this important combustible we shall have much to and we possess abundant testimony upon which to found our calculat The production of anthracite may be said to be entirely confined t( state of Pennsylvania, which possesses a numerous and interesting groi coal basins, of various sizes and characters.

Introduction. 3001

Our returns show that the consumption of anthracite, — in other words, the cotl trade,— commenced with 365 tons in the year 1820; that the pro- duction reached 48,047 tons in 1827; that it had increased to 881,026 tons in 1837, and adrancedto three millions of tons in 1847; without including much that is consumed on the spot, in the mining diricts, or in the interior of the coootrj.

The increased production, therefore, was, in the first ten years, riz : from 1827 to 1837, 1735 per cent ; in the second ten years, ?iz : from 1837 to 1847, 240 per cent ; and in the twenty years previous to 1848, that is, from 1827 to 1847, 6150 per cent

We introduce another view of this subject, which exhibits this accelerated increase in the consumption of anthracite, perhaps, with yet greater perspi* enity. The amount which was periodically forwarded to market, exclusive of the consumption in and near the places of production and which has not been estimated, is as follows :

Aggregate in the 21 years from 1820 to 1840, inclusive, 6,847,172 tons. In the succeeding 7 years to 1847, inclusive, 12,371,961 "

Total furnished from the commencement, 19,219,133 tons.

With this we terminate- our compendium of the coal statistics, into whose

details we shall enter at large further on : our immediate object being that

of showing the rapid increase in the annual production of coal, all over the

globe, within the last quarter of a century.

Production Of Iron.

We have already exhibited in the diagram form, the superficial areas of the principal coal producing countries of the world, and also the squares of the coal production of the same countries, in the year 1845. We are in- duced to occupy a small space here, by a similar mode of illustration in regard to the production of iron, in the same year, by the chief manu- facturing countries.

In the preparation of the materials forming this volume, we never con- templated to devote any part of it to the subject of iron. The statistics of eoal, which we undertook to elucidate, seemed to promise a task of quite sufficient magnitude to keep us in full occupation. Nevertheless, we have found that the rapid advancement of the coal trade was so intimately con- nected with the contemporaneous process of the iron manufacture, that we have, almost unconsciously, been led out of our prescribed path; and having collected some interesting results by the way, we give them insertion in their appropriate places.

We now only propose in this place, to introduce a diagram showing the condition, as to production, of the iron manufactory or smelting, in the year 1 845, the latest year in which we could obtain a series of contempo- rary returns.

The respective proportions are as follows :♦ —

1. Great Briuin, 2,200,000

2. United Sutes, ... - 502,000 a France, 448,000

uble of ftaimal prodoction of pig and catt iron in the principml iron minnficlnnnf connthM, at pag 331 of Uiii Tolaroe. Bj aoroe accident the deacriptiTe pait of the dia- grma, which we have given above, waa omitted there.

Introduction.

5. ZollvereiDy or Pruwian States,

6. Austria, . .

7. Belgium,

8. Sweden, . . .

9. Spain, (1841)

10. All other European countries.

Total, Diagram of the Production of iron in 1845.

400,000 300,000 190*000 150,000 145,000 26,000 50,000

4,411,000

Grett BritaiB.

United Sutei.

France.

RoMia.

ana

2,200,000 tOM. 502/)00tonf. 448,000 lont. 400,000 tonf.

PniMiin ZollYerein.

Anttrii.

Belginm.

Sweden.

nana

300,000 tons. liK),000 tons. 150,000 tons. 145,000 tons.

All other EH pean coanti

a

76,000 tarn

Railroads.

After passing from coal to iron, we are almost unafoidably temptei diverge yet further, to the subject of railoads, steam engines and sti vessels, — so closely do all these matters seem interwoven with each otl being, at one and the same time, both cause and effect, in relation to enormous increase of coal production, in all parts of the world. Thus are impelled to notice the astonishing extension of railroads in our i whereby the coal, the iron, and the other minerals, have become more ge rally accessible, and consequently more valuable, in proportion as they i be transported with cheapness and rapidity to their several markets.

The following statement shows the actual number of miles of raili finished and in progress in Europe and America in 1844.

Miles.

In Great Britain and Ireland, In Prussia and Germany, In France 1241 wUUsnisked, In Russia, ... In the United States of America,

11,507

In England, in 1845, there were obuined from Parliament new railii acts for 3543 miles ; up to 1846, the total number of miles authorised be made in Great Britain was 7494 miles,* and to January 1st, 1847, 81 miles, besides 1862 miles already made.

For flirther detiili tee page 338.

IKTRODUCnOlf.

xzri

In /VoncCy in the same year, the number of miles completed, commenced, and proposed, was 9874, — whose estimated cost was 9297,320,000, or £61,600,000.

In Belgium, there were 232 miles of railroad in operation in 1842; 348 miles in 1844, and 386 miles in 1846,— costing 5,789,872.

In the ZcHboeran there were completed 24 railroads in 1843, of the length of 1730} miles.

In all Otrmany, in 1844, 3565 English miles, in 43 railroads.

Vmiied States of America. — By an unofficial article, dated June, 1846, it appears that there were then in operation in the United States an aggregate length of 4731 miles, which was constructed at the cost of 9127,4 17,758, equivalent to 26,325,983.

From the data furnished up to that time, we collect that the capital in- fested in railroads alone, independent of private and local undertakings, had augmented nearly five-fold in ten years.

During the year 1846, the total amount of completed railroads in the United States had reached the aggregate of 4864} miles.

In the beginning of 1847, there were, according to the report of the postmaster-general, of finished railroads 4752 miles; in progress and projected, 264 miles; total 5016 miles. Omitting the gigantic project of the Oregon railroad.

Thus, at the commencement of 1847, we find that the number of miles of completed and partly finished railroad in the principal countries of Europe and America, amounted to no less than 20,000 miles; being within a few thousand miles of the entire circumference of the globe. Those in Europe were supposed to require 6,157,000 tons of iron. Added to this, the government of British India has had surveys undertaken for 2000 miles of railroad, with a view of commencing a general system of railway in that extended empire.

Sttam tngints employed for purposes of industry, and also in mining enter- prise, ezctusive of that employed in navigation and locomotives.

France. I

Belfinn.

Yeiri.

O. Britain.

France.

Belgium.

1 eBfinei.

IIorM power.

Fixed

fteam

eofines.

Howe power.

Newcastle or Doitbof England coal-field. Hore pow.

Fixed

enginei.

Hone power.

Fixed en- ginei.

Hone power.

1S35 , 946 1>37 1.842 Is39 2,459

14,061 24,144 27,S77 33,308

1,044 1,044

19,456 25,3121 35,612

19,397

Cornwall.

44,000

2,695 3,645 4,114

35,197

45,781 50,188

1,049 1,448

26,06S 37,370

Hence, it is shown that the amount of horse power employed in mining and manufacturing enterprise in France increased 257 per cent, in ten years ; and in Belgium 94 per cent, in only five years. Our English returns are incomplete.

Introduction.

Sltam vessels of Great Britain the United States, France, and Russia, chiefly engaged in Commerce,

Ortat Britain, txdtuht ofh Colonim.

Yflare.

No.

Tofmage*

none

Guttt.

Morchut nutloe, . - , -

1H33

55A

1S40

gio

69,800

114,000

70,000

Ims

118,772

1S4G

Uooo

itenmr* in commiaiion, aad build In g mail

( 179

€Ss

teamen, Indian nary - - , - -

UnUtd StatM.

The firtt weitern ftoamboat wj Jmncbed Filti*

, oa the Ohio, by Fultoij, in ISIL

Internal navigation, . - , -

soo

155,473

Co4 mcrchaat mmrine,* imiUnff Teiaeli,

265,369

U It

1S4d

Steambaats on the Witirn waten atone.

1B4S

1,600

145,311'

Lake., - - , -

54,486

ti tt

1S47

8S

eo,s25

Sailing tonnage tm " - - - - t

46,0U

LacomntJTfi enginn, - , - - ,

Is40

6,9eo

War Ilea men,

1S46

EtcliiaiTfl af 13 iailiw Knd 8 atetcneri, haviag 61 gam, and reTenue tesselB - ,

Franct.

fitcaniboaU,

3,800

3,633

12,100

3,863

19,000

5,408

1S40

4f tt

12,789

13,250

1( I

1&46

£59

War atpamerf in com million, tnd boUding,

it

6b

1&47

€e

14,670

Rmia.

1B47

Such are the results which our recent investigations have disclosed, while seeking to trace the onward march of productive industry, in opposite hemis- pheres. However rapid may have been that advance in the Old World, in energy and perseverance — in inventive genius and mechanical skill — in an extended application of the useful arts — in the employment of mighty agen- cies known to us but as yesterday — and, above all, perhaps, in the adapta- tion of the wonderful powers of steam — the New World has by no means suffered herself to be left behind. It is but justice to the latter to show how fully she appreciates and avails herself of this newly acquired knowledge, by her rapid advancement in the operative and industrial arts, in so wide a field for human enterprise. We cannot perform this duty so efficiently as in the language of one of her own citizens and most distinguished engineers. The admirable and truly eloquent address, from which we take the following extract, was delivered at the successful termination of one of the most im-

Merchants* Magasine, February, 1846.

t Officiil Report of the Sec. of the Treaaary, 1847.

t Report of toe Society Maritime, 1846.

nrTRODUCTKHV. xxxiii

porUnt underUkinga in tbe system of internal improvements in Pennsyha- nit. It reached oa aoon after we had embodied in tbe preceding pages tbe atatiatical resolta wbich were elicited during tbe preparation of tbe present folome.*

We hare already alluded to tbe indications wbich past experience affords of tbe probable future consumption of coal in this country. Tbe subject is of primary interest, and we may, therefore, venture still to add some reflec- tions upon the causes which are now at work to extend this consumption.

In estimating tbe probable growth of this trade, we must, to some extent, endeavor to free our minds from tbe shackles of old opinions, and tbe influ- ence of ancient example. We must learn to feel the truth, that we live in an age which bears little resemblance to the past, and the progress of which casDoi be safely judged by the history of the past

This is essentially the age of commerce and of steam— the foundationa of which are our £00/ mines.

" In tbe machine-shop and factory— on tbe railroad and canal*-on the rivers and the ocean — it is steam that is henceforth to perform the labor, overeome reaistance, and vanquish space. And it is not for human intellect to assign a limit to tbe application of this power, in a country like that which it U our fortunate lot to inhabit — intersected by noble rivers, and penetrated by numerous bays — with an extensive sea-board, lined by flourishing cities, and poescssing, along with boundless enterprise, all the elements of national weath.

But, look where we will, the evidence of tbe truth that we live in an age of which the progress is not to be measured by examples from the history of the past, is prominent before us.

" Taking the iron trade as an example, we find that the mere increase of tbe productioQ of this metal, in the valley of tbe Schuylkill alone, during tbe last eighteen months, exceeds the entire production of the furnaces of Great Britain, ninety years ago. The manufacture of cotton in Great Bri- tain, which has increased about one hundred fold in the last seventy years, and of the same, and many other articles, as well in Europe as in this coun- try, exhibits results almost equally striking.

There was, in fact, no appreciable iron trade, and, indeed, but little trade at all, in the present ordinary use of that word, anterior to the introduction of the steam engine — an instrument of power deriving its efficiency almost entirely from coal, which, through its agency, has given birth to modern eommerce, to modem enterprise, and a mighty impulse, too, to modem civi- lization.

A quarter of a century ago— within the memory of almost all here pres- ent— those magnificent boats which now give life to the Delaware and the Hndson — the seven or eight hundred which traverse the Mississippi — and tbe thousand which circulate on other waters of this country, had no exist- ence, except, perhaps, in the imaginations of those who were then consi- dered wild and visionary enthusiasts. Now, every year brings forth new specimens, each in ita tum regarded as the noblest creation of bold inven- tion ; and each week presents some new enterprise, by which the Atlantic cities are brought into closer connection with each other, and with foreign ports.

The use of this power on the ocean has but just commenced ; yet enough has already been accomplished to point to an approaching revolution in tbe

RepArt to the ttockholdera of the Schaylkill NafigatioB Company, by Charlea Ellet, Esq., PrMidcat, Jaaaary 4tb, 1847.

Zxxiv INTRODUCnOK.

coasting trade and foreign commerce of all coontries. The next promises to witness new lines of ocean steamers, connecting this coi with England, France, Germany, and South America, and tra? ersin| coast from New York to New Orleans.

" A quarter of a century ago, and there were not more than a thou tons of anthracite annually raised and exported in all this Union ; noi increase alone is more than a thousand tons per diem, and compoun rapidly upon that

But still we can form no accurate estimate of the future increase the past. New elements are daily introduced into the problem, of w no human intellect can determine the value.

The introduction of the railway system ofer all Europe and even — over this continent and the West India Islands—over Russia, and into the Papal States, offer a guarantee of a future consumption of iron coal, and all the chief mineral products of the earth, to which no bo can be assigned.

Each railway requires iron for its track, engines, cars, and fireqo for its stations. Each new steamer requires coal to drive it — iron fi engine, and sometimes for its hull— and five tons of coal for each U iron it consumes.

" Every steam boat that is launched, and every road that is forced the interior, gives birth to new enterprise, new wants, and new commei

" The manufacture of the iron, and the propulsion of the roachiner quire coal; the quantity increases with the expansion of the railwa] tem ; the system extends the area of civilized |x>pulation, and consec agricultural wealth. This wealth needs transportation, and this transf tion again needs coal and iron.

" In this country, peculiarly, the consumption of this fuel is increi with the general increase of population where it is employed — with the i area over which it is used — with each new purpose to which it is appli with the growth of every description of manufacture requiring power— every new improvement by which the cost of its conveyance is dimini and with the extension of inland, coast, and ocean navigation."*

Thus far has been exhibited in the foregoing pages an interesting pi of the wonderful advance made, in our day, in the application of the mi combustibles. We have seen, and let us note the fact, that this enori advance has not been limited to a single district, but that it has simul ously proceeded in all the coal-producing countries of the earth. Doul a very large portion of this is ascribable to the prodigious extension of s power, occasioning a corresponding demand for mineral combustibles, should exceed our prescribed limits were we to adduce the evidences ol increased application of steam, through the agency of coal. Nor, ini b it essential to our purpose. But we are quite sure that we cannot i appropriately terminate this introductory section, than by citing the fo ing expressive passage, which we find in the Bulletin of the Central i mission of Statistics in the kingdom of Belgium ; to the author of yn we have here to acknowledge our obligations.

"Industry has undergone a complete transformation since the estal

Tbe power that coovertible to the porpote of lightening the labour of man wai felicU illattrated by Sir I. F. W. Herachel, in tbe remark that the aacent of Meant Rlane Chamoani ia conaidered, and with juatice, aa the moat toilsome Teat that a auong ma execute in twodaja. The combuation of two ponnda of coal would place him on the aui

INTRODUCTION. jjoM

nent of machinery. The defelopment of mechanism is owing to the appli- eation of steam as the mo? ing power. Steam has been substituted, in a ultiiode of operations, for the natural agents. If we had to write the history of industry, we should represent man seeking at first to direct, to his advantage, the elements of nature, and subsequently creating new forces and more powerful agents. In the first period, man finds masters in every thing which surrounds him ; the means at his disposal are ? ery confined ; his knowledge and his capital are limited; regulations badly conceived; the small extension of outlets ; the difficulties of transportation ; — all restrain hit capability of production.

In the second period, the sUte of affairs changes: he has subdued the natoral elements ; he disposes them at his will ; the science of mechanics proeores him the roost powerful agents ; natural philosophy, chemistry, dis- cover to him a part of their treasures ; capitals are no longer locked up ; the slender profits of agriculture impel them back towards industrial occupa- tions. Interior shackles have disappeared ; treaties of commerce establish, between the people, fixed relations, which daily enlarge their social and pobtical connections. Distances are effaced; routes are multiplied; and steam, after having ploughed the rivers and the seas, skims the earth in a rapid flight. Commerce unites together every people ; the market is en- larged. Production, which outstrips all local necessities, urgently demands new oQtlets : embarrassment no longer attaches to production ; the trouble henceforth rests in the distribution.

The employment of the combustible mineral, coal, in the smelting of iron, has emancipated the iron manufactory. Henceforward the mineral comes to seek the fuel. Steam is prepared as the motive power : the forge- master, the founder, are no longer confined to the banks of rivers, or the depths of the forests, far from the inhabited places. Industry has broken herAtters; commerce is set free, at least in the interior. Gigantic high- fiiraaces arise ; forges, bar-iron works multiply ; iron receives every shape ; manufactories fill the world with machines. One might even say that each operation of industry gives birth to new marvels, and that all contribute to the successive and unbounded enlargement of productive forces and of new agents.

"Thus, coal produces steam ; steam fashions the metals which serve to &bricate the machines. The implements of various trades, leaving the workshops, are distributed through every branch of industry. Steam be- oomes the universal agent ; if she is the producer, she is at the same time the vehicle of production.*

" The powers of man are centupled ; he is no longer the serf of the cre- ation ; he is rather the king. The barons of feudality have made room, by their side, for the nobility produced by industry. The sword commands no more ; it is capital which commands. To the state of strife, of warlike antagonism, succeeds a regime of industrial competition and of exchanges. Men know themselves and each other better; national characteristics are obliterated; it seems that humanity is invested with a new form; organiza- boo is established between states; between continents."

" It ii M yesterday only, to to iy, that iteain hai been employed ai a moTiog power ; aad yet it already rumishea the globe with a force estimated at more than ten milliona of hmne; or Hxty nuUioHM qf men,'* M. Michel Chevalier.

We irtld here refer to an excellent article in Hunt's MerchanU Magaxine, June, 140, by Mr. C. Fraxar, oa The Moral Influence of Steam.'*

JNTEODUCTKHf.

Mineral and meuUurgic industry is, with agriculture, the roost viul ment of our country's prosperity. Coal is the most essential agent o industry; Ihe foundry, the iron, constitute merely the instruments, ments ofricheSb"*

Section 11.

MISCELLJkJEOUS NOTES IN RELATION TO COAL.

Terms of synonymous signification, many of which are employed ii work.

EngKsh, Coal, Pit Coal, Brown Coal, Sea Coal, Stone Coal ; Collier,a miner; Colliery, a coal mine. Saxon, Col. Dutch, Koolen, Steen Steenkoolen. German, Kohlen, Steenkohle, Schwarz Kohle, Pech Kannelkohle, Moor Kohle, Blatter Kohle. Danish, Kul. Swedish, 1 Stenkol. Cbmtsil, Kolon. 7rt5A,Guel. JVeitcA, Houille, Charbon-de4 Belgic, Houille, Houillieres, coal pits. liaRan, Carboni Fossili. £ and Greek, Litb-anthrax. Portuguese Canroes de terra, ou de Russian, Ugolj, Kamennoe. Spanish, Carbon de tierra. Rock i Carbon de Piedra, Stone coal, fresh, Culm. Swedish, Kolm.

EngUsh, Charcoal, carbonized wood. haUan, Carbone di legna. C ligni. French, Charbon de bois. German, Reine Kohle. Spatdsh, Ci de lena.

EngKsh, Pitch. German, Pech. French, Poix.

English, Jet German, Jayet.

English, Coke. Swedish, Stenkolstybb. French, Charbon de t Charbon de bois. English, Charcoal. German, KohlenstoiT.

Irish, Peat. , Peat. English, Turf. German, Torf F\r Tourbe, Tourbiere. English, Turbary. New England, U. S, Tug.

Geographical Distribution Of Coal.

In his 25th chapter of the*' History of Fossil Fuel/' the author dilat the influence which future discoveries of deposits of coal in foreign c tries and the increased employment of the combustibles in manufac there might have upon the industrial operations and local interests of I Britain. Inquiries of that sort would scarcely be expedient here, inati as we do not advocate the exclusive interest of any country, and ack ledge no preference for the prosperity of one section to the disadvanta, its neighbour. We espouse no cause save that of economic geolog] the useful arts associated with it ; contemplating these subjects with i ence to their practical benefits, to their commercial and productive v present and prospective. We estimate them in proportion as the interesting in science, and conducive to the well-doing of the mass.

Bulletin de la Commistion Centnde de Statittiqae, Bnixellet, 1843.

orr&ODUCTiOK. xzxiii

fieh iewt we seek not to define bow far the possession of local advantages, tbe disoorerj of new mineral deposits or of improved appliances and facili* ties, maj retard or accelerate rival interests. It is not our purpose to inquire into the iojory which particular establishments or regions might sustain when placed in m state of competition with others which happen to enjoy a more £ivoiirable state of circumstances.

Two great facts, beyond all, sUnd prominent It is certain that as manofiictoring and productive industry take root and flourish almost ex* clnsively in the cool and temperate zones, so in them do the coal formations and all tke most vseAil mineral productions prevail in their greatest abund- ance. Our sctenUfic maps and investigations confirm the one, and national statistics determine the other. Hence, the climates which are most con* genial to laborious occupations, the latitudes which are best adapted to the more energetic pursuits of man, are precisely those where, fortunately, have been placed beneath his feet the raw materials moit essential to his tse. At the same time, the process of acquiring those materials, forms, of itself, one of the most valuable sources of his prosperity.

Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer repose all the prin- cipal carboniferous formations of our planet. Some detached coal deposits it is true, exi above and bdow those limits, but they appear, so far as we know, to be of limited extent. Many of these southern eoaUfields are of doubtful geological age. A fow are supposed to approximate to the class of irae coals, as are commonly styled ; others are decidedly of the brown coal and tertiary period, while the remainder belong to various intermediate ages, or possess peculiar characters which render them of doubtful geologi- cal origin.

In the high northern latitudes it has for some time been known that a species of coal exists on both sides of Greenland, and more recently it has been determined at various points of the Arctic ocean, between Baffin's Bay, and Berhring's Straits. It is understood that the coal on the west coast of Greenland, and at Disco Island and Hasen Island is of the species denominated lignite, or the most recent of the mineral coals. Of the carbo- niferous formations discovered by the several exploring expeditions towards tbe North Pole, some are of the acknowledged brown coal acre, others have been imperfectly examined and described, and may perhaps be of the same geological age as those enormously extended deposits which stretch through tbe central part of the American continent. The coals of Mellville Island tnd Byam Martin's Island certainly appear to be of the true coal period. We know that coal exists, at numerous intermediate points, from the 75th to the 27th degree of north latitude, in America, and also that it is worked on the Salado and Rio Grande rivers in Mexico, for the use of the steamers.

Southward of the Tropic of Cancer the existence of coal, corresponding with the European and American hard coals, is somewhat uncertain. There seems to be none on the South American continent, unless it be at Cerro Pasco, — which needs confirmation, — or in the province of Santa Catherina, in Brazil. On the African continent we have had vague accounts of coal in Ethiopia and at Mozambique, also in Madagascar, and quite recently we have had iutelligence of large quantities of ccwJ in the newly ceded territory hove Port Natal on the eastern side of Africa, but we believe no geologist has examined those sites. In the Chinese and Birmese empires only browp coal appears to approach the tropic. Southward of the Asiatic continent we are uncertain of the exact character of the coal deposits, such as occur abundantly in Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and neighbouring islands.

xxxTiii orrEODDcnoN

In New Soath Wales the great coa) range on the eastern margin of tl eontinent was formerly sometimes considered to be like the Newcastle en in England, and sometimes it was thought to be only brown coal ; and deed it is very certain that lignite does exist there; bat the recent invai nations of Count Strzelecki suggest that the epoch of the principal o formations of Australia and Van Diemen's Land approaches somewhat to 1 oolite period. This coal differs essentially from that of any known Ea pean formation, but bears a strong resemblance to the Burdwan cod India.

We may mention here, incidentally, that good coal is not essentii limited to the carboniferous period of the European ffeologists, but may does exist, of excellent quality, in formations both of older and later ori| The Richmond coal-field of America is now shown to be of an age i much, if any, anterior to the older oolite series. Mr. Lyell has on that no estimate of the probable talue of the coal of India can be fora by comparing it with coal of the same age in Europe. Sir Henry de Beche has also remarked, that it was incorrect to suppose that in all oil countries the most valuable coals would be found in rocks agreeing in i with the English coal measures. Those of Australia and Northern Im for instance, resemble each other in quality and in their fossil flora, yet b are dissimilar fit>m tboee of the English coal-fields, and are evidently, I the Virginia coal alluded to, of an entirely different origin.

The evidence as to the facts contained in the foregoing sketch, will found in detail in succeeding pages, and is especially illustrated by the n of the world, prepared (or this volume. From what has already been stal it will be seen that it is impracticable, in numerous instances, to annoui the true place in the geological scale, of formations which pass under common denomination of coal. In some of these cases they have recei no scientific investigation, and in others the results, if ascertained at have not reached us.

Of course, we have not yet arrived at the period when we could nounce with any approach to certainty, on the actual number of coal bai in the world. Were we to venture an opinion, we should rate the nuno at from two hundred and fifty to three hundred principal coal-fields, i many of these are subdivided, by the disturbed position of the strata i subordinate basinsi.

Comparative Value Of Gold And Silver, And Of Coal And Iro

A Spanish writer, not long since, instituted a comparison between productive value of the silver and gold mines of America and that of coal mines of England. The author exhibits a balance in favor of the ter of nearly two hundred and thirty millions of francs*JS9,286,000 i ling, annually. Baron Humboldt, at the commencement of the

nineteenth century, estimated the produce

of the gold and silver in North and South

America at $4300,000

Which sum at the rateof 45. 3d, a dollar amountt to 9,233,

Mr. Jacob estimated the annual value of the

precious metals from the American mines,

between the years 1800 and 1810, at 8,47,001,000 ;f 10,000,

Hiftory of Fomd Foel, p. 474. t MeCuUoch't Gophioal GaiMtter, p. 90

niTBODUCTIOir. XXJIX

But from 1810 to 1829, the average annual pro- daction waa only 4,036,000

From thence to the prevent time the produce is certainly tinder 24,000,000 5,000,000

Exports of gold and silver from Mexico in 1842," tlSSOOOOO 3,850,000

An estimate has been recently made with re- gard to the production of the precious metals to the following eflfoct : In 40 years, from 1790 to 1830, the production of Mexico, GUli, Bnenos Ayres, and Russia, in gold and niver. jf 188,000,000 sterling, equivalent to an annual average of 4,700,000

Sir H. T. De la Heche estimates the value of the coal at the pit's mouth in Great Britain, 9,000,000

Others estimate it at J,450,600

Another estimate extends the value tot ;10,000,000

The produce of the British coal mines is va- riously calculated at from 31} millions to 34 millions of tons. At the respective places of consumption, in manufactures, in domes- tic use and that exported, 96,800,000

The value is probably from ;f I7i millions to 20,000,000

The capital employed in the coal trade is com- puted at 8 or 10 millions more,( ;10,000,000

The value of the iron produced through the agency of this coal in Great Britain at the furnace, £8,000,000

Value of the iron when manufactured, in its various branches, which of itself greatly ex- ceeds the value of all the gold and silver of the new world, in the most productive times, 982,280,000 17,000,000

Or nearly five times that of the gold and silver of Mexico, in 1842.

The yearly value of the coal in five principal coal countries of the world, viz : Great Bri- tain, Belgium, France, Prussia and Pennsyl- vania at their respective places of consump- tion, we have computed to be, 9145,200,000 .£30,000,000

Which is nearly nine times the annual value of the gold and silver exported from Mexico, or six times that of the gross produce of the precious metals in North and South America and Russia.

In 1847, a statement has obtained extensive cir- culation, which rates the value of the gold and silver produced in the world at 339,334,- 000 francs, 965,489,000 13,710,407

The value of the coal produced in the same year, upwards of jf 17,000,000

Commerce and Resources of Mexico. — Hunt's Mag., toI. z., 1844, p. 121. t McCalloch. t Mr. Buddie, in 1829.

INTBODUCnON.

Employment Of Mineral Combustibles.

in Greai Britain, ooal, according to some authorities, was meotioi as occurring in England as early as the ninth century, A. D., 853. It v certainly known and applied to various economical purposes in the mid of the twelfth century. In 1239, King Henry III. granted the privilege <'gging coals to the good men of Newcastle. But it is little more tl two hundred and fifly years since coal came to be in general use, as fu in London. Upon its first introduction there, one or two ships were i ficient for the whole trade.* At the present day there are several thouai ships constantly engaged in the transportation of that combustible.

It appears, from a charter of Edward the Second, A. D. 1315, that coal of Derbyshire was at that time known and in use. The introdud of coal for domestic purposes was retarded by the difficulty of employini conveniently, and by the natural prejudice against such a description of ft as a substitute for wood, in cities.

By a proclamation of Edward the First, and again in the reign of dw Elizabeth, we find that stone coal was prohibited in London during the ting of Parliament, lest the health of the Knights of the Shire should i fer during their residence in the metropolis.

Blythe, an old agricultural author, writing in 1649, has the follow! passage : — It was not many years since the famous city of London titioned the Parliament of England against two anusances or offensive C( roodities, which were likely to come into great use and esteem : and C was, Newcastle coals, in regard of their stench, d&c, and hops, in reg they would spoyle the taste of drinck, and endanger the people."

Jn France, the precise period of its adoption as a substitute for wo is not ascertained : its introduction was probably rery gradual. The cc mencement of its use in the city of Paris was in 1520, the coal be drawn not from the mines of France, but from the collieries of Newcai It would seem, however, that at the outset it met with little favour in Ps as for some time was the case in London, doubtless owing to the difin ties attending its application. It was submitted to the decision of the fact of medicine, in the former city, how far this new description of fuel i prejudicial to the public health. It was not probably before the middh the sixteenth century that coal mining in France had commenced to In any importance.t

Jn Scotland mineral coal was known, probably, much earlier than France. The privilege of digging coal is mentioned in a grant to a i gious house, A. D. 129 1.|

In Belgium, the earliest reference to mineral coal was in 1196 or 19 in the country of Liege, where tradition gives the credit of the applicati as a fuel, to a blacksmith. From this time there seems to be evidence iu being in ordinary use, and that the business of its extraction had, fr a remote period, prior to the fifteenth century, been subject to the su| vision of an especial court or jury.§

In these and some other countries, we have already shown the extn dinary accelerated demand for coal since the application of steam pow more especially within the last quarter of a century. We have also poin

Willitmt* Mineral Kinoin.

t Retomi dm trtTaoi tiatittlqaef, Paris, 1S39.

t Se many historical notes in tlie History of Fossil Fad.**

% Bnlletin la Commissioa ceatnto da StatitqM, 1843, BrMels

IHTRODUCTIOir. xK

out the vast capital which this substance keeps in motion; the numerous population which it employs and sustains.

Great as has been the rate of advance in England, that of France and of Prussia, within the same time, has somewhat exceeded hers, while that of Pennsjlfania, in the United States, has far surpassed them all.

The Tjrne and Wear districts, in Northumberland, are the most remark- able instaoeei of coal production in the world. They supply above six millioiw of toBs annually ; employ about 23,000 miners ; support 140,000 persons in manual labour; and, with their families and dependents, sustain 700,000 individaala.

From SmOk Wales we have received no recent returns of the annual quantity of bituminous coal and anthracite, or of the number of persons eng[ed in their production. The bulk of the former has always been ooaenmed in iron making in the interior, besides a vast amount exported eoisiiiiac. Since the uses of anthracite have been made apparent, the con- of that mineral has greatly increased. As far back as 1835, the Baking of bar iron in that region employed 28,000 persons.

The total number employed in England on this branch of manufactory was, al that time, near 70,000 persons ; while the aggregate of persons de- pendent on these was upwards of 250,000. Proceeding to a more advanced stage in iron manufactures, it was announced that the value of the hard- ware and cutlery annually made, was above $82,280,000, giving employ- Bient to 325,000 persons. Hence, it appears, that the number of persons directly or indirectly drawing support from the production and employment of the two substances, iron and coal, amount, on a rough estimate, to a million and half of persons.

It is hardly possible," says Mr. McCulIoch, to exaggerate the advan- tages England derives from her vast beds of coal. In this climate, fuel ranks among the necessaries of life ; and it is to our coal mines that we owe abundant and cheap supplies of so indispensable an article. Our coal mines are the principal source and foundation of our manufacturing and commercial prosperity. Since the invention of the steam engine, coal has become of the highest importance as a moving power ; and no nation, how- ever favorably situated in other respects, not plentifully supplied with this mineral, need hope to rival those that are, in most branches of manufac- turing industry. To what is the astonishing increase of Glasgow, Man- chester, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, &c., and the comparatively sta- tionary, or declining state of Canterbury, Winchester, Salisbury, and other towns in the south of England, to be ascribed ? The abundance of coal in the north, and its scarcity and consequent high price in the south, is the real canse of this striking discrepancy.

" Our coal mines have conferred a thousand times more real advantage on us than we have derived from the conquest of the Mogul Empire, or than we should have reaped from the dominions of Mexico and Peru. They have supplied our manufacturers and artisans with a power of unbound- ed energy, and easy control ; and they have enabled them to overcome dif- ficalues insurmountable by those to whom nature has been less liberal of her choicest gifts."*

Mmeral Coal applied to Iran Making.The earliest employment of this feel in England, in the manufacture of iron, was in 1713, at Colebrook- dale. In Scotland it was introduced about the middle of the eighteenth

Statiiliet of the British Empire, vol. ii. p. 3.

P

xlii INTRODUCTION.

century, and in France in 1782 ; in the coal field of Creasot. Numb less notes will be found in the pages of this volume, in illustration of I interesting subject.

Geological Position Of Coal Beds.

Coal is found in beds, and its presence characterizes, in an especial m ner, the carboniferous formation. We have to seek it then, above the tc sition series and below the secondary deposits ; — above the schistose bf the insoluble clays and trilobite limestones ; below the arenaceous depQ which contain the debris of porphyries, the limestones with ammoni gryphites, belemnites, d&c.

The coal formation is remarkable for the peculiar appearance {fad of its micaceous sandstones and its argillaceous shales. In the as stones, the elements of feldspar and quartz, in very nearly equal pr€| tions, spangled with mica in little scales, passing in the lower portions, i breccias and conglomerates with large fragments, are evidently the resul the action of the waters upon pre-existing transition rocks. The gran and gneiss have furnished the principal amount of these elements; and can often determine the points from whence they have been driAed. ' argillaceous schists, rarely soluble, but always falling to pieces in the form the passage of the transition argillaceous schists into the true claj the posterior strata. They are evidently decomposed parts of the re which constitute the sandstones. An impure melange of kaolin, of s and of mica, of which the elements, fine enough to have been held in pension, were only deposited when the stagnation of the waters.permic These beds alternate with a great predominance of the sandstoics ; all frequently colored bj the disseminated carbon, which gives to Aeensen a grey tint and a characteristic duskiness. The presence of the cai manifests itself also by that of the carbonate of iron— carbm Uthaidt — which is found, either in subordinate beds, or in dissemiu nodules — rognans — in certain beds of clay. Finally, it manifests itselt numerous vegetable impressions, and by the frequent, but not essen presence of seams of coal, sometimes fat and sometimes dry.

The influences which have determined the characters of the rocks are associated with the coal beds, have been so constant, that not only they identical all over the globe, but in the cases where coal beds are fc in other formations than the coal formation, the rocks of those formal abandon their special characters to borrow those which we have descri

Thus, in the anthraxiferous formation, which immediately precedes coal period, the lean coals which are worked in the west of France, ar< oompanied by feldspathic, micaceous sandstones, and carbonaceous set with impressions of calamites, ferns, and sigillaric Black argillao schists, with nodules of carbonate of iron, accompany equally tli ba secondary coal which are found in certain points of the lias near Mil (Aveyrou) and in Yorkshire.

To sum up the various geognostic positions of coal : they are met ist, In the anthraxiferous formation; that is to say, in the upper parte transition series, even above the silurian beds. 2d. In the coal forma oroperly speaking. 3d. In the marnes irises, where are found the coa Noroy and Gemonval. 4th. In the lias formation. [Environs of Mill

Above this last position, the vegetable debris is found most general the state of lignites. We find, but rarely, in the lignites of the cretac

INTRODUCTION. xliii

and tertiary fivmatioas, portions from which the ligneous texture has dis- appeared, and which present the appearance of coal ; but this case is ex- ceptional. Thus certain lignites in the environs of Marseilles, and others which exist in the tertiary beds of Italy, present the tissue and the charao- Cersof eoal, hot these accidental facts, which establish between the coals and the lignites raioeralogical transitions that exist even between rocks the most diatinety strikes no blow at the rules of position, established undeniably by geological observations. It is the same with that other geognostic law which aasigns peat solely to the alluvial epoch, or the actual existing epoch.

Tlie meagre coals and anthracite appear, in general, to be of a more an- cient age than the fat or flaming coals. This classiflcation is sufficiently indicated by the general dry nature of the combustibles mined in the an- tlwaxifefoas formation of the west In the north, the lean coals of Fresne, VieaxCoody Vicoigne, are evidently inferior to the fat beds of Anzin and ]>eiiain. The beds foond in the carboniferous limestone at Ch&teau-l'Ab- heye are tme anthracites. The anthracites of the environs of Roanne, and those of the United States,* belong to the upper formation of the transition eriea. Bot it is necessary again, more than in the preceding cases, to ab- stain from taking this rule in an absolute manner ; for the anthracite state n very often the metamorphic state of the coal, and even of the lignites. Tbe interesting researches of M. Elie de Beaumont upon the anthracites of the Alpine regions have demonstrated this fact, otherwise easy to conceive."

FioflB each of the four classes or epochs of combustibles, M. Rgnault Ins selected the most characteristic, and after having submitted them to analyns, he has acknowledged that this general succession of characters in the fossil combustibles is in accordance with a successive approach towards the composition of the vegetation ; in such manner that, from the anthracites of the transition series, even to the lignites and to the peat of the existing epoch, the foesil combustibles form a series of which almost pure carbon forms the base, and which is gradually charged with four, five and six per cent of hydrogen, and with four, eight, twelve, sixteen, and thirty per cent of oxygen.

We may lay down this principle, abstraction being made for the anomalies of metamorphism, that the more of gas that a combustible contains, and the higher the amount of oxygen and hydrogen, so much the more modern is the combustible.

Local Position And Arrangement Of Beds Of Coal.

Coal, whatever may be the formation in which it is found, affects the form ciheds, of very variable thickness and continuity, but whose constant cha- racter is that of conforming to all the courses [allures] of the beds of schist and carboniferous sandstones between which they are included. This stra- tification is not only indicated by the limits of the roof and the wall or floor, but also by natural variations in purity, the positions of which generally pur- sue or occupy lines parallel to those of the roof and floor; by the bands of

Rctpectinf the geologicil age of iho tnlhracite of the United Sute, we think there good groand for dissenting from the views ofM. Uural, in placing this carbonilerous fATHMtioB in the superior part of the transition series. It is true, the present writer formerly Jld aad adoeatl precisely the same opinions, but subsequent investigations have clearly cstablisbcd the geological fact, that the Pennsylvania anlhracHes are simply in the metamor- pbic flUte; that they are based upon the old red sandstone, and that the numerous basins in which thy deposited are but isolated, or out-lying portions of the great bituminous coal, ftetd of tiM AUchaoj MoonUini.

iflif INTRODUCTION.

iatercalated slate, and by the continuous barres which divide the beds i several courses. Finally, the coals themselves often present a great oi ber of interruptions, and of veins which render its structure striped, Ian lar, and following the direction of the stratification.

The stratification of coal ought not, however, to be considered as abaoli and to be compared to that of tlie calcareous or argillaceous beds of sedimentary formations, nor even to that of the sandstones and shales wl alternate with them. Certain beds present massive undulated forms without these undulations having been occasioned by the course or sti of the formation. This shows that the origin of the coid permits, at one i the same time, thin layers, continuous and of the greatest regularity, i thick beds, so limited and irregular, that they may be assimilat to mu The ulterior details, respecting the forms and courses of the principal i deposits, will decide perfectly our ideas in this respect. The thin and n lar beds, although yery much disturbed, of the basins of the north of Fra and Belgium, and the thick and limited beds of Montchanin represent two extremes of position.

The number of coal beds, in the same formation, as well as their thi ness and continuity, appear to be subject to very great variations. Nei theless, there is a certain connection between these diflferent conditii The thin and regular beds are commonly continuous and multiplied; thick and unequal masses are, on the contrary, limited in their extent, there are rarely more than two or three superposed in the formation wl encloses them. Thus, in the basin of Mons, in Belgium, more than hundred distinct seams of coal are counted, whose ordinary thickness va from eight inches to near five feet In the collieries of the departmen the North, in France, there are few centres of exploitation which do count six, eight, twelve, or more beds of coal ; but their maximum thickr does not exceed three feet, and the greater part of those which are wor have only about twenty inches.

Although coal beds have frequently been traced along a distance of m miles, yet we ought not, even in the case of very great regularity, to sup| that certain beds of coal are absolutely coextensive with the whole for tion. For example, there is an interruption between Valenciennes and Belgian frontier, to such an extent that the beds of Anzin are not thos Mons, and these, again, have no relation of continuity with the bedf Liege or Charleroy. The same remarks can be applied to other coal bai Thus, in the basin of the Loire, the beds of Rive-de-Gier, are not the si as those of Saint-Etienne. We may, then, in a basin of some extent, i sider the coal as forming, within the beds of sandstones and shales, spe districts; often isolated, the one from the other, by sterile portions, an* whicii the coal beds, differing in number and power, have no relatioi continuity.

Although, then, even if we have discovered the sandstones and the sb of the coal formation, it does not follow that we have also found the c though we were on the prolongation, in direction or inclination, of km beds. To forma probable hypothesis on this subject, it would be necesi first to study the peculiar conditions of the formation on which to opei and calculate, from the known portions, the chances that we may have.

The strata of the basin of the Saone-ei-Loire appear to form basins i ordinate to the principal basin, which is filled up with coal, sandstones schists. These subordinate basins are bounded like the basin which i tains them, and have, besides, nearly similar proportions between the a

INTRODUCTION. xh

Further, the coal appears there to diminish in length in proportion as it acquires thickness. In the valley of Creuzot, the great bed which is work- ed has twelve metres, or forty feet, of mean thickness. In the enlarged por- tions it has 40 metres, or 130 feet from wall to roof. In direction it is not prolonged above 2000 yards; and, with regard to its limits, its divided ex- tremities, there impoverished, present all the symptoms of a total suppression.

The bed of Moutchanin, greatly inclined, whose thickness attains even to 70 metres, or nearly 230 t, measured from roof to floor, representing, consequently, the thickest known coal bed, is equally one of the most limit in exteostOQ. In fact, in the upper part of the exploitation, this direction is about 650 yards, at the end of which the bed terminates abruptly, and is confused or entangled in the rocks of the roof and floor. At a lower stage, about thirty yards below the first, the length is reduced to 450 yards,. and it is probable that at the depth of about 150 yards the bed will terminate.

The basin of the Loire contains, in the region of Rive>de-Gier, but three beds, of which the average united thickness does not exceed 32 feet; but, in the district of SaintpEtienne, the sum of the regular beds amounts to 114 feet, in fifteen to eighteen beds. At Brassac they amount to from 27 to 40 feet ; 45 feet at Comentry and Doyet ; and 48 to 65 feet in the basin of Anbin. It is remarkable that, in all these basins, the coal beds, of 15 to 30 feet, are occasionally reduced, by contractions, to 6 or 10 feet, and at times are swelled out to the thickness of 60 to 90 feet, an ordinary and normal feet.

In the department of the North, on the contrary, 30 feet of total thickness are divided into 14 beds, worked at Fresne and Vieux-Cond. The 12 beds of Aniche only form 22 feet ; four successive beds at Douchy have only II feet aggregate ; at Denin feet only ; and 38 feet are occupied by not less than eighteen beds at Anzin. There are also still more veins, which are unworked, and whose thickness is below one foot each. But these beds are regular and prolonged, and are not disturbed by those enlargements and enunglements so frequent in the beds of the southern basins.

This difference of power and continuity in the coal beds agrees also with some very important differences indicated by geological observation.

The southern basins of France appear to have been deposited, during the coal period, in isolated lakes of fresh water ; encircled, and entirely com- manded by the neighboring summits, from whence the materials have often been drifted with violence: forming breccias and conglomerates. In study- ing this debris, especially in the lower parts of the deposit, we can recognize the transition rocks of the surrounding countries. The northern basin of Belgium and France, containing at its base the carboniferous limestone, is, on the contrary, only composed of sandstones and fine schists. It appears, from the character of the fossils, to have been formed in marine waters, and thus represents, with the coal basins of England, the pelagic accumulations of an epoch, of which the basins of the south are but the lacustrine termina- tions. It id, then, natural to discover, in these northern deposits, a regular and continuous disposition which comports not with the deposits of the south.

The southern basins, deposited in isolated lakes of fresh water, form the principal riches of France. The aggregate Uiickness of the cpal is, besides, nearly as great as in the basins of the north. To sum up tU, we can lay down no absolute rule for the number and power of the beds of coal, any more than for their continuity. The indices, which result from the direc- tion of the stratification, have, nevertheless, a real value, even in the coun-

xhi INTRODUCnOlf.

tries where the eontinaity presenU the most frequent exceptions ; bed they always conduct to the possibility of finding, if not the prolongs of the beds, at least to formations analogous to such as have been aire discovered.

Accidents, Faults, And Irregularities Of Coal Beds.

The beds of coal are rarely in the position where they have been duced, for that position would approach sensibly to the horizontal ; a co tion compelled, if not by the mode of production of the coal itself, at I by that of the beds of sandstone and slates between which it is strati Most frequently, the uniformity of the formation is disturbed, not onl inclinations, more or less great, but also by the folds which change t inclinations, and distort the beds to such an extent that a vertical shaft n cut them several times. There oflen, also, prevails one or several sys( of faults [failUs] which change the levels and isolate, one from the o) the divers parts of a bed.

This aeddentatian, subsequent to the production of the beds, and re ing from dynamic perturbations, commonly influenced by determinable ditions of direction, must be distinguished from the contemporaneous i dents inherent even to the production of the coal ; such as the undulat of the roof and floor, which swell or contract a bed, and the intercalai of layers or of amygdaloid rocks, which interrupt the regular order ol stratification. Nevertheless, there is an evident connection between t two causes of irregularities ; because the dynamic perturbations appo have sometimes operated upon the coal beds before they were solidified at least, when they were in such a state, that they were capable of b compressed, squeezed, and even completely suppressed, by a comprei between the rocks of the walls, and, consequently, enlarged at other jxi

The distorted structure, often smooth and polished, of the shales m accompany the coal, thus troubled; the state of the coal itself, whic there not only more crushed than at other places, but sometimes twisti contorted and in a manner kneaded, seem to confirm the existence of t almost contemporaneous perturbations.

We may, besides, by attentive observations, frequently distinguish dynamic and violent perturbations of such as result even from the cir stances of the deposit. The regular seams [] of shale and their or bands [Intrres] of clay, which are almost always interposed in be coal, following the direction of the stratification, can furnish many in in this respect. Thus, in a natural expansion, not only the seams (r and bands which exist, do not experience perturbations, but they add parallels to the increasing thickness of the coal. A natural contract! often produced by the dilatation of the " barres," and, at other timet barres submit gradually, like the coal itself, to the influence of diminu In the dynamic accidents, on the contrary, the nerfs" and barres arc ken suddenly, and their fragments, blended with the coal, announce, i ▼ance, to the miner the accident which comes to modify the "allure" bed.

The accidents to which coal beds are subjected, are those of the im iian, the folds, ihefaultSf the displacements and the disturbances.

Indination is the most general casualty : it is rarely, in fact, that the s are presented in ii horizontal position. These inclinations are evidentl result of perturbations, of upheavings or of sinkings of the earth, s quently to the deposit of the formation.

IlfTRODUCTIOK. xim

The direcUoo of all the heds is commonly the same in a coal basin, but their ioclination Taries. Thus, it is remarked that, upon the opposite bor- ders of a basin, the slopes were most frequently directed towards each other ; and it has been proved that sometimes there was a junction of the two slopes in the middle of the basin by a plane or curved portion which has beeo called the bottom of the hoot — [" de batteew,**] because, in fact, the section of the two slopes, thus united, bears resemblance to the section of a boat This disposition, which has been too generalized for the en* semble of the formation, it having been very frequently deranged by acci- deou of another nature, and as regards the coal beds, when the continuity is not always established between the beds of which the slopes tend theo- retically towards each other, is nevertheless, with these exceptions, a very commoo occurrence.

This fktX indicates that coal basins have generally been compressed by lateral apbeavings or pressure.

The change of inclination oflen involves the existence of curves of adjust* Moi, which are only the folds [plis] of the beds. In the greater part of the ctfconschbed basins, these folds are of great radius : but, in the beds of the great northern basin of France, the folds are sometimes so sudden and decided that they change the inclination of from 10'' or IS"", to that of TS"" or 80 at any given point.

Hie section of the basin of Mons, in Belgium, is a good example of the plicatioo or doubling back of the coal beds of the northern basin, even to such an extent as to permit the vertical shafts to pass two or three times through the same beds. Most frequently there is an enlargement of the thickness at the angle or bend crochon"] of a ply, and the thickness of a bed of one yard is increased to one and a half or two yards. Those beds whose inclination is below twenty degrees, permit the establishment of working galleries according to the method which bears the name of flats — plats," and they call uprights — " droits" — those which possess a high in- clination. The same beds, therefore, that occur in our section of Mons, assume alternately the disposition of flats and uprights.

These folds have, at the same time, both a direction and an inclination, and form a sort of sloping gutter which is called by the Belgian and French miners ennoyage"

The plications are evidently the efiect of dynamic causes, which have produced these inclinations ; they result from upheavings which have undu- lated the surface of the basin, and from lateral pressure, which has forced the groups thus undulated, to occupy a greatly contracted space.

Contractions and enlargements are frequent accidents in coal beds ; they both exist, generally, in the same vein, and, in some basins, the miners are in the habit of saying, when the roof and floor widen suddenly, the bed enlarges, we are going to lose it.'' A gradual and prolonged contraction, a division of the bed, whose planes of stratification become entangled in the rocks of the roof and floor ; in fine, the alteration of the coal which becomes more and more mixed with argillaceous slate, constitute an impoverishment which is the ordinary precursor of a total suppression.

When the two walls of the vein, approaching each other, come to unite, and for a while to suppress the coal bed, the accident takes the name of /os/f, \arain or coujgUe,]

Faults are more frequent accidents in the thick beds than in those which do not exceed a yard. By following the carbonaceous thread which almost always exists as a trace lefl by the coal ijiself, or, in default of that, by fol-

]dviii HfTRODUCTIOEf.

lowing the rooks of the roof and floor, of which nature furnishes indi sufficient to preserve the plane of stratification, the bed will be recovei aAer an interruption of greater or less extent. In the mines of Riw Gier, the lines of white slate serre as a guide, in default of carbon, bj wh to pass over or go by the &ults. In the mines of the environs of Nan where the suppression is equally complete, it is necessary to consult atl tively the rooks of the walls, in order to pass by, without deviation, the v considerable spaces which often separate the prolongation of the same

Miners are sometimes very much embarrassed, when they have pur the trace of a feult during a long space ; for, not finding again any indi tion of resumption, they do not know whether the interruption should attributed to the presence of a fault or to the definitive cessation of the a No rule can be laid down in this case ; the observation of the structun the whole can only furnish the data which we have already indicated ab(

Faults' are very common accidents. They are fractures which aflect entire character of the formation, and cause greater or less disturban These faults have a determinate direction, and frequently a basin is aflfec by a system of faults parallel with each other. At other times, there several systems which follow different directions, but are each composes faults, connected with each other, by a parallelism of direction.

The intensity of the faults is very variable ; sometimes they scarcely ia the formation, and appear as fissures which have changed the leve the two ruptured paru, but not enough to constitute the total interrupi of the coal, which is always sy to follow, when the oflset is not ffre than the thickness of the coal. The bed of Lucy, in the basin of Saonc Loire, frequently presents such faults.

The section of the coal bed of Monceau furnishes an example of in ruptions of continuity caused by movements subsequent to the formatioi the coal deposit, and of a confusion [brouUlage] which totally interrupts ooal.

The brauiBages are nothing but the intervals comprised between planes of fracture ; in these intervals all the beds are broken and reducei angular blocks mingled together.

When these faults form part of those which have determined the out) of the surface of the ground, the offsets or upthrows are, in some measi proportionate to the inequalities which it presents. Thus, there are off and upthrows of several hundred feet in the basins of England, of Wa and of Rivee-Gier, whose surface is highly disturbed.

In the basins of the Saone-etLoire, they are rarely more than from th to ninety feet, and are, notwithstanding, in agreement with the undulati of the surface.

Endeavours have been made to establish, from the most detailed i available information, agreements between the arrangement of the fa of coal and the superficial accidents of the soil. Thus, in a great nuni of basins, the direction of their beds coincide with that of the great axi the coal formation, and this great axis is itself directed in the same cot as the existing valleys, in such a manner that the direction of the bed( confounded with that of the dividing lines of the waters and the prinei valleys. In some other basins, the planes of stratification of the format have not only the same direction, but also the same inclination as tha the aurface declivities.

The bun of Bert offers a striking example of this agreement. 1 iadinatioM of its ooai beds ohangp as often as five times whilst conft>rm

urmoDucTioN. xlix

to the indinations of the surface, and the range of the valleys corresponds with the direction of the beds. The greater part of the basins which affect the boat form, present, at their surfaces, an analogous disposition ; that is to aj, the waters follow the direction of the strata, and the lateral margins of the basins are generally more elevated than the axes.*

EmgKih Coal-Fields, — Faults and interruptions prevail, more or less, as might be expected, in most coal-fields, but they possess different characters in different regions. The Newcastle coal-field is remarkable for its number of ftults; fix>m the dimensions of a few inches to a hundred fathoms. But in the southern coal basins, particularly those of the Forest of Dean and Sooth Wales, there are frequently found remarkable irregularities, called horses.'* Where these horses occur, the coal disappears all at once ; but yet without any &ult at all. They have to be cut through, and, after a time, the cod reappears.t These horses appear to be ascribable to interruptions in the original deposition of the vegetable matter of the coal seams.

Ckamieal Geobgy, as applied io Coal, — At the tenth annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as reported in the Athencum, Professor Johnston brought forward the result of his investiga- t0R8 OQ the most important of mineral productions, coal.

Although some geologists may entertain a different opinion, he assumes for granted the vegetable origin of coal. Although it may be classified in various ways, for economic or geologic convenience, as into caking or not caking, bituminous or non-bituminous, the true basis of the classification must depend on the chemical composition. Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, are tlie component parts of living vegetables, and the same elements com- pose coal, but in different proportions.

In the decomposition of vegetable matter, there are two agents always at work — viz. atmospheric air and water, which resolve it into carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen ; forming, with one another, those combinations— carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid, and water. Vegetable matter, consequently, in different states, showed different proportions of these elements.

The quantity of carbon in all the different varieties of coal, in Mr. John- ston's table, was taken as a constant quantity ; and from lignite, downwards, we $ee a progressive loss of hydrogen and oxygen ; until, in anthracite, the carbon is the chief component.

This is borne out by experience. In the change from lignite to fossil wood we find that carbonic acid only is parted with ; and this continues, without variation, in all the kinds, down to cannel coal.

In mines of lignite and cannel coal, we find only carbonic add, or choice damp; while in mines of coal lower in the scale, we find, in addition, car' burtitcd hydrogen otjire damp. This also appears in tlie table referred to ; the hydrogen diminishing in each variety as we approach anthracite.

In some mines we find a perfect confirmation of this theory. In certain Yorkshire mines, coal of different kinds, cannel coal being at the top, evi- dendy prove that those below, having been longer subjected to chemical action, had parted with more of their hydrogen. Tlie same occurs in mines in Lancashire.

In conclusion. Professor Johnston asserted, that bituminous matter must be of vegetable origin — in fact, chemistry proved it. Distillation of vegetable matter in a gas work, or in the laboratory of a volcano, was the same process.

In further support of this conclusion, we cite the following high authority:

Golofie appliqoe, par M. Amede Burst, 1846. t ProfeMor Aotted't Geological Lectures, 1847-8.

Introduction.

Table of Analysis of Coal and certain allied Combustibles, by Berthu

Compotition in 100

LiKoUe or

Biiominoat

Penntylvania

Graphite

parti.

Peat or Tarf.

Brown Coal.

Coal — rich.

Anthracite.

Plamba

Carbon,

Hydrogeiif

Oxygen,

Ashes,

Volatile matter.

Iron,

These different yarieties of brown coal, peat, bitaminous coal, anthra and graphite, correspond so exactly, that this alone would show the vegel origin of them all ; from the peat up to the graphite, if no other proofs i at hand.

VARIETIES OP COAL, WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR ADAPTATON TO 1 MAKING OF IRON.

Countriei and claaiUlcation.

Fat, bitamfnoat, ad- hetiT<i coalt ; the greater part cl0$§ bum'-* tng or ttronf bnminf blaainf coala.

'America,

England, A,

Localitlet of Coala.

do. B,

do. C, France,

Dry coals, not very f adhesive : can be needj gcoUand, E.

crude in the f\imace with heated air.

Optn burning emU.

Less adbeaiTe or caking.

Steam coals, Tery dry coals, with excesa of carbon.

Opf n buTuinjft intermediate claat, aeml-bltamlnoQs.

W. Penn'a, Ohio, VIrg. lUinoia, C Newcastle upon Tyne, BIrtley, J Northumberland, Tvne worka, (,8uffordahlre, Apdale worka, ? Wedneabury,

V Derbvahlre, Butterley, Cherry, ( Codnor Park, loA coal, 1 Lancaahire, cannel coal, Scotch, Lismahago,

(Derbyshire, Morely P% rAnzin, RiTe de Oier, (.Saint Etienne,

fClyde, splint coal, clod coal, richeat, near Glasgow, LMonkland,

fPennsylTanla, Philipsburg, . Statea,! " Karthaas,

F, VirginU, Richmond, Ullinois, Otuwa,

8. Wales,'

fDowlals, iron works, Mefthyr TydTil, Pen-y-Daran, " Aberdare,

By whom analysed.

Var'tts peraona, Berthier,

Kaiaten, Mnahet,

Berthier,

Gmner,

Masbet,

Berthier,

Johnson,

Clemson, Fraaer,

Mnshet, Unknown,

Anthracite,

Rbymney it Tredegar, works, iMushet, L eteam c*l, Pembrey St Llanelly , [mean] Belgium, Mens, Dour. iBerthler,

France, Auvergne, Saint Etienne, Gruner,

r Dauphin Co. Pa. Rattling Run, Lea, America, f Maryland, SaTage Rirer, U. S. ] PennsylTania, Bloseborg, L " Broad -top,

r C South Wales. Neath Valley,

S. Wales, " Ystal-y-ferra,

L Cwm Neath,

fPennsylTania, Potts ville.

Black 8p. Gap,

" Mauch Chunk,

Sugar-loaf,

Rhode Island, PorUroouth, .Massachusetts. Mansfield, Russia. Territory of the Don Cossacks,

U. Statea,

Jackson, Clemson,

Moshet,

Rogers,

Lea,

Rogers,

Johnson,

Jackson,

Voskressensky.

Sslo W.5

30J 40j S4.

50.0 SO. 70.0 to. 04.41 31.

51 0, 45.

50.941.

fl6.ll 10. 04.9,10. 09.0 35.

74.8ill, 77.0' 10 75.4! 10

91.1,

85.0; 10

99.0, 0.

94.2,

A, Coala which cannot be employed in iron works, in the crude state.

B, Coala which cement leas in the fire, and which it ii practicable to use raw in fur worked with heated air.

C, Chieflj for UlomiBatiog gaa .

INTBODUCTIOlf. If

III the belief that eerj species of inforniatioD which makes the adapta- tion of the various mineral combustibles to the manufacture of iron better understood, must be useful and in strict conformity with the plan of the present work, we have arranged the foregoing practical details. Great changes have taken place, within a few years, in the management of fuel, and in the degree of estimation in which each species is held by operative and scientific men. It is proper to know the conclusions to which those persons have arrived. We cannot here give all those results in detail ; and, moreover, this is not a treatise on iron making. But we have sought to concentrate certain material facts on the nature and capabilities of the prin- cipal varieties. It will then be easy to compare them with others of corre- sponding character. We have therefore given, in the preceding page, a comparative table and characteristic analysis of the principal descriptions of coal employed in the iron works of Europe and the United States.

Classification Of Mineral Coals.

In the foregoing table of analysis of coals and anthracites we have so arranged them as to exhibit their varieties or gradations, and their distinguish- ing properties, in different countries. Hence, the European coals can readily be compared with those of America, and the adaptations of either may be agned with some degree of confidence. We proceed to note these characteristic differences and agreements more in detail.

L Fat Bituminous, blazing, coking. — In the first class, series A, of the table, by way of illustration, the English coals of the north, and some of the coals of Silesia, of Hesse, of France, and of America, in the Ohio Valley, are chiefly fat and very adhesive or caking ; swelling much in the fire. The hot air blast is successfully applied with these in the high fur- naces. But, as their tendency to cement together in a solid mass, when in the fire, is such as to prevent a free draf\ or passage of the air through the furnace, it has been found indispensable to submit the coals to a preliminary process, and to reduce them to coke. Thus, the difficulty is wholly re- moved; and a light, cellular, and purely carbonaceous substance, easily ignited, is substituted for the unmanageable coal in its crude state. The average quantity of carbon which the English coals possess, is stated to be iixty-nve per cent.

Series B, more southward, in Staffordshire and Derbyshire : these coals, although containing as much, and even more bitumen, do not melt together like those of Northumberland. They scarcely change their form even in the state of coke. The varieties, having this property, admit of their being Qsed in the raw state, but require the introduction of hot air into the furnaces. Some of the American coals west of the Alleghany mountain hare also these characters.

In regard to the manufacture of illuminating gas, the type of perfection, in the series C, is the Scotch cannel ; then comes after it the lancashire cannel, and, in the third order, the Yorkshire and Derbyshire cannel. With this class we would place the cannel coals of Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. This series can be assimilated, in many respects, to the coal of the basin of Mons in Belgium. The splint coal of Scotland is only a coarse variety of cannel, as are the greatest part of all the Scotch coals.

The Newcastle coals have a resemblance to those of Anzin, of Saint-

Ill INTRODUCTION.

Etienne, and of Rive-de-Gier the analysis of which we ha?e placed in series D.

II. Series E. — In the second class, the Scotch coals, although contaii as much bitumen as those of the north of Scotland, are of the kind nominated dry coals. They cement together, but without change of f and are not so adhesive as the fat English coals. These were heretf) coked before being put into the furnaces; but recent improvements! shown that, with the application of heated air, they can be empK without being previously carbonized. Their average proportion of cai is about sixty per cent., and of bitumen 36 per cent. Some oi Alleghany coals will probably be found to assimilate with these. Appi mating to the same class, to a certain point, will be found the coal Auvergne and of a part of the south of France.

III. Series F. — We ha?e assigned an intermediate space for a series of in the American coal basins which differ little from E, except that they tain somewhat less of bitumen and more of carbon, viz. about 66 per i of carbon and 27 per cent, of bitumen and volatile matter, and are adhesive and caking. The Heraclea coal, in Anatolia, appears to be to this series, and those of the Cantal and Puy de Dome in France. T are convertible into coke.

IV. Intermediate Series, very dry codU, — Sem-bituminous coeds, — iS coeds, — In the fourth class, of which the Welsh coal of the southern eastern districts is the type, and which possess only from twelve to tw per cent of volatile matter and bitumen, may be arranged those den nated very dry coals, with excess of carbon." These do not call cement together in a mass, although each individual fragment is suscep of conversion separately into coke, and consequently do not offer a lar obstruction to the current of air in the furnace, like those of the class. It has, therefore, been found that they may be employed in a c state in the cold air furnaces of South Wales. This class contains a proportion of carbon than the two others, being eighty-one per cent

There exist both in France, Saxony and Belgium, coals which bear t resemblance to these. In the United States of America, particular Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, are some species which cl assimilate with the foregoing, usually denominated open-burning,'* sometimes semi-bituminous," and are not surpassed by any known sp for certain valuable properties.

Under this bead may be arranged the culm of Kilkenny and of morganshire, and the quality which prevails in some of the southern 8 of the Welsh coal-field, and now universally known by the name of "a coal," being supplied to the British marine steamers, and even to tho France and Egypt The Welsh culm is a very light coal, of loose tei very glossy, and composed of capillary fibres arranged in divergent rayi burns easily, and without smoke, makes a lively fire, and is in great re in Swansea and Cornwall for the smelting of copper. Depots of a coals are formed in the East and West Indies, and in various parts o world, for the service of the English steamers.

There is in England another variety of coal, but not abundant, c jiint coal, because it is almost as hard as flint, and has a shining fra approaching to anthracite. The fiew coal of the mines of Wedgebu Staffordshire, belongs to this series. In Cumberland, at Alston Mo variety of coal is found, almost without bitumen, called crow coal, n approaches to the French coal of Fresnes.

nrmoDUCTioN. uy

Y. Id the fifth dass are comprised the anthracites, or non-hituminous eoala. We shall enter more into detail when we treat of the coal districts of Wales and the United States. Our tables of analysis exhibit the com- ponent parts of this mineral from all the principal known deposits. In Penn- anm it contains from 85 to 92 per cent, of carbon ; in South Wales from 86 to 95; in France 80 to 83 : in Saxon j 81, and in Russia reaches 94 per cent

After manj years of unsuccessful trial in endeavouring to adapt this taluable mineral combustible to the manufacture of iron, the difiicqities, which at one time seemed insurmountable, were overcome, both in Wales and in Pennsylvania, where many furnaces, using the hot blast, are now in full activity. The domestic use of anthracite, in the United States is very extensive, and annually increasing ; all the original objections to its use having vanished.

In the United States of America the investigation of coal is of so recent a date that we have scarcely had time to institute comparisons with the corresponding combustibles in Europe. Nor have we acquired more than a meagre amount of information in relation to the economic value of similar substances in other countries.

While in the new world, remarkable as it may appear, the most simple properties of mineral fuel have scarcely been known half a century ; while the first anthracite found its way from Pottsville to Philadelphia in the year 1812; from the Lehigh region in 1814, and from Wilkesbarre in 1820 ; — while the first bituminous coal reached tide water down the Susquehanna only in 1804, the coals of England had been employed for fuel and manu- factures from the beginning of the thirteenth century ; those of Scotland towards the close of the same century ; of France at the beginning of the fifteenth century, and in Belgium the coal mines had been in operation at least as early as the year 1198.

The amount of current information as to what has been eflfected, and as to what is the existing condition, in other parts of the world in relation to coal mining industry and the enormous developments of this mineral in various countries, even during our own time, forms a department in in- dustrial statistics which greatly needs elucidation, for the details which it embraces are by no means of easy access to the inquirer, either in the new or the old world. It is the growing necessity for such information, the demand for a multitude of essential data for which we have so often to seek in vain, that has led to the preparation of the present volume, and has encouraged its author to persevere. We feel assured, moreover, that in the concentration of such a multitude of useful facts which time has developed, but which are now, in great measure, for the first lime brought together, we are conferring no slight accession to the generally prevailing knowledge, on a subject which is annually acquiring importance, and becoming more intimately connected with the advancement of the human race.

It may be useful to pursue these preliminary notes on the classification of mineral combustibles somewhat further ; and we, fortunately, are not with- out ample scientific authority for extending this section as far as our space will permit

It has been perceived that similarity of results in analysis, is not of itself an entire and decisive guide to the ascertainment of all the properties of coal. Even as regards chemical results, apparently parallel, discrepancies are discoverable, when the investigation is carried further, which show the absence or presence of principles that materially influence operative results.

liy INTBODUCTION.

Thus, in coals containing similar quantities of carbon, those of the north England and in Scotland, for instance, the analytical results, acquired Dr. Thomson, pro?e that the relative quantities of hydrogen, carbon i azote, materially differ. Again, external properties and characters n likewise be consulted. The structure and texture of the coal, the dena the mode in which it bums in the fire, swells or decrepitates, and oi phenomena must be attended to. We have seen, for example, that sooM the English coals oossess so strong a tendency to melt, cement, and coke to form a hollow nre, and cannot be used in iron works without previ coking ; while other coals, even such as possess ten to twenty per cent n of bitumen, swell but little; and although their fragments cohere in the I they do not change their form and bulk, even in the process of coking.

There is yet another mode which has been employed to compare, v still greater delicacy, the respective qualities and composition of these o bustibles. This is by means of the relative proportions of carbon and m ous matters, ascertained more completely than is exhibited in the usual C of analysis. For a knowledge of these results, and some others that propose to introduce, we are indebted, in great measure, to the work of Pelouze on gas.*

" Ail the compact eoab, even the fattest, thd most coking, the moel flammablein a word, those which the English designate by the nam< " closc'buming coal" and which yield to distillation a coke, always mor less abundant, dense, and of better quality than those of the light coa' ought to be avoided for the manufacture of gas.

But among the eligible coals, how many distinctions still remain U made. We are often astonished to find that the lightest coal — that wl leaves the least residuum afler its combustion — above all, that which posse characters entirely bituminous; which kindles rapidly, and gives out and elongated flame, yields much less gas to distillation than some o variety of the light coals which possess the same apparent characteris or which were even far from promising as much.

We are acquainted with a great number of analyses of coal, made at ' ous periods; but all at a time when the science of the analysis of org bodies had made little advances. Besides, the only object of those anal was that of stating the respective proportions of coke, or de-bitumin coal, and the incombustible residuum which the coke yielded by a plete incineration. Little attention was given to determining the coi nent parts of the bituminous portion.

Mr. Richardson has devoted himself to researches in the laboratoi Professor Liebig, at Giesen. He has examined the English coals.

We give the results of his analyses, the more willingly that his exan tions have been directed to the produce in coke, and to the elements o bituminous portion.

British Bituminous Coals.

With the certain means that chemists possess, now-a-days, for anal] organic substances, such a work, published by a person so competei these matters, ought to inspire confidence. Now we see that in the roinous portion of the coals assayed by Mr. Richardson, the proportic oxygen varies from 14.54 for 6.33 of hydrogen, to 5.50 for 5.31 of hydn There is, therefore, reason to think, that in the distillation of the first vai

Tnit l*oUirage aa Gas, avec 24 pUnchet, par Pelouxe Pere, Parii, 1S39.

IlfTRODUCTION.

in eonseqaence of the formation of water, there would remain very little hydrogen for the production of gas for illumination ; while the second variety would have yielded a much more abundant result of carbonated hy- drogen gas.

0MtltS of

Loeallty.

Composttton.

Composition after detfacting the ashes.

OoMtasUUs.

Carbon.

Hydro- gen.

Oxygen.

Aibes or Cinder.

Carbon.

Hydro- gen.

Ozygen.

SplistCoal, CaanelCoa], Cherrf Coaly CakiKCoal,

Wylam, Glasgow,

Edinbargb,

Newcastle,

Glasgow,

NewcasUe,

Glasgow,

2U519

8J57

6Jk)

At the same time that Mr. Richardson was operating at Giesen, M. Rey- naolt, an aspiring mining engineer, was devoting himself at Paris to similar reteirches, with much assiduity. We give below the principal results which he has obtained.

European Bitttminous Coals,

Analysis per cent, the earthy residuum being previously abstracted. The results show the mean of three different assays for each species of coal.

LocaliUei.

Carbon.

Hydrogen.

Oxygen.

1. Coal of Alais, baiin, No. 23, mine ofRochebelle, France,

2. Coal of LaTajsse, Dep. of the Aveyron,

((

3. CoaJ ofMons. 1st Tsriety of F/enu,

Belgium,

4. " 2nd "

5. Coal of Epinac, basin No. 11,

6. Coal of Blanij, No. 10,

France,

7.C&nnel Coal of Lancashire,

England,

S.Coal ofCommentry, basin No. 13,

France,

9. Coal of RiYOe-Gier, " No. 20, Grande-Croix,

10. " " " Raesaud,

11. " " " Corbeyre,

12. " " " Cimetiere,

14. " " " Coupon,

16. Coal of NoroT, basin No. 3, Vosges,

17. Coal of Oberkirchen,

Westphalia,

4.8S

Coal of St. Girons, Dep. of L'Arriege,

France,

We remark how much the proportions of oxygen in relation to hydrogen, vary, even in their roost extended limits: and if we admit that the abun- dance of the first is injurious to the production of gas for lighting, all the uncertainty which is generally observed in the result of the manufacture is explained.

Many of the coals comprised in the preceding table are defective by an absolute want of hydrogen; but several others, even those rich in hydrogen, by the association of that with a too strong proportion of oxygen, which in the dislillatioD of coal disengages itself with the hydrogen, both being in a nascent sute, are found in conditions favorable to combination ; that is to

hi WTRODUCTION.

say, to the production of waterto the detriment of the quantity of illumin ting gaa.

Anthracites,

LocalltiM.

GarboB.

Hydrofen.

Oxyr

1. Anthracite of PenntyWania, United States,

2. Coaly Anthracite of Rolduc, near Aix-la-Cbapelle, Belgium, 8. Anthracite ofMayenne, France,

4. " of South Walea, Walca,

5. " ofLa Mure, Dep. oflaere, France,

6. " ofMacot, La Tarantaiie,

ftA 2Ji IJ

We here perceive that the anthracites are absolutely wanting in hydrog< independently of the consideration of oxygen. It explains then very w why this species of combustible is the least convenient substance for I manufacture of illuminating gas."*

The results, according to the ElngUsh engineer, Luke Herbert, obtain from a series of experiments made upon each of the three classes of Engl bituminous coals, and in each case by the distillation of one ton of the are as follows :

1. Cannel coal of Lancaster produced 11, 600 English cubic feet of gi

2. Coal of Newcastle, (Hartley mine,) 9,600 do.

3. Coal of Staffordshire, best quality, 6,400 do.

By experiments on a similar scale to the last, were obtained the follow; results :

1. Wallsend coal, - - - 10.300 cubic feet of gas.

2. Temple Main, 8.100 do.

3. Primrose Main, - - - 6.200 do.

4. Pembrey, 4.200 do.

The gas obtained possessed an illuminating power much inferior to I from the coal of the first class ; but there was much coke of good qualif

In this class the series terminates with the drier and less adhesive cc called " open burning coals." Those of this kind are preferred by bli smiths because they better bear the blast of the bellows.

ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF COAL TO THE PURPOSES STEAM NAVIGATION.

There has been recently published a very elaborate report, of 607 pa " to the Navy Department of the United States, on American coals a] cable to steam navigation and to other purposes, by Prof Walter R. Johnsi It includes two hundred and one tables, prepared by the author with unu care and under peculiar advantages, and furnishes the results of a long sc of experimental investigations conducted at Washington.

Our space precludes our quoting extensively from this voluminous roent ; but we cannot refrain from selecting the following table of the reli degree of evaporative power of different coals under similar or uniform 6t We select this table, at the suggestion of the author, in preference to which exhibits " the order of evaporative power under equal weights" remarks that coal when sold by weight and used on shore, the weight

Peloue oa 6u.

Iktboduction.

IfU

eobic foot is a point of lite moment. Space for stowage is easily obtained. But in steam naTipiion, balk, as well as weight, demand aHention and ft dlference oT twenty per ctnL, which experiment shows to exist between the highest and the lowest average weight of a cubic foot of diflTerent coab, iKumes a value of no little magnitude. This is obviously true, since, if oaberibmgs be equal, the length of a voyage must depend on the amount of efiponiife power afforded by the fuel which can be stowed in the bunkers of a flteamer, always of limited capacity."

f s .

— cr —

The same Ooali.

Cfagriftalioa if Ameiicii Coak, la the order of evaporfttive

!:j

t: £

amiMw haI kmtU. tn if ailded the raliitlvi;

i"

i-

Jalbe ordar of itisir i|iedilc griiriliei, and of Uieii mai&:tt- BitoiKlStat.

El

1:

Of u

It

Jtfane* an4

Local it1e>.

StaLeorCoDEtty.

QoaEllr.

fl

AULhutyna, Canibr-

i t*ndeal, i

Marfland,

Dtj bkumlnflui cH.,

W16.1

1,000

m

1 Slow v..

Penny1v3Eilii,

Ant* cite, wbiii£ aib,

%

l|PeuJi MoaotmlB,

cbuf Iklll Co, Fa.,

red aih.

M5J

t

s

" M

irbjle ash.

Mo. 8

Varrland,

Dry bUamlnoua c'l..

.94*

B

S3

K. T. And MurUBd

tomlt..

Cumberland coal

free burning.

ssi.e

.g37

U

TQunn't Run coal.

CUniod CA., Penn.,

Modcmely b*Lu%

t

as

iBKitmrt,

Tioia c., PeDD.f

A15.0

ftNcir,Giunbr-di:l.

Maryland,

Fre barolpc bila'i.

&ia.7

D

rtore,"

CroberJand, MC,

(f

5L].t

Ib

rsntujLranla,

Aareitawbieft %th.

.Boa

Is

fi

Bamrmr MtMAow,

jm

U

LaUsHcoal,

PcnotylranJa,

Ani'dte. aJth,

,8ja

S3

%

B

U

ftfttetvft*

LyeomEnf efk.,fa..

Moderately biluX

OavbrU CO., Pa

Oituniinoiia,

46fl.ft

.soo

BeaTer Mtadow.

WUed.

jeo

U

S

nearHichmond, Va.,

BUunilnoiH,

*78.7

19 tcka wanna.

PcDDfljlTaDla,

Ant'cUe white aab.

.4

s

Id

Moderately bllu*i.

4Tt.4

.S4a

d

tl Siaar creek, Per-

Daapbin eo., Pa,,

Sefbi-tilmmlnoiu,

.§35

Hi

f3LfkBe Tallfly,

Anthradtc,

.ei3

U

3t

tJ Pittou.

\ora Seotta.

BltUBiiaiiup,

450. e

.79fi

Ss

tilluf'lxiihiiia, aT*fR,

Ms.5

.7W

Id

'i pLU,

'"

445 a

entlaod,

Fat bitu'i coat,

*ban.

Vtrflnla,

mtuiDinoua.

St

Sli BcwibaiV

.73P

S4

WPiecm. Canirdd.

XoTa Scotia,

,738

aicbmond. Va.,

ILOy

.71W

So

3a

"

If

40S.7

Signal 4ro)ce*

u

U

It

ChnterflAlfl CO., Va.

(1

391 .e

.ow

KPitutttf,

Pflontylvatiui,

Faibltn'vcobU

3fl

fi Sidney roat, IbjJjTFrpoDl,

Bltumlnoufi,

aiTi.fl

Edfland.

Fat bHu'H coaL

.ees

Scoilnfid,

BUuininoug,

.M5

1& 1>Iprrmnoe,

iif . PeteribtiTi, Va.,

350 .t

.fllS

IndUna,

Canfiel tonU

34B.8

61A

Sfl

ooTfp inn.

Hkbinvnd, Va.,

BkamlDouvr

tllOiike of CXiiaberland

'Marylaad,

i tmti.

Coke,

m

lfMttraklim*dc% ll&if flM wood,

jViriinia,

Pine wood.

.4W

3§

l?iii

Introduction.

Adaptation Of Coal To Steam Power.

We learn, through various cbaunels, that the Lords of the AdiDiralty, England, have taken up the subject of coal, not solely as relates to i economic working and consumption, but with reference to the probafa quantities absolutely workable in Great Britain, the most economic metho of combustion, and the chemical properties and combinations of coal, i inquiry was announced as in progress, in the close of 1846, in reference the value of coals for the use of Uie British steam navy. It is designed o merely to ascertain, by chemical analysis, the constituents of different sa of coal, but, by an extensive series of comparative experiments, to determi their practical applicability. With this object in view, it is announced tl steam boilers and furnaces have been erected at the Engineering College Putney, and the examination is intrusted to Sir Henry de la Beche and I Lyon Playfair, and those associated with them.

The editor of the Mining Journal remarks,* our beds of coal have be the undoubted production of ages ; and, vast as they are, it appears the of the ridiculous to assert, that they are inexhaustible. Every succeedu year brings its increasing consumption, not simply of tons, but of million and perhaps there is no other question in the range of political econoi that deserves so much patient investigation, and no body of men so higl competent to the task as the gentlemen alluded to."

Oeneral View or Tabk of the relative density of diflerent species of Gh and Anthracite at various parts of the World.

In a previous page we took occasion, by means of the requisite tables, exhibit the relative amounts of carbon and volatile matters which exist the principal bituminous coals of England, Scotland, Wales, Belgium, Fran and the United States of America ; and hence to show their comparat adaptation to the manufacture of iron. The following table offers anotl method of making useful comparisons of the bituminous and non-bitumin( combustibles in various parts of the world, by means of their respect specific gravities and weights per solid cubic yard, in pounds, avoirdupoii

M

It

It.

Localitief of Anthracites and Antbracitoot Coals.

It

Urited States.

Urited States.

Penmylvania,

/'ennty/Mifiia,— Sfmi-WftMRi-

PitUburg,

nota, intermediate coali, dry.

Mercer county,

blazing.

Karthaut,

Somerset co., IS p. ct. bitu'n, Blossbarg, 15 to IS p. ct. bit..

S3

Farrandtville,

Philipibarff,

Dauphin co., Rattling run.

Bloatburg,

Lebanon co., Yellow Springs,

Broad Top Mn., Bedford co.

2S

Virginia.

Wheeling,

Maryland,

Kanawha, Mlinet,

Frostburg, 12 to 20 p. ct. bit.,

Im2

1.246 2102

Bfining Joanial, August 1st, 1846.

INTBODCCnON.

LOttlttlMOfOMl.

Locmlities of Antbradtet,

$1

It

Sg5

Urrci) Statem*

CiftTED Stated* TefiTuitut.

Cumberland MouaUina,

Ijto

Meai] weight in the S.

h2m

latoait

i.seo

IBwmf

1J73

LjJieni vallcjj

K337

LcbuDno CO., grej rein.

Sctau>lkiJl eo,, Lofberrj c'k.

t.472

Potli faille J Sharp MouDUio,

23S2

Xtmoffs.

Salem TeiOj

EMfftBwL

Tatnaqua, v©in N.,

1,600

Hcwcaatlc, ckert; o&l.

1.S60

Si 36

March Chunk

cakiDf,

i,r?Q

Neaquebooiag,

Wif*o,

Wilkcharrc, beit

We it Mahonoy,

M9d

5K)23

Beaver MnAoWf

],60O

CirardfUle,

Slinipiiar, "

ijea

Hazelton

Broad MounUin,

1,700

SeottamiL

Lackawanna,

Gliow, dberry co],

1Jm8

iplist.

Miusathus£lU*

1,302

2t97

Mansfield J

2SSd

Ijjs

RAodt hlantL

Fronw,

Portimptith

t.3IO

nn

Average ta U. B.

Culal, 1

1,300

AoTerfne,

Eubofb.

S(mth Wales.

Swanftea,

1,263

Cjlkrlhfa,

EuAUt,

ftTerage,

YniaKiedwin,

1,350

327S

22S4

soma.

JreliuvJ, mean.

IVedcricti,

L3G3

2U1

Giiuw grobe.

1,270

France.

Avcragv In Europe,

Alller,

1.3S0

CaotaL,

1,390 1 2283

Bracaae,

JkMlA*

Btlgivm aotliimc'i coal of

BeagiJ, Hardwir,

1.36S

Moo.,

" Cbirrm Panj**,

1,447

WestphaTia, PrtiMiaD S*iony,

K350 : 227S

Atnm, Kji hilli

K275

1.406 3474

Atican, Birmcce,

1.30S

Savony

1,300 21 &3

Avenge in Awii*

Average orEtirope*

From the foregoing table several iisefii facta are made apparent. The first is, the greater weight of the American anthracites than those of Europe ; second, that the bituminous coals very closely coincide in both quarters of the globe.

A*eraf a yeght of a cable yard.

lihumiiioiM coals, i

AnthracUn.

Inlermetllikte ipeclae.

wciglit of the Americao, " EuTopeaa,

' " Aajntic,

S560 tha. 2164 2277 "

2601 lbs.

Wc have nciiiter added the weight of the intermediate icies of coal to ihe hituniinotis column nor to the anthracites; because, in either case, it wouJd have unduly affected the true character of the averages. Third, as

Ix nrmoDucnoif*

regards the table of American anthracites — and it may be correct also include that of the bituminous coals — it will be seen, with the assistance a map, that their specific gra? itj increases as we advance from west to eas confirming also the fact, noted elsewhere, that the weight of the combustib decreases in proportion to the amount of bitumen with which it may 1 charged.

The Anthracites ofPennsyhaniaf commonly distingtdshed as White At or Ned Ash Cords, (md selected according to their respective quaMHes Whilst treating on the comparative value of the varieties of Pennsylvai anthracite, as applied to iron making, we have said but little in relation their relative values for domestic use. It seems established that, for clot furnaces, for warming houses, the white ash variety, being the most compa dense, and slow burning, is more durable, and consequently, more preferat than the softer red ash coal. In open grates, for warming apartmentSi i latter is decidedly preferred. We have observed a recent statement of 1 result of an experiment, in relation to this point, which, as regards the wai ing of apartments, seems tolerably decisive.

A very important and interesting experiment was recently made (or t purpose of testing the comparative value of the red and white ash coals domestic purposes. Two rooms of nearly the same size, and having same temperature, were selected to ascertain how many pounds of ei kind would be required to heat them to a temperature of 65 degrees, dur a period of 15 hours, when the temperature out of doors at 9 A. M. wai ten degrees below the freezing point Two days were occupied in trial, so that the red and white ash coals might be used in aUemate rooi Fires were made at 9 A. M. and continued until 12 P. M. Two thermoi ters (one in each room) were suspended at the greatest distance from grates, and the temperature was carefully register every hour. The rei was as follows : —

Thirty-one pounds each day of the Schuylkill red ash coal gave a m temperature of 64 degrees ; and thirtyseven pounds each day of the ash, taken from a vein of high repute in the Lehigh region, gave a m temperature of 63 degrees. Making, 2000 pounds of the red ash to equal to 2387 pounds of the white; or, red ash coal at 95.50 per ton, tc equal to white ash at $4.61. This settles the question on the scon

Economy.

Depths Op Coal Mines.

The following statement has been prepared from a much more exten series, in order to exhibit the minimum, the maximum, and the avei depths beneath the surface at which beds of coal are at this time product! worked, in the principal mining regions of the world.

Cdl-Fieldi.

Depths of Coal Mines.

No. of Coal-FicUt.

Minimam feet.

Aversfe feet.

Maxii

fee

Xvui.

Grtal Britain. Ashby de la Zoocht depth reached in

the works, South Staffordshiie, Christcharch, Coalbrook Dale, North Staffordshire, or Pottery,

Pendleton, SiMft at Sankey Brook, near Si. Helens, ViolonapitJ>akiBfi6ld,eastofBfan'tab

ido

it

Ik

8' T.

15! 13' 10(

' A

mitODUCTION.

hi

No. of

Depths of Coal Mines.

Coal-Flddi.

Minimum

Average

Maximum

feet

feet.

feet.

Great Britain,

Xx.J

Torfafaire, near Wakefield,

DefbyshiTe, near Chesterfield,

The Swan Banka eoUiery, near Halifax,

¥niitehaTen,

'

Newcasde, IVne district,

" Wear district, Monkwear-

id6

month, " Do. Mnrton colliery.

Tees district.

Berwick npon Tweed.

Victoria colliery, Nitshill, Glasgow,

Xxxdl

North Wales, or Flintehiie,

South Wales, worked by adit leyels, chiefly,

Duffryn colliery, near Aberdare, shafts 94 yds, Irtland.

Kilkenny, anthracite district.

Limerick, culm beds, France,

Valenciennes, coal pits, upwards of Maximum of the collieries of France, 503 metres,

n.

Basin of Hardinghen,

Alais, in Gard,

XVUl.

Decize, in Nieyre, Belgium,

Mens district, Hainault proyinee.

n.

Charleroy, " "

Itl

Lie province, L'Esperance mme, at Liege, 450 metres. North Jmerica, United Staid, In this country, the short period in which the coal beds have been worked, has not occasioned the sinking of ver- tical shafts to any considerable depth.

The deepest anthracite mines of Pennaylvania are commonly worked by

sloping shafts, which follow the inch-

uaUon of the seams.

In numerous positions the coal can

be mined by adit level as in Wales,

several hundred feet below the moun-

tain summits.

Virginia, Richmond coal-field, the

Midlothian shaft, Heth*s pits. Wills,

Anderson's shaft, Cowrie pits, Britiih Jmeriea.

Nova Scotia, Pictou minest

1 340

Introduction.

Systems For Working Coal Mines.

We have deToted but small space to this subject ; not that we are inse sible of its extreme imporUnce, but because it was somewhat out of tl scope we had assigned to the present volume, and also because this kno ledge may be separately obtained through the medium of numerous pu lications by experienced persons; conveying that precise description information, for the benefit of those who are practically engaged in tl service, or are interested in this description of property. It would be i vidious, perhaps, to make mention of some of these, without including al

The Parliamentary Reports embody a great amount of practical inforn tion on the methods employed in excavating coal mines. The pages the Mining Journal, during many years, have been rich in valuable deta of the same kind : and among the most recent of its articles is one frc Mr. Dunn, " on the various systems practised in the conducting of ci mines, and of the methods employed in counteracting the effects of i flammable air."* This article has elicited criticism and additional (ai from others, equally paractical, through the same useful channel.

This subject is also treated on at some length, in Dr. Ure's Dictions of Mines, 6lc, The method of working the thick coal veins of Fran will be found in the present volume, at page 332, showing the practi adopted in the mine of Blanzy. The mode of working the main or t yard coal at Dudley, in England, is also described at page 286 and ill( trated by fig. 20.

At page 420, we have supplied a brief account of an extremely intere ing coal mine, that of Anzin, in the coal basin of Valenciennes. T coal measures are here, as at Mons in Belgium, covered by an enormc thickness of horizontal cretaceous and tertiary strata, through which it necessary to penetrate. These overlying beds are called by theFren miners "marts-terrains" or dead lands, and being highly charged w springs of water, require great skill and enormous expense in sinking 1 shaf\s through, until they reach the inclined coal seams, at the depth from two hundred and twenty to eight hundred feet beneath the surface.

In order to show more distinctly the position and arrangement for t ventilating fires at the bottom of the shafls, we introduce the follow! enlarged figure of those employed in the mines of Anzin.

Diagram showing the arrangement of a ventilating furnace, "foyer cTaerage."*

Mining Jonrnal, March 21 and 28, 1846. The reader will derive much interea iaforniatioo, retpecting coal mining operationa, from the lectarea orProfeaaor Anatead reported in the Loodon Miaiag Journal, 1847-S.

Ditroduction.

The annexed figure affords a remarkably instructive view of these circum nances, both in a mining and geological sense ; showing the revetement or impeniooa lining of the shaft, through the "dead formations;" the mode 0f woent and descent provided for the miners, and the position of the ventilating fire, near the bottom of the vertical shaft.

Shaft of the Coal Mine ofAnzin in France,

J

CUik, JUm$9Unt, , . . Cakmr9u9 SmrndtUu*. .

Chalk wUk SiUx.

String tfrimg. . .

Mum CIcy.

Cooi FormatUm.

Ixif IHTEODUCCJUH.

Il is obserred bj M. Bunt, that aa a genenl fiut, applicable to ill ? Mibods of expkfUaiim il b Deceasarj to be watchful that the pillan i softred to femain isolated, and for a loog time exposed to the aotioo of I ir, before pdliBg tbem down. Coal alters in the mines almost mi as at the surfiice; the pyrites, contained therein, decompose, and tbe bjA ide of iron, which is the result, gives to the coal a rusty stain which de| ciates its value. FinaUj, the schists disintegrate, effloresce, and selection of the coal becomes much more difficult It is necessary, tb fore, to proportion the excavation, by preparatory works, to the extract which may be required during the year.

Coal is, without contradiction, among the useful minerals, the one wl exploitation presents the greatest difficulties. In fact, it requires to be tracted in very large masses ; its primitive value, scarcely more consider; than the stones of the mines, is, nevertheless, sufficiently important thai should not abandon the smallest poesible amount of it. Left in the workings, it is lost forever; besides, the interior sources of water an deleterious gases incroach sometimes upon the immense subterrai surfaces that are exposed. It needs all the resources of science industry to render possible the working of certain basins, which would I remained in abandonment without the modern means of safety and ? ei tion and the progress of the steam engine.

Obstructions generally develope themselves in connection with surfaces fJaced under investigation. The engineer can then unfold, gressively, bis means of action in such a manner as to remain always m of the exploitation. But it is the sadden accidents which defy all hu

Erudence, which endanger the safety of the miners, and which, in i ours, destroy the fruits of long labour and of powerful capital, roost terrible of these accidents arise from the collection of water ai gas, which in nearly all of these basins, are found accumulated in an workings, of which tradition has scarcely preserved the remembr When a cutting approaches the vicinity of one of these accumulations, al of the pick or a blast of the mine suffices to put the works in communic with the danr; and when it manifests itself, there is neither time nor to resist it

To avoid these sad rencounters, the miners are preceded in the where danger is to be feared, by horizontal borings, sandages, some of straight, others divergent. These soundings, to furnish sufficient sec ought to be about thirty feet around ; if one of them reach a chasm, a work of excavation ought to cease as soon as it is practicable to asc< its nature.*

Ventilation Op Coal Mines.

On the causei which vitiaU the air in mines. — " The means of mai ing in the mines an atmosphere constantly respirable, and of preservir workmen from the accidents which result from deleterious gases, cons( one of the capital parts of the art of working, exploiter.

The causes which most frequently vitiate the air, are these : the n tion of the workmen ; the combustion of the lamps; the explosions oi der; the spontaneous decomposition of certain mineral substances, si the sulphurets which change into sulphates; the coal which heats and spontaneously; the corruption of the wood; the striking of the tools a

GMof appliqo, p. 416.

Xntroductiqn.

locks which contain ores of arsenic or mercury; in addition to which is the aloral disengagement of deleterious gases which penetrate the rocks, or are accomiilated in the cre?ices and natural cavities, and sometimes in old workings.

The gas thos produced or disengaged disposes itself in the drifts or gal- leries according to the order of density, as follows :

Specific graritj. Carbonated hydrogen, fire-damp, or inflammable gas, - 0.558 Azote or nitron gas, 0.976

Atmospheric air, ].ooo

Snlpboretted hydrogen, - - - 1.191

Caibonic acid, or iAoke-damp, ... 1.534

Anenical and mercurial vapours. The general precautions employed to get rid of these gases as soon as they are formed, in creating currents sufficiently active to effect their diffu- sion with the atinospheric air, and to draw the mixture out of the works before it is prejudicial, constitute the art of ventilation — aSrage, But these general means do not always suffice, and it is necessary to add special means to avoid, or at least to restrain the sudden disengagements, until the com- mon methods shall have restored the equilibrium. It is necessary, then, to be able to recognize the presence of each of these gases, in order to de- stroy them in time, and even, if possible, to diminish the causes of their production.

When the working of a mine, pit or gallery is commenced, if no particu- lar phenomenon facUitate the renewal of air, the respiration alone of the workmen and the combustion of their lamps, are not slow to modify it sen- sibly. In a workman respires an average of 800 litres 210 gallons of air per hoar, from which he absorbs, in part, oxygen, and substitutes for this oxygen, in the same space of time, 24 to 25 litres, a gallons of carbonic acid ; his lamp, operating nearly with the same intensity as his respiration produces as much carbonic acid, and augments besides the pro- portion of unconnected azote.

The carhamc add, or choke-damp, which is thus the most immediate and most general product of the workings in the mine, is recognized by its weight ; it always occupies the lowest parts of the excavations ; its inter- mixture with air manifests itself by the difficulty of combustion in the lamps, whose flame diminishes, in brilliancy in proportion as the acid in- creases, and ends by extinction, when the mixture attains to one-tenth.

Upon the miners, the carbonic acid manifests itself by an oppression which overwhelms them ; nevertheless, temperament and habit will greatly vary the proportions of the mixture which some men are able to breathe. Certain miners can yet work when the lights have ceased to burn ; there are even some whose acquired habit is such that they pass through, we are as- sared, galleries where there is more than twenty per cent of carbonic acid. Nevertheless, we shoald watch, on pain of the greatest dangers, that the lamps can everywhere bum with facility, and that the proportions never ex- ceed five per cent ; for this gas, which the French miners commonly cal mufetie, has the greatest tendency to isolate after generation, and will then cause an instantaneous asphyxia.

A single example will demonstrate this energetic action. The workmen of the Creozot mine descended one morning, the one following the other, in roution, into a shaft below, in which carbonic acid had accumulated during the night. Arrived at the level of the bain" at a few yards from

Xti INTRODUCnoi.

the bottom of the pit, the first fell, struck with asphyxia, without having time to utter a cry; the second followed immediately; the third saw his comrades prostrated on the ground, almost within reach of his arm; he stooped to seize them, and fell himself; another quickly shared the same fate, in his desire to sa?e the others, and the catastrophe would not have been arrested had not the fifth been an experienced master miner, who obliged those who followed him to reascend.

These accidents are often to be dreaded in coal mines, where sponta- neous disengagements are capable of producing in a little time large quan- tities of carbonic acid. In this case, it is necessary to have within reach ammonia, caustic potash, or lime, of which a solution must rapidly be made, to be thrown into the invaded workings, either by letting it fall from a watering pot, if it be in a shaA, or projected from a pump, if it is in a slope or a gallery. It is also necessary to fight incessantly against the production of the carbonic acid, and to prevent its accumulation by leaving no wood in a state of decomposition, and proscribing all combustion beyond that of the lamps necessary for lighting. Finally, it is essential to prevent the spoii taneous heating and firing which is so frequent in coal mines. When a fire is ascertained, it should immediately be circumscribed by impermeable walls, called corrois; walls constructed of rubbish with a mortar of clay.

The gases which result from the subterraneous decomposition of the coal, have, besides carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, azote, sulphurous acid, and the carburets of hydrogen, which have a special odour. Before the coal takes fire, the interior air is already heavy and heated by the gaseous disen- gagements which are the precursors of ignition. As quickly as these symp- toms are remarked, the coals already mined should be raised, and we should isolate from the surrounding air the region or the crevices which enclose the fire ; employing at this work the labourers whose organization is known to be the best adapted to support the deleterious influence of these gases.

Azote, or nitrogen gas, is much less to be dreaded than the carbonic acid ; because its action upon the animal economy is less energetic ; besides, its production can only take place by the absorption of oxygen from the air, and it does not naturally exist in the fissures or cavities of the rocks. It has, then, no spontaneous disengagement ; but if we penetrate into the works which have been a long time abandoned, and where there has been combustion, the azote will occupy, in consequence of its lightness, the higher parts of the excavations, while the carbonic acid will occupy the lower parts ; the respirable air forming the intermediate zone. Azote is found isolated in certain mines, where there exist pyrites in a state of de- composition; the sulphurets changing into sulphates, absorb the oxygen and isolate the azote ; the sulphuret of iron is, in this respect, the mosi active agent.

Azote manifests itself by the red colour of the flame of the lamps, which ends by extinction ; it renders respiration difficult, produces a heaviness of the head, and a hissing or singing in the ears, which seems to indicate a mode of action different from that of carbonic acid.

The ordinary lamp of the miner is extinguished when the air contains no more than 15 per cent, of oxygen : [the atmospheric air is composed of 21 per cent, of oxygen and 79 per cent, of azote,] it is also at this propor- tion of 85 per cent, of azote that asphyxia or suffocation is caused.

Proi(carbonated hydrogen, or inflammable air, designated by the French and Belgian miners under the name of grisou, is of all the gases the moal dangerous ; that which occasions the greatest number of accidents, not by asphyxia, which it can nevertheless produce when it is not mixed with at

INTRODUCnOK. ]xfii

least twice its fdameof air,but for its property of igniting when in contact with lighted flames, and of exploding when it is mixed, in certain propor- tioiis, with atmospheric air.

This gas is frequent in nature, and often designated under the denomina- tion of wuursk gas, because it disengages from the stagnant waters which retain regetabJe matters in decomposition. Some muddy volcanoes called salses, emit it in large quantities; it also penetrates certain rocks, such as the coal series and the saliferous strata, where it is accumulated and con- densed in catems and natural vacancies ; so that by soundings or borings its true soorces can often be determined. There even exist natural or arti- ficial sooroesy which can be lighted and which have persistance enough to be brooghl into useful service.

The grisou is more abundant in the fat and friable coals, than in the dry and meagre coals; it particularly disengages itself in the crushed places, ibmdtmaUs in the recent stalls whose surfaces are laid bare, and that so vigorously as often to decrepitate small scales of coal and produce a slight rustling noise. The fissures or fractures of the coal, and even the clefts oi the roof or the floor, give sometimes outlets to sovfflards or jets of gas.

The action of this gas upon the flame of the lamps is the most certain guide in ascertaining its presence and proportion. The flame dilates, elongates, and takes a bluish tint, which can readily be distinguished by placing the hand between the and the flame, so that only the top of it can be seen. As soon as the proportion is equal to a twelfth part of the ambient air, the mixture is explosive, and if a lamp be carried, it will pro- duce a detonation proportionate to the volume of the mixture. When, therefore, a miner perceives at the top of the flame of his lamp the bluish nimbus which decides the presence of the fire-damp, he ought to retire either holding his light very low or even to extinguish it.

The eiqieriroents conducted by Sir H. Davy show that the most violent explosions uke place when a volume of proto-carbonated hydrogen gas is mixed with seven or eight volumes of atmospheric air.

The chemical effects of an explosion are, the direct production of the vapours of water and carbonic acid and the separation of azote. The physical effects are, a violent dilatation of gas and of the surrounding air, followed by a reaction through contraction. The workmen who are ex- posed to this explosive atmosphere are burned, and the fire is even capable of communicating to the wood work or to the coal ; the wind produced by the expansion is so great that, even at considerable distances from the site of explosion, the labourers are thrown down, or projected against the sides of the excavations ; the walls, the timbering, are shaken and broken ; and crushing, or falling down, is produced. These destructive effects can be propagated even at the mouths of the pits, from which are projected frag- ments of wood and rocks accompanied by a thick tempest of coal in the form of dust.

The evil rests not there ; considerable quantities of carbonic acid and azote, produced by the combustion of the gas, become stationary in the works, and cause those who have escaped the immediate action of the ex- plosion to perish by suffocation. The ventilating currents, suddenly arrested by this perturbation, are now much more difficult to re-establish, because the doors which served to regulate them are partly destroyed ; the fires are extinguished, and often, even the machines fixed at the mouths of the shafts, to regulate the currents, are damaged and displaced, to such an extent that it becomes impossible to convey any help to the bottom of the works.

[Xfiii INTRODUCTION.

Some examples will give a jast conception of the intensity of these sions and of their effects.

In a gallery of a coal mine of Saarbruck, in Rhenish Prussia, the expl si?e air took fire on the arrival of a miner carrying a common lamp. Ser dykes or walls of bricks bailt in the lateral works and at twenty feet ffc the gallery, forming with them sharp angles, in such a manner that tb could not be struck by the dilatation of the air in the direction of the plosion, but only by contraction, were nevertheless thrown down. We i fer from tlie description that these walls fell inwards ; that is, towards i point of explosion. At nine hundred feet from the explosion timbei eight inches diameter were broken ; a door for rentilation was torn op, i violent effects of the same nature were manifested even at near 2000 feet i tance.

In a mine of Schaumbnrg, the firelamp, which filled a gallery anr shall of 1000 cubic yards in capacity, took fire in 1699. Stones wh weighed more than a ton, serving as the foumlation of a hydraulic mach of the weight of twelve tons, were displaced, notwithstanding the wooden props which consolidated them against the direction of the ejL\ sion and which were themselves broken. In another mine of the si principality, the coal was set on fire, and this coal was coked, by that cai even to the depth of more than a yard.

The explosion, coup of the minef Esperance, which occurre Liege, in June, 1838, does not seem to have produced such fatal effecti analogous phenomena have elsewhere done. The fire being propagi without explosion, to the right and lefl of a working, by the effect of a fc in the mine, produced an explosion in a distant working. Sixty-nine mil were killed. In the place of explosion they were burned and brokeo that where the fire had first taken place all the corpses were arranged i their heads directed towards the very point where the combustion orig ted ; these unfortunate people having evidently sought to protect themse thus against the gas which burned behind them.* In the other worki the miners had only perished by asphyxia.

The relation of these accidents suffices to indicate the general precaot which should be taken. Thus, it is essential to place the lamps only the lowest parts of the excavations; to avoid all methods of working w ascend without outlets ; to work, if possible, by descending, rather thai ascending, and to redouble the usual precautions on entering into ex< tions aHer an interruption of the work. A great number of accidents taken place, for example, on Monday mornings, when the miners dea after having quitted the mine on Sunday.

M . Bischof reports that having visited a gallery which had been aband for several days, he found the gases liquated to such an extent that were inflammable in every part of the area ; detonating in the middle tion, while the almost pure atmospheric air filled the lower part.

It is very dangerous to allow these liquations to be produced ; it is n sary that the current of air be sufficiently active to produce immediate! diffusion of the gas in the air and its withdrawal out of the mine befor mixture has become explosive. But, notwithstanding the precautioi ventilation — oarage — many mines would be completely unworkable if had not been found the special means of guarding them from the fire dai

1% it not more probable that these bodies were instantaneously thrown into thispo by the great reaction, the collapsing of the air towards the focus or Tacuam caused explosion f— T.

mTBODUCTIOV. Ixis;

griamu The coal bedi, most dangerous, are those which are the most valu- able for their good qualities; science and industry have therefore beea called on to seek the means of combatting the effects of the grisou, and we proceed to ezpoee those which have been successively employed.

MEANS TO DESTROY OR CHECK THE FIRE-DAMP OR 6RIS0U IN SUB- TERRANEAN WORKS.

The first idea which presented itself to the explorers was to disembarrass themselves of the gas by allowing the liquation to establish itself and by seitiDg il on firei eo as to burn it, in the absence of the miners. For this purpose, a workman, clothed in vestments of moistened leather, his visage protected by a mask with spectacles of glass, advanced, crawling on his belly, in the gallwies where the fire damp was known to exist, and hold- ing forward a long pole, at the end of which was a lighted torch; he aoonded thus the irregularities of the roof, the front of the excavations, and set fire to the grisous. This method, which has been employed, within twenty years, in the basin of the Loire, and even occasionally at the present day, in some of the EInglish fiery collieries, has numerous inconveniences. The workmen, whom they called penitcntSg were exposed to dangers to such an extent, that a great number perished. When the gas, instead of being simply inflammable, was detonating, the solidity of the mine was constantly compromised by the explosions ; the fire attacked the coal and the timbers ; the gases, which resulted from the combustion, became stationary in the works, and menaced the workmen with asphyxia; at length it became necessary, in certain mines, to repeat even three or four times a day, this pehloos operation, and yet it in no respect obviated the rapid disengagements which caused these numerous accidents. This method was equally in use in the English collieries ; only the penitent or fireman, instead of carrying the fire himself, caused it to be moved by means of a slider placed over a line of poles connected together, and directed by a system of pullies and cords. The danger was thus diminished for the fireman, who retired into a niche formed in a neighbouring gallery; but in the mean while many were still overtaken, and, bides, all the other inconveniences remained.

The method called the eternal lamps was evidently better. It consisted in placing towards the top of the excavation, and in all the points where the fire-damp collected, lamps constantly lighted, which burned the grisou as fast as it was produced ; the danger was diminished in a considerable degree, because there could not be formed such large accumulations of inflammable or detonating gas. This mode of proceeding was, however, renounced in a great number of mines, on account of the production of carbonic acid and of azote; a production the more sensitive, since, to facilitate the liquation of the gases, the air ought not to be ?ery strongly agitated.

At length it was devised to profit by the property possessed by platina in sponge to facilitate the combustion of the hydrogen with which it brought in contact, and pellets, composed of one part of platina and two parts of clay, were made, and were placed near the points at which the grisou or fire-damp concentrated. But all these efforts, based upon the incited com- bustion of the inflammable gas, proved to be only dangerous and incomplete palliatives, which substituted for a great peril a series of other dangers, less imminent, doubtless, but equally distressing.

From that time all the well disposed continued to search for processes based upon another principle. Two only could conduct to a good result :

)xx DfTRODUCnOlC.

1. The withdrawal of the gases out of the mine; 2. a mode of lighting d ferent firom that which was in use, and which would suffice for the purpoi of the miner without compromising his safety.

The principle of withdrawing — enirmnement-of the gases by a rap ventilation is, without contradiction, that which was the most natural conceive ; because it was already applied to all the other deleterious gasi Dr. Vhrle proposed at first to effect the decanting of the gases by roakt the exca?ations (stalls? communicate by ascending passages with a galli embracing all the works, and uniting with an ascending shaft But tl project, otherwise impracticable,, offered a remedy for only a part of thi accidents ; the execution alone of the necessary works could not have be made without the greatest danger, if these works had been undertaken in I coal ; while, in the rocks of the roof, the expenses would have rendered tht impracticable. But a good ventilation alone could not suffice to place i miners in security; it was an excellent auxiliary means, but it always I unsolved this important problem : the prevention of the inflammation of i gases which disengage themsehes from the surfaces of the stalls.

The lighting alone could conduct to the solution of this problem, i numerous attempts had been made, under this head, when Davy discovei the safety-lamp. Before him, they had operated with a small number lights, placed in the lowest positions, and at a distance from the stalls ; workmen kept these lamps in view, and when the blue nimbus, the indi cation of hydrogen, began to show itself, they extinguished them or wi drew, covering them with their hats. They made use of, also, in the m infected mines, various phosphorescent matters, and particularly a mixti of ffour and lime formed from oyster shells, called Canton phosphora although the uncertain and ephemeral light which these materials prodoc was but a very feeble resource. At length it was observed that the proton bonated hydrogen was somewhat difficult of ignition, and that the red li was instifficient to accomplish it ; thus it was practicable to carry a red en or a red hot iron into the fire-damp without inflaming it, the white li alone having the necessary temperature. They profited by this discov by lighting the stalls by means of a wheel of steel, which was made to t against a fragment of flint : a workman was detailed to this service, and sparks, which were thus produced in a continuous manner, sufficed to li the miners. It happened, occasionally, that these sparks set fire to the , sou ; but this discovery, imperfect as it was, was not the less a real benel

Such was the state of the question, when Davy commenced the serie experiments which conducted him to the object in view. Many mines ! been abandoned notwithstanding the palliati?es in use, and a numbei those which were maintained in activity, only produced coal at the pric< the lives of a great number of men. Davy discovered that the gas, contaii in a vase, which only communicated with the exterior by long and strai tubes, could not be set on fire ; that the flame was difficult of transmisi in proportion as the tubes were reduced, and that, consequently, the n their diameters were reduced, the more their lengths might he shorter He thus arrived at the proof that a plate of thin metal, pierced with h of about one hundred in an inch, did not communicate fire to the exte gas, although the interior was charged with lighted gas ; the cooling produ by the gas in this small passage sufficed to reduce the temperature of white heat of the interior down to the red heat of the exterior, and inflammation could not be communicated. Such was the series of ic

HTTRODUCTIOlf.

which eoDdacted Davy to sarround the flame of the lamps with an envelope of metallic gaaze, aod thus to construct the safety-lamp.

Ilocal Ventilation.

In the sinking of a shaft the work would soon be stopped by the want of air, were it not K>r the plan of dividing its total section into two unequal parts, by means of a partition of planks, the joints of which are hermetically ckised with moss, dtc. The smallest compartment is reserved for the ladders ; and a cunent of air is established between these two compartments in the manner of an excavation having two orifices. This movement is sometimes facilitated by carrying up the level of the orifice of the small compartment, by means of |4anks, built up as a chimney.

The excavation of a long gallery or tunnel would become impossible, through the want of air, if a spontaneous ventilation were not produced by similar means. Thus, there are directed from the surface of the ground, towards the gallery, troughs which are arranged similarly to the works which have two orifices of different levels and unequal sections. At other times they establish npon the gangways a floor for carriages [roulage] ; reserving the lower part of the gallery beneath for draining and for a current of air, which enters by the lower part and returns by the principal or upper section.

If this precaution do not suffice, the current may be rendered more active by means of a small shaft disposed in such a way as to accelerate the circu- lation during all the working time. For this purpose, two doors are placed at the entrance of the gallery, so that one of the two shall always remain closed daring the work, and the air is forced to leave by the shafts. This disposition is equivalent to the case of an excavation having two orifices of different levels.

We have translated freely from the excellent work of M. Burat, already frequently quoted, most of the matter which is comprised in the preceding pages in relation to the deleterious gases which are constantly generated in coal mines, and on the means resorted to for ventilating them. Our work would be incomplete, without adverting to a subject so immediately nected with the mining of coal, and with the safety of the operators, whose lives are hourly perilled, who are exposed to accidents inseparable from its extraction, and peculiarly attendant on this branch of mining economy.

Ventilation Of Fiery Collieries.

There have been numerous suggestions on the ventilation of those coal mines which are subject to explosions; among others we may mention the published views of Mr. Dunn of Newcastle. We hope to be pardoned here for remarking that it is disadvantageous to an important practical science, and especially embarrassing to inquirers into these subjects, that the valuable information conveyed by the most capable English authorities, is so compounded of absolute technicalities, for the most part also entirely local and unscientific, as to be almost untranslateable. This is, perhaps, the main cause why the English mining processes, from Cornwall to Scot- land, varying in their progress through every district, continue to be so little comprehended elsewhere.

Mr. Dunn, at page 341 of Volume X., of the London Mining Journal, furnishes a sketch of the general principles of ventilating the collieries in Northumberland, which are moderately troubled with inflammable air. At

Bunt Gologie appliqufee, 1846, p. 472.

)xxit OfTEOIHJCnON.

page 405 of the same volume, he follows up the first communication description of the more elaborate process, as practised' in Northumberlai of ventilating fiery collieries. We can do little more here than refer I reader to those articles, and to the instructive diagrams which accompe them. Our description would be unintelligible without the elaborate draugl which are necessary to elucidate the whole process.

The object aimed at by this system is by one series of channels to rain through every part of a mine, currents of respirable air, while by anoll series to withdraw from it and to discharge at the surface the impure and inflammable or deleterious gases.

Mr. Dunn observes, that until late years the said current of impure was kept as much as possible together or united ; and it was no uncomn circumstance to have it travel twenty or thirty miles before reaching the ' cast pit, and then loaded with gases, which steamed from the candle, i even the furnace fire, in thick vapours and flakes of blue flame, alarmia visible to the naked eye. But, in modern practice, these currerts of air divided and subdivided in countless branches, so as to prevent the air wh becomes adulterated in one quarter, from spreadinff the contagioB ami the workmen of another. They are conducted through passages eif adopted for the purpose, or provided by anticipation in the laying out of works. To guurd against the dangerous influx of jp during the work of pillars, and in order to obviate the danger at the mrnace, a dumb di is provided, sloping up into the shaft some fathoms above the furnace which point the inflammable air effects a junction with the general air of

and is earned upwards in safety, so that the furnace may be blazing ow with good and secure air, and a perfectly inflammable portion maj coming in from above. (See the diagram, page Ixii.)

The fall of the barometer is a sure presage of increasing discharg inflammable gas ; for when the baromet stands steadily,— say at 29-— the pressure is uniform, nothing exudes but the ordinary " makings" of mine : — but when a sudden iall of the barometer portends a lighteninj atmosphere, and consequently a change in the counterpoising pressure the orifices whence the gas escapes, or upon the main body accumulate the wastes, then it is that extraordinary eruptions take place,— -enoug overpower and adulterate even the main current of air, and consequenil subject the mine to explosion.

Blowers'' are sometimes met with in the coal, but more generally in stone, and contiguous to the fissures of dykes. They originate in the d or crevices and other receptacles, which, being filled with inflammabli under high compression, are discharged momentarily, and without prev warning. They are often known to endure for many years; altho generally, they decline as the supply of pent-up gas is exhausted. Ji very calamitous events have arisen from the miners unexpectedly cor ID contact with these blowers; for the discharge is so sudden that the gei air-course, although previously safe and satisfactory, becomes, in the co of a few minutes a mass of inflammability, and that without time bein| lowed to notify the workmen or to prevent an explosion.

In many collieries, but especially those of the north of England, an is going on whereby cavities are formed in the roofs of old worked se by a portion of the roof giving way, and forming a dome or inverted dron. These cavities form dangerous receptacles or reservoirs in whicl carburetted hydrogen collects in large quantities, and renders the i

iNTRODucncnf. hriii

liable to frequent eiploaon, especially during periods of the change of denaty in the atmoihere. These cavities are locally termed goavesJ*

In 1839 was appointed a committee, called the South Shields Com- mittee/' immediately after the explosion of the Hilda pit, South Shields, in which fifty-two lines were lost. The report of this committee wasrst pub- lished in 1843, and it has been affirmed that it may with every propriety, be extolled as a monument of ability and perseverance.! We make a few extracts.

SafdUf Xms.— Such is the immense abundance of /reov in most of the northern mines, that to obtain a natural light, nothing more is necessary than to bore a small hole in the coal seam, insert a tube, and a perpetual flame may be obtained. From the report, it appears that in twenty years, up- wards of 680 miners were destroyed by this dreadful mean9, in the district of the Tyne and Wear alone. The various kinds of safety lamps are inves- tigated, and the reporters give, as their opinion, that the lamps most to be relied upon in mines charged with the destructive gas, are those on the principle of Clanny in England, and Mueseler in Belgium. Even with these the utmost attention must be always paid to their condition ; the gauze examined daily, and every part of their construction ascertained to be per- fect; the workmen to be warned never to continue working in an inflamma- ble atmosphere, with an overheated lamp; and that, instead of impressing them with the idea that they are perfectly safe instruments, they should be con- vinced that a reliance on lamps is fatal error, and that no mere safety lamp, however ingenious, is, of itself, sufficient to secure a fiery mine from ex- plosion.

Fenit/ofioii,— -When it is considered that the explosions are always from a Tery limited portion of the mine, and that the air has commonly not a motion of more than three-fourths of a mile per hour, in the greatest part of the mine it is matter of surprise that these lamentable occurrences, instead of being occasional, are not incessant and overwhelming. living thus al- ways on the verge of destruction, it has excited, among the officers and men

Glouary of local miDing phrates, employed in the Noithamberltnd collieries, aied by Mr. M. Dano, in the Mining Jonmal, 1840.

Soard*— principal working places, five yards wide.

Drifts — leading places, (galleries) in the direction of the boards.

Headway — the coarse of passages at right angles to the boards.

Winning headway9-preiniOTy leading places, two yards wide.

Stenting — the holings between the winning headways.

RolUy-ways or rotf>tray*— main horse-roads to the distant workings, six feet high.

Pillar — the whole coal left daring the first working.

Stopfing9 — brick wallings to force the air to the parts required.

Watte--he mine once worked over, and pillars standing*

Hjfdrogen or ir\fiammaJbie gas — lighter than common air.

Choke damp or carbonic acid gas — heavier than common air.

Brattice — temporary partitions of slit deal, to ventilate the leadinjz places.

Blowers — orifices in coal or stone, leading a constant stream of infiammable gas, attended with a great noise— hence the derivation of the name.

Goaf— the cavities which result from the falling down of portions of the roof, and in which fire damp accumulates.

Creep — where the pillars or rill give way, under the sa perinea mbent strata.

Air courses — principal passages, [thirty feet area] along which the air is conveyed, and in which the sUndard quantity is taken to be upwards of two thousand cubic feet per ninate.

£ra//ieef— wooden partitions to direct the currents of air in the system of ventilation.

Sntake drtyT— the passage through which the current of pure air circulates.

Return drift — that by which the impure air is withdrawn.

drift — for the passage of the deleterious gases.

XJpcoMt pU—yhe shaft by which the foul air ascends, and is occupied by the ventilating furnace.

Anmcotf ptt— .(hat by which the atmospheric air deecendf into tli workings.

t Mining Joonul, Fobmtry, 1843.

Ini? INTRODUCTION.

in the mines, a continaal watchfolneas and knowledge of dangerous symp- toms that alone enable them to proceed with any degree of safety in npih a situation, but in which, on the smallest error, or a contingency unforeseen, as a boy at sleep or at play, a heated lamp, a broken wire, a sudden erupt ioa of gas, or change in the wind, or a sudden pressure of the atmospheric whether from the falling of parts of the roof or otherwise, the bounds ci safety can no longer be preserved ; but tremblingly alive to their dangaff they are plunged, unresisting victims into the abyss.

In regard to indications by means of instruments, the report states thU the combined indications of the barometer, thermometer and wind, teH the state of a mine with the greatest nicety. When the barometer indioatei a fall, the thermometer a rise, and the wind blows from the E. S. E, or souths an ordinary fiery colliery wilF be certain to pass rapidly into a state of greH danger.

Ventilation Of Collieries, In Scotland And The North Of

England.

A report was issued, in 1847, by Mr. Tremenheere, the commissiona appointed under the provisions of the act of the 5 and 6 of Victoria, in reto tion to the mining population of Scotland and the north of England. Thk and other previous reports have formed the subject of an able article in thf North British Review, for November, 1847. We take the liberty of quottii| somewhat irregularly, the substance of a portion of that article.

"Although some of the principal collieries in Scotland are pretty wd ventilated, yet it must be admitted that, taken as a whole, the arrangement connected with ventilation ift Scotland are, as compared with England, m very imperfect state. Happily, our mines are almost entirely free from tin dangerous element which so frequently produces such awful havoc an devastation to our neighbours in the south. In this respect, therefore, os necessities have not required us to be so particular in carrying fresh air I the mines. Hitherto, most of the mining operations in Scotland have bee situated within a reasonable distance from the surface, and the ease wit which one pit could be sunk, to relieve the workings of another, supersede the necessity for great outlay in connection with ventilation, and to son extent caused it to be overlooked, and a matter of indifference. In some the old mining districts, the workings are now extending to a great dept and the method of ventilation is assuming the most important aspect, and conducted on the most improved principles; but at the small country lieries, when sinking a new pit, little preparation is made, even now, to ha it properly ventilated.

Accordingly, for several weeks — some seasons, even months, during continuance of warm weather in summer, the colliers at such places a either partially or altogetlier idle ; the extent of their work being regulat by the state of the atmosphere. The irregularities occasioned by this ii perfect ventilation tell very materially both on the profits of the coal masl and the incomes of the men, and ultimately on the price of coal in t market, besides doing terrible injury to the health of the people employe by causing them to breathe in an impure atmosphere. The persons charge of such works have generally not only a limited education, but sess very limited means of observation ; and to them the advice of a pt perly qualified inspector will be an incalculable boon.

" In respect of Scotland, therefore, the way for an inspector is perfeo

HfTRODUCTiQZr. Ixxr

clear, and his appcuDtment may be the means of doing much good in other departments as well as that of ventilation. But what shall we 'say of Eng- landy the scene of so many terrible calamities ? That which has baffled the ingenniqr and s&ill of the most talented and accomplished coal-viewers that the worid ever saw, such as the late Mr. Buddie, and has proved the ingenioos scientific theory of Messrs. Faraday and Lyell to be impracticable, is Dd likely to be controlled by a government inspector of mines. We have often felto{ressed and o?erpowered at the thought, that the mightiest efforts of man could not prevent these awful explosions, which cause such a sacrifice of human life. If it were possible to get at the immediate cause, some hope might be entertained of at least mitigating the evil ; but from the scene of those accidents no one has ever letumed to tell the truth.

" The system of ventil&uon pursued at the collieries in Northumberland and Durham, where most of these explosions occur, is of the most perfect and complete kind, and entirely in accordance with the principles of scien- tific truth. But, however sound the principles on which the ventilation is conducted, practice declares that there is a limit to the distance to which atmospheric air can be conveyed with safety underground, from the im- purities it mixes with on its way ; and however mudi the question may be avoided, by those who have capital invested in the deep collieries, to this it must come at last, — more openings must be made from the surface ; more pits must be sunk. The question must be brought to this practical issue, — whether is capital or human life to be sacrificed ? and when it does appear in this shape before the British Parliament, we do not fear the result

It is stated by Messrs. Faraday and Lyell, in their report on the explo- mon which occurred at the Haswell collieries in 1844, that when attending the late inquest, we were much struck with the Tact, that more than half of the pitmen who gave evidence, were unable to write, or even to sign their names as witnesses.'

It is a well ascertained fact, that accidents from fire damp have gene- rally occurred with a low barometer ; and when we consider that a fall to a very small extent will render a place, which it was safe to work in at night, perfectly unsafe and dangerous in the morning, we cannot help feeling that there is something grievously wrong in allowing men, who cannot write their names, to have any thing to do with ventilation at all "

MfiDICAL TREATMENT AFTER EXPLOSION.

The report of the South Shields committee, previously referred to, goes at considerable length into an explanation of the condition in which miners meet their death by explosions ; the proportionate quantities of the gases, which create them, and the nature of the after'damp.

This after-damp is formed of

8 parts of nitrogen, having a specific gravity of 0.9722.

2 parts of aqueous vapour.

1 part of carbonic acid gas, specific gravity, 1.5277.

The latter takes its place towards the bottom of the passages, and, pro- bably, extends little more than six inches high. Hence it is inferred that when the men, after explosion, if not struck down at once by it, attempt to lea? e the mine through an atmosphere of after-damp, they are at first ren- dered partially insensible by the nitrogen, which has been substituted for atmospheric air, and then, falling, they come in contact with a still more deleterious gas, a positive poison, [the carbonic acid gas], which having

Ixxn INTRODUCTIQN.

inhaled (o a small extent, thej pass rapidly into a state of asphyxia, owii to the state*to which their systems have been previously reduced.

Two practical inferences are thus deduced —

1 . Where carbonic acid gas is abundant, the lights are instaotaneooi extinguished, and bum with a dull red fiame as they approach it; on tiM indications the miner is warned to retire, as here jCanie is extinguUhid Ufe; but when there is a large admixture of nitrogen, the lamp contiat to burn, as in sulphuretted hydrogen, even when the miner has been stn down — life in this case exiingtdsked before flame,

2d. That asphyxia, arising from nitrogen, and completed by carbonic m gas, might probably indicate a different system of medical treatment fei that hitherto pursued. The symptoms of asphyxia,— always easy to J known, — are the sudden cessation of respiration ; of the pulsations of j heart, and of the action of all sensitive functions ; the countenanofti swollen, and marked with reddish spots ; the eyes become protruded, 4 features decomposed, and the face often livid. ';

It is necessary to succour an asphyxed person with the utmost prooH tude, and to continue the remedies with perseverance, until it is certain II life is completely extinguished. The following general remedies should adopted : immediate removal into fresh air ; undress and dash the body m cold water ; endeavour to make the patient swallow water slightly acidulai with vinegar; clysters of two4hirds water and one-third vinegar, to bei lowed by others of a strong solution of common salt, or of senna and eni salts ; introduce air into the lungs by blowing with a nozzle of a hello into one of the nostrils, and compressing the other with the finger. Sbo these means not produce the desired effect, and the body sUll retaia natural warmth, recourse 'must be had to blood-letting, the necesait] which will be clearly indicated by the red face, swollen lips, and eyes i tniding. If blood fails to flow from the jugular vein, an attempt shouU made on the foot ; the last effi>rt which can be made is to make an opei in the trachea, and introduce air to the lungs by means of a small pipe a pair of bellows. These various remedies should be applied with greatest promptness. The absence of the beating of the pulse, and want of respiration are not certain signs of death, nor should all be reaai as dead whose breath or pulmonary transpiration does not bedim the bri ness of glass ; nor those whose members appear stiff and insensible, ffiving these brief instructions, the committee hope that some of them be judiciously practised, instead of the injurious plans sometimes ado] until the arrival of a medical practitioner, who will thus find the pa prepared, uninjured, for his professional skill, and his objectfacilitat€>d| obstructed, by the previous treatment he has received.

Drainage Of Coal Mines.

In the mines which are situated in hilly or mountainous countries, generally easy to intersect the beds by galleries which commence a lower part of some valleys ; these galleries furnish a natural outlet fo waters of all the works which are above their level, and on this accour called in France gaUries (Tecaulement, or drainage galleries ; in Eng Wales and the United States, adits, or adit and occasionally and tunnels : but the word adit is the most distinctive of its objec uses.

The advantages of these adits are numerous, and have of\en decide undertaking of long and expensive works.

INTRODUCTION. Ixxfii

In fact, ihej are not only preferable to mechanicaJ means of drainage, because when once made they require very little management or attention, bat in giving isaue to the upper waters, they also create a moving power which can employed in the service of extraction, or in the draining of the lower works; finally, they furnish the most economical means for the other aervioes of the mine, such as the forced ventilation, or the extraction of the aobatancea mined.

An adit level can often be so arranged as to serve, at the same time, the woriung of several veins. On account of all these united advantages, there has been undertaken in the district of Schemnitz, in Hungary, a gallery of 20,000 yards in length, or about 11 miles, designed for the use of the principal mines of the district, under the double service of draining the waters, of the carriage or gangway, and the creation of mechanical powers; it has been, besides, directed with a view to explore the ground for the dis- covery of new veins. At the Hartz, the great " galerie d'coulement" of the mines of Clanstbal, which is 13fi00 yards in length, serves equally for a great number of mines, in different branches of the service. The use of these galleries is common in the countries where the mines are numerous and near together.

In relation to pumps, and the varieties of hydraulic machines employed in mines, for the purposes of drainage, we must refer to the various autho- rities who have written either in England or on the continent of Europe on this important subject, and which, moreover, would require the aid of nu- merous illustrations to render any description intelligible.

At page 445 of the present work is an account of the machine for drain- ing the lignite mines of Rocher-Bleu, Bouches-d&-Rh6ne, in France.

In the third volume of the Mining Review, p. 302, our readers will find a description of the pumps used in the deep mines of Cornwall, by Mr. John Taylor. The machinery brought to such perfection, and operating with so much economy and simplicity, is celebrated throughout the world. At the period of this communication, the steam engines of the district per- formed the work of 44,000 horses.

Tracing Of Coal Beds In The Anthracite Districts Op Pennsylvania.

In these basins, where the outcrops of the coal seams almost always present themselves at a very high angle, they are in general readily traced, by the subordinate depressions which may be observed ranging longitudi- nally along the sloping sides of the mountain ridges; pursuing, of course, the direction or .strike of the strata. These depressions are obviously formed by the removal of the decomposable and so(\ materials of the coal seams ; tliat is to say, the shales, the under-clay, and the coal itself, and they are conspicuously in contrast with the rocky siliceous beds which flank them, and which, being composed of less destructible materials, have longer resisted the atmospheric agencies. Thus, in numberless instances, these longitudinal grooves afford an unerring clue to the subjacent beds of anthra- cite. In the great bituminous coal region of the Allegheny mountains, where the strata closely approximate to a horizontal state, such guides as those we have mentioned can, of course, have no existence, and we have there to seek for other phenomena which may indicate the presence of coal. Happily these arc so abundant, that no coal region in the world, probably, presents more ready facilities for tlie ascertainment of what lies at so insig- nificant a depth beneath the surface.

Izxfiii

HfTBODUCTION.

To return to the more disturbed region which is occupied by anthracii in Pennsylfania. The disposition of the outcrops, to which we have allude materially influences the physical features of these coal districts, and mod fies the contour of the surface by a numerous succession of terraces, 8t0|i or benches, on the inner slopes of the mountains, facing the centres of tl basins. Those who have ascended, from either side, the long paraUel mofi tains which border the southern coal region of Schuylkill county, to tl height of 1350 feet abo? e the Susquehanna river, and more than 1650 ft above tide-water level, need not to be reminded of these characteristic d tails.

Between the external margins of the principal coal basins of Peonff vania, subordinate axes of elevation are of frequent occurrence. Even ll undulations of the surface between these limits are all attributable to minor axes, and correspond, in great measure, with the local inclination the upheaved stratification beneath. These undulations of groups of oc seams, so imporUmt to the proprietor, yet whose existence, until of ll years, was scarcely suspected, are daily becoming more familiar to 00, the progress of development and practical investigation gradually advanci

The long narrow troughs, of which there are so many in central Pea sylvan ia, owe their contour to parallel synclinal axes, which present higl inclined or vertical coal beds ; and occasionally even exhibit the strata one of their sides tilted or leaning over so much that their inclination I comes almost parallel to, or conformable with, those of the opposite si the basin.

In proportion as the anthracite basins become wider, their interior is t more disturbed or broken by undulations, consisting of one, two or thi subordinate axes, each maintaining itself for a space as a parallel inferi ridge, and thus interrupting the general troughlike arrangement of I stratification. It is to be expected that the carboniferous beds in t vicinity of the centres of these synclinal axes are liable to be too ma crushed to permit an advantageous working of their contents.

The southern anthracite region, in particular, furnishes numerous stances of the modified arrangement of which we speak, and we rai| introduce several illustrations from our own observation, which would exc plify the extent of the forces to which the anthracite country has subjected, in the area between the Lehigh and the Susquehanna.

Beginning near the eastern extremity, at Nesquehoning, we see the 01 nary basin-form arrangement modified by an upheaving or saddle in centre, it being here scarcely one mile in width.

Next westward is a section in the meridian of the Mauch Chunk sural mines, where the basin has now expanded to almost double the breadth ti it occupied at Nesquehoning. The structure of the interior is now o siderably complicatCKl, and the enlarged breadth allows of a triplication least of the coal series. So confused is its aspect at this point that we by no means certain that our section embraces all the details.

IHTOODUCnOK.

Ixzix

Fortier westward we hafe the very interesting and magnificent trans- verse section forined by the stream of the Little Schuylkill, at Tamaqua, where the basin has again contracted to the simple synclinal axis, of scarcely one mile in breadth.

Oor figure exhibits this section with the accuracy resulting from an origi- nal sorvejy and it is the more memorable from the presence of a par- ticolar seam in the Sharp Mountain, which is worked to the breadth or thickness of no less than seventy feet.

At Poltsville, the saime region has widened to the extent of about five nilesy aficMrding, by the repetition of the coal beds, a vast industrial area ; and at the head waters of the Swatara river there is now a breadth of no less than six miles. In the Pinegrove coal district we have at least three miles of breadth. Thus we perceive that in propotioti to the space or breadth between the geological margins of the Schuylkill coal-field, so is the fre- quency of the undulations, the number of anticlinal elevations or axes, and the consequent repetitions of the same series of coal seams.

Westward of the Swalara or Pinegrove coal region, it bifurcates and stretches, with ftninished breadth, for many miles towards the Susquehanna. The geological ' structure of these two forks is illustrated bjT. the above diagram.

Section thoiting the North and South Forki qf the Southern Coal Region, Pa.

] I ll U M II Id

Remsck Oap, SeaZ tkr§e mUee te annek. Bear Fall9f C/ap.

The figure represents a cross section, in a north and south direction, of a part of the coal region near the western boundary of Schuylkill county, cross- ing both the forks of that basin. It shows, in the first place, at A, the simple synclinal axis which forms the south-western fork of the region, and its nearly vertical strata on the southern margin of Sharp Mountain. On the tame meridian, crossing the north fork at B, is a specimen of more compli- cated structure ; not a simple anticlinal axis, but a trough which exhibits a snbordinate antidinal ridge, or central saddle at B.

lui

Introduction.

The enlarged details of the portion A, are shown in the sketch below, few miles lo the eastward, at Black Spring Gap.

We have been led somewhat astray from our purpose of devoting di section to the consideration of the usual means of tracing the coal aeaii along their outcrops in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania. We previously remarked that in the horizontal beds of the bituminous coal-fiah of North America, their position was very readily ascertained. We sbowf also that in the highly inclined anthracite areas, the range of the outcro| was ordinarily distinguishable by parallel depressions along the mounlai flanks of the basins.

During our own investigations we have remarked that the true positiqi of those veins which had their bassets on the slopes of the mountains wer in most cases, rendered obscure by the curvatures of the crops, almost ) right angles to the true inclination of the veins. We ascribe this to ll atmospheric agency, operating to a given depth below the surface, and the mechanical influence of surface waters, decomposition, the sliding doi of the higher masses, dtc In every instance which has come under o observation, in relation to the outcropping of coal seams on these slopesi have perceived the manifestation of theMUe influences, which havedeflectf the wash" or decomposed materials of the coal veins from their tr courses and thrown them over among the alluvial detritus, generally hi curve, as shown by the next figure, which is merely the rqiresentativt numerous corrending cases.

Coal Cfropi on the Fourth Mountain.

On The Maps Or Plans Of Mines.

In every working a good plan of the mine is of great utility ; it is at all indispensable when the subterranean works are considerably develo In fact, it is necessary to maintain the works in the limits of the propi in order to avoid contests with neighbouring owners, and there always some points from which it is necessary to keep removed, under risk of greatest dangers. Finally, when it is suggested to effect a junction wi point, fixed beforehsnd by a pit or gallery ; if there was not a plan consti ed with precision, we should run the risk of missing the object, and of i jag eostlj works to no purpose.

INTBODUCTION. Jjjxxi

The drawing of the plans of mines presents great difficulties. The mines being composed of crooked passages, isolated one from the other, how should we determine, singly, the form and the position of each of them, and reader them conformable to the plans of the whole? These difficulties are still in- creasing from the necessity of working in obscure galleries, of\en low and diffi- cult of access. To construct correctly a map of the works which only com- municate with the surface, by sinuous galleries or by shaAs, it is absolutely necessary to hare recourse to the needle. The dial, or mining compass, is composed of a magnetic needle tinted with blue steel at the north point, and balanced on a cap of agate.

The mining compass is suspended from the middle of two axes or spindles, tounOmu, upon the support of the brackets, crochets; the line N and 8 corresponding with the axis of the crochet. If then, afVer having strongly held a cord or copper wire, following the axis of the gallery of which the direction is required, the compass be suspended at this cord, the deviation of the needle from the north and south line, will give the angle of the direc- tion. In order to facilitate the reading of this course, the letters E. and W. are commonly transposed, so that the true point of the course may be read in degrees and minutes, by means of the figure which approaches the nearest to the blue point. This method is also applicable to the compass which is carried in the hand, and appears to be generally in use in Germany and France. The difficulty of reading off, with sufficient exactness with an un- certain light, and in positions often incommodious, the angles marked by the needle which oscillates during a long time, is one of the many obstacles to the perfect accuracy of the observations, and it is admitted that by this method an observation cannot be taken with greater nicety than a quarter of a degree, or fifteen minutes.

In mines of the magnetic oxide of iron, where the action of the needle is deranged by its proximity to the mineral, the compass cannot be employed, and the graphometer is used. A theodolite, for subterranean service, is also adopted in France, with which plans and surveys of mines can be constructed with equal celerity as with the compass, and in a more exact manner.

Mine Surveying.

In England the usual surveys in mines of all descriptions were made with the dial. The most useful treatise on the art and on the practice of this in- strument, is that of Mr. Budge, of Cornwall,* an eminent mine surveyor. Although constantly employing the dial in his business, he, from the first, by no means viewed it as the most accurate that can be employed, and re- marks, There doubtless are instruments much better adapted to the work, both for speed and accuracy, than the dial ; and it is matter of surprise that they have not been more generally introduced in our mines : of these instru- ments the theodolite certainly stands unrivalled, for taking both horizontal and vertical angles."

In the second edition of this work, after a lapse of twenty years, the au- thor devotes a section to the subject of " surveying without the magnetic needle/' This is a valuable modern discovery ; and as the general introduc- tion of iron railways and tram roads in mines drove the surveyor to seek some substitute for the needle, which the attraction of iron rendered useless, be has hafily succeeded. The best circumferentors are now made with

The Practical Miacr'i Gaide, by J. Bodge, focond edition, 1845.

Ixxxii INTRODUCTION.

an externa] graduation and vernier scale, on the theodolite principle, purpose for the performance of this work.

The author enters into all the necessary details for proceeding; with-l observations ascertained by this improved instrument, and for protract! and calculating the work thus performed.

Iron Ore Of The Coal Formation.

In the coal formation, iron only exists in the state of carbonate : il generally concentrated in particular beds of a basin, and upon a much OM limited superficies than that of the beds themselves. The usual form ofi carbonate of iron of the coal series is that of oval or kidney shaped bally rogwms, having a brown or greyish fracture; it is a mixture, more or ij rich, of clay, and carbonate of iron. These balls occur stratified in f argillaceous beds. They appear to be assembled and precipitated dmi periods of repose, when the waters deposited at the same time the argil ceous particles with which they were charged. These spheroidal q( cretions or rognons,in consequence of their mixture with clay, are oftea ranged in concentric lamins, and frequently also present in their centn nodule of clay or of pyrites ; sometimes even a fossil substance, — nod which appear to have attracted around them the chemical precipitation.

The position of the nodules of lithoide carbonate of iron is in strata, rallel to the coal seams. This is the case at the mine of Treuil, in Fno and almost every coal-field in England presents a similar deposition. , those of North America, we find a smaller amount of argillaceous carboa of iron so interstratified with the coal beds, than in Europe, and the stances where iron works are supplied from these sources in America the present day, are but rare.

In the coal basins of England, the carbonate of iron is almost alw found in the same beds, extending over very large districts. There are large beds of ferriferous clay in the Dudley basin,* and sixteen or raoff the great anthracite district of South Wales.

According to M. Burat, the numerous coal basins of France are far ( containing the carbonate of iron in the same abundance as those of Engli Few of the argillaceous beds contain these balls, and still more seldon they contain those which are concentrically formed. At Saint Etienne instance, there exist two which furnish in the concession of Treuil, flattc rogDons of fair quality, and contribute to supply the furnaces of Janon in the other concessions, the balls are not recognized in the equivalent fa or they are so small as to be neglected. At some other points, the ci nate of iron appears in great abundance, but with very different charact at the mine of Cros, it penetrates the entire beds of clay, of one or two j thickness, and gives to that rock a remarkable solidity and density, these massive beds are much more impure than the beds with disscmir nodules : besides a large proportion of clay, they also contain pyrites

The Dodley coal-field it remtrktble aa being one or the earliest positions whei argillaceous iron was anielted by means of pit-coal. The experiment waa made b founder of the noble booae of Dudley and Ward, who published an account of it in tbf of Charles II. lie atatea that in a large stone furnace, twenty-seven feet square, he aeven tons of iron per week, " near which furnace the author discovered many nev mines, ten yards thick, and iron mines underneath, which coal-worka having brougl perfection, the author waa by force thrown out of them, and the bellows of his new f\i and invention bv riotous persons cut in pieces, to bis no small prejudice, and loaa inventioo of making iron with pit-coal."

INTRODUCTION. Ixxxiii

precipiutions of dark silex, to such an extent that the working which ought to hafe been developed, remains almost unproductive.

The coal basin of Aubin, in France, contains the iron ore in the most abundance. It exists, in the first instance, in balls in the beds of clay which accompany the coal, and, as at Saint Etienne, under that form it is the purest mineral. In the other cases, it constitutes a somewhat schistose bed of from three to fiAeen feet thickness, which appears to extend under the greater part of the coal area. This bed is remarkable, inasmuch as it pre- sents al several points a series of contractions and enlargements, which con- stitute the arrangement called en chapelet ; like a string or chaplet of beads, — an arrangement very frequent in all the substances which result from chemical precipitations in sedimentary waters, such, for instance, as is often presented by the flints in chalk. This structure is, in other respects, inde- pendent of the other accidents, faults or disturbances, which equally affect this bed as those of the coal series. The kidney ores and the bed of stony carbonate of iron are worked at several places in the basin, and supply the high furnaces of Decazeville.

There are but very few basins which do not possess beds analogous to the argillaceoas carbonate of iron ; but they are in such slight amount, that there are no other workings than those of the two basins of Saint Etienne and Aubin, which we have just mentioned.

On the whole, if we compare the beds of lithoide carbonate of iron with the mass of coal formations, we see that their existence, but little developed, althoogh frequent, must only be considered an accidental circumstance. It is equally worthy of remark, that, in every case where there was a formation of coal in the series subsequent to the true coal, viz., the ferruginous ele- ments have anew resumed the composition and the characteristic aspect of this epoch.

Thus in the coals and the shales with vegetable impressions of the epoch of the lias of Yorkshire, we find the carbonate of iron stratified in balls ; whilst, in the same formations, when their appearance is in the normal state, the ferruginous infiltrations appear only in the state of oxides.

These variations of composition in the ferriferous minerals, establish no real difference in the origin to which they may be attributed. They tend merely to demonstrate that the iron, collected at certain intermittent epochs and at isolated points, most commonly in the state of oxides, has undergone through the influences of the carboniferous epoch, a mineralogical trans- formation. The coal period appears generally to have been a period of tranquil deposits. It is, then, natural to find that in it the ferruginous in- filtrations are more concentrated than in the periods of the old red sandstone, of the new red sandstone, and even of the trias, where the products of these infiltrations are blended with the general materials of the deposit.

We have already remarked, that these infiltrations only become valuable according to their concentration: the formations before mentioned, so highly coloured by the per-oxide of iron, contain, perhaps, altogether much more iron than the coal formation ; but, in the latter, it is collected together, and of\en possesses a concentration of 30 and 40 per cent., constituting serviceable beds. In the red or mottled sandstone formations, we find iron everywhere ; but the concentrations even amounting to ten per cent, are but rare excep- tions. The presence of the iron would then be scarcely remarked, if the glaring colour of these red and variegated formations did not contrast with the gray and dark rocks of the coal deposits which they cover, and with the white and greenish colours of the thick limestones and clays which are above them.* Borat.— Gologie appliqae, p. 108.

Ixxilr nmtoDUCTioN.

Section Iii.

Fossil Botany And Geological Distribution Of Vegetable Remains.

In intimate connection with the matter of the present volume, a knon ledge of the forms, the botanical classification, the geological arrangemenl of the vegetable remains of an ancient world, seems to be almost indispen- sable. It embraces facts, at least, sufficiently valuable, to ensure for it, ii a collateral branch of natural science, a conspicuous section of this book Independently of its usefulness, there is a never failing interest attached U such an investigation, which enables us to trace the history, as it were, thf past condition, the present adaptation of the primeval flora ; — that roagnl ficent vegetation which, amidst the mutations of our planet, yet survives fii our use ; its characters changed, it is true, but only to become more service able to man.

A happy provision was it that secured for the ultimate advantage of th human race, ages before its appearance upon the globe, the trees of giganti size, the densely growing shrubs, the most delicate even of the lesser plant — that flora which covered in such profusion the islands and plateaux, an filled the humid valleys, of the early wosld. A happy provision was it tht amidst the early catastrophes of the earth, — those convulsions which modifie its entire surface, overwhelmed its primeval forests, and buried them beneat enormous accumulations of earthy debris, of sediment and of rocky debad — still perpetuated and matured during the lapse of countless ages, thi primitive vegetation, which, finally, in the form of mineral combustibles, are now busy in exploring, and mining, and appropriating, in a thousai ways, and for a thousand purposes. A happy provision was that — a ben ficent one, surely — which at the moment when man is compelled to lev the existing forests, to make room for the progress of agriculture, and tl cultivation of the present surface, he finds nigh at hand, yet buried benea that surface, within the shallow basins and woody islands of the antedil vian world, those inexhaustible stores of a combustible now render infinitely more precious and effective than that existing vegetable fuel, who destruction is the inevitable consequence of advancing civilization.

Respecting the wondrous influence which the employment of mine combustibles has had, even in our own days, upon the whole world, by t acquisition of new forces ; by the extension of mechanical powers, of mar facturing capabilities; by the impulse given to the industrial arts, and t creation of new sources of wealth ; by rapid and cheap modes of transpor tion, and enlarged commercial facilities : above all, by the improved con tion of the people, we will not here dilate. Abundant evidence of all th* will be found in this volume.

Fossil Botany.

Classification of Plants : their families, classes, and orders, — We si occasionally have to make mention of the varieties of plants which occur a fossil state, and which, in common with all other organic remains.

Ihtr0Ih7Cti0N.

Ixzzt

characteristic of, or distingaish with remarkable precision, every geological epoch. It maj sare the reader some trouble in referring to elementary books, if we briefly explain here the mode observed in the classification of this foesil vegetation ; of which the true coal formation alone contains about four hundred known species.

The system generally adopted by botanists is, that of Jussieu, which is termed the natural system," in contradistinction to that of Linnseus, which is denominated the artificial system." Mr. Loudon states that the former method has for its object the arrangement of plants according to their greater or lesser degree of resemblance, both externally and internally.

The seed is considered the most important part of the plant ; as being destined for its reproduction and continuance in the world. The funda- mental divisions of this arrangement are, therefore, founded on the charac- ters of seeds.

The firet grand division is derived from the presence or absence of seed- lobes; the next on the union or division of the seed-lobes in such as have them. Thus we have the three primitive divisions of CotyUdonea, Monocth tyUdomea, and AcofyUdanea,

Every one allows, M. Decandolle observes, that plants which resemble each other by their exterior forms, resemble each other also in their internal structure ; their mode of vegetation and their properties. The three primi- tive divisions are divided by this botanist into eleven classes ; and, accord- ing to the Jussieuan method, all vegetables are furnished with seeds which arrange themselves under one or other of the following heads.

Cotyledone.

Ezogemms stems, — Furnished with two or more cotyledons, or seed- lobes; as the bean or the acorn ; having a central column or pith, and an external band called the bark, the two being connected by medullary rays; this division being thus subdivided into I. Dicotyledons ; II. Monocotyle- dons ; III. Acotyledons.

I. Dicgtyledone.

HftTinff the calf and corolla diatlnct.

Six claM and eigbtj-three ordert.

Ranaocalace

Magnoliacec,

Papaveracec,

Cnjciferec,

Caryopbyllec,

Linneae, fcc.

Samaroabee,

Ochriaces,

Terrebinthaces,

Legumenoaex,

Oleinec,

JasmioeaB, &c.

Cacti, Eric, &c.

embracing 1255 genera, and 8612 species.

Having the calyx and corolla, forming only a liDgle envelope.

One claes,— AfonocUomydetf. Seventeen ordere.

PInmbagines, Planuginec, Euphorbiace, Aroentaces, &c.

Lanrins, SanUlaces, Urticeae, Conifers,

comprising 172 genera, and 1249 species.

Beside 53 genera and 71 species whose orders are not fully determined.

FossU dicotyledonous plants of the coal formation. — Until recently the fossilized dicotyledones were supposed to occur not lower than the Tilgate or Upper Oolite beds. The conifene also were considered as not older than the oolite series. But recent investigations, by distinguished naturalists, have shown that these groups formed the greater portion of the coal

London Encyclopedia of Gardening, p. 113.

luzfi

mTRODUCTION.

vegetation. Thus, for iostance, some fossil trees, which were discovered rooted in a coal bed in the Lancashire coal-field, were identified by Mr. Bowman as sifillaris,* while at the, same time he showed that medullary rays and coniferous structure existed; a fact which M. A. Brongniart, Lindley and Hutton, Humboldt and others have fully corroborated. Hence, it seems that botanists are inclined to withdraw the Sigillaria alto- gether from the fam of tree ferns, with which they have been heretofore classed, and even from the Endogenous class, or Monocotyledones. We are therefore to understand that the Sigillaria is a dicotyledonous aad coniferous plant, and that the arborescent ferns, Caulopters, belong to the monocotyledonous group.

Among the dicotyledonous plants of the coal formation are now arranged Sigillaria, 59 species, Asterophillites,

Stigmaria, 30 Annularia,

Catamites, 18 Sphenophyltumi

Cycadea, Conifers.

Lepidofloyas,

Ii. Monocotyledones.

Endogenous Stems — furnished with only one cotyledon or seed lobe, [as the lily,] and having neither pith, concentric circles of woody fibre, nor true bark : distinguishable as follows, in the existing series :

Tboie in which Uie (VacUflcaUon la ▼bible.

unknown, or Irreffolar.

One clut, Phaneroganu.

One claaa, Cryptogamem.

Tycadec, Bromelec,

"Tf aides,

Orehidcmy SciUuninea, kc.

Eqaiaeucea

Irklea.

Marailiacec,

26 ordert. 4

Lilia, Jaocev,

6 ordera. 4

Ljrcopodiacee,

Palme,

Including the arborescent tmi

Cannec.

berbaceoue ferns.

lGraminec, Itc.

99 genera, and 261 apeciea.

33S genera, and 1945 apeciet.

or doubtful genera, 53 genera and 71 apeciea.

Distribution of Fossii Vegetation. — In a memoir " on the Ancient Flor of the Earth," written some years ago by a contributor to the Edinburg) Philosophical Journal, the author concludes with the following summary :

1st. That among the universally distributed rock formations, [groups since the first appearance of organic beings, there is not one of them in whic the remains of a contemporary land vegetation are not to be observed.

2d. That the different periods of the vegetation of a former age are gradi ally characterized by the continual entrance of new and always more perfect! organized [T] families of plants ; but there is not a complete disappearanc of all the species of the preceding periods.

3d. That species of the most perfectly developed class, the dicotyledonou are first traced in the oldest strata of the secondary formations, while th< uninterruptedly increase in the successive formations. To similar viev Humboldt opposes some objections, particularly in relation to the theory the supposcdt simplicity of the first forms of organic life, and especially tl

Proceedings Geological Society, London, vol. iii. p. 270; also MantelPs Medals Creation, p. 132. t Edinburgh Philosophical Joaraal Ja&iiary 1830.

INTRODUCTION. Ixxxvii

assamption that Teretable life was awakened sooner than animal life upon the face of the old earth.*

With respect to the Tegetation of the trae coal formation, Sir Alexander Chrichton obsenr ed, that every coal country in every part of the world, which has been hitherto examined, abounds in the fossil remains of similar or corresponding vegetables. TJiere is no material variety, let the latitude or longitude or devatioo be what thej may. Recent examinations of the fossil flora of remote coal beds, such as those of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and Northern India, would seem to point out some exceptions to the rule heretofore adopted, but the evidence is by no means complete that these fields were really of the true coal period. Every plant in the present condi- tion of the globe, independently of its natural dwelling-place, has, as it were, a centra] spot in which it flourishes best ; and, considering this spot as the centre of a circle, or rather as a zone, the plant degenerates in proportion as it approaches the limits of this district." The writer goes on to point out a very important circumstance, namely, that there is a difference of mean temperature, at present, of forty-one degrees of heat between the parallels in which coal has been discovered.f Between these, as regards the existing vegetation, the diversity in the genera and species of plants, at present, is very great ; so much so, indeed, that there is no resemblance between the floras of the two extreme points. At the time, however, of the true coal formation, it is now admitted that the flora of these two remote parallels was nearly the same, both as to genera and species, and in this respect strongly contrasted with the present condition of things.

Fossil Plants of the class Phanerogamea. — The monocotyledonous family of this class, in the fossil state, commence in the London clay tertiary forma- tion, and, until lately, were thought not to descend lower in the geological series than the oolites, or the Wealden beds, the Portland oolite and the Lias.

The cycadeae [Cycas Zamia] form the connecting link between the ferns and the palms, while, according to the authorities last cited, the sigillaires differ not more from the arborescent ferns [Caulopteris J yet existing, than the stems of the calamites, the bactris, and other arundinaccous palms,( which order contains, in the recent slate, eighteen genera and twenty-nine species. Zamis were very abundant in the oolite period. Eleven species occur in the coal of the Yorkshire oolite alone.

Distribution of the Vestiges of Palms in the Geological Formations. Prof Unger states, rs/, That no vestiges of palms have been detected in the earliest rocks which contain the organic remains of maritime and terrestrial plants.

Second That palms bore some small part in the vegetation at the period of the coal formation. He names four species or forms, two of which occur in the coal schist of Swina, Bohemia, one in sandstone of the Ural Moun- tains, and one from Rajemahl, North India; also two undescribed species from the coal formation of Silesia.

Third, The flora of the red sandstone, above the coal series, although it has been very imperfectly preserved, and its scanty remains but little studied, Unger thinks was not materially different from that of the coal formation. But the fossils of this era, which have been referred to palms, he thinks are very doubtful. In the Quadersandstein, Gceppert found some vestiges in

Cotmos, A. Von Humboldt.

t Thii approaches closely to the range we hare assigned to the coal formations.

t Histoire des Vegeuoi Fossiles.

% American Joornal of Science, Jalj, 1846.

Ixxxriii

Introduction.

Silesia. From the next series, the oolites, the four species of Carpolyihes, described by Lindley and Hutton, may be mentioned.

Fourth, and finally. In the tertiary, palms reappear, and the number of species far surpass that of all the other formations together.

Subdivision of tertiary positions, —

In the chalk and eocene, " miocene " pliocene,

4 species, also fruits. 2(5 species on the European continent 4 species, island of Antigua.

Fossil Crifptogamea.'Mvinj years ago. Count Sternberg noticed that out of one hundred and fifly species of plants belonging to tlie old coal for- mation, one hundred and thirty-eight were vascular cryptogamea; soon aflerwards M. A. Brongniart stated that the vascular cryptogamous plants had a vast numerical proportion in our great coal-fields ; and in fact, evea at that early period, he had ascertained that out of two hundred and sixty species, discovered inthat formation, two hundred and twenty belonged to this class.

This arrangement has of late received very considerable modifications ; chiefly through the aid of a microscopic elucidation of their structure, as we shall proceed to show. Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, A. Brongniart and others, now withdraw the sigillaris, the stigmarias and the calamites, from this numerous group ; separating them from the associated fihces or herba- ceous ferns, and the caulopters, which only comprise the true arborescent ferns.

The fossil cryptogamous series embraces the following :

Speciet. Sphenopteris, 36 ] Cyclopteris, Nevropteris, Pecopieris, Caulopteris, Equisetaceae, Lycopodiaces,

6 [ 146 species belonging to the filices or herbaceoas 28 I ferns, chiefly of the coal beds. 76]

" The true arborescent ferns. " Some species.

8 ) 48, belonging to lycopodites and club mosses, of

Lepidodendrons, 40 j the coal formation.

Iii. Acotyledonele, Or Imperfect.

Vegetable beings composed of a cellular tissue unprovided with vessels, and of which the embryo is without cotyledons. The divisions of this family are as follows:

With leafy expanilons and known lees.

1 Clais, Foliacee. S Miisci or mosaet. a uraera, -Hepatica— liverworU. 645 apeciea are nativea of Great Briuin.

Without leafy expaniiona, and not of known aezei.

1 Claaa, Aphyllee.

rLichenea-fuci, conferoe, fcc

6 0rderaorJ?yP°"y*";*-. IFungi. About 1350tpeciea nativea of Great Britain*

Fucoides, of many species, are exceedingly abundant in the silurian or transition formations, from the coal series down to the primitive rocks. In certain portions of the silurian series of North American rocks, this class

IllTRODUCnOir.

of plants is sorpristngly prerdent, and characteristic. The oldest of these fermalions present us with nothing but cellalar-]ea?ed marine plants. Man j . species of fueoides in the copper slate of Mansfeld.

The prevailing Tegeuble forms of the chalk formation are those of marine ad frtthwater plants — fuci and najades.

Of eonfenr are three fossil species; of alge, nine species ; and of naides, fear species, in the cretaceous group.

DutnbuUon fhnti Vegetation, — M. Alex. Von Humboldt has stated in a recent work, that it is in the Devonian strata that a few cryptogamic fenas of Tsscular vegetables, equiseucece and lycopodiacee, are first encoun* tercd. After these strata, we arrive at the coal formation, the botanical aaalomj of which has made such brilliant progress in recent times. These cooiprise nearly four hundred species, including in their number not onlf Iflni4ike cryptogamic plants, and phanerogamous monocotyledons, grasses, yucca-like lUaceoos vegetables, and palms, but also gynospermic dicotylO' dons, conifers and cycades. Fossil conifers have ketn found in the old coal formation of England and Upper Silesia ; while cycades are contained in that of Radnitz, in Bohemia, and Konigshiitte, in Upper Silesia. The cycades attain their maximum in the Keupfer strata and the lias, where about twenty different forms make their appearance.

The lignitic or brown coal strata, which are at present in every one bf the divisions of the tertiary period, amongst the earliest forms of cryptogamic bad plants, exhibit a few palms, many conifers with distinct annual rings, and froodiferoos trees, of more or less decided tropical character. In the middle tertiary period we observe the complete recurrence of the palms and cycadeans; and in the last members of this epoch, at length, strong resem- blances to oar present flora. We come suddenly upon our pines and firs ; our cupuliferous tribes ; our planes, and our poplars. The dicotyledonous stems of the lignites are frequently distinguished by ffigantic thickness and vast age. A trunk was found near Bonn, in which Noggerath counted 7d2 annual rings.

With relation to coal vegetation, M. Humboldt remarked that where several series of coal strata lie over one another, the genera and species are not always mixed ; they are rather, and for the major part, generically arranged, so that only jycopodites and certain ferns occur in one series of beds, and stigmarie and sigillaris in another.*

In elucidation of the progress made in fossil botanical discovery, Mr. Adolpbe Brongniartt has lately observed that the further we proceed in the series of ages towards the earliest geological periods, the further are we removed from the actual creation, and the greater do the differences be- tween the living and fossil beings become.

Thus, most of the fossil plants of the tertiary strata belong to genera in actual existence, and merely present specific difierences.

Those of the secondary strata may, undoubtedly, almost always be re- ferred to known families but appear in most cases, to require the forma- tion of new genera.

Lastly, in the older strata, particularly in the coal formations, many of the foatil plants cannot be classed in families at present existing, and ought to constitute new groups of equal importance.

He adds that new and hitherto very rare specimens, which have been odleoted and carefully studied in England, Germany, and France, have

t CMiptM Rcada, Dee. S9th, 1845— tad Anoaal Md Mig. NaL Hit, Febniarj, 1846.

M

OmODUCTION.

oaosed important changes relatife to the plants which he had prefioaslf' considered as vascular cryptogamia. This advance is owing to the discovery of portions of stems of these plants having the internal stractare in a state of preservation. They have shown that the sigillaria, stigmarie, and pro- bably most of the calamites, are not plants nearly related to the ferm fyc podia, and equiseia, bat to distinct families of the dicotyledonous gymnoe- permous group, more nearly approaching the eamferm and eycadtm.

Hence, at the period of the coal formation, vegetation would have con- sisted entirely, or nearly so of two of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom : the aorogenous cryptogamia, represented by the herbaceoM and arborescent ferns, [the latter reduced to the true cavlapteris the Uijpidf* dindrea, a family nearly related to the fycnpodiacea, and some eguiseiaeemi and the gtmnospermous dicotyledons, comprising the sigiUarim, [sigitiari&f stigmaria, lepidojloyo$ the calamitact, the camferB, and probably tiN oiierophylUiB, [asterophyUites, anmdaria, and sphenophyibim,

Mr. Brongniart proceeds to describe a plant which closely approaches family of the gymnospermous dicotyledons still in existence,— -the eycadum and of the genus noggerathia. This plant, at first known to M. de Stern berg, by the impression of a single leaf, from the coal formation of Bohemia has since been observed in the coal shales of Newcastle, in those of Silesia in the Permian sandstones of Russia, and many new species of the sam< genus are in the schists and coal sandstones of France.

He considers, with M. Humboldt, that each stratum of coal is the prodoc of a peculiar vegeution, frequently different from that which precedes an< that which follows it, — vegetations which have given rise to the soperio and inferior layers of coal ; each stratum resulting, in this manner, from distinct vegetation, is frequently characterized by the predominance of cei tain impressions of plants, and the miners, in numerous cases, distinguis the different strata, which they remove, by the practical knowledge the possess of the accompanying fossils. Any seam of coal and its overly in rock or slate, should consequently contain the various parts of the livin plants at the period of its formation ; and by carefully studying the associi tion of these various fossils, which form so many special floras, containin generally but few species, we may hope to be able to reconstruct thet anomalous forms of the ancient world.

Distribution of fossil plants, — Notes from the Quarterly Journal of tl Geological Society of London, Vol. I., 1845, p. 566, and Vol. II., 184< p. 83.

The following extract, [with some modifications derived from Mr. Mo chisson's paper on the Permian system,] from a memoir by M. Goeppert, Breslau, well known for his investigations concerning the fossil remaina vegetables, possesses great interest, as offering a general view of the relati distribution of these remains.

Foroiationt. Ftmiliet. Speci*

Lower Palaazoie System : Grauwack, Silurian, or formations older than the carboni- ferous series, including the Devonian series, and the oldest coal or culm bed?, - - - 8 52

Permian system, or Upper PaUeozoic : Carboniferous limestone, 33

True coal measures of Europe and North America, - 18 816 Lower new red sandstone, Permian series, containing, among others, a few s|)ecies common to the carboniferous era, 4 39

nrraoDucnw.

FormatioBt. Mmtautn limettooe and kupfer schiefer, chiefly marine fecoids, Permian system,

Gres bigarr, Bunter sandstein, ...

Tnauic period; or Lower Secondary : Mosdielkalk, . ... . .

Keaper marls, marnes irises, ...

&ft emd Upper Secondary:

Oolitic series,

Wealdeo formation,

Lower cretaceous beds,

Chalk.

Lower 7Vrluir3f.— Monte Boica beds, - Other lower tertiary,

Middk emd upper tertiary, — Miocene and pliocene. Unknown gCMogical position, ...

Families. SpeeiM.

169 1792

Recapitolatioa. Families. Species.

Older Paleozoic rocks below the coal mea- sures, - . ...

Coal measores, ...

Newer Paleozoic or Permian system, above,

Triass'tc and secondary formations,

Tertiary, - . . .

Unknown,

Sttmmary of M. Gceppert's numerical distribution of Fossil planfs.The

foiiowing ubie presented by Sir R. T. Murchisson at the meeting of the

British Association, in 1845, embodies the same facts as are already an*

nounced in detail above.

Paleozoic rocks, - . - 52

Carboniferous group, - - 819

Permian, . . - 58

Triassic, 86

Oolitic, . . . . .234

Wealden, 16 Cretaceous, 62

Tertiary, 454

Unknown, . . . r H

Total, I792 It was further stated, that the number of fossil plants known to M.

Adoiphe Brongniart, in 1836, was 527. In the new list they amount to

IT92! and it is seen that the carboniferous group contained more than.

half the known species of fossil plants; a remarkable circumstance, when

it wa considered that the great herbivorous land quadrupeds had no ascer*

tairied existence before the tertiary period.*

For a notice of the flora and fauna of the amber forests of the countries

bordering on the Baltic, our readers are referred to p. 5*28 of this volume,

under the head of Prussian Pomerania.

Eaport of the British Association, 1845.

DfTRODUCnOlf.

Microscopic Observations On The Structure Of Coal, Lignite And

Peat.

Among other collateral subjects of interest, tending to throw oo the age, the history and the composition of co&l, the mode of in?e8tigaiioB through the agency of the microscope, is not altogether inappropriate.

Mr. Hutton, of Newcastle, has instituted a series of examinations of Uw substance of coals, through the aid of the microscope.

Professor Phillips addressed some obsenrations to the British AssociatiMi, in 1842, on this new test.

In consequence of the facilities afibrded for polishing coal, and of ezam; inmg it by means of transmitted light, some progress has been made ia tbii mode of investigation.

By the process of combustion another method had suggested itsdC Am making apparent to the eye the vegetable tissues of which certain coal plaDi were composed. In the ashes of Staflbrdshire coal, — a variety not strictl; bituminous or caking, — Mr. Phillips was impressed with the analogy the; presented to the combustion of certain sorts o( peat, of a laminated texture and their microscopic examination showed abundant traces of a vegetabi character.

In some anthracite ashes furnished by Sir Henry De la Beche, vegetaU tissues were also found ; and the same fact is also visible in the ashes of tli Pennsylvania anthracites.

A paper was read to the Geological Society of London, Jan. 9, 183{ entitled " Observations on Coal," by W. Hutton. The author was led this subject by pursuing the method of microscopic examination, so sa< cessfully employed by Mr. Witham; and from these observations muo interesting information has been acquired, respecting the fine, distinct relici lation of the original vegetable texture, still discernible in the various specif of coal, and showing the presence, in the Newcastle coals, of cells whk are filled with bituminous matter, extremely volatile.

Another system of cells was discovered,' different from the others, whic he conceived was adapted for containing gas. These supposed gas eel are found empty, and of a circular form, and in groups which communica with each other ; each cavity having, in its centre, a small pellet of carbon ceous matter. The author establishes a clear distinction between these tn classes of cells ; for the anthracite of South Wales contains the gas cdl but is quite free from those which, in the other coals, are filled with bit minous matter. The anthracite of South Wales affords a free disengag ment of inflammable gtis when first exposed to the air.*

Additional light is thrown on this subject by a paper of M. Link, Berlin, " on the origin of coal and lignites, according to microscopic obM vations."t

The professor remarks that there still prevail two different opinions rd tive to the origin of coal. The one sustains the view that it is a turf, pc or marsh of the primitive world ; the other that it consists of the trunks forest trees which have been brought together and here buried.

Ordinary peat consists of earthy matter penetrated by the roots or radi< fibres of vegetables, with here and there some portions of leaves. Tl

Proceedings of Geol. Soc. of Lon. vol. i. 416. t AonalM det MmM, vol. xvii, p. 693. 1S40. j

INTBODUCTKMr.

lom

etrthj part is composed of the cellular tissue of plants, whose structure has been so flattened by pressure, that it is often impossible to recognise them.

A second and better description of peat is sold at Berlin, under the name of tmirbe fie UnrnM which consists of cellular tissue, compressed in exceed- ingly thin laminae.

A third variety, dug in Lower Pomerania, has acquired the appearance of fiiflsil wood; being compact, and its fracture conchoidal and bright; yet still cootaining parts which resemble the debris of leaves. There remains no tnce of ligneous structure. Some portions of this peat become partially tnnspareoi when plunged in olive oil ; and still more so when they are coated with rectified oil from coal tar.

By observing a similar process with regard to coals, we are enabled to tender a great portion of their parts transparent It has, in this way, been feaod tbat the lignite or brown coal of New Granada, and the coals of New- castle, of Bridgewater, Saint Etienne, and Lower Silesia, present a structure oalogous to peat, and particularly to that of the compact tourbe de linum.

In these coala M. Link did not observe a ligneous structure, resembling that of solid wood.

The coals of Upper Silesia have enabled us to make, by means of calcina- tion, a comparison with wood charcoal, particularly with that of birch, pine, and palm— the bactris spinosa. Calcination has restored to the cells or vessels all their distinctness, but did not effect any change in the pores or openmgs.

It would appear, then, that the fibrous coal which covers more or less the compact coal of Beuthen, in Upper Silesia, resembles burnt charcoal, seeing that its compact portion is peaty. All these coals belong to the most an- cient ibrmations.

The M uschelkalk coal in Upper Silesia, is turfy, but that of Diester, in the lias, appears to approach to wood.

The coal of the Cluadersandstein of Quedlinbourg, exhibits evidently the wood of conifers.

The lignites of Greenland, in which retinasphalt occurs, are peaty in structure, as are those of Meissner, in Hesse.

In those of New Granada, the wood of the palm is discernible by means of the microscope.

In those of numerous positions in Germany can be traced the wood of conilera ; while among those lignites which belong to the dicotyledones, but not to the conifera, may be ranked the Surterbrand, the Berateinholz, the lignite of Meissner, and thatof Brohlhaie on the Rhine.

M. Goppert, professor at Breslau, has also pursued similar researches, with interesting results;* and has determined with great precision the character of many lignites in Prussia. Among the additional localities of lignites, which contain wood of the family conifera, and genus pinuSf are those of Siegen in Westphalia ; of Friesdorf near Bonn ; of Salzhausen in Wettei- aria ; near Konigs-Bergen-Prusse, and in Hungary.

We cannot conclude this part of our subject without adverting to the investigations of Dr. Mantell therein. We regret that our limited space forbids us to extract more than the following passage from one of his latest publications.

" Although the vegetable origin of all coal will not admit of question, yet evidence of the original structure is not always atuinable. The most per-

AiiMlef det Minet, vol. xviii. p. 448.

jicif nfTRODUCTIQlC.

feet bituminous coal has undergone a complete liquefaction, and if any portion! of organization remain, tbey appear as if imbedded in a pure bituminooi mass. The slaty coal generally preserves traces of cellular or fascula) tissue ; and the spiral vessels, and the dotted cells, indicating coniferov structure, may readily be detected by the aid of the microscope, in chip or slices. In many examples the cells are filled with an amber-oolourec resinous substance : in others the organization is so well preserved, that of the surface exposed by cracking firom heat, vascular tissue, spiral vessels, am cells studded with glands may be detected. Even in the white ashes Id after the combustion of coal, traces of the spiral vessels are discernible b; a high magnifying power. Some beds of coal appear to be wholly compoaei of minute leaves, or disintegrated foliage ; for if a mass be recently extracts from the mine, and split asunder, the exposed surfaces are found coverei with delicate pellicles of carbonized leaves and fibres, matted togelhet and flake after flake may be peeled ofi* through a thickness of many inche and the same structure be apparent. Rarely are any larse trunks or brandM observable in the coal ; but the appearance is that of an immense depot of delicate foliage, shed and accumulated in a forest, (as may be observaU in existing pine districts,) and consolidated by great pressure, while ande going that peculiar fermentation by which vegetable matter is changed inf a carbonaceous mass."*

Professor J. W. Bailey has communicated an article in the America Journal of Science and the Arts, on some microscopic examinations whii he has instituted, of the ashes of anthracite coal. He observed that on tl surfaces of partly burned lamine of coal, vegetable structure could I readily detected, and that often the tissues were presented in a state of o hoped-for preservation.

These specimens, the description of whose beauty and perfection oi scarcely be exaggerated, present all the original markings of the vessc with a distinctness which leaves scarcely anything to be wished for.

They may be examined either as opaque objects, in which the silex a pears in relief against the black coal, and shows the form and markings the tubes very finely ; or still more satisfactory results may be obtained i melting some inspissated Canada balsam upon a plate of glass, and, whi in a melted state, applying it to a surface of the coal upon which the dw had been previously found to exist When the balsam has hardened t coal may be taken ofl*, and it will be found that it leaves, fixed upon t balsam, a thin layer of silica, containing perfectly preserved dotted vessc which, when viewed as transparent objects, are nearly as distinct in tbi markings as if freshly obtained from a recent plant

Among other inferences, derived from his early examinations, Profeai Bailey draws the following :

1. That almost every layer of coal is composed of vegetable matt which still retains very distinct traces of the original organic structure, a which, consequently, proves that it could never have been reduced tc homogeneous pulp.

2. That the plants which chiefly contributed to form the mass of the o were not the ordinary dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous plants, but tl more probably belonged to the acotyledons, among which the ferns i lycopodiaces present similar vascular bundles.

Mr. A. Brongniart, however, has decided, with Lindley and other ini

Mtatll*i Madalt of CrMtioo, vol. i. p. 9S.

urTBODVcrriGSf. xct

tigitors, to remofe the calamites, the sigillaria, stigmara and lepidodendrons (rom the monocotyledons, and group them with the dicotyledons.

The presence of bitumen* and the consequent swelling and partial fusion of the ordinary bituminous coal, in making these experiments, render it diffieah to obtain, from that species of coal, the tissues in the perfection in which they may be found in anthracite.*

Carbamnathm rf IFaoi/.— -Dr. Mantell has treated at length on this inter- esting subject in his Wonders of Geology." In a more recent work he remarks, — that the structure and composition of a plant affected its car- booizatjon there can be do doubt ; for in the same layer of stone, [in the calcileroiis grit of Tilgate forest,] the stems resembling palms, Endogenke$ invariably possess a thick outer crust of coal'; while the stems and roots of the CfaikraHiB — plants allied to the yucca, or dracna, — ha?e not a particle of carbonaceous matter, but are surrounded by a reddish brown earthy

IThe nature of the stratum in which the plants were imbedded, must, of course, hate also influenced the bituminous fermentation. Vegetable re- aninsv when interposed between beds of tenacious clay, by which the escape of the gaseous elements, set free by decomposition, was prevented, appear to have been most &vourably situated for their conversion into lignite or coal. Experience has shown that although the true coal-measures are only found beneath the saliferous formation [of England,] the production of good combustible coal is not necessarily restricted to any period or series of trata ; but may occur wherever the local conditions were favourable to the complete bituminization of beds of vegetable matter. In fact, the produc- tive coal-fields of Buckeburg, in Hanover, are situated in deposits of the Wealden epoch."t

Comiferous Fossil Wood in the newer coal formation of Nova <Sf oia.— For a knowledge of these fossil trees we are indebted to Mr. Dawson. Accord- ing to his relation, at a particular level, in the lower part of the newer coal strata, calcareous petrifactions of coniferous wood are very abundant, in some instances appearing to have belonged to extensive rafts of drift-wood. A bed of sandstone, containing one of these petrified rafts, is well exposed on the shore between Cape Malagash and Wallace Harbour, and is there associated with a bed of gypsum, and a thin layer of limestone containing a lew marine shells of species found in the lower carboniferous rocks.

In the bed of coniferous wood at Malagash, the structure of many of the trunks has beeu very perfectly preserved ; and slices exhibit, very distinctly, polygonal discs on the walls of the cells, like those of the genus Araucaria. On comparing them with others from different parts of Nova Scoiia, and New Brunswick, Mr. Dawson found that the species of coniferous trees most abundantly found in the coal formation of Pictou and Cumberland counties have the structure of Araucarian pines. On the weathered ends of trunks of Araucaria, in the sandstones at Pictou and near Wallace, rings of growth are often very apparent In some instances, the layers of yearly growth having separated in the progress of decay, as is often seen in recent wood, they have left vacant spaces, occupied, in the fossils, by calcareous spar. Id a transverse slice the rings of growth can easily be seen by the naked eve. They do not exceed in width those of vigorous individuals of many

9*t Journal, May, 1846.

t Moiell— Woodera of Geology, p. 373, 6S3. Medals of CreaUoo, 1844. Vol. i. p. &9.90.

xeri UlTRODUCnolf.

recent coniferous species, but their limits are much less distinctly market than in any conifene now growinjr in this climate.

It is perhaps worthy of notice, that the alteration effected from the origi nal structure of these calcareous fossils, consists merely in the filling ap o the cavities of the cells with carbonate of lime, and in the carbonization o their walls. When fragments are exposed to the action of diluted hydra chloric acid, the calcareous matter is removed, and a flexible carbonaceoo substance, retaining the form of the fragment, remains. This residua woody matter bums like touchwood, and leaves a very little white ash.

Coniferous wood is not unfrequent in the nodules of iron-stone, indodM in the great coal-bed at the Albion mines. More rarely they afford firag ments with the stracture of stigmaria.

Stigmaria, At the extremity of Malagash Point, Mr. Dawson discovers in a bed of shale, a fossil stump of a tree, having connected with it rooi with regular scars like stigmaria, A portion of one of the main roots, tm inches in length, was seen to be attached to the stump, and other portioa appeared in the surrounding clay. The trunk exhibited an external coal envelope or bark irregularly corrugated : its stony cast showed, indistinctl] alternate smooth and rough vertical stripes, and internally it possessed an m centric core, probably corresponding with that of the roots, and having laig transverse prominences, which appear to have been connected with fibres c bundles of vessels, whose remains extend outward and downward throii| the outer part of the cast

Artisia or Stembergia, Fragments of plants of this genus are frequent) found in the sandstones of the Pictou coal-field; usually in be which also contain caknmies. They are in the state of stony casts, alwa; invested with a thin bark or coating of lignite, whose outer surface is snaoo and without transverse wrinkles. Mr. Dawson saw none with any trace roots, leaves, or fruit, or even of a conical termination : all were cylindrie fragments, and so similar in their markings, that they may have belong to one species.

Transversely ridged stems, of a character very different from the aboi are occasionally found in the carboniferous beds of this province. Th are stony casts, having irregular and often large transverse markings, ai enclosed in a thick coat of lignite or fossil wood. Transverse sectio showed cellular tissue apparently with medullary rays, and much rescmbli the wood of conifene. These last are refeited to casts of the pith of tre Those previously mentioned apparently belonged to a plant having a large pith and a comparatively thin woody envelope — in short a gigaa rush-like plant, perhaps leafless and nearly cylindrical, like some modi species of juncus,* In this view Mr. Bunbury fully concurs, and reoc mends an adherence to the name Artisia given to these bodies,, rather tl that of Stembergia whicli name belongs to a genus of recent plants v different from these fo88ils.t

0>a/ vegetation of Prosthurg in Maryland. — There are some detaili the fossil forms at the Frostburg mines, deserving note, in an article the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, in May, 18 by Mr. Bunbury. These beautiful plants are figured and named as 1. Peeopteris ewunrginata. [Diplazites emarginatvs o( Qoppeti

Dawflon on Nora Scotim Coal plants. Qoarterlj Joarn. Geol. Soc. Loodos, May, 1 p. 1S3. t Biinborj, Ibid., p. 138. Alao Mr. Dawes, on SteraberguD, Ibid., p. 139.

INTftODUCTIOlf. XCfii

2. PecopUris eUhHeo.

3. Dammies asfdmioides. (Goppert)

With iheee feanJ feniB Mr. Bunbury describes the following less rare pilots, which were ooUected at Frostburg by Mr. Lyell.

4. Neurepteris cmrdaia — very abundant, and certainly identical with the English ptont

5. N giganteat

7. Pteaptens arboreseau.

a p (f)

10. Lepidodemdron Utragmum.

11. jL aatUatum.

12. L resembling in its markings the SigiUaria mmardi of Broogniart

J3. SigiUaria renijmmisf

14. Siigmaria ficoides,

15. AsteropkylUies foUosa. Ifi. A tuhercuhia ?

17. A equisetiformis f

18. A undescribed, but said to be found in the middle coal/'

near Manchester.

19. Artisia f

20. CaUmutes nodosus.

21. C duhiusf

Mr. Banbury remarks that the very striking similarity between the coal plants of North America and those of Europe makes it probable that a simi lar kind of climate also existed in both countries at that era ; and whatever conclusions we may arrive at, in relation to the carboniferous period in the one continent seems equally applicable to the other. Nothing, he continues, that has yet been ascertained relative to the coal formations of either conti- nent seems at all inconsistent with the suggestion of Mr. Lyell,* touching the climate of the period in question.

This view is, that the climate was then characterized by excessive mois- ture ; by a mild and steady temperature, and the entire absence of frost ; but perhaps not by intense heat. It is admitted, indeed, that our materials for the foundation of this theory are perhaps somewhat scanty ; being, chiefly, the general character of luxuriance of the carboniferous vegetation ; the great abundance of ferns ; and the presence of large leaved monocotyledo- nns plants of a tropical or sub-tropical aspect : for, with regard to the sigil- laris, stigmariae, asterophyllites, calamites, &c., their real affinites are, he thinks, too doubtful to allow us to found any arguments on them.

That extreme heat is not necessary to the existence of a very luxuriant and quasi-tropical vegetation, is sufficiently clear from Mr. Darwin's inte- resting observations on Chiloe and other islands of the southern temperate zone.t Chiloe, situated in the 42d degree of south latitude, enjoying little summer heat, and subject to perpetual rains and mists, is covered, as he states, with forests of extraordinary density, and the luxuriance of the vegetation is such, that it reminded him of Brazil. Large and elegant ferns ; parasitical monocoCyledonous plants, and arborescent grasses, reaching to the height of

TraTelt in North America, toI. i. p. 148. t Dirwia'a JoomaJ, Sd edit. p. S4S.

Xiiii iNTRODUCnOIf.

thirty or forty feet, are abundant. Indeed, in the southern hemisphere gene- rally, owing to the equable climate produced by the great proportional extent of sea, tropical forma, both of vegetable and animal life, range much farther from the equator than in our hemisphere. It appears very probable that the climate of the northern temperate zone, during the epoch in which the coal measures were formed may have been similar to that now existing in Chiloe and the adjoining parts of South America.

Still, considering that the principal coal-fields of England are situated from 13° to 15° farther north than that of Frostburg, the close resemblance of their vegetation is very striking. The absolute identity of some species is not perhaps so remarkable as the very great general similarity of the whole ; for those among the Frostburg plants, which cannot be satisfactorily iden- tified with the British species, are, in every instance, very closely allied to them. We should not find so great a degree of resemblance on comparing the recent floras of two regions separated by so many degrees of latitude, whether in Europe or North America. If we may reason at all as to climate, from the fossil vegetation of a country, we must suppose that the climate varied less rapidly with the latitude than it does at present.

In concluding this valuable paper, the writer suggests, that the plants, of which we now find the remains embedded in the carboniferous strata, may probably be but a very small proportion of those which, at that time, flouried on the earth. If, as seems to be now most generally believed, the coal bed9 are derived from the vegetation of ancient swamps or lakes, existing in the very localities now occupied by such beds of coal, we could not expect to find in them the remains of other plants than such as grew in those bogs, or lakes, or swampy forests, or immediately around them ; together perhaps with some which might be washed into them by occasional inundations. May there not have existed at the same time, in other parts of the world, [nay, perhaps at no very great distance from the carboniferous regions great tracts of country, indeed whole continents, in which the local circum- stances were unfavorable to the preservation of vegetable remains, and of which, consequently, the flora is wholly lost to us?

I think, therefore, that we ought to proceed with great caution in theo- rizing with respect to the vegetation and climate of the carboniferous era. I believe that the preponderance of ferns in the flora of the coal measures, together with the other characteristics of the fossil vegetation of that period, affords, to a certain degree, good evidence respecting the climate of those particular regions in which the coal measures occur ; but we should not be justified in extending our inferences farther. Those parts of Europe and North America, in which the coal-fields were accumulated, may have existed, at that time, in the state of islands, like those of the present Pacific ocean ; but it would be rash to infer, as M. A. Brongniart seems disposed to do, that no extensive continents at that time existed in any part of the globe. If, in all departments of geology, it is necessary to advance with caution, and to avoid dogmatism and rash generalizations, it is more especially neces- sary in the department of fossil botany, where so much of the evidence we possess is fragmentary and imperfect.*

Miscellaneous Notes As To Coal And Fossil Vegetation.

Iq continuation of this subject, we proceed to advert to the results of some observations which have been made of late years by individual naturalists.

Buobury on f'ossil Ferns. Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soc. No. 6. p. 82.

UrfBODUCTIOlf. XCIK

Were we to incorporate in this work the faets, theories, tnd speculations which have been discuBsed at different times on the coal subject, we should occupy at least an entire volume. There are many excellent treatises embracing these topics, which the reader, if seeking more information, may consult to advantage. The few notes we add here are inserted with little lenrd to classification.

The discovery, in 1839, during the progress of excavating a part of the route of the Manchester and Bolton Railway, within the limits of the Lan- cashire coal-field, of numerous fiMsil trees of the family sigillaria, standing in a vertical position, with their roots embedded in a thin coal seam, gave rise at the time to much discussion. Mr. Hawkshaw described these trees in two communications to the Geological Society.* These trunks wete wholly enveloped by a coating of friaUe coal, varying from one-quarter to three-quaiters of an inch in thickness. Their internal casts consisted of shale, traversed beneath the place of the bark by irregular longitudinal fiutings, less than one-quarter of an inch broad and about two inches apart

Mr. Bowman communicated a paper on the same subject He is opposed to the drift theory in accounting for coal beds, because they would have been intermixed with more earthy matter than is now proved to be the case in coal ; and because they could not have maintained that singular uniformity of thickness and character throughout so many square miles, and such extensive areas that we find prevails in the coal measures ; as an instance of which the author cites the thin seam below the Gannister or Rabbit coal, which extends in a linear direction thirty-6ve miles. It is much more rational to suppose, that the coal has been formed from plants which grew on the areas now occupied by the seams ; that each successive race of vege- utmo was gradually submerged beneath the level of the water, and was covered up with sediment, which accumulated till it formed another dry surface for the growth of another series of trees and plants, and that these submergences and accumulations took place as many times as there are seams of coal within the confines of each basin.

Mr. Bowman proceeds to the examination of the phenomena presented by the fossil trees discovered in the railroad excavations above referred to by Mr. Hawkshaw. He describes, generally, the markings on the internal casts of the trees. The only indications of scars which he could find, his practised eye recognized to be those of a sigillaria.

From a careful consideration of the phenomena presented by the fossils, the author is convinced that they stand where they originally flourished ; that thej were not succulent, but dicotyledonous, hard-wooded, forest trees; and that their gigantic roots were manifestly adapted for taking firm hold of the soil; and, in conjunction with the swollen base of the trunks, to support a solid tree of large dimensions, with a spreading top.

With reference to fossil trees in general, and especially to those nent Manchester, Mr. Bowman proceeds to show; 1st, that they were solid, hard-wooded, timber trees, in opposition to the common opinion that they were soft or hollow ; 2d, that they originally grew and died where they have been found, and consequently were not drifted from distant lands ; and 3d, that they became hollow by the decay of their wood from natural causes, similar to those still in operation in tropical countries, and were afterwards filled with inorganic matter, precipitated from water.

The author stales his reasons for believing that these were solid timber trees. In soft monocotyledonous trees, their stems never expand laterally, Proceediagf Gol. Soc. Loo., Vol. III. p. 139 $ and 2601 1840.

e niTRODucTioir.

but are as thick when only a few years old, and a foot high, as when they attain the height of sixty or one hundred feet. Their roots, also, instead of being massire and forking, generally present a dense assemblage of straight, BQcculent fibres, like those of an onion or a hyacinth.

Mr. Bowman then combato the view generally entertained, that foosil stems, with perpendicular furrows, as in the sigillaris, were succulent or hollow plants. He showed by specimens of recent dicotyledonous wood from New Zealand, that, both upon the bark and on the naked wood, longi- tudinal ribs and furrows, as regular as those on sigillaris, were displayc ; proving, therefore, that these characters are not incompatible with a dico tyledonous structure. By sliced and polished specimens of the bark of one of these fossil trees, he showed evidence of coniferous structure, proving, also, further, their dicotyledonous character. We note this decision wiUi the more particularity, since M. Brongniart at the same time had asserted that no wood of dicotyledonous plants, properly speaking, have been foand in the coal-fields,"* but has since materially changed his views on that point.

The roots of these trees are fixed in what is now a seam of coal nine inches thick. Mr. Bowman infers that one hundred years roust be the minimum of time which would be required for the production of the veg table matter out of which the nine inches of coal were produced ; and he estimates that the thickness of the solid coal is equal to about one-third that of the vegetable matter out of which it was produced.t

An instance very similar to this was detailed by Mr. Witham, in a com- munication to the Philosophical Magazine, entitled, " On the vegetation of the first period of the world, during the deposit of the transition and coal series." The author illustrates by a diagram the fossil stems of sigillaria, which occur beneath the main seam in the great Newcastle coaMdd, al one hundred and fifty yards beneath the surface.

The fossil plants sund erect in the sandstone, their roots being imbedded in the ten inch seam of coal below. '' These stems, [as shown in the figure,] are truncated aOer passing through the sandstone, and are lost in the main coal seam ; leaving room to believe that they may have formed part of this combustible mass or bed." The saginaric, the stigmarie, and the calamites, he observes, do not appear to have been sufficiently strong to have resisted the force of a current of water, but are placed horizontally.

Position occupied by Sigiliarue. — The trunks of these trees are found both in the floor and the roof of coal seams; their position commonly bein| the upper part of the coal and the lower part of its roof. The sigillarie arc arranged by M. A. Brongniart among the conifera ; by Dr. Lindley undef the name of caulopteiis, and by Ck>unt Sternberg as syringodendroos Some discussion and much new light have arisen, and it seems neari] settled that the numerous tribe of sigillarie are to be removed altogethe from the arborescent ferns to the dicotyledon family. M. Brongniart ha been able to take the measurement of one of these stems, which was hori lontally extended to the distance of more than forty feet ; but has rarely hai opportunity to examine their height, their general form, and their mode o termination, on a large scale, in the mines.

In FtMiiisiylvania wo have had some favourable opportunities of observin, and illustrating the position of enormous trunks in the anthracite mine The Transactions of the American Philosophical Society contain a memoi

Hittoire dot VegeUax Fottilet.

t Prnceedin Geol. Soc. London, Vol. III. p. 270.

tPhiUMif.JaKumry, 1830.

nrrRODUCTKNI. ei

on the fowil stems of large trees belonging to the family of sigillaria, which ooeur both in the roof aiMi floor of a coal seam in Dauphin county.* They consist of seYeral species of these trees, which are displayed in a very inter- esting roanoer upon the nearly vertical walls of the vein for several hundred feet in length.

Tke FUor, — As usual in Pennsylvania, the bottom slate" consists of iadorsted day and shale, more or less laminated. This lamination, it may be observed, is principally due to the flattened sheets of enormous sigillaria. Very few of these compressed trunks are of a less diameter than two feet ; any of are three feet; several are four and four feet and a half wide, and one specimen is at least five feet broad in its flattened diameter. More than a hondred of these are exhibited in the drawing which illustrates the paper referred to. The coal seam had not at the time commenced to be worked ; and as its position was approaching to vertical, the gallery of explora- tkm wo conducted longitudinally along it, having the floor on the riffht hand and the roof on the left. Consequently, although several hundred feet in length of walls were exposed on either side, the height denuded was comparatively limited, and afforded little chance for determining the length of tiM tranka. In no instance was the area of excavation sufficiently exten- sive to exhibit either extremity of these gigantic stems, notwithstanding that many of them are inclined in such a position as to be exposed for thirty, forty, and fifty feet of their length, without much apparent diminution or Upiiing upwards, and are perfe<uly straight.

Rm.'Th'iB is the north or hanging wall of the vein, and consists of coarse siliceous conglomerate of white quartz pebbles. Between it and the coal, and embossed, as it were, upon the surface of the pudding stone, is a very thin coating of clay slate, and an extraordinary assemblage of prostrated trunks of sigillarise. In diameter they are much smaller than those of the species which form the floor. Instead of being straight like them, these are bent or curved, and some of them appear to be dichotomous, and to possess the characters of 8, elegans. Such is the scale, as regards height, of these trees, that the extent of cleared space was, as in the floor, inadequate to elucidate their entire developement at any point or in any bstince.

One specimen, although laid bare for a length of more than flfty feet, showed no signs of either termination, and looked as if it might have extended thirty or more feet further. Another exhibited sixty-five feet in length, of a flexoous stem, which, apparently, extended at least thirty feet beyond. A third, the most interesting of the group, showed at its base what obscurely seemed to be the root Near this base the stem was about two feet and a half in diameter. Forty feet up the trunk it measured two feet broad, and continued in about this rate of diminution as far as it was traced. Seventy feet in length of this specimen occur above the level of the floor of the gallery. It was followed, by direction of the author, several feet further, below the floor, and in all was perhaps from eighty to one hun- dred feet high when growing ; but of this, and of the character of that foperior termination, we have no present knowledge. It was covered with a bark of anthracite, about half an inch to three quarters or more thick. The interior cast consisted of shale or Are clay.

On applying to this interesting illustration of the ancient flora, Mr. Loffan's views as to the universal presence of the stigmaris in the argillaceous floors of coal scams, and of their absence in the roofs, it was' found that in this r bj Mr. Ricbtrd C. Tmylor, ik Trent. Amer. Phil. Soc., VoK IX. part U. 145.

eii orraoDucnoif.

inBUnce, where t surface of seven or eight thousand feet had been recently denuded, stigoiarie were rare. Only two well deBned specimens, but of small size, were obserred. One of these was seen in the roof above the coal ; the other in the floor, below il : but detached leaves were abundant in the lower shale. Six other species of fossil plants were observed in the roof, and seventeen species in the floor.* As usual in the coal seams of this country, a remarkable contrast appears in the condition of the roof and floor. While the appearance of the floor attested the state of tranqoillity under which the mud of the ancient surface had accumulated, and the pressure that had flattened those enormous stems of sigillaris upon which the coal appears to be based, the roof, on the contrary, exhibits the usoal indication of violent action of the waters, in the rolled fragments of sab- jacent rocks, and in the proetration and drifting of gigantic trees, such as we have described above.t

A few of these prostrate trees are very imperfectly represented, as regards scale and details, in the following figure, which has been reduced from a very elaborate drawing.

For further details of fossil vegetation in the formations between th< carboniferous series and diluvial accumulations, the reader is referred to thi occasional notices under the heads England, France, Austria, Prussia, 6lc

USUAL POSITION OF STIGMARLfi, IN THE FLOORS OF COAL BEDS.

The existence of beds of Stigmaria, in the slate and fire clay which sc generally form the strata, upon which coal seams repose, has been pointe< out by various persons ; in particular by Mr. Loean, who found it to hole good in the coal-fields of both the European and American continents. It h due to earlier observers, however to state that this fact had long since beei noticed by Mr. Martin, Dr. McCulloch, and others, including numberles working miners.

In a communication to the British Association by Mr. Binney, in 1849 it appears that the workmen in the principal coal-fields in England, mor especially that of Lancashire, regard the presence of stigmaria as a favoui able evidence of the vicinity of coal.

All the floors, with the exception of one rock floor, in the Lancashii region, from the thin coal seams in the Ardwick limestone, to the two seam in the Millstone Grit, a thickness of near sixteen hundred yards, contai Stigmaria ficoides. All the fifteen floors of the Manchester coal-field coi tain them ; and at least sixty-nine beds in the middle and lower divisior of the Lancashire field.

He adds, [a fact we greatly doubt,] that, in all instances of true fioor the stigmaria occurs without any intermixture of other plants.

Sir Henry T. De la Beche corroborated the former portion of this stat ment as regards Glamorganshire, Somersetshire, Yorkshire, Scotland, ar Ireland ; and said that he had never seen a workable coal bed which did ii bear out Mr. Binney's conclusions.

Proeeedingfl Americm Philotophical Society, Vol. III. p. 149. t Trans. Amar. Phil. Soc., Vol. IX. part II. 1845.

iimu)iyi7noir. ciH

Mr. Logan showed that below every regalar seam of coal, in South Wales, [and nearly 100 are known to exist there, is constantly found a bed of clay, so well known to the collier, that he considers it an essential accom* puunent of the coal ; and only where it ceases, does.he give up his expeo- Mioo of finding coal.

These beds are most strongly marked by containing innumerable specimens idSiigmaria JUaides. The stems of this plant, which are usually of const* denble length, are said, by Mr. Logan, to lie always parallel to the plane of tiie bed, ai nearer to the top than to the bottom. Portions of the stem of the Stigmarim are found in other parts of the coal measures, but it is only in the imderclay that the fibrous processes are attached to the stem, or are associated with it.* The same rule appears to hold good in the coal form* iMioo of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the United States.

With regard to the specific plant whose remains have chiefly contribated to form our coal seams, different views have been advocated at times, by natunlists. Without assenting to the doctrine, that each bed of coal ii an ancient Sdgmaria bog,t we think that many other plants united to make op the maas, and that Sie predominant character of these may, in great nnaoure, be inferred from an inspection of the shales, slates, clays, and sand- stones, which occur in close contact with the coal itself In Pennsylvania we have had abundant opportunity of observing coal seams, whose roofs and ioors were crowded with sigillaria, and showed but rarely the traces of Stigmaria, or of those forms which are now ascertained to be the roots of the Sigillaria itself. In other cases, the prevailing plants of the shales, on which the coal rested, appeared to be Stigmaris ; while the roof contained chiefly Sigillaris, and Lycopodiaces. On the whole, we were at one time quite indmed to adopt the view of M. Brongniart, that the mass of coal vegetation was more likely to have been derived from Sigillaris than from Stigmaria. The great number of leaves, he observes, which the Sigillares bore, along their whole length, and which evidently were disarticulated, and bad fallen to the then surface of the earth, announce a life of some duration, and a growth which required a considerable lapse of time.|

One thing appears to be pretty certain, — that the coal-fields exhibit alter- nate intervals of repose and of energetic action by currents of water — in other words, of a series of epochs of dry land and of inundation. These evidences testify that, after long periods which favoured the quiet growth and accumulation of masses of vegetable matter, they were abruptly termi- nated; and that this state of things was succeeded by overwhelming cur- rents, which prostrated the forests of Sigillarise or arborescent ferns; rooted in the ancient surface, and covered them with a debacle derived from older formations, and which we now recognize under the term conglomerates.

During an investigation of the coal beds of Dauphin county, in Penns34- vania, we had ample means of observing, at leisure, these facts : and it was een, that while the floor of every coal seam consisted of shale, its roof, iA the majority of cases, consisted of pudding-stone, whose lower side was im- pressed and embossed with enormous casts of prostrated Sigillarie.

Before quitting the subject of coal vegetation, or rather that of the Sigil- Ivic and Stigmarie, whose exuvis are considered mainly to form our coal seams, the progress of discovery in regard to the real nature of those plants,

Procccdinfi 6ol. Soe. Loodon, Vol. iii. p. 275.

t Procliag orth American Philosophical Society, MtT, 1843, p. 18S. t BroMfaurt, llittoire dee VegeUus Foeailefl. For deuile of foMil veyeUtioo in Great intaia, ac fiafUad.

oiT mrioDucTioN.

is too interesting to be omitted here. M. Brongniart, sAer dissecting their stems, ad arrived at the same conclusion as Mr. Bowman, that these fossils had been wrongly classed with monocotyledonous plants, and from a com- parison between the fossil and the stems of those recent vegetables which present the closest analogy, M. Brongniart concludes " that the Sigillaris constituted a peculiar fiimily of conirous plants, now extinct, which pro- bably belonged to the great division of gymnospermous dicotyledons. In their external forms they somewhat resembled the Cacte or Evpkotinm; but, by their internal organization, they were more nearly allied lo the Zomim or Qfcadut. The leaves and fruit of these trees are unknown, for no satisfactory connection has yet been established between their sterns and the foliage, and seed-vessels, with which they are collocated."*

But the most important discovery yet announced, relates to the character of the fossil genus Siigmaria which, after all the speculations to which its ap- pearance has given rise, seems to result in determining it to belong to, andt in reality, to form parts of, the Sigillaria itself Instead of the Stijnuarie be- ing aquatic plants, as it has been customary to consider them, M. Brongniart, author of the elaborate Memoir on the Sigillarie, from a careful exam- ination of the internal structure of the Stigmaris, contended that ihew not aquatic plaitts, hut ike roots ofJgiUma; the central axis, or cylinder, bearing a close analogy in organization to the stems of those trees."

This opinion of the eminent French Savant, has been confirmed by the discovery, near Liverpool, in coal strata, of an upright trunk of a Sigillaria, nine feet high, with its roots, eight or nine feet in length, still attached, and extending in their natural position. These roots are undoubted Stigwusrim efike usual spedes S.Jicoides ; and the radkiUs formerly considered Uaiees are spread out in all directions to the extent of severed feetA

The existence both of Conifers and Cycade®, which heretoi<M bad been doubted, in the coal measures of the former world, is now established satis- factorily. M. Alex. Von Humboldt assures us that the Conifers have oof only relationships with the Cupulifere and the Betulinee, by the side oi which we encounter them in the brown coal formation, but they are furthei connected with the Lycopodits. The family of the sago4ike Cycadea approaches the palms in external appearance whilst agreeing essentially witl the Conifer® in the structure of the flowers and fruit In the coal mei sures of Nova Scotia, fossil Conifers are very abundant, as Mr. Dawaon ha shown.}

Since the statement of Mr. Binuey, respecting the two fossil trees witl marked roots resembling Stigmaria, which were discovered at St. Helens ii Lancashire, Mr. Dawson has described numerous correonding instance in the coal-shales of Nova Scotia, and Mr. Bunbury states that Sie syrom< tical quicuncial arrangement of the scars in the Nova Scotia specimens, th presence of the eccentric axis, and the general appearance of the fossils, leai no doubt that they are referable to the supposed genus Stigwunria* D Lindley, who seems to have been the first to hint,f that Stigmaria migl possibly be the root of Sigillaria, compares the dome-like centre and radiatin arroa of Stigmaria with the roots and base of the stem of Sig. packyderwudm

Mr. Bunbury, in discussing the progress of his investigation into the oh

Medals of Creation, Vo). i. p. 138—140.

t CommuDication to the BritUn Ataociation, 1843, by Mr. Binuey.

t Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soc. or London, May, 1846.

% Fenny Cyclopedia, art. Coal planta, 1837.

II Fotsil Flora, t. 64.

ntnoDucncnc. ov

ncler of these remarkable eztioct forms of vegetable life, obaerves that the milaritj of the Tasciilar tisBue of the Sigillarie to that of feroa is not a sufficient proof of any real affinity to that tribe of plants, since Mr. Brown hM aaceruined that vessels of a similar structure, constitute the whole of the woody tissae of Mfyzodemdnm, a genus of parisitical flowering plants, allied to the misietoe, and totally dissimilar to ferns.*

A very aatisfaetory and characteristic specimen, showing unquestionably that the Stignwria Is the root of the Sigillaria, has lately been brought to light from the Victoria pit at Dunkinneld, in the Manchester coaT-fieldy where, at the depth of tOOO feet, the fire clay, in which the tree was imbed- ded, ooderliea the cannel coal. This was first noticed by Mr. M. Dunn, and has since been described by Mr. Binney ,-t and is now in the collection of the Mancheater Geological Society.

The stem of thia fossil is unquestionably that of a Sigillaria ; exhibiting all the ribs, farrows, and scars of that genus. It is four feef, ten inches in eircimiference at its base. On the outside is a coating of bright coal, one third of an inch in thickness; very much resembling that found on the Apackydenma. In every respect, Mr. Binney observes, this stem resem- bles the two trees found in the St Helen's mine, before alluded to, and also to the Dixon Fdd trees, described by the late Mr. Bowman.

The roots mdoally assume all the true characters of Stigmaria, with depressed are<Me, dtc., and have been traced for fifteen feet ; at which dis- tance they average about six inches across, without any signs of terminating.

Mr. Binney concludes his description of these fossil trees with the remark, that it seems evident that Sigillaria was a plant of an aquatic nature, from the position of the St. Helen's trees, which were found on the identical spots whm they grew, imbedded in a fine silty clay, sixteen yards above and sixteen yards below, or midway between two seams of coal.

SigiUarim and Stigmaria: of the American CaUfields, — In confirmation of the last named English observers, and in addition to those discoveries pre- viously cited, by several geologists in British America and the United States, we have more recently had the evidence of many similar fossil trees in the Sydney coal-field of Cape Breton, described by Mr. Brown.

The sea cliffii on the north-west shore of Sydney Harbour, present an inte- resting section of the coal measures, and unusual facilities for observation. Fossil trees are seen therein at various levels, but abundantly in a stratum of arenaceous shale, lying almost immediately under the main coal, where, within a space of eighty feet, eight erect trunks are seen, with their roots and rootleu attached to them. They all occur at right angles to the planes of stratification, and belong to the same species ; ting evidently young indi- fiduals, which range from two to sixteen inches in diameter only. Mr. Brown's paper is illustrated by drawings of these fossils as they appeared in their native sites. Their bark, converted into bright coal, is very thin ; it is marked with longitudinal furrows and ridges.

The roots, which are true Stigmaris, with rootlets or [as they generally have been called] leaoes, spreading out in every direction, are about three inches in diameter at their junction with the stem. Two of these roots, in the phint figured, have been followed to their terminations, where they gra- dually thinned oat to a mere line in one direction, being about three quar-

Mr. Baobttfj oa Stigmirnft, Qvurterly Joornal Geo]. Soe. of London, Vol. ii. p. 136. Qawtcrlj Jovrnil of the Goolog Icml Soeiety of London, Vol. ii. p. 990. I Trtanctiou of Uie Maachoator GoologicAi Societj, Vol. i. p. 111. S QMrtnrij JostmI Gtol. See. Loadon, Vol. ii. p. WS.

O

TIkj m gtuenSij thickly stodded with tuberdeit, wfink amngemeiit, aod are covered with a thin

1W jeatcs or rootkti wyiBg in length from three to twelve inches, are mmemoi; hoag bmnikr near their junction with the roots than at aarocker poinL

Afl ibese eiii u wetm anfficieni to prove that Stigmarie and their leaves are, in reatirr, the roots and roodeta of a class of trees, allied probahly tni Sigittnrie.

Oi dm Aoif Figtimiim rf — bj J. £. Teschemacher— widi

An iayottam sowie of infovnaiion is presented by the vegetable remains existii in the coal itself; leaving out of consideration time in the shaly rm6 and ckycy ioots of the mine& The Pennsylvania anthracites offer any spcciaaens of these. What termed charcoal is commonly found in seasKi and cnvieea in the coal ; and in most of this, the vegetable tissues, aUnmgh carbonised, are in perfect preservation.

Mr. T. pioeee4s m descnbe a series of coal plants from Carbondale, in

He coosidcvs S| as the stems of RUees observing, " It seems to It ainwst laynanhlr not to be convinced, by the arguments of Brongniart, ihnft these are the steasof the arborescent fems, whose leaves are scattered in such oNJnsKMi aionnd thto — although I am aware that both Goppert ami Liaidiey have witldicld their asBcnt lo this opinion."

TW peeMt piohably the most fitting place to allude to a late valuable osttihiifum to onr knowkdge of the intenial structure of fossil plants, in ihn of JL Cordis entttled Contributions to a Flora of the Ancient WofUL''' The lolkMrinf notices, derived chiefly from the Journal of the GeMfagkdl S<metv of London* aie sekcted with reference to their bearing tihr 6fluiiMn c/ pbnis which we have been considering.

%taii i#> TW author diflm from M. A. Brongniart, respecting the fcm 1 01 tWtie ptasw He believes that the Sigillarie were succulent IhMvcMkdk cKKh allied to the recent Eupborbie.

TW ol iW SigiUaris have been hitherto unknown, except in th< rHthwainni'ir hfMtdtmAnfdm as figured and described by A. Brong

)!. V\mi Atxwtted t W leaves of S. rkytidoiqns, which bear a stronf TjjmJowK lk> tWwir X kmiUtrndn/bha and other species; and it k jwMW iWi 9caae K>f the so-called LqridapkyBa, which occur ver tMi|aitwi> itt a laie* in tW coal formations, may be the leavea o

akMMe trt'vfMSMM in agiettent widi a M. A. Brongniart, that tb ilin|fiiMitii ?cirwM linnnf tW period of the coal formation, wa

iiiM% WA 94ii tW nnaiber of fasti plants in each formatiof iKf .*iin 4M Ar WMi4iit WT m pioportion to that of othc MbKK %. uiiMi%Mfc<H disiriboted by tribes, and accordin 4Ki ivMo,. %,.ntinnswtw mhh tW? occni; abo a list of fossil fera V 4Kr Tivvtwat vJT tW Kw*i tW recent species, know

INTRODUCTION. OVis

of ench tribe : tnd a table enamereting the arborescent ferns, known in a veeaot and in a foasil state, and also the Mdrattiace€B, known in each of these states, comparing them with the total number of ferns, recent and ibsmL

As to the doss rf Plants which form the Coal Vegetation, — According to M. Burat, there are about three hundred species of coal plants recognized ; of which fi?e*flizth8 belong to the cryptogamous vasculaires [?ascular crypto- garni 1] that is to say, to the ferns, the calamites and neighbouring fiimilies. These vegetables form one-sixth of the actual existing flora.

The coal vegetation, which is remarkable for the predominance of the ootjledonoos species, is most analogous to that of the existing epoch where developed in certain low and humid islands in the wannest latitudes. T%e researches of M. A. Brongniart in this vegetation, showing that it resem- bles that of oar equatorial regions in the abundance of equisetacesB, palms and arborescent ferns, leaves no doubt respecting the origin of the coaJ, and we can even find direct proo& in the mechanical analysis of certain varie- ties

Coal Shales.'-We believe it is now generally admitted that nearly every coal seam in the world is imbedded upon an argillaceous stratum, more or less indurated, in every gradation, between soil fire-clay and compact slate. These argillaceous beds are characterized by the abundant traces of the fossil vegetable, Stigmaria, which rule is sufficiendy exact, in most instances, to enable the miner, when engaged in exploring for coal beds, to distin- guish, with the aid of some other obvious characters, between the shales which form the roof and the floor of those veins, or what is commonly termed their ''top slates" and bottom slates."

In some of the coal-fields of Europe, the top slates" or roofs are as much characterized by courses of nodular iron ore, as the fine clay floors are distinguished by their fossil vegetable traces. In the United States, the clay iron ore, although occasionally present, does not seem so abundant as in Europe.

The carboniferous shales contain but little bituminous matter, in America; and generally speaking, we believe, not in England or Wales. In Scotland we are assured the shale is often so bituminous as to be used for fuel ; as at Pitfirrane in Fifeshire, and other places ; and it gradually passes into pure coal.*

The upper shales or '' top slates" are seldom so regular as the bottom slate. They are commonly thin interposing seams between the coal and the overlying sandstone. In Pennsylvania it is of very common occurrence that beds of coarse gritstone and conglomerate are in immediate contact with the underlying coals ; showing that the period of quiet which marked the deposit of mud and clay in which the stigmarise are imbedded, and that of the tranquil accumulation] of vegetable matter which forms the purest coal veins, was abruptly succeeded by a period in which the waters were in a state of tumultuous agitation ; — when the trees on the then existing sur- face were prostrated and buried beneath thick beds of pebbles and gravelly debris.

Origin of Coal — In relation to this subject, M. Burnt has noticed that, as a great number of varieties of coal contain much more ashes than they had in the vegetables from which they were formed ; as, in other cases, the ashes are not of the same nature as the vegetable ashes ; as, moreover, in a great number of instances, we find very small lines of schist intercalated in Nicols* Guide to the Geology of Scotland, p. 64.

mm

niTBODUCTKWI.

the cotl ; as erea adeoled portions alwajrs furnish t considenUe propor> tion, these extraneous matters may have preserved some historical facts in negard to the formation of coal.

On proceeding to the mechanical analysis of these coals, we perceive that they are formed of thin and superposed lamina, which are composed sometimes of pure, specular coal, yielding scarcely two per cent of ashes, and sometimes a dull schistose coal, which contains twenty or twentyfive percent,

The results of these alternations of layers is a diversfied structure, in the direction of the stratification, and a series of layers which present frequent traces of vegetable tissue. This analysis demonstrates that the coal is hete- rogeneous, and is composed of superposed alternations, the one consisting of pure particles which are the result of vegetable decomposition, the other of earthy parts, produced by the action of water, more or less charged with argillaceous matter. The vegetables of which the coal is compond, both IL Brongniart and ML Burat conceive belong chiefly to the small species of genus calamite ; in that respect difiering from the larger plants, whoae debris is found in the slates and sandstones.

Therefore, from these data, we may conclude that these little alternating bands represent a production and a periodical destruction, like those whica night result from the seasons of the year. The brilliant or specular lamine are the decomposed vegetables of this period ; the dull or earthy layers represent a portion of this decomposition mixed with impurities such as may be attributed to the invasion by waters holding argil in suspension, and whose periodical return has been one of the causes of decomposition. To the influence of these immersions must be attributed the effects of erosive currents, which have brought together, at certain poinu sometimes thick zones of specular coal, and sometimes beds wherein cart>onaceous schist oi clay predominates.

Thus, then, the coal-fields may have been produced, in great measure, bj the growth, on the spot, of small vegetables, in the manner of peat or tur baries ; whilst the larger vegetables may have been drifted from distant am elevated points, when the oscillations of the surface produced the intermp tioQ or the renewal of this generative action, in placing the coal surfiici above or below the level of the sedimentary waters.

This hypothesis explains, not only the formation of the thin and multifbli beds, in the basins of the north of Europe, for instance, but they also agre with the generation of the thick and limited basins of the south, and of th great accumulations, like those of Montchanin.

The distinctness of the planes of separation demonstrate that the two prii cipal generators were not susceptible of being confounded ; in other wordi the deposits of sand and clay were efiectuated in the water, whilst the coal, o the contrary, has been produced above these wsters. Coal, then, is no properly speaking, a sedimentary deposit, produced by the transportation vegetables, or by floating rafb, as has sometimes been supposed ; and yel i production has taken place very near to the surface of the water, since it hi had frequent penetrations of the two generating influences, which thi accumulated, side by side, products so diflerent

These views of the origin of coal ought evidently to be extended to all tl series of fossil combustibles, which represent the vegetable accumulations various geognostic periods. The anthracites of the transition formatioi owe their dry and meagre nature only to the difierence in the mode of d composition, determined by the special conditions of the surface of tl

IMTEODUCnON. CIS

globe at fbat eailj epoch. It is to be remarked, that if our theoretical ideas of ibe formatioo of the globe induce us to attribute this difference to the phenomena of temperature and pressure, which appear to have affected the locks of the anthraxiferous epoch, this opinion is completely confirmed by ibe anlbncitoos state of the combustibles, subsequent to the coal pei'iod, which we encounter in the metamorphic formations. We cannot, in fact, doobt that, in the second case, the phenomena of heat and pressure are the modifying causes of beds which originally consisted of coal or lignite.

The tertiary uoHirKS have generally preserved their ligneous tissue so fiilljy that we can recognize, in many of the fragments, the nature of the coDstitaent wood. The fir, the alder, the beech, and the oak, form the Boat fieqnent debris of the lignites of the Alps, and they thus denote a complete change in the vegetation of the earth since the coal period. They are the true fossil forests, which likewise differ from the coal beds by a more circumscribed accumulation, and by a less complete stratification.

In certain exceptional cases, the lignites have a compact structure, almost comparable to that of coal. They then constitute what is called common Jef. This is the ordinary character of the lignites in the environs of Mar- seilles; which give rise to an annual production of more than a hundred thousand tons. These lignites form, seven perfectly regular and stratified beds, within the tertiary basin, at Fuveau, Crest, Auriol, &c. ; the thickness of each of which beds [from one to three feet,] preserves such constancy that it may be recognized by this character alone, in the divers parts of the basin. These beds are comprised between calcareous strata ; they are sub- ject to the numerous movements, inclinations, folds, faults, and upheavings which have disturbed the various portions of the tertiary basin.

Among these accidents, there is one which is peculiar to the lignites, and which is known under the denomination of mouiUkres. These consist of portions of beds where the lignite is so fissured and decomposed that it has become very permeable to water. The workings encounter the double difficulty of abundant infiltration, and a production of no value. In their normal state these lignites have much the appearance of coal, but they have not its quality. Nevertheless, in certain positions, in Tuscany, for instance, we find some small beds of a lignite sufficiently perfect to furnish a coke, on distillation.

The general character of lignite is such, that it cannot be considered as poaseaaing a regularity comparable to the coal beds.

(Mite Beds — Contain Zamia, fragments of which are found in the lower calcareous bed of the group— or perhaps in the inferior portion of the cretaceous series. These plants are accompanied by paladinae or helices, which consequently indicate the passage of fresh water in the seas of this epoch, where are seen the remains of large coniferse, rooted in the soil, analogous to the Araucaria, now strangers to the present climate of England. But in the midst of these coniferse we find plants which have a resemblance to the Cycas and the Zamias of the tropical climates, and also the animal relics which approach to those of the same zone. The dirt bed of Portland, which incloses trees still in place, attests the existence of a vegeuble soil, of earth almost dry, which rests upon the marine de- posits. This bed has since been re-covered by very powerful beds of fresh- water limestone, and then passes under the green sand which follows the chalk.

The Wealden group — incloses various vegetable debris — some of which resemble that of the Portland beds — and we meet with, in place, and in a

jCX niTBODUCTIOlf.

Siliceous state, the tranks of Cycadeas: MantdUa Nidifarmis. With these occur various species of conifers, besides the fragments of equisetace and forms of a peculiar species.

TriaSf or the Oris Bigarri or copper group. This great formation which in France has received the name of Trias, because it incloses three principal parts, is composed of deposits of sandstone and marls, of varied colours, which have given to the sandstone the name of Gres Bigarr, [red and white] and to the marls, that of Marnes Irises. The two latter in England are known under the name of the upper new red sandstamt ami red marl

In this group vegetation has undergone great modifications. The ferns and the gigantic equisetacete have considerably diminished ; while the co- nifers, on the contrary, have become more numerous : plants, analogous to the Zamia, and perhaps to the Cycas, formed at that time an important por* tion of the flora of Europe; a prelude to the immense development which they made in the succeeding epoch—'* Pepoquejurassique" or lias.

Vegetable debris and combuatibles of the Molasst, This tertiary forma* tion occurs above the Caleaire Orossier, in the environs of Paris.

The Molasse is very rich in combustible; it encloses the lignites of Languedoc; of Switzerland ; the most part of those in Germany, as well at those of Cologne. All the lignites appear to have been principally formed by the comfcnt of which we are able to recognize the tissue, either in the mass of combustible or in the wood which is disseminated in the midst ol the various deposits.

It is known, however, that in this formation there are also many dicoty ledonous plants, the wood of which is found disseminated here and there sometimes in a silicified state, clearly exhibiting the tissue peculiar to thii class of vegetables, and characterized, above all, by the presence of large longitudinal vessels.

Leaves also exist ; oAen abundantly, even in the clays which accompani the lignites, and in these can be recognized distinctly the characters whiol the dicotyledones present. Among them are those of the walnut, th< maple, elm, birch, &c.

There exist even fruits, which often cannot be distinguished from thosi which we find at the present day in our climate.

Finally, there are found in this formation the remains of monocotylc donous plants. This wood presents all the structure of the palms; that i to say, an aasemblage of ligneous bundles, disposed longitudinally, withou regularity, in the middle of a cellular tissue, as in Palmaciies Lamatumis.

Cupriferous Lignites.

Vegetable remains under this form present themselves in various geo]< gical positions and circumstances, which will be noticed in the progress ( this work.

In the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia they occur in tl regular coal measures. Mr. Hen wood has mentioned this interesting fact- that lignites, consisting of ferns and other coal plants occur impregnate with rich vitreous copper ore and coated with green carbonate of copper, c the Nipisiguit, near Bathurst in New Brunswick.t These vegetable remaii are, according to Mr. Logan, partly converted into coal, and partly rcplaci by gray sulphuret of copper. The same occurs in the neighbourhood Pictou in Nova Scotia, in considerable quantities, and also within the limi

Court ElmenUire dHittoire Nmtnrelle, par M. F. S. Beudant. fMr. Heowood in Timot. Royal Geol Soc of Cornwall, 1840.

nrmoDucTioN. eu

of tlie same coal-field at the Joggins on the Bay of Fundy. On the Nipi- aiguit it baa e? en been attempted to work the deposit as a copper mine ; but, OB aGCoant of the irregular distribution of the organic remains, the opera- tions became unceruin and led to the abandonment of the work. This bed is fiom two to four feet in thickness.*

In Ptwuyhawia, United States, beds of vegetable stems, impregnated with YitreoQs copper and green carbonate, occur in the shale or argillaceous beds at the base of the Devonian or old Red Sandstone series. In two, or tliree instances, within our own observation, these were commenced to be worked as copper mines, but the quantity of ore was found insufficient for productive operations. The mineral occurs in the form of rich gray sul- phoret of ccyper. So far as our remarks have extended, it is only the ter* restrial and not the marine vegetation of this formation that is cupriferous.

In the JStaie of New York, cupriferous lignites occur in about the same geological position, in the Catskill mountain series. They consist, like the preceding, of vegetable casts, replaced by gray sulphuret and carbonates of Gopper.t

Professor Del Rio mentions certain beds of this character with which he had become acquainted.

In Russia, in the carboniferous beds which are considered by Mr. Mur- chisBon to be of the same age as the Zechstein of Germany and the magne* aian limestone of England. The flora is peculiar to it ; and the fossil stems and leaves of plants are very general indications of copper ore, which, in the form of gray oxide and green carbonate, is disseminated through or arranged around them.

The Kupper Schufer of Germany represents this metalliferous deposit on a smaller 8cale.|

In the Tjfrol, in the upper tertiary coal beds of the valley of the Inn- cupreous vegetable fossils occur.

ThwriMgia is remarkable for a cupriferous schist, with lignites and fossil fishes.

In the Spanish Pyrenees, Mr. Logan examined, within the coal measures, a bed which presented a combination of coal and gray sulphuret of copper, in the form of vegetable casts. These occupied an eighteen inch seam, cropping out regularly and extensively. It was then worked as a copper mine, and promised a profitable return.

In Ireland, in a bog on the east side of Glendore Harbour, the peat was find to be highly impregnated with copper, which was extracted from the burnt ashes.5J

In Scotland and England, some of the beds of the old red sandstone have a green tinge, and the more argillaceous beds are mottled with red and green. The former hue arises from the oxide of iron, the different tints depending opon the amount of iron in the beds and on its state of oxidation, while the green colour is ascribed to the presence of copper. Whether vegetable casts occur in these beds as in the United States, we have not learned.

Turbaries, Peat-Bogs— Tou Rbi Cres, Peat-Mosses.

In varions portions of this work, under the topographical arrangemeiit which we have adopted, will be found copious details in relation to this

Report of the Geological Sorrey of Canada, 1 May, 1846, p. 63. tMa(ber*t Fourth Rert of New York Geology, p. 229.

X ProceediogB Geol. Soc. of London, vol. iii., p. 751. Ibid, vol. i.

n Logaa'i Report on the Geoloncal Survey or Canada, 1 May, 1846, p. 64.

t JaMMm's Miiieralogy of the ScottiBh Isles.

li niTRODiucnoif.

osefol combustible ; the most recent deposit, if we may so employ the term, but nevertheless by no means the least valuable, of the class of fuels whiel we have to bring under consideration. It will be unnecessary, therefore, ti recapitulate them in this place. Respecting the origin of these moden deposits, which bear some resemblance to coal- fields, it is not nninterestini to trace the process of their accumulation or development

Turbaries formed in depressions of the soil, where the shallow waten constandy remain, are found dispersed, here and there, on the sorfree o plateaux more or less elevated, or upon low plains, and often follow tki direction of the valleys, whose hollows they fill. These deposits sometiHM present several beds of the combustible, separated from each other by aril laceous, sandy, or calcareous matters ; now and then filled with the remaiai of aquatic or terrestrial mollusques which still live in the country.*

They only originate under peculiar circumsunces. They are neither in running waters, nor in deep lakes, nor in the transient poob o water which occasionally dry up. It is only produced in places where tli waters stagnate, or are slowly renewed, and have an inconsiderable depth.

The proiduction of peat is principally due to the accumulation of cellttli vegetables, which are constantly submerged and which multiply with rapidity such as the sphagnm cmifavdRy dto. To these are added a great number c terrestrial vegetables, which are brought thither by streams, either in tfasi ordinary condition, or daring inundations. Frequently, also, we find ltr| trees, which are buried more or lees deeply in the moss, and particularly i the lower parts, where they are accumulated upon the sands and clays whic form the base. Sometimes these trees appear to be standing, but most ft quently they seem to have been broken off on the spot, and thrown do near their roots, which are seen fixed at the bottom of the turbary. In e( tain cases they are extremely numerous, and seem to indicate entire forei which have been buried in the same q)ot where they grew, before the fi malion of the peat bog. All these plants conform to the existing vegetatic They consist of resinous trees, of oaks, birch, sometimes the ash, elms, The first are generally the best preserved ; they have, especially, maintain all their solidity, and are only blackened: the others, on the contrary,! to a certain extent, reduced to a rotten earth, which falls into powder on d ing. We also frequently find the remains of mammifera in these peat4x>g8,a these commonly belong to animals of the existing epoch. These aret bones of oxen, the horns of stags and roenicks, the tusks of wild boara,

Turbaries or peat4>ogs are abundant on the surface of the globe, in i cold and temperate regions, and are distributed in basins, like the coal-6el more or less expanded, at all elevations, and occupy the various depressii of its surface. They are even on the summiu of naountains, as in the Al on elevated plateaux, as in the centre of France ; or in the lowest pit where they cover sometimes immense spaces, as in Silesia, Prussia, Hano Westphalia, and Holland. Details will be found under eaeh of these k heads in this volume.

If the majority of turbaries are formed on the main land, and entirely fresh water vegetables, there are others which appear to have been depos in the marshes which communicate with the sea; as the greater pai those in Holland. Some of these deposits consist of wrack or drifted weed and marine plants, such as we still see upon the fiat and sandy ah of the ocean, and particularly upon those of Friezeland and Jutland.

Bmdaat, 6ologi6, p. 98.

irtroductidr:. exiii

It ia remarked by M. Beadant, that the hypothesis which assimilates the coal beds to the turbaries is fortified by the different characters which they present These are, on one side, the numerous debris of cellular crypto- gaml, which microscopic examination discovers in such combustibles as turf, the trees standing rooted in the middle of the deposits, and the remark- able preservation of the leaves in the schists ; on the other, the disposition ia basins, more or less extended, and isolated from each other, surrounded bj the earlier rocks ; — all circumstances which seem to indicate pools of vater, and marshy places formed in the depressions of an open country. We equently also observe that a certain number of small independent deposits form portions of a more extended basin ; of a species of lake, filled with arenaceous contemporaneous matters, at the surface of which will be Ibrroed so many separate heaps of combustible : they are, as it were, inclosed in a species of ancient valleys, along whose length they are dispersed.

Certain desposits of lignite are evidently formed in the same manner as eoal, of which they present the same characters, allures but there are othcnrs which exhibit masses of wood, thrown pell-mell, more or less bitu- minized, preserving their tissue, buried by chance, in the middle of the sedimentary deposits; reminding us of those which are driAed by great rivers, which deposit them in the lakes, or which are transported to the middle of the seas.*

In France, where every description of fuel is valuable, the working of the turf pits is carefully attended to, and, in great measure, but not entirely, is under the surveillance of government officers. At the proper place we shall quote the annual returns of these officers to the minister of the interior; when it will be seen that the value of the turf is very far from inconsiderable, and approaches even to the value of the coal itself.

The osnal process of cutting this turf is as follows. When the peat is above the level of the adjacent waters, as it is a substance always soft and easy to be cut, it is worked by digging small trenches with a succession of steps or grades of elevation, whose height is that of the spade which cuts than, say about one foot, lliese steps are separated by a breadth of at least three feet, upon which the workmen walk in file, one after the other, taking off, from each side, a series of prisms of about five inches in thick- ness. These prisms are immediately collected by the porters, chargeurs, who follow the cutters with wheelbarrows.

To raise thus a line of prisms from the whole length of a step or bench, is what is called raising a point of turf. The labourers can follow on the same step, grtuHn, in working out the successive points.

The extracted turf is carried to the drying floors, in the driest and best ventilated places in the vicinity. At first they deposit these prisms of turf flat on the ground, like bricks, and superposed to a trifling height ; then, when they have acquired sufficient consistence, they are piled in walls open to the day, about three feet in height, which form a series of broken lines in such a manner as to present solidity, and, at the same time, to permit the ab to circulate without the wind being able to upset them. It is only after complete desiccation, that they are able to pile the peat in the form of stacks, which are then thatched with stubble, to prevent deterioration ; for if it has not been well dried, it will heat, and if, on the contrary, it attain a point of desiccation too advanced, it will be crushed so as to occasion much waste.

If the peal-bog be again covered by water, there will be a renewal of its cfiiginal condition, but very often the workmen are compelled to work be*

Bendaat, Covn M6meotaire d'histoire nttarelle, p. 116.

P

0xif IHTBODUCTIOlf,

Death the surface of the water, after having lowered its level by every poesi- ble means.

The consistence of the turf being very slight when first withdrawn from the water, they employ, in extracting it, implements called Joucktett whoae forms are designed to increase the adhesion of the cutting surfaces to the matter cut. The common louchet is a spade with a lateral wing or flange, making an angle with the surface. With a single cut, this tool can detach a prism of turf whose angular surface facilitates the raising. Other louchets carry a fork, with a sprinff, which is designed to press the prism of peat against the surface of the blade.

In Bavaria, towards the sources of the M ein, the peat-beds are from six to twelve feet thick. The turf is mossy, and contains numerous buried and decomposed trees ; among whose remains we are still able to recognize many existing species.*

It will be seen from the numerous facts which we have accumulated in the following pages, and especially from the illustrations on the map of the terrestrial globe which we have annexed, how far they sustain a theory which supposes a zone or belt of coal vegetation around the earth.t

A difficulty here presents itself at the outset, by reason of the comprising ander one common denomination of coal, deposits of sexy different agea It is true that carboniferous formations appear, at intervals, in almost ever) quarter of the habitable globe, but the more recently produced coals and lig' nites have no apparent conformity with the arrangement of the true coa beds.

The greater part of the basins of true coal is decidedly limited to the spaci between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle. But the coals of late epochs, — those from the oolites up to the tertiary periods, obey no such lai of arrangement They are found in both hemispheres, extending almof from pole to pole, and crossing the range of the old coal formations almoi at right angles.

Thus we have detached coal deposits of later origin than those of tru coal, and we have occasional accumulations of tertiary lignite or brown coi southward as low as S. lat. 50, and as high northward as N. lat 70, en bracing the extreme accessible points upon our globe.

There is an immense range, although with many interruptions, eztendii in a north-west direction, over nearly half the circumference of the glob from New Zealand, Australia, Borneo, Siam, Ava, and Burmah, and aero Hindostan, and by the Caspian and Black Seas, across Europe, even the Baltic.

We are by no means certain, in many cases, of the relative ages of wl: pasaea under the ordinary denomination of coal, and besides many extensi deposits have received no scientific examination. But we know, for instaru that brown coal exists as far to the southward as Kerguelen's Land, and each extremity of North and South America and Asia, and of Africa, at t Cape of Good Hope, and Algeria ; throughout Europe, and on both abor of Greenland. Lignite, apparently of the same age, stretches, at intervi through 125 degrees of latitude, and along both the American continei from the Straits of Magellan to the Arctic Ocean.

We need not repeat here that these newer coals are at once distinguisl: by their inferior calorific power; while the naturalist recognizes them

Bunt, Geologic appliqu, p. 380.

t An £Mjr on Organic RenaiiM, bj Thomas Gilpin, Philadebia, 1S43.

nrntoDucTioN. esr

their geological associations, and by the peculiar animal and vegetable races which characterize the epoch of their formation.

Organic Remains In The Carboniferous Period.

Imneds. — Professor Agassiz remarks that, with regard to insects, their existence has been already ascertained in the coal formation, which, in my opinion, is mach more intimately connected with the paleozoic than with the secondary formations, by the whole of its organic characters."

EmtomasinMea of small size, abound in certain coal formations, and they are found after that period in a multitude of deposits.

TVtIaMef, which are unquestionably the most ancient type of (he class cmstacea, appear under the strangest and most varied forms, from their first occurrence in the most ancient palaeozoic formations. This type, however, does not go beyond the period of the coal formation, when it is replaced by gigantic ISntomostraca, which are in some degree the precursors of the Maentri,

FUkes. — When I commenced the publication of my researches on fos* sil fishes, I was acquainted with no species more ancient than that of the coal formation, and even with a very smRll number of these. Now, not only is the list of species and even of genera proper to these formations con- siderably increased, but the more ancient deposits are daily increasing more and more the number of types to add to our catalogues. The strata of the Devonian system, and those of the Silurian system, have in their turn fur- nished a contingent, which continually goes on increasing."

We cannot here resist the desire to pursue our quotations from the same Professor's Fossil Fauna of the precursor of the great carboniferous forma- tion, the old red sandstone, which also contains the most ancient deposits of coal that are yet known. The ichthyological fauna of the old red sand- stone appears in such extraordinary and fantastical forms, that the most trifling remains of the beings which lived at that epoch, cannot fail to in- terest the attention of the naturalist. In no other formation do we/ind an assemblage of fishes, deviating so strikingly from all that we are acquainted with in our own days. The study of no other fauna requires so many years before we become sufficiently familiarized with its types to venture to classify them, and fix their relations to those of other creations.

Comparisons with the remains of anterior formations would have been impossible ; because it is in the old red sandstone that we meet, for the first time, with a complete ichthyological fauna. The Silurian formation, it is true, contains some remains of fishes ; but hitherto they have been so rare, and the number of species so limited, that it may be safely affirmed that it is only with the Devonian formation that fishes have really acquired some importance among other fossils ; or, at least, that the part they performed in nature becomes appreciable."

" What first strikes one, on studying the ancient deposits is, that fishes are the only representatives of the branch vertebrata which exist in the old red sandstone, or even in the coal formation ; in so much that we have a good right to call the epoch when these formations were deposited, the reign ef fishes.

The consideration that the fishes of the old red sandstone really represent the embryonic age of the reign of fishes, has even been with me a powerful niotive to undertake the examination of these ancient animal remains, as my first MHnogrtf forming a continuation of my researches ; since it was

tsii QfTBODDCTION;

here there existed evident facts to prove the truth of this great law of the development of all living beings."

In concluding the introductory article, from whence these few brief but comprehensive passages have been selected, M. Agassiz remarks, that view- ing this assemblage of fossil fishes of the old red sandstone, as a simple groap of divers, but contemporary species, and apart from all systematic con aiderations, we are struck with the great diversity which the species really present. Who would have expected that we should ever find, in spaces so limited as those which have hitherto been explored, above a hundred species of fossil fishes, in the Devonian system alone ; that is to say, in a stage of our formations which was believed a few years ago to be confined to the British Islands, and to which, in consequence, only a local value was assigned ; and yet, all other things remaining equal, the ichthyological fauna which this formation contains, is as considerable as that which inhabits the coast of Europe ; and even although the species of the old red sandstone do not belong to so great a number of families as the living species, they are not less varied in their forms and general aspect, nor less curious in betr external characters and organization, nor less different from each other in size, and the degree of locomotive power with which they were doubtless endowed."*

Fooi'- discovered in the coalmeasures of Pennsylvania.'ln Vol. II. of the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 30th of December, 1845, is an account of fossil foot prints in the sandstone of the coal measures of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, by Dr. A. T. King. Those particularly described are reptilian foot-marks, and occui about three miles from Greensburg, and others at Derry, twenty-seven miles from the same town, which seem chiefly to have been made by riisi na/fi mamnuds.

These sites have subsequently been visited by Mr. Lyell, and form th< subject of a preliminary article, in the Quarterly Journal of the Geologica Society of London.t

The stone on which the Greensburg impressions occur, is a sandston which rises up from beneath the well-known and widely extended main c Pittsburg ten feet coal seam, whose outcrop is worked in this neighboui hood. The slabs of sandstone are separated by layers of a fine unctuoc clay, such as would be admirably fitted to receive the most delicate an faithful. impressions of the feet of animals treading upon it

Twenty-two of these Cheirotherian impressions were discovered by D King, on the under sides of the sandstone slabs, standing out in relif They occur in pairs ; each pair consisting of a hind and fore foot. The) are two rows of these tracks which are parallel, or have been formed the oi by the right fore and hind feet, the other by the left ; the toes turning oi set to the right, and the others to the left; and the distances between t successive footsteps being about the same throughout.

Mr. Lyell concurs with Dr. King as to the authenticity of these fw marks, and conceives that an important truth has been brought to lig through the exertions of the latter gentleman ; — that the land on whi forests uf Sigillaria and Lepidodendron grew, gave support also to large a breathing quadrupeds. Few reologists, he observes, will now be prepat to believe that this single species or genus of reptiles, or that one class oi

From Professor Agstsit, Monographie des poissons fossiles du vieox rouge.'* Article in Edinburgh New Phil. Joiimal, Juljr, 1846, p. 17.

The nnnber of species of fossil fishes, in the entire series of femutions, tre now kn< io M. AgMtaix, to be aot Jess tbta two tboosand. X Jounial, Vol. 11., p. 418, 184<

IMTROmJCTION exfit

of Tertebriled animab, bad possession of the islands and continents on wliich so widely-exiended and magnificent a vegetation flourished.

With regard to the other supposed impressions of various animals, they appear to be artificially formed ; probably by the Indians who occupied the coontry, and occor under entirely different circumstances to the reptilian traeka near Greenaborg. Dr. King agrees with Mr. Lyell in abandoning as aporiooa all the imprints except those of the large reptile. These reptilian tracks occur in one locality only ; no others have yet been found in the same plaee, nor under similar circumstances elsewhere.

Ropecling the traces of organic forms, other than those of vegetables, in the noal formation, we are precluded from entering into details which do not strictly comport with the plan of this work. The shales and argillace- ODS oro>beds of the coal measures, in most coal-fields, exhibit numerous remains of amckiftra and mottusea. In several instances traces otjiihes also ocear, as we have previously noticed.

In the newer coal formation of Nova Scotia, Mr. Dawson discovered scales of fishes, and traces of shells. But the most interesting discovery in that quarter, is the foot marks of unknown animals, impressed upon the sandstones. They appear to be those of birds, such for instance as are left by the common sand piper when running over a firm sandy shore. The ibot-marks of another animal were subsequently observed, and in frequent instances these were partially obliterated by rain-marks. Many beds are represented as rippled, rain-marked, or covered with worm-tracks, all indica- tive of a littoral origin. The footsteps of another animal, considered to be a reptile by Mr. Owen, were observed by Mr. Logan. This detection of animal tracks on the coal measures, is announced as the first instance we have obtained of the probable existence of air-breathing land-animals, at any period anterior to the new red sandstone.

Dr. A. T. King, in 1845, discovered, as we have already remarked, un- doubted reptilian impressions of foot-steps in the coal measures of Pennsyl- vania, proving as subsequently observed by Mr. Lyell, the existence of large air-breathing quadruped?, on the same soil which produced the forests of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron.

In relation to these interesting indications of the early inhabitants of the earth we may be allowed to cite an eloquent authority. It is strange that, in a thin bed of fire clay, occurring between two masses of sandstone, we should thus have convincing, but unexpected, evidence preserved concerning some of the earth's inhabitants, at this early period. The ripple-mark, the worm- track, the scratching of a small crab on the sand, and even the impression of the rain drops, ao distinct as to indicate the direction of the wind at the time of the shower, — these, and the foot-prints of the bird and the reptile, are all stereotyped, and offer an evidence which no argument can gainsay, — no prejodice resist,—- concerning the natural history of a very ancient period of the earth's history.

Bat the waves that made that ripple-mark have long ceased to wash those shores; for ages has the surface, then exposed, been concealed onder great thicknesses of strata; the worm and the crab have left no solid fragment to speak to their form or structure ; the bird has left no bone that has yet been discovered ; the fragments of the reptile are small, imperfect, and extremely rare. Still, enough is known to determine the fact, and that fact 18 the more interesting and valuable from the very circumstances under which it is presented."*

Aofted*! Pietaretqiie SketchM of Canada.

CXTiii IMTBODUCTIOK.

Section Iv. Mining Casualties And Provident Institutions.

On the mining casualties or accidents, and on the provident institutions, relief funds, benefit societies, eaisses de prevoyance, caisses de seeours, and similar institutions which ha?e been established for the relief of working miners, in the principal coal producing countries.

During the preparation of the present work, we had collected numerous statistical facts on a branch of our subject which appeared fraught with un- usual interest, namely, that of the casualties to which the coal miner's occupation is especially subjected, and the means which in late years, have been adopted to aflEbrd him aid under the many attendant circumstances of privation, sickness and distress.

We had originally distributed these notes under their local heads, but soon perceived that that arrangement was not likely to prove the most useful or convenient ; and that the whole matter would be more appro- priately disposed in a distinct section. The topic had acquired addi- tional interest in proportion to the accession of information, until it appeared to us that, in a philanthropical sense, few were more entitled to our calm consideration. By no government, probably, has its investigation been carried to a more praiseworthy extent than by the Belgian, and with this conviction, no apology seems necessary for adverting to the opinions and experience of some of her most enlightened official writers.

It will be born in mind that these investigations are especially directed to the case of the operatives engaged in the extraction of mineral fuel, and not in the mining generally of the metals. There appears to be a wide difference in the character of the two classes of employment. Each has its contingent difficulties, each its attendant dangers, but superadded to these are the peculiar, the instantaneous, the uncontrollable risks, in the daily operations of the coal miner. Of all descriptions of subterranean under- takings, it is conceded, that of coal mining is accompanied with the most fre- quent dangers to the workman; and the most appalling of these dangers arise from causes over which he possesses the smallest control, and which do not attend the extraction of the metalliferous ores. It is this sad experience and the urgent necessity for alleviating its calamitous results, which have called into exercise the aid of the economist; has awakened the sympathy of the philanthropist, has appealed to the aid of the rich and the protection of the powerful, and has united, in common cause, the proprietor, the ex* plorer, and the working labourer.

Influenced by considerations suggested by these and some other obvioua

circumstances, we have concentrated under one section, and proceed tc

exhibit in the following preliminary chapter, the data we have collected on

>the subject of mining casualties and miner's provident institutions, com

menciug, as we feel bound, with those of Belgium.

Belgium.

On the I9th December, 1841, M. Desmaissieres, minister of public works, made a report to the king, on the provident or relief funds, " caisst

UTTRiCUCTIOIf. exit

it S€09wr$*' of working minen, established in Belgium."* We proceed to tnoe the siibtlaiice of that excellent report, with the addition of some sub* lequent notes from the papers of M. Auguste Visscherst and others.

The crettion of private caisses de secours" in the vicinity of the Belgian ooUieriesi dates onlj from the commencement of the present century.

With the enlargement of coal mining undertakings arose more frequent easnalties among the workmen and increased demands, on very inadequate resoarcesy to alleviate the consequent distresses. The aid afforded to the ck and the wounded at this period is stated to amount to almost nothing. It was in consequence of a series of appalling accidents and deplorable loss of life in the mines of Belgium, principally in the department of Oarthe, in 1812, that the attention of the imperial government was attracted to these events, and to the means of ameliorating them. By a decree of the Emperor Napoleon, 26th May, 1812, the first " relief fund" was founded. By another imperial decree, 3d January, 1813, regulations were established concerning a subterranean police. At the entrance of the allied armies the relief fund or chest ceased to exist, and the Netherlands government did not consent to its re-establishment.

The casualties to which we have alluded were chiefly these. — On the 10th January, 1812, sixty-eight miners perished in the coal pit of Horloz; vietims of the fire damp. The 28th of February, following, twenty-two workmen were buried in the waters of the mine of Beaujonc. Hubert Goffin, a common workman, saved, by his courage and presence of mind, seventy labourers, who were buried under ground five days and nights. For this act he received the order of the legion of honour.

When the distressing catastrophes in the mines of Cockerill and of L'Gsperanee, March, 1828, and August, 1829, occurred, the government of the Netherlands granted six thousand two hundred florins; at the same time public charity and the treasury of the mining companies united to alleviate much of the suffering. Seventy-two workmen had perished by these two accidents ; eleven others were wounded ; but the warning was not yet sufficiently solemn.

On the 3d August, 1831, thirty-six workmen perished, victims of fire- damp, at the colliery of the Grand veine du hois dEpinois.

Upon the 26th June, 1833, twelve workmen fell by the same cause, at the mine of Petit Faret. The following dth of August, thirty-eight miners pe- rished by an inundation in the coal pit of Monceau Fontaine. The 3l8t of the same month, an eruption of water caused the death of thirteen more at the coal pits of Sartes. On the 16th April, 1834, fire-damp caused the death of nine workmen at the mine of Poirier. The 18th April, 1835, fifteen workmen lost their lives in consequence of fire-damp, at the coal pit of TrietKaisiH. Sixth of December following, fifteen miners perished by the same cause at the coal pit of Kessales ; five others were dreadfully wounded. On the 16th May, 1836, an inundation destroyed twenty-nine workmen, in the coal pit of Sainte-Victoire. Fourteenth June, following, twenty-two woiicmen fell victims to the detonation of carbonated hydrogen gas, at the colliery of Grand- Buis$on, Sixty workmen perished, choked, or burnt, on the 22d of June, 1838, at the coal pit of VEsperance at Seraing. The 8th of April, 1839, the " grisou' fire caused the death of fifty-five miners, at Horloz.

Rap]M>rt cnr le ctiiaes de prTOjance en faveur dea oovriera miDenn.

t Ifetice 8r reaubliaaement, en Belgique, de caiasea de prTOjance, Bmiellea, Feb.

OrTBODUCTIQIf.

Of the soliurj oates of ? ident death we have no separate record before ua, during this period, and many victims fell, isolated, without the pnblio remembering to compassionate and aid their families.

In some of the disasters we have recorded, the rojal munilicenoe, the treasury of the state, or private subscriptions, came to the succour of th parents and relatives of the victims. But the great majority remained with- out any assistance.

We extract the following table from official documents, concerning the accidents that have happened in the mines of the kingdom, from 1821 to 1840, inclusive.

Oeneral Caus.

Kmrnhti

of accldMMi.

Nonber of WorkaMS.

Mlalaf DiTWra*.

KUted.

Teul.

l0t diTitioo, Provioee of HaiMolt, ... Sd ProviRCM of Nunar ud Lnxemboiirg,

So

Totml cMQAltiM in the Kingdom, .

These cases may be subdivided under eight heads, whereby we are enabled to show the nature of the casualties, their frequency, and the mor- tality attending them.*

Naturt of tb accldonu botwoon ISSl 1840.

Nnnber of

Nnuber of Workaoo.

KUIod. (Woandtd.

TvUl.

Falling in of the roof, of ttonea, coal, &c. Dif era accidenu in the piu, ... Ascending or deecending bj ropes or chaine , PiTera caatea,

Fire damp,

Ascending and descending the laddera, . £iplosiont bj powder,

Inondationt,

3S9

Average number of workmen employed, From 1821 to 1S30, 25,960 in the Belgian coal mines, 3 From 1931 to 1840, 31,500

Mean of 20 years, 28,740 Year 1842, 39,277

The cases of fire damp, [detonation of carbonated hydrogen gas,] form the most murderous, if not the most frequent of these accidents. Below is a summary of those explosions that occurred during the period from 1821 to 1840.

Fire Damp.

Mining Dlvlskma.

Nombsr

of

accidents

Nsnber of Woiknisa.

Killed.

Wounded.

toul.

lit.— ProTince of Halnaolt, 3d. — Province of Liege,

6S

Total in the Kiogdom,

Of 37 per cent, of the whole.

lUpport as Roi, Stttistiqee de U Belgique, 1842, p. ci.

INTBODUCTIOlf.

Thus, within twenty jean, thirteen hundred and fifty-two serious acci- dents bate taken pUce, and two thousand five hundred and ninety-two victims have perished, or have been grievously wounded or maimed. This forms, on an average, one hundred and twenty-nine persons a year, in a population that may be placed at about twenty-eight thousand persons. Nine hundred and seventy-seven individuals have fallen victims to fire damp alone. But the seventeen hundred and ten miners who perished during this time, had wives and children, left in want and misery. In valuing at four, the number of unhappy creatures, dependent for their subsistence on these victims, and who were abandoned without resources, we shall have an amount of six thousand eight hundred and forty sufiering beings, whose misfortunes result from the working of the coal mines.

In November, 1841, a dreadful explosion took place in the coal mines of P. Felix, Hainault at a depth of 1450 feet, causing the death of thirty miners.

In May, 1845, another disastrous explosion of fire damp occmrred in the bottom of a coal pit, at Boussu, near Qutrrotn, where no less than one hundred and forty out of two hundred miners, who were at work at the time, lost their lives.

An explosion of fire damp took place in a colliery near Mons, March 23, 1847, at a time when fifty men were below. Of these, twenty-six were killed, and the remainder were all, more or less, wounded seriously.

The recently published Report of the Belgian mines, from 1840 to 1844, enables us to complete, so far, our table of the number of workmen who were killed or wounded by explosions of firt damp.

Number

of caset.

Number of Workmen injured.

Killed.

: Toul at Wounded. : Victims.

From 18S] to 1840,

1S40 to 1344,

In twenty-fbor ycart, - - . .

Mining Accidents— from the CompU Rendu de 1391844."

Fst division of Mines — Province of Hainault, — During the period from 1840 to 1844, inclusive, the working the mines of this province has occa- sioned 572 grave accidents, and caused to perish 291 workmen, and wounded 494 others, — 785 victims.

Hie mean mimber of workmen employed in the mines of the first divi- sion daring this period, was 27,512. It appears, therefore, that for each thousand miners, there were twenty accidents and twenty-eight victims, of which eighteen have received wounds, and ten have been deprived of life.

SecomS division — Provinces of Namur and Luxembourg. — From 1840 to the end of 1844, fifty two accidents occurred. The number of victims was sixty-six, of which thirty-seven perished, and twenty-nine received serious woonds.

The average number of miners employed during this interval, was 2450. Thus, for every thousand workmen, there were twenty-one accidents,— eleren pertons wounded and fifteen others killed ; that is to say twenty-six TictiaBa.

Third dmnom — Prceinu of Liege. — One hundred and fiftyone acci- denu, killing 218, and wounding 57 : total, 275 victims.

exxii INTRODUCTION.

The average number of minera working in this district was 10,932. Consequently, for every thousand workmen, were thirteen accidents, five persons wounded, and twenty killed ; that is to say, twenty-five victims.

General Review of the Accidents which happened in the Coal Mines of Bdgiumfrom 1840 to 1844, inclusive, — Number of accidents, 775; deaths in consequence, 546; severely wounded, 580, — total number of victims, 1126.

Average number of miners employed at this period, 40,894. This is nineteen accidents, fourteen persons wounded, and thirteen killed; total victims, twenty-seven for every thousand.

Table of the Natwre of these Accidents, arranged in the order of their frequency or number.

Number.

Falling of stones, crushing of roof, dtc, - - 271

Divers causes, 159

Accidents in the pits, 120

From ropes and chains, - - 68

Fire-damp, coups de feu, "grisou" - - 64

Falls from ladders, 47

Explosion of powder, 33

Inundations, 13

Total, 775

In the table below the same accidents are classed after the order of their importance.

Naturt ofUie AeeidenU.

Namber of Workmen.

Woanded.

KUed.

Total of TicUma.

Firedamp, - . - - Fall of ttonei, cmahiof in, fcc.,

Varioot cautea,

VarioQi accidenta in the pita, - From rooea and chaina, - FaUing from laddera, Exploaion of powder,

Inondationa, . .

ToUla, - -

15S So

as

In pursuance of this momentous subject of coal mining accidents, the recently published report of the mining operations between the years I84C and 1844, inclusive, developes some interesting statistics. It is seen thai while the production of coal in the kingdom has increased twenty per cent the number of working miners has only augmented seventeen per cent

In the same lapse of time the total number of these disasters augroentei thirty-nine per cent, and that of the victims have increased only nineteei per cent. This augmentation of the number of victims bears prindpall upon the wounded, which has increased fifty-two per cent, while the nombc of killed has diminished to fifteen per cent

The following Uble, derived from the Compte Rendu de 1839-1844, is arranged in the order of importance of the several classes of accidentSy f separate periods of time, and calculated by the actual per centage in evei thousand workmen.

Introduction.

Czxim

Nrntnra of the Aeddentt.

In 1000 Workmen killed or wonndod, tbe rMUlt k tboa.

Period ftom Period from Period f)rom 1831 to 1840. 16S5 to 1830. 1840 to 1844.

Flfedamp, - - . - - FalliAg or roeke, etOBM, eody fce. - Divf aoeadeats, fUU froa ropesy cbaiof , laddert, ., Esplooioa organpowdery - -

ToUls,

The increase or decrease in each class of accidents is rendered sufficiently apparent witlioat farther comment. We would only notice that, contrary to prerailing opinion, founded on the increased depth of the mines, the loss of life by fire damp has remarkably declined. The accidents attributable to the crashing in of the roof, the falling of stones, coal, d&c, has more than proportionately increased within the same period of time.

The magnitude of the catastrophe that occurred at the coal works of L'Esperanee at tength attracted serious attention. During the years 1839, 1S40 and 1841, the subject of establishing relief institutions in the mining provinces was advocated by the ministry, and eventually decided by several royal decrees. The archives of the ministry contain several propositions which were made upon this subject M. Auguste Visschers,* the present director of the administration of the Belgian mines, published an article which attracted much notice, and which has been reprinted in 1843. It is entitled, " Notice of the establishment, in Belgium, of Provident Institutions, caisses de prevoyance, for the benefit of the Working Miners.t

In tbe subjoined note, A, will be found the titles of many of the publica-

To whom the Author of the present volame ii personally iodebed for valuable documents on this interesting branch of statistics, and from which he has not hesitated to make copious eitracts.

t Ltterallv, foresight chests the object being not merely to afford relief, but to encoar- ige in the mining population habits of foresight. Mining Review, Vol. XII. p. 167, 171.

!iote A. Caiuet de prevoyance. — The following publications treating more or less directly Qpon this subject, have been printed in Brussels of late years.

I. Rapport mr Us Caisset de prevoyance en faveur dei ouvriert Mineurt, presented to the kuic by M. Nothomb, Minister of Public Works, 24 June, 1839.

II. Rapport tur let Caitses de prevoyance enfaveur det ouvriert Mineurt, presented to the king by M. Desmaisires, Minister of Public Works, 19 December, 1841.

III. 'Rapports Annuelt det Committiont AdminittraJtivet det Caiuet de prevoyance enfaveur det omvriert Mineurt, inttUueet dant let Provincet de Hainaut, de Liege et de Namur ; seveial years.

IV. Rapportt tur let Inttitutiont de Bief\faitance du Royaume; official reports in 1S25, ISSS, l7, 1828, fce.

V. Ettai tmr let Moyent d*ameliorer le tort det ouvriert, by Count Arrivabene, 1832.

VI. Det Caittet d'epargne et de leur Influence tur let Clastet Labor ieutet, by M. Ducpetiaux, IS3I.

VII. Dela Condition Phytique et Morale det jeunet ouvriert et det Moyent de lameliorer, by tb tame, 1843.

VIII. De Vettablittement de Caittet de prevoyance en Belgique, en faveur det ouvriert Mineurt, by Auguste Visschers, 1839 et 1843.

IX. Eleven publications and reports upon the same subject, in relation to local establish- eats IB the provinces of Liege, Hainault, Namur and Luxemburg, and the arrondissemenU oTMons and Cbarleroi,— 1839, 1840 and 1841.

Tbe generous bounty of the king, appreciating the acts of heroism and courage to which tbe MCideBU in the collieries frequently give rise, has expressly instituted a medal of recoro. pease is ftvoar of working miners. The royal decree of the 19th October, 1840, determined tbe form asMi model of this medal, divided into two classes, [gold and silver! Both of tbetn bMf one aide the effigy of the king, and on the reverse the insignia of the miner'a profesiMMf with these words inscribed opoa the exergue :

Acte De Devouement, Recompence Nationals.

ejodw nrrBODucnoH.

tions which appeared in Bniasels,in relation to this sabjectby distingnished .writers. To these works we will refer those of our readers who desire more detailed information on a matter of no ordinary interest.

We have only to add in this place a short resum of the general plan and condition of these useful institutions, chiefly on authority of the reports of M. Desmaisieres and M. Visschers.

The organization of the caisses de privoyance in the five subdivisions of the Belgian coal basins, is the same throughout. The statutes are approved by the king : the governors of the provinces preside over the administrative commissions, which are composed of exploitants" and master workmen, and render annual accounts to the governors. The resources for these institutions are derived from deductions from the wages of the men, equal to one-halfper cent, and from contributions of the mine owners to the like amount. Each year, since 1840, the legislature has voted about 42,000 francs; three important societies contribute at least 5000 francs ; the pro* ▼incial council at Hainault annually votes 6000 francs : to these may be added the funds derived from endowments, and from the donations and bequests of individuals. Independently of the temporary relief afforded to the widows, orphans, and dependents on the deceased, the benefits are still further extended by furnishing the means of instruction to the children. Thus, the institution, in providmg for the moral wants of living generations, contribute to ameliorate the future condition of the working miner. The benefits are not limited solely to the alleviation of the physical necessities.

The benefksial efiects of this system are best evidenced by the practical working since its introduction. On the 1st January, 1842, the proportion of mining establishments, [exploitations,] associated on the foregoing prin* ciples, and the number of workmen who had enrolled themselves as mem- bers, were as follows :

Exploitations. Working minera.

Affiliated exploitations, forming societies, . 210 31,971

Establishments not yet associated, . 160 7,306

Total in the kingdom, 370 39,277

Hence we perceive that the affiliated coal establishments of Belgium amounted to fifty-seven per cent of the whole number, and the workmen attached to the provident societies were not less than eighty-one per cent of the aggregate mining population. This is the best indication of the ffeneral approbation, by the miners themselves, as well as the owners and lessees of the collieries, of these institutions, throughout Belgium.

" Thus, happily," concludes M. Desmaisieres, " have these humane pro* jects been most nobly brought about, by the influence of the proprietary, by the wisdom of the government, and by the parental solicitude of the sovereign."

The working miner, leA to himself, has not the foresight, and does not possess the influence necessary to bring to a good issue such projects as these. It is then for the manufacturers and for the civil administrations to set on foot the establishment of beneficent and relief funds. Modem phi- lanthropy has nobly pleaded the cause of the workman. What is important abote all, is to protect him against the reverses which continually threaten industry, in all the gigantic extension to which it has reached. It is not enouffh to provide for his health — lor his comfort — he ought to be habituated to reflect as to the future. Once accustom him to do this, and the workman will become more moral ; because he will be persuaded that his conditioi is ameliorated.

mTftODucnov.

Germant.*

ex

The mininff art was early diffused through the states of Germany. Various edicts granted privileges, or what were then called franchises, to the cities of the mineral districts.

In the greater part of these ordinances we perceive " dispositions pro- tectrices" to the workmen ; particularly the assurance of certain aid to hinif self and to his fiunily, in cases of accident. .

The ordinances of 1534 and 1538, made for the mines of Hartz, [Han- over,j assured to the wounded labourer, besides medical aid, the enjoyment of his pay, for eight weeks, if the working company made profits ; but only during lour weeks if it lost Hence we observe that it was the mining company on whom the expense devolved.

A similar ordinance, of the 22d July, 1564, made in the dectorate of Treves, reserved a certain weekly sum from all the workmen's wages, towards these objects. This is the earliest edict which makes mention of a reserved fund, introduced by fixed regulation.

An edict of the margrave of Brandebourg, 20th Oct. 1509, bestowed franchise and privileges on the city of Tarnowitz, in Silesia. Art. I. of this act foondeid a common fund, to be supported by moneys retained from the pay of the working miners. Its object was to contribute to the founda- tion and the construction of churches and schools, and at the same time to afibrd Christian assistance to the wounded workmen ; or, in case of death, to their widows and orphans.

We will not here enumerate all the ordinances prescribed in favour of the raining workman, and the establishment of common fiinds. Similar institutions exist even in Sweden, for the working forgemen, sick or wounded ; each owner of forges, every master forgeman, contributes. The simple workman bears a reserved amount equal to the half of that which is contributed by the master forgeman.

Germany presents us, from an early period, an example of two institu- tions by which we might profit. 1. Mutual insurance funds for poor mines: 2. Relief societies — " caisses de secours" — for the miners.

The first of these institutions is especially useful in the infancy of the art of working the mines ; but when, — extraction having attained consider- able amount, — the production tends to exceed the requirements of con- sumption, is all insurance between the mines, all association for works of general utility superfluous? The system of insurances against risks of every kind has only been developed within a few years, in Belgium and in France. Mines are penetrated with the necessity of remedies against the evils of unlimited competition ; against the disorders which it has tended to produce. Even in Belgium, already, one of our financial societies has suggested the formation of a species of institution, [syndicat,] for the in- dustry of the high-furnaces and forges. These ideas should not be lost Public riches as well as private fortunes suffer from the disorders of exces- sive competition ; of an imprudent excitement, given to the productive forces. The history of late years should serve us as a warning.

" Caisses de secours*' for poor miners, wounded or sick, at length exist in Belgium, but the government alone could not have established them. In Germany, the development early given to the " exploitation" of mines ; the important number of workmen devoted to this branch of industry ; the

Abridmd from the Notice tur l'tublitemcnt, en Belgique, de Cmiiic de WToy lAce, es iwnui dee OsTrieri Bfiieari." BnueUee. 1843.

filXVl

BfTBODUCnON.

revenues which the princes derived from it ; the influence which they en- joyed in these mine operations, by virtue of the principle which attributes them to the sovereign, [[droits rgalienj have induced the depositories of power to regulate all that which concerns the extraction from the mine, the duties, and the relations of masters and servants. Sacrifices were at first alone imposed on the working companies ; subsequently the workmen were called on to contribute. The princes granted subsidies or privileges to the " chests" ; in many of the mines firee action was reserved to the benefit fund.

These institutions were regulated by some suitable persons, chosen by the officers of the prince. The funds were inclosed in boxes having several keys. Sometimes also the workmen bore a part in the directing commission.

The working miners were not, in Germany, and are not now, abandoned bv their masters : the authorities are careful to provide for their necessities. These chests were sometimes very rich. According to Jars, the revenues of the Caisse of the poor miners of the department of Freyberg, amount annually to 24,000 livres : about the year 1757, the capital, invested at five per cent interest, was 32,646 livres.

The Prussian States.

As regards legislation over the aid aflbrded to the workmen, in mining casualties, the articles 214 to 5K20, of the general code of the Prussian states, were formed, in order to generalize and reproduce the various local statutesi. It is unnecessary to cite them here.

Finally, public authority has recently sanctioned regulations for the established provident institutions, in favour of working miners, in Rkansk Pruuia,

Great Britain.

What the wise direction of public authority has established in Germany, the spirit of association, the sentiment of individual independence, the habit of calculation and of observation, have consecrated in Great Britain. The associations of provident institutions, of saving, of insurance, of chari- table, friendly and benefit societies and clubs, in thb country, have been clothed with the popular character, always visible in all its institutions. However, the patrona of the higher classes is not refused. It is probable even that these establishments have been originated by the masters or by the mining companies; but these parties have plac themselves in the back-ground of the picture. The charitable or friendly societies have become now part of the customs of the English people. The soil of Great Britain is covered with them.

We have consulted the documents relating to the benefit societies, or those of mutual assistance, in several parts of the United Kingdom. In general, although the donations of distinguished patrons, or those of the proprietors, are welcomed, the major part of the funds is supplied by the workmen ; not bv means of a voluntary assessment, but by virtue of statutes to which they submit on entering into the establishment.

These institutions participate in the character of insurance societies, but they present this peculiarity, that they are not, to any one, the object of lucre or of a speculation. They possess the defects of the societies of mutual help ; inasmuch as, in general, they apply only to a small number of indivi- duals. But the wisdom with which the funds are guarded, the prudence which they exercise not to encroach upon the reserve, show that the inooo-

iNTRODUcnoir. cxxwik

Tenienc€8 are at least but slight. The workman knows that the " chest" is ocilj maintained by his contributions ; he knows that the funds cannot be diTened, and he makes no complaint, in any case, of the insignificance of the aid he receives in proportion to the sacrifices that be has made.

Nevertheless, the funds are, ordinarily, sufficient, and in affinity with the wants of the members. The proprietor of the English mines interests him- self in the lot of his workmen. He takes pride in seeing them well-ordered and economical. For his own advantage, he constructs, for the use of his work-people, habitations convenient to the seat of their operations. He gives them, sometimes, dwellings gratuitously. He founds schools for the children ; he furnishes a place for a common library. He contributes to the stock for mutoal assistance, placed under his patronage ; he holds the funds, and pays the interest on them.

In England especially, — and the attempts to reform the poor-laws demon- strate it, — they seek to avoid the inconveniences of those institutions which are solely charitable or purely helpful. The superior classes, so enlightened in this kingdom, interfere in these institutions only to facilitate their opera- tion. The government, whose action ordinarily remains latent, limits itself to the publication of the precise formula for the regulation of the various societies of insurance or benefit.

These societies when they have acquired some extension, are very careful to solicit and secure legal sanction. An advocate of the crown is appointed to review the rules of the associations which aspire to be incorporated. (The acts of Parliament, 10 Geo. IV. and 4 and 5 William IV., fix the course to be pursued, and the final sanction is accorded by the magistrates of the county.

The numerous philanthropic societies in Great Britain second the ten- dency of the English people to profit by the benefits of co-operation. Asso- ciation, in the times to come, will produce such wonders as we owe, in the order of physics, to the accumulation of steam, or to electricity. It is a lever or powerful spring, which till now has been employed but imperfectly; but whidi, well directed, will be the principle of prodigies which the future viU disclose.

The English workman is, in general, better instructed, and is in easier circumstances, than those of Belgium. He not only has a love for his pro- fession, but entertains a great respect for his superiors and for the laws. The habit of economy, the advantage he finds in it, the pride which the sentiment of his power and good conduct gives him, contribute to strengthen these moral ties. We speak not now of the workers in the great manufac- tories : reduced to the state of paupers ; ill fed ; exposed to every privation. But the working miner is, in this kingdom, in a more favorable position than the Belgian miner.

There are two traits of character in the English workmen that we must not lose sight of: — the care that they take to provide a suitable and reli- gious burial for their deceased comrades, and the importance which they atuch to the education of their children.*

The picture thus presented by M. Visschers, of the condition of the English miners, is drawn by a friendly hand, and perhaps may be considered somewhat flattering.

To the foregoing liberal views of this philanthropist, we proceed to note some prominent statistics on the miners' Benefit Societies, and on the casual- ties of coal mining in England; a country which has perhaps a greater in- terest in these subjects than any other, being the largest coal producer, and

Notict Mr l*lAbliMmeBt de CiiMes de PrToyance. M. A. Vinchen, 1843, p. 18.

oxznii 119TR(H>0CTION.

employing a more namerous population in its extraction, than the rest of the world united.

The continuance of Toluntarj subscriptions to the innumerable prorident societies of the mining districts, proves the prevailing reliance on their efficacy in times of emergency; while the almost universal enrollment, as contributing members, of the class of operatives especially interested in the result, attest the estimate which has b€n formed, by the working miners themselves, of the salutary influence of those associations. Ix>cal instances, we are constrained to admit, may be cited where abuses have existed ; where the system has been rendered less operative for good by defective arrange- ments ; by erroneous calculations at the outset ; or by occasional improri- dence in the management ; such, for instance, as has been shown by a Parliamentary Report of the South Staffordshire coal-fields; a district which has acquired a lamentable notoriety, for the habits and the moral and social condition of its mining population. But the general working of the relief funds and provident societies, throughout the length and breadth of the land, is satisfactory : creating habits of foresight and economy— com- pulsory probably at first— and, above all, estimable in bringing opportune succour to the maimed and the sick, and relief to the infirm; in providing support to the survivors of those frightful accidents which so ofien occur ; in securing decent burial to the dead, and, in aflfording consolation to the &milies of such as have unfortunately perished.

The drawback on the utility of the ordinary country clubs, seems to con- sist in their local operation and restricted character ; in the limited and fluctuating nature of their resources. 0(\en based on erroneous data ; fre* quently originating with, and conducted by, the uninformed ; isolated in all respects; — they want the power and uniformity, almost amounting tonation> ality which the coherence of the Belgian confederated erploUaiunu, guaran- teed by the solemn sanction of the government and laws, seems to assure to the individual societies of which they are made up.

In England there are no public institutions to supply the deficiencies of the country club system. It has been even considered better to leave the supposed evils to be corrected by the interested parties themselves. More- over it is contended that the extension of especial public protection and relief in favour of one class of operatives, is incompatible with strict justice towards numerous other classes who also pursue hazardous occupations ; sochy for instance, as the sea service, in which 2,000 British sailors are annually estimated to perish by shipwreck ; which appears very little to exceed the number of the killed and disabled miners.

Violent deaths, which occurred in 55 mining districts of England and Wales, in the year 1838.

By fiilling down shafts, 63

Breaking of ropes, 1

Ascending and descending, - - - 10

Drowned, 22

Falling of stones and coals, ... 97

Explosions of gas, 88

Explosions of gunpowder, ... 4

By trams and wagons, - - - 21

By various injuries, 43

Total, 349 Miming CmsmMa tn the 89utk Stafardshire Coal District.— ThiB di trict has been recently investigated by the " Midland Mining Commission

"RODUCnOlf.

"port, drawn up by Mr. Tan-

the most distressing part of

::ls which I am persuaded must

fillude to the frightful amount of

hy day leaving the fatherless and

iic midst of health and vigour, of

Mcd to investigate this subject so

irM ruction of human life was a neces-

)t' the working of the thick-coal seam;

incurred. On the contrary, however,

'viiig that such is not the case, and shall

itifying contrast to the general course of

ihft records of the " General Registry Oflice," J appalling results.

.iiurs in the Dudley CoaUfieldf in 5i years, yiz. >tT 1842, and the proportion of such deaths as ; eleven parishes, whose population in 1841 was rvo that in this population there appears to be no :iic total number of miners, so that we are deficient '.ring the results with other districts. 15 years and upwards, in 5i years, - 1122

liuT killed by accidents, - - 610

lit [being 54.3 killed, out of every 100 deaths,] 54.3 miners at their deaths, years, - - 36§

tier has more than an equal chance of being killed, in pur- nion. : ' a return by Mr. Best, manager of the large works of the t tinipany, the proportions of casualties, in the Netherton col- :ii 1842, or rather for 45 weeks in that year, as follows :

Men Acci- Of which Accidents Deathi employed, denti. were faul. per cent, per cent.

i.k coal pits, 82 59 4 72 5

Liri coal and iron-stone pits, 92 67 0 73 0

174 126 4

A- during this year, 1842, the works were inactive for seven weeks, on o'uut of the strike of the men, if we take the proportion for the entire :.r or 52 weeks, the result shows a total of near 146 accidents, sufficiently .'crious to prevent men from working, out of 174 mines.

Mr. Best adds, that in the same year was paid, to the sick colliers, miners' widows and orphans in that establishment, upwards of <£o60= 82,721.

Mr. Smith, manager of the property of the Earl of Dudley, employing 1054 miners, funishes the following statement also for the year 1842, or for 45 weeks only.

Thick coal colliers, 429

Thin coal and ironstone miners, ... 290

Limestone miners, 335

1054 men. Medical relief, and pensions paid to wounded and superannuated miners and , ;£960 Os.— $4,658.

Midland Mining CommiMion, Fint Report, 1S43, p. Uv.

B

ttU IMTROIHJCTIOK.

Proin the deUiils of the miDiog caeualties in this region, it appears that none have been occasioned by inundation and very few by explosions of fire-damp. This gas appears to be not engendered by the Staffordshire coal, so abundantly as in roost other fields ; the men usually working with open candles.

The reporter goes on to state the remarkable circumstance that, with so great a number of frightful accidents, constantly occurring, there is nothing in the shape of a hospital in the whole mining district, with the exception of a few in-door patients at the Wolverhampton Dispensary. All other cases, requiring peculiar skill, must be sent to Birmingham.

A serious case of explosion occurred on the Idth August, 1845, at llvi* dale, near Dudley, when twenty miners lost their lives. Among other cases may be added that at Round's Green colliery, near Oldburg, by whic|i twenty lives were lost, on the 1 7th November, 1846, leaving fourteen widows and one hundred and two orphans destitute.

Benefit Clubs in the Dusky or South Siafordshire Coalfield.— Th report from which we have last quoted, examines into the nature of the associations among the miners of this district, for the relief of the members in sickness, and for their burials, and allowances to their widows. " lliese institutions, so beneficial in themselves, and so well calculated, if properly regulated, to counteract the habitual improvidence of the workmen, and to compensate, in some small degree, for the absence of a wealthier class living amongst them, are, by the perverse ingenuity of interested parties, converted into one of the numerous means by which the hardearned wages of the miner are transferred from his pocket to the till of the public house."

We cannot enter here into the details which appear in the pages of the report. It is evident enough that the practical working of the system is greatly in need of amendment; and, indeed, occasionally is productive of injurious consequences. The evidence shows that these clubs are always held at public houses, and are promoted by the publicans for their owo benefit. By reason of the abuses of the system, and of the appropriation of the funds to drinking and unnecessary expenses, the results are far less beneficial than they might be.

The friendly societies or sick clubs,** are very numerous, and are estab- lished on various principles. They engage with a medical man to attend the members during sickness ; and he is paid from 25. to 4. [fifty cents to one dollar] per annum, for each member enrolled. It is a general rule, that if a member continues a charge on the sick fund fisr twelve months at one Ume, he is reduced to half pay for life, and allowed to follow his enjoy- ment if he is able.

There are also Odd Fellows and Lodges** established oo the same principle as the clubs, with the addition of the ceremonies and feasts, but as these are attended with considerable expense, the steady mechanics pre- fer the common " sick dubs.**

The " Fidd Clubs** are confined entirely to the miners, and afford medi- cal attendance and sick-pay only during illness from accidents occasioned by the work. The payments to these clubs are compulsory, and the em- ployer always stops the contributions, out of the wages of the men. The miners are very generally in a sick or life club** in addition to their " field dub."

Mr. Simkiss, from whose evidence we extract the foregoing notes, adds that ''all the clubs or societies, in this neighbourhood, must be founded on erroneous principles, as they are of short duration. The oldest I can find have not been in existence more than seventy years ; and by far the|majority

mTBODUcnQH. osni

do not last ooa third of that time." For aome yeara, when new membera aie joining, and the funds are oonseqiiently increasing, they appear to be ia a prosperoua condition. But when the original members grow old and become a aeriooa charge on the funds, young men look out to join younger chiba. The original club first becomes stationary; then as the deatha increase the fundi decline, the numbers diminish; and, after struggling for awhile, they ultimately diride little stock is left among the few sur ▼irors. Thus, those who have, during life, contributed regularly, with an assurance of prof isioo in their old age, are now, when they want the moat, left with nothing to depend upon but psrochial relief.

The miners and mechanics, generally, make no profision (with the ex- ception of clubs,) for the wants and infirmities of old age. There are teiy few who efer make any deposits in the savings' bank and the instancea of mioen becoming depositors, are so few, that we may almoat say, there are one of that class."

Besides the voluntary clubs above mentioned, establied by minera Ihemaelves, there is a regular system of relief for men wounded or killed in the service, and alao to their widows.

In the thick-coal mines, [ten yard coal] the custom is for the owner of the mine to allow 6f. a week to (he wounded ; and Is. 6d. a week to the widowof any man killed ; together with Is. a week to each child which ahe may have under the ase of ten. The men on their part, make a special collection at every weekly pay, for any wounded man, or widow of a fellow workman, of as much ss will make up another 6s. weekly.*

The most mischievous sort of clubs, both to the finances and the morals of the miners, are what are called money clubs;" being subscriptions to certain fonds, which are very abundant in the South Staffordshire coal dis* trict, all which money is spent in drink at public houses. By the evidence of the resident clergy, the regulations and conduct of some of the clubs here are "terribly destructive of the morals and the savings of the workmen."

It is due to the clergy of this district to state that they strenuously ex- erted themselves to induce the adoption of clubs conducted on sounder principles, as well as other institutions calculated to remove the evils com- plained of. Here are " PravirUni societies" for savings and for relief in sickness, in connection with Sunday and day schools. There are also Weslryan Clubs," and "Clothing Clubs;" the latter have a beneficial effect in inducing habits of saving. To these we may add the " Dorcas societies" consisting of charitably disposed ladies, who hold stated meetings, and make articles of clothing which are sold to the poor at half the price of the materials

A series of articles on Benefit Societies, by Dr. Beard, was published in the " People's Joumar' in 1847. From these we learn in detail how ex- tensive and almost universal are the failures of the English Benefit associ- ations, arising from defective management, and from tlie erroneous structure of their respective constitutions.

In the Odd Fellow and Friendly Societies" the scale on which they have failednd, unless great changes are introduced, will fail — is, accord- ing to Mr. Nelson, fearfully large. The Rev. Mr. Sherman lately stated at a public meeting in Liverpool — ' Mr. Ansell had told him of two thou- sand societies having been submitted to him in three years, whose aibirs were proved to be altogether insolvent.' " But," observes Dr. Beard, " there

Fim Report oTUm BTidland MiDinf CommiMioB p. U.

exnu OfTBODUcnoii.

18 another kind of failore: the staff breaks under the hand of the poor rick, aged man, the first time he leans on it Benefit societies, in oomberiess instances, db not aflbrd the needful aid."

We trust there needs no apology for calling attention, through the medium ci the foregoing passages, to the defective construction of associations whicli were designed for the most useful and beneficial purposes.

The extent of their failure can scarcely be fully ascertained; for the sufferers are in humble life ; are scattered up and down in society, and have no sufficient means of making their injuries known. A committee of the House of Commons is the only resource by which benevolent men could acquire some knowledffe of the number of these failures, and of the - ings they have entailed."* ,

GtmwaXL'f* The diseases of miners," forms the subject of a paper by Sir Charles Lemon, addressed to the Royal Institution of Cornwall : and also another by Dr. Barham. They contain some very important statistical statements respecting the deaths and diseases among the mining population of Cornwall, and a series of comparisons between the mining districts of Cornwall and the coal regions of Staffordshire, Northumberiand,

Miners* Club, — It does not appear that provident associations, of utility or permanent character, prevail in the mining districts of Comwalli and the want of a better system there has been frequently deplored. Various plans for the establishment of hospitals, mining schools, and beneficial soeie* ties, founded on an adequate scale and based on correct principles, have, from time to time, been inefiectually advocated in Cornwall. That of a general miners' club is the last

In 1846, efforts were made to engage the public sympathy in ftvonr of this association, and an earnest appeal was made to the lords and adventurers to ffive their countenance to the plan, and to support the wishes of the mreat body of miners. The project for a " Miners' Society" had previoudy been abandoned, for want of the requisite co-operation of the influential classes.

It was urged that necessity and policy required the establishment of a provident association in every district, or of branches emanating firom one general society or club, which should be based upon such principles as should amply provide for the necessities of the labouring miner, when* through the various risks, inseparable from his hazardous avocation, he should be incapacitated from labour.

If, as we infer from the address of some of the advocates for this general club, the thirty thousand miners are to contribute their full share of the annual funds, and the lords and adventurers, and benevolent persons to sup- ply the other moiety, as in the case of the Belgian " caisses de secours" the project appears to be unobjectionable ; for it has been well proved, that no plan works well as a merely charitable institution giving gratuitous aid ; no project is successful in teaching the importance of foresight and timely economy, which does not comprise the contributions of the working miners themselves, and constitute them joint guardians of the funds destined to relieve their future* wants.

Mining Accidents in Great Britain. — The Mining Journal, January, 1644, published a list of four hundred and eighty-three deaths and acci- dents noted in its columns during the previous eight months.

Out of one thousand one hundred and twelve deaths of odliers oolj among that class of population, reported by the Midland Mining Cwnaam

Th People*! JoutmI, JqIj, 1847. t Miniiig ReTiew, Aof att, 18S9, and 1841.

nrrfiODucnoir.

Czzxiu

By DO lev Ihaa six hundred and ten arose from accidents ; by which it ippeirs there is a frightful advance of mining mortality. The editor con- ceifes that the number of lives sacrificed annually, cannot be less than two thousand five hundred, exclusive of the numerous cases recorded in which severe injuries have been received, resulting ultimately in the loss of lives."*

It is due to Mr. English to state, that he has for a considerable time past, done his utmost towuds the humane object of establishing institutions for the relief of the sufferers by accidents in mines, and has let no opportunity pass of awakening sympathy in favour of that unfortunste class. We fear that there is too much truth in the following severe remark :—

''England is justly proud of her numerous charities, her hospitals for the ack and maimed, her asylums for the aged and decayed members of society, and her institutions for the support and protection of the widow and oq)bto. But, with shame be it spoken, a country indebted, in a great neasore, for her position to her mineral riches, cannot reckon, amongat her numerous charitable establishments, one which is devoted to the maimed or aged collier or miner, nor a [public] fund wherewith to support the widow and the &therless who may be bereaved of their natural protector by accidents in mines."!

The same gentleman, in a petition to the House of Commons, dsted 28th Januaiy, 1846, atated that the loss of life in mines and collieries within the preceding year, was upward of a thousand individuals.

A printed statement has subsequently appeared, wherein it is shown that in twelve cases alone, in thirty-two years, there was sustained a loss of seven hundred and twenty-three lives, in the Durham and Northumberland coal- field, chiefly by explosions in the pits. We add the details below.

Date.

Loctlitiei.

Lirei loit

Causei.

ldI3, May 25tb,

Felling,

Explosion.

IdJo, May 3d,

Heaton,

Inundation.

do. June 2d,

Newbottle,

Explosion.

1921, October 23d,

WallKnd,

do.

1823, Norember 3d,

Rainton,

do.

1S35. June 18th,

Wallsend,

do.

1839. June,

St. Hilda,

do.

do. June 23d,

South Shields,

do.

Wellington and

Thornley, 41

King pit,

1844, Sept 38th,

Haswell,

do.

1845, August 21st,

Jarrow colliery.

do.

Cases of death, 723 A petition was presented to the House of Commons in 1843, by the pitmen of the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees, in which they state that within ihe preceding twenty years upwards of seven hundred pitmen, the friends and companions of the petitioners, had been miserably destroyed in the Dur- ham and Northumberland mines, by explosions of inflammable gas, and that others met the most fearful deaths from various other causes ; that these explosions have always been traced to the want of suflicient ventilation, permitting the accumulation of the gas in such masses that, when set fire to. It explodes with suflicient force, sometimes, to blow men up a shall six hundred feet deep as if from the mouth of a cannon, and to shake the solid

BTmiag Joarnil, Jtnutrj 20th, 1844.

1 Mining Jovroil, Vol. . p. 391 ; ilfo, Slit Jmutry, 1846.

€xmv

ilmtoimcTiaH.

grornid similarly to an earthqaake. They state that, knowing the Dafy lamp is liable to iire an explosive mixture under certain ctreomstaiices, they cannot rest satisfied with their lives being secured by an inperfiecl instrument, easily deranged, and which at the moment of greatest danger l>rings on the mischief it is intended to prevent, and on the supposed safety of which has been based the modern practice of carrying foul underground workings to a most dangerous extent.

The petitioners, who assembled to the number of fifteen thousand, at their meeting, suggested that the only way of working the mines with security, would be by sinking two shafts at the " winning," and as the work exteads making additional shafts. The mine would then be thoroughly ventilald, the coal more easily worked, and the petitioners secured firom these terrible accidents.

CasuMts in ike North tf England.'The list we have given of the loss of life, chiefly by explosions in twelve cases ak>ne, in the conaties of Durham and Northumberland, by no means exhibits the entire number of deaths there from that cause.

The subjoined statistical table shows that they comprised in eighty yean, between 1756 and 1886, the destruction of one thousand four hundred and twenty-seven miners. The cases of explosions, more than one hundred in number, were attended by the loss of one thousand three hundred and one lives, out of this complement of one thousand four hundred and tweaty- seven. A large extension to this catalogue might be made by the addition of the cases since 1886, in fact, amounting to many hundreds.

Period.

1756 to 1800. 1800 to 1815.

1816 to 1836

Cioiet.

[ By esploMoni, ( By iiaBdationi, By exploffioDf ,

InundaUoni,

Borating ortteam-boiler, locomotiYe, By explosion,

Inuodfttion, ' SuflTocation,

Ftlling of itonei,

Bunting of tetmboileri,

No.

S3S

Is

Total deaiht.

Annoal deathi.

7f

About 21,000 employed abore and

low grOQMl.

These tables can only be usefully compared with each other, and with the results of other mining districts, when we know the number of workmen actually employed at those times and places respectively. According to Mr. Buddie, the foregoing list of deaths does not comprise those which result from the ordinary casualties of life.*

The followin|[ sutement has been published of six cases of fire-damp ir the Jarrow colliery, on the Durham side of the Tyne, and the number o deaths they occasioned.

In 1817, 1st explosion, - . 1820, 2d . - -

1826, 3d

1830, 5th "...

1845, 6th "...

6 killed.

(1

it

U

M

In twenty-eight years,

M. Piot in Aaaalee dea Mines,

niTBODUcmoif. exuf

Hie atieiUioQ of tha goverainent has been attracted to the formidable nmture of these exploeionsy and in rooeot important caaet, it has nominated onmifnonty conaiating of gentJemen of science and experience, to such as in the cases of the Uaswell and the Jarrow explosions, and have directed a aearehing iofailigaUon to be instituted into the causes which led to these calaanopbea.

The quality of the deleterious gases of the Jarrow, the Habburn and the Gateshead collieries was examined in 1846, by Mr. Thos. Graham, and the Miaing Journal of June I6th contains an article by that gentleman on fhe eompositioii of the fire damp of the Newcastle coal-field," and the re* suit (rf his invcfliigation. From this paper it appears that the gas of Kil liBgwoith colliery, near Jarrow, where the great explosion of 1845 took placet issues from a fissure in a stratum of sandstone, and has been kept enioterruplediy burning, as the means of lighting the horse road in the BHne, for upwards of ten years, without any sensible diminution in ita quantity. At the Gateshead colliery, also, the gas is collected as it isauei and is used for lighting the mine, while at the Hebburn colliery the gas ascends from a Iwre made down into the Bensham coal-seam, which is biffhly charged with gas, and has been the cause of many accidents.

We add to the table in the foregoing extract, a recent incomplete return cf the numbers of miners that have perished in the Durham and North- umberland ooal mines in the last 42 years.

ToUl deathtM TFrom explosion, 1 05 ")

I Inundated by water, 75

IWM to 1821. I bursting and other J

L causes, 40J

r From explosions, 732

192! to 1843 Falling stone, choke damp I 82n

and other causes, 89 j I About 990 cases

r Explosions, in two cases 1 f death.

1S44 to 1845 only, exclusive of other V 1343

I accidents, J Total killed in 42 years in one district, besides % — — -

numerous cases which have been omitted, ) 1184

This appalling account of loss of life in this class of working men has, it is said, led among other causes to the association of colliers in the north of England, called the Union," which lately comprised 60,000 persons.

This association, it appears, has other objects besides those contemplated by the Belgian provident institutions, or the caisses de secours" of the French mines. One object aimed at is the facility it affords for enabling large bodies of operatives to strike for rise of wages, &c,, or to consolidate the interests of an important and numerous class in the community.

It is asserted that there is not a colliery in the kingdom in which the men are not daily and hourly exposed to similar fatal accidents as are recorded abote, which cannot be wondered at, considering the bad ventilation, and the extent of the underground operations, where in some mines sixty or seventy miles of passages have been cut.

Dr. Barham has communicated an article on "the accidents and diseases of miners," more especially directed towards those of Cornwall. He instir tntes an interesting comparison between the number of deaths in the Cor-

exxifi flfTEODUCnON.

nish mines of copper and tin, and those of the coal districts. The chances of fiolent deaths in the latter greatly preponderate.

Thus, there were in the Ijne and Wear district, in the 40 years from 1800 to 1840, 1480 deaths from accidents, oat of a mining population of 21,000 persons, men and boys, of whom fife eighths worked underground.

Out of the 1480 deaths in the collieries, 1325 deaths, or nine-tenths of the whole, were caused by explosions or inundations — accidents to which Cornish mines are rarely subjected.

From official returns giren by the Register-general, we are furnished with materials for comparmg the mortality among miners with that in other classes of the community. By the census of 1841, the number of malesof twenty years and upwards, employed in the coal mines, as well as those of salt and the metals, was 124,6iS7. Among these, the vident deaths regis- tered in the year 1840 were 498. The only employment which was equally fatal was that of the navy and merchant service. The elative proportions of deaths in an equal number, are as flows:

In the navy and merchant service, - - 4006

In the mines, 3939

In the agricultural population of England, - 1221*

Frightful as is the foregoing statement of the mortality in the northern ooal-field mines, we derive some consolation from perceiving that it falb very short of that in the Belgian coal-field. The results are interesting.

General Cases. In Belgium, out of 20,000 miners, the total numb of deaths was 1710 in twenty years, prior to 1841, averaging 85.5 per annum, or thirty to every one thousand miners employed, annually.

In the Durham and Northumberland coal-neld the total of deaths in the mines was 990 in the twenty-four years prior to 1846, averaging 41.28 annually, in 21,000 miners, or 19.65 to every 1000 annually.

To render the comparison more exact, we find that the number of deaths in Belgium, proportionate to 21 ,000 miners, out of 28,000) is 64.12 per annum.

The Durham and Northumberland coal-field, average of 24 years prior to 1846, 4L28 per annum. Do., average of 20 years prior to 1837, 34.60 per annum.

Thus the number of general cases of death, in a corresponding number of miners, is 55 per cent greater in Belgium than in the English northern coal-field. When, however, we analyze the causes of these deaths, we ob- serve that the proportions are reversed, and the fatal cases oi firedamp are far greater in the Newcastle than in the Belgian coal-field.

Explosions, — Belgium, 503 killed out of 28,000 miners, or 377 ool of 21,000, average 18.85 per annum in 20 years.

Northern c-field, out of 28,000 miners, or 866 out of 21,000, average 36.09 per annum in 24 years.

The mortality by fire-damp being greater in the English coal-field by 81 per cent, than in that of Belgium; or thus, annual deaths by ezploaions in the Belgian coal-mines, 0.89 out of every 1000 persons employed. lo the Newcastle coal-field. 1.72 out of every 1000 persons employed.

Our data is somewhat too scanty to pursue these comparisons far. A statement of the number of miners killed, from various causes, in fifteen years in the basin of the Loire, in France, shows the deaths to be in the proportion of 1 in 100 persons employed. This ratio, if correct, is ello mous. That of Belgium averages I in 327. The Newcastle cotl-fialdj 1 in 508.

Bfiiiiog Joonia], Jaaotry 1, 1841.

HfTBODUCnON.

CZUfU

lifresi of Dean. — Royal Commission of Inquiry inio mines. — In 1842, ample reports were mtde bj the chief commissioner of the Gloucestershire mining district He says that this woodland and mining region, although comprising an area of only 22,000 acres, is so much isolated in its charac- ter and local customs, that it presents a field of more than common interest

The employment of females in the mines and collieries is happily almost imknown in the forest. Boys, however, and those often of a very early age, are employed in considerable numbers, as the thinness of the seams of coal requires the labour of mere children, from their very limited height.

From the evidence adduced in the commissioners' report, it is proved io some of the forest mines, that the subterranean roadways or passages are so small, that even the youngest children cannot mot(e along them without crawling on their hands and feet ; in which unnatural and constrained po- sition they drag the loaded carriages or hods after them. And yet, as it is impomible, by any outlay compatible with a profitable return, to render such coal mines fit for human beings to work in, they never will be placed in such a condition. Consequently, they never can be worked without inflicting great and irreparable injury on the health of children.

From the peril arising from the destructive influences of malaria and inflammable gases these mines seem, in a great degree, happily free ; and the accidents from explosions are of rare occurrence. The excellent attention given to the system of ventilation, adopted in the Forest collieries in fact, arords a very general protection from the fatal effects also of car bonic acid gas, or choke-damp.

StajfordSiirt. — Five lives were lost by an explosion in the Yew-tree col- liery, Sedgely, 2dd March, 1847.

June 2m/, 1847, eight men and three horses were killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen, at Gerard's Bridge colliery, near St. Helen's. In the same month, by an explosion, in Croft Pit, near Whitehaven, four lives were lost. In the same month were nine persons killed by explosion at Kirkless Hall colliery, about two miles from Wigan ; besides which there were eight or ten others who were not expected to recover, and about twelve others less seriously injured. Also in the same month, near Wigan, two persons killed, and at Felling colliery, near Gateshead, six miners killed by explosion of fire-damp.

Yorkshire coal-field, XX. — 15 persons lost their lives by fire-damp, Nov., 1841, at Bamsley. At Huddersfield, three explosions in 1841. On the 5th of March, 1847, an explosion of carburetted hydrogen took place in the Great Ardsley main colliery, near Bamsley; 95 men were working in the pit at the time, 66 of whom were instantly killed, several died subsequently, and only 10 escaped unhurt

At Beeston, near Leeds, 17th May, 1847, an explosion led to the death of nine miners.

Lancashire coal-field, XVHI. — Haydock colliery, near Newton. — On the 5th Nov., 1845, an explosion took place, whereby nine persons were killed, and ten others so dreadfully mutilated, as to be unable to survive, with the exception of one.

In the Moyston colliery, ten lives were lost and seven wounded by fire- damp, in 1840, and six persons burned and five hurt in May, 1846.

An explosion from fire-damp in a colliery near Preston took place on the Wth of November, 1846, and on the same day another occurred at Coppell colliery, Standish. Twelve lives were sacrificed in these two cases.

In the same month, by an explosion at Chorley, eight persons were in- stantaneously killed.

eXKKfiii INTRODUCTIQN.

Scotland.

The ordinary ctsoalties of mining occupations prefail here; but that arising from fire-damp does not appear to be so common.

Two explosions took place in 1845, in the Victoria colliery, near Nits- hill, Glasgow, but without loss of life.

Ameliorations in the habits and condition of the mining population have taken place, within a few years. Amongst these, none, perhaps, is more important than the prevention of the employment of females in the coal mines, both of Scotland and in some English districts. At the time of the passing of Lord Ashley's Act, in 1842, there were no less than 24(M) females m the coal pits of Scotland ; seven hundred women in those around Wigan ; many in Staffordshire, dtc.

South Wales.

It is ascertained that the loss of life by fire-damp is not less frequent, al- though on a smaller scale in this coal-field, than in the highly bituminous coal basins of the north of England. Those which occur are in great mea- sure limited to the bituminous portion of the Welsh basin. One of the most important of these accidents was an explosion in the Duffryn colliery whereby 29 miners were killed, on the 2d August, 1845. Minor cases, of the death of from two to ten persons, are less rare, and scarcely a week passes without a case of explosion.

In January, 1844, twelve persons were killed by this cause, at Dinas col- liery, and several accidents from the fire-damp took place in other cdlieries. Three miners were destroyed at Nantyglo, in July of that year. In 1845, a good many accidents occurred, by explosions : at Patricroft, at Swansea, at Mynydd Newydd colliery, four deaths. In May, 1846, a severe case of explosion at the Rises colliery, and in the following month, eight persons were burned at Homfray's colliery, Tredegar.

The employment of females in the mmes is or was prevalent in South Wales, but it is hoped the degrading practice is diminished.*

Benefit societies, for the relief of sick and wounded miners, or for their families, are numerous throughout the mining regions, and are productive of considerable good.

Condition Op The Mining Population Op Great Britain.

This has been the subject of investigation for some years, and annual re- ports have been made to government Difliculties, abuses, and grievances, under which the working miners and their families suffered, have been dili- gently investigated and pointed out, and remedies have been suggested and acted upon. We cannot here enter into these details. It is evident that remarkable differences in the habits, morals, and comfort of the same classes existed in different mining regions of Great Britain. The causes of these discrepancies or contrasts have been traced to their sources, and placed before the public The general social condition of this class of population, we have every reason to know, has been greatly ameliorated by means of these investigations.

Some colliery districts, it is well known, have always maintained a more moral, a more respectable and intelligent population, than others. We have no means of classifying these, even were it desirable to do so. Some have been more prominent Uian others, as we have shown in relation to the Dnd-

Rojrtl mUifig commiaaioB of iDqairy into minei.

mTBODUCnON. cxzxix

ky eotl-field, ind fiMrmerly some of those in Scotland : but in all, we hafe iht mtis&etioQ of stating, great improfements have taken place, of late jeara.

Thus, we read, in a recent article, that "not a little of the success of the Goalbrookdale coal and iron works, must be attributed to the great attention paid to the religions and moral training of the workmen, and the care be- stowed on their phjrsical condition. Excellent schools are provided for the children, and lecturers are occasionally engaged to instruct the adults. The training and education of the children, the aids for mental improvement, oflred with no nignrd hand to the operatives — from 3000 to 40(M) in num- ber—have rendered the work people of Goalbrookdale a very superior class to those Dsually employed in mines and forges."*

Education of the youth at the collieries, through the untiring agency of the benevolent proprietors and the exertions of the clergy, is making rapid progresi in many districts. At the Low-moor Iron Company's colliery, near Bradford, where, in 1841, only two in ten could read, out of 1100 em- ployed, there were, in September, 1845, out of 494 boys, between ten and eigliteen, at work, 411, or 83 per cent., who could read.

Ofmdiiwm of ike Mining PapukOum of Great Britain in 1847.— By an act of Piriiament, passed in 1842, commissioners were appointed " to inquire into the operations of that act, and into the state of the population in the mining districts." Four reports, between 1844 and 1847, have been presented by these commissioners, under the provisions of what is generally known as Lord Ashley's act, and refer to portions of England, Scotland and Wales. We have extracted freely from a portion of these.

An excellent article on these reports, but more especially on that which relates to Scotland and the north of England, appeared in the North British Review for November, 1847. No apology, we trust, is necessary from us, for introducing a sketch of the article to which we refer, particularly as it supplies some information in which we were otherwise defective.

On the authority slluded to, some facts as to the condition of the colliers in the north are detailed, which might almost appear incredible.

Whether it may have arisen from the nature of the employment under- ground, or whatever may have been the original cause, we shall not wait to determine ; certain it is that, till about the commencement of the present century, colliers were kept in a state of perpetual bondage, and from the first Boment of their existence were considered as belonging to the property which gave them binh. Without the permission of the proprietor, they could not receive employment in any other place. In fact, they were held to be part and parcel of the establishment for carrying on the working of the coal ; and if it happened to be let, they were specially described in the lease, and transferred to the lessee, in the same manner as if they had been a number of horses. When the legislature passed measures for the benefit of the community generally, the colliers were expressly exempted from the prifileges which such measures conferred. Even in the well-known Habeas Corpus act it was declared, ' that this present act is no ways to he extended to eoOiers and sailers*

In 1775, an act of the British parliament was passed, which declared that colliers and salters were to be no longer transfemble with the col- lieries and salt-works;' but upon certain conditions, which were then deemed reasonable,' they wiere to be gradually emancipated and set free, and others prevented from coming into such a state of servitude. But the London Art Union, 1S47.

exl DfTRODUCnON.

act of 1775 does not seem to have operated satisfactorily ; and in 1799 an- other act was passed, which completely freed colliers from the bondage in which they had been previously held, and ]aced them on a footing of equality with the other labourers of the kingdom."

Another evil, of great magnitude, which had long exbted in Scotland, and which presented the greatest obstacle to the improvement of the condi- tion of the mining population, was unquestionably the employment of females under ground.

The arrangements were such, that the labour of the man who worked or hewed *the coal was wholly unproductive without the assistance of his wife or daughter, whose occupation it was to carry it away ; and unless trained to it from their infancy, it was totally impossible for females to engage in such employment.

In a very interesting book, entitled " A General View of the Coal Trade of Scotland," published by Mr. Bald, in 1808, a graphic description of (he work performed by a female " coal-bearei" is given. We are compelled to abbreviate the details. The collier leaves his house for the pit, about eleven o'clock at night, [attended by his sons, if he has any sufficiently old,] when the rest of mankind are retiring to rest. Their first work is to prepare coals, by hewing them down from the wall. In about three hours after, his wife, [attended by her daughters, if she has any sufficiently grown,] sets out for the pit, having previously wrapped her infant child in a blanket, and left it to the care of an old woman, who, for a small gratuity, keeps three or four children at a time, and who, in their mother's absence, feeds them with ale or whiskey, mixed with water. The children who are a little more advanced, are left to the care of a neighbour.

The mother, having thus disposed of her younger children, descends the pit widi her older daughters, where each having a basket of a suitable form, lays it down, and into it the large coals are roiled ; and such is the weight carried, that it frequently takes two men to lift the burden upon their backs ; the girls are loaded according to their strength. The mother sets out first, carrying a lighted candle in her teeth ; the girls follow, and in this manner they proceed to the pitpboltom, and with weary steps and slow, ascend the stairs till they arrive at the hill or pit-top, where the coals are laid down for sale ; and in this manner they go on for eight or ten hours, almost without resting.

We have seen a woman, during the space of time above-mentioned, take on a load of at least 170 lbs. avoirdupois; travel with this 150 yards up the slope of the coal below ground; ascend a pit by stairs 117 feet, and travel upon the hill 20 yards more to where the coals are laid down. All this she will perform no less than twenty-four times, as a day's work.

The whole distance, thus loaded, during each, day, was 5016 yards And the unloaded distance, . . . . 5016

Total of the daily work, 5J miles, or . 10,032 yards.

In those pits which are so deep as to prevent the women from carrying the coals to the surface, the distance which they bring their loads to the pit- bottom may be stated at 280 yards. This journey they will perform thirty times with the weight above-mentioned, in the space of ten hours ; so that the journey performed each day, is loaded, 8400 yards ; not loaded, 8400 yards. Total length, 16,800 yards, or more than miles. The perpen- dicular ascent of the slope of the coal being 700 yards."

niTRODUCTioir. edt

This is the testimony of Mr. Bald, who has been for half a century at the head of the mining of Scotland, and who has done more than any other nan, not merely to impro? e the method of working, bat to elevate the chih laeter of the worker.

We are assured that this is no exaggerated statement It is utterly im- poasible for language to convey to a stranger anything like an adequate idea of the immense toil which those poor women had to undergo. It was reckoned nothing extraordinary, at a Lothian colliery, for a woman to carry on her back from 35 to 40 cwt. of coal each day, a distance of between 300 and 400 yards ; the greater part of the road being not higher than feet, and, in some cases, a considerable portion of it covered with water.

The reviewer, with perfect justice remarks, that it is certainly something very remarkable that, in the vicinity of the most polished city in the king- dom, and for the purpose of supplying it with an important necessary of life, there should have been in existence, until as it were yesterday, one of the most offensive and disgusting systems of slavery that ever disgraced a civilized country !

On the 7th of May, 1842, Lord Ashley, with whom the commission ori- ginated, rose in his place in the house of commons, and moved " for leave to bring in a bill to make regulations respecting the age and sex of children and young persons employ in the mines and collieries of the United Kingdom." In introducing the subject, this philanthropic nobleman said—

"It is not possible for any man, whatever be his station, if he have but a heart within his bosom, to read the details of this awful document, without a combined feeling of shame, terror and indignation. But I will endeavour to dwell upon the evil itself, rather than on the parties that misht be accused as, in great measure, the authors of it An enormous mischief is discovered, and an immediate remedy is proposed ; and sure I am that if those who have the power will be as ready to abate oppression as those who have su& fered will be to forgive the sense of it, we may hope to see the revival of such a good understanding between master and man ; between wealth and poverty ; between ruler and ruled, as will, under God's good providence, conduce to the restoration of social comfort, and to the permanent security of the empire."

After describing the measure in detail. Lord Ashley concluded in this striking and beautiful language : —

Is it not enough (o announce these things to an assembly of Christian men, and British gentlemen ! For twenty millions of money you purchased the liberation of the negro, and it was a blessed deed. You may this night, by a cheap and harmless vote, invigorate the hearts of thousands of your coontrj people; enable them to walk erect in newness of life; to enter on the enjoyment of their inherited freedom, and avail themselves, (if they will accept them,) of the opportunities of virtue, of morality, and of religion, lese, sir, are the ends which I venture to propose : this is the barbarism that I seek to remove. The house will, I am sure, forgive me for having detained them so long; and still more will they forgive roe for venturing to conclude, by iroploring them, in the words of holy writ, to break off our sins by righteousness, and our iniquities by showing mercy to the poor, if it may be a lengthening of our tranquillity.' "

We have been informed, that during the delivery of Lord Ashley's speech, the House of Commons was a perfect calm — not a whisper was heard. The simple announcement of the injuries inflicted, the sufferings endured, the degradation and ignorance prevailing, made such an impression in the

CKlu

IHTRODUCnOir.

houfle that many a stoat heart melted, and tears were shed, where seldom tears had been shed before.

The act passed in the autamn of 1842. It has now been five years in operation, and we will rentare to affirm that no measure was ever passed which so fully realized all the expectations of its supporters, or so com- pletely refuted all the objections of its opponents.

FRANCE. Mining CasuaUies in the Coal Basin of the Loire or St, Etienne.

Workmen employed.

Number of Workmen.

Ton (of

10.146 met. .)

Produced.

Tewi.

Killed.

Wounded.

Toui.

. 1,826

1,916

387,362

328,200

18S0

1,945

374,890

2,038

397,920

18S3

1,968

416,131

2,269

446,113

2,614

648,667

2,814

603,341

2,708

662,216

2,738

616,663

2,190

666,490

2,970

614,684

8,029

673,400

8,063

625,486

86,879

7,621,668

AT.ofl6yw

2,468

At. to ench miner

204 anMy.

Of the foregoing list of casualties occurring in the fifteen years, from 1817 to 1831, the immediate causes were as follows: — Crushes or falling in of the ground, 299 20. annually.

Inflammable gas or fire damp explosions, 179 1 1.92

Falling of rocks, timber, &c. 220 14.60

698 46.52 "

Proportion of deaths, 1 in 100; proportion of accidents, 1 in 52.

It is remarked that Mondays are the days of the week on which the greater part of the accidents happen.

The casualties recorded above which occurred in a working population averaging during the 15 years only 2458 miners, seem to be very dispro- portionate to the number employed ; being at the rate of 1 in 155, annually, in the foregoing statement the deaths by fire damp at St. Etienne, during this period, form only one fourth of the total number ; while the falling in of the ground in the subterranean works has been the principal cause of nearly three fourths of these accidents.* The safety lamp of Sir Humphrey Davy. was introduced here in 1825.

In 1845, a scientific commission was formed in France, to inquire into the causes of fire damp in the French mines, and to suggest the best means of preventing them.

Most of the mines in this department possess local caisses or funds for

Thii preponderance of the number of accidents in the Baain of the Loire, from the fall- ing in of the ground or roof in the eubterraneoue worke, ieem to be of local occarrence. In other diatrictfi thoie ariaing from exploiioni of gai are the most diiaitroae.

INTBDDUCTlOlf. ealm

the relief of the families of workmen; this resomree bu often piofed inad quate ; but the owners of the mines and the inhabitants of the district hare generously vied with each other in relie? ing the families rendered ney by these accidents. The goTernment has also relieved many soffisrers.

By a circular of the undersecretary of state, for the poblic works, addressed to the prefects and engineers of mines, they are directed to fiiN niflh, sometime in January of each year, an account of the accidents which may have occurred in the mines and quarries, during the preceding year; distinguishing tlie number of workmen employed in each department and the number of killed and wonnded, the cause, d&c.*

We have elsewhere observed that the daily employment of the coal miner W88 accompanied with far greater risk of life than that of the workman engaged in the extraction of the metallic ores, and consequently that it was the more expedient to provide the means of meeting or alleviating the acco- mulated casualties of the collier's life. From a statement before us, it appears that, in France, the proportion of coal miners killed or seriously injured, annually, has amounted to one in one hundred and forty-four, while in the mines of metalliferous ores, the proportion is only, on an average, one in four hundred and twenty-five.

We have shown that in the basin of St Etienne alone six hundred and ninety-eight coal miners have been killed or wounded in the space of fifteen years ; that is to say, forty-six per annum ; but this represents one-third of the coal production of France. It has been ascertained that the general average of deaths in the coal districts of France, occasioned by mine acci- dents, is between ninety and one hundred, for an extraction of coal amount- ing to three millions of tons, about equal to that of Belgium, where the average deaths are as much as one hundred and twelve annually.t

The great sources of the accidents which occasion sudden death in coal mines, are obviously the irruptions of water and the explosions of the fir damp ; the last being the most frequent and active. The fall of rocks, the tboutemtnts or crushing, which seem at first sight, to constitute the princi- pal dements of danger, enter only into a fraction of the sum total of dis- asters. The proportion of killed and wounded by fire-damp in Belgium, be- tween 1821 and 1842, is about 38 per cent of the total number of accidents.

These distressing occurrences have by no means diminished of late years. On the contrary, they appear to increase in all the coal mining countries of the world, in the ratio of the increased depth to which the workings of the collieries are carried.

On the 23d March, 1847, an explosion took place in one of the coal pits of hk Grame, in Alsace. Out of thirty-six workmen who were in the pit at the moment, twenty-four instantly perished, and the other twelve were seriously burned.

An imperial decree, 26th May, 1813, founded, in the department of Ourthe, a caisse de privoyance, in favour of the poor colliers. But this institution, even in the same department, had not taken deep root ; at Liege, it did not survive the fall of the empire.

A royal ordinance, 25th June, 1817, established at Rive-de-Gier [Loire,] a common foresight chest" for the working miners of this basin : the asso- ciation also had no long duration.

The two institutions, of the empure and the restoration, feiled from the same cause. They were unable to resist the times ; because they were nol

ADBilct dtt Miaw, tosM vii. 1846. t GMogis appUqv, par M. A. Bnat, Paris.

ezlif DITEODUCTIOM.

rooted in the economical habita of the workmen. They were almost ez- oluaiTelj benefit societies; the profidence of the workman, which ought to bare formed the principal characteristic, was there only an accessory.

The generosity of the proprietary had little utility, because they helped the unfortunate unprodudwtJy* The Belguin socieues are not so : the gifts of the mine explorer and the subsidies of the government have result in stimulating the clubbing of the workmen, and of doubly interesting them.

The principal mine establishments of France usually possess caisses de seeours, in favour of their workmen ; but no common association unites together several of these mines. These " chests" are organized and admin- istered somewhat after the manner of those at the Belgian collieries.

Insurance associations multiply throughout France; they protect the assured against the principal disasters which can await him. The philan- thropic societies of Paris, of Nantes, and of Mulhouse, contribute much to spread similar institutions and the germs of order and economy, in the work- ingclass.

The miners of France are still without public provident societies. It is more difficult to organize such associations in this kingdom than in Bel- gium ; either because the miners are more scattered, or because the dangers are less. But it is not the less useful for the working class to see these imperfect distributions replaced by permanent institutions.

In continuation of the subject, we notice here the progress made to form somewhat similar institutions to those of Belgium. Among others in France, to which we shall refer, is the relief chest" or fund, " caiue de MtcQurs" for the benefit of the working miners in the department of Arige.

In 1842, a report was made by the minister, M. Teste, SecreUry of Sute for the Public Works, to the king of the French, in which a project was submitted to his majesty, for the establishment of a caisu de jprivmfonc* at the mines of Rancid, in Ariege. The minister remarks, that these insti- tutions, so useful to the whole working class, are especially needed by the miner, who is, by the nature of his employment, exposed to daily danger, and who can with great difficulty, by his own individual economy, assure Jiimself of resources against the casualties to which he is subject

The administration has long been aware of the influence which these iind of establishments would have over the well-being of this class of work- men.

A decree of the Emperor Napoleon, in 1813, prescribed, for the depart ment of the Ourthe, the formation of a relief chest for the miners of that basin.

A similar institution was created in the department of the Loire, by royal ordinance in 1817.

The advantages which were anticipated from these beneficent juojecU were not immiately realized. We cannot here act by force. They re- quired the free assent and co-operation both of the proprietary of the mines, and of the operatives or workmen. This indispensable junction of the will of the whole often occasioned serious obstacles. Individual resistances fettered that which was the interest of all to extend.

In Belgium they have been more happy. The workmen in the five sab- divisions of the coal territory of that country, have concerted together to organize relief funds and annuities ; they have drawn up their statutes in a form which has met the approval of the government, and secured the benefit! of its protective influence; and an association is thus firmly establishec which comprises the various concessionaries and the workmen.

INTRODUCTION. CXlf

Belgiam, in this respect, is in a most favourable position. In France, the works are, in general, more dispersed. With some exceptions, the working miners do not present in France, as with her neighbour, a population con- centrated upon certain points; devoted exclusively, from father to son, to working in the mines ; and having those habits of fraternity from which results a powerful moral bond.

At the same time, it is but just to say, that several of the mines of France c/Sn examples of provident or relief funds, which have been successfully established.

One of the largest establishments in the kingdom, the iron mines of Rancie, is placed in circumstances where these ameliorations can be imme- diately realized. These circumstances are detailed to the government by the minister. Although they are of an interesting character, we are com- pelled to omit them*. Finally, he solicits the sanction of the king to the meditated institution, and thereby to confer on it that consistence and firm- nesB which is essential to its well-being.

On the 25th May, 1843, a royal ordinance was issued to create a relief fond, eaisse de secours" in favour of the working miners of Rancid ; and, by a series of articles, the plan of the institution and of the government, and the duties of the members, are detailed. The relief fund comprehends aid to the sick, the aged, and infirm miners, and affords assistance to the widows and children of deceased workmen. The plan has met with the general approbation of the community for whose benefit it was designed, and the cordial support of the mayors of the eight communes of the valley of Vic- dessos ; which communes were declared by royal ordinance, in 1833, con- cessionaries of the said mines of Rancid.*

Existing in the midst of the elements of destruction, the working miners have not been able to escape from superstitious impressions, and, on this head, we find that in mining countries, widely separated from each other, there exists a similar belief, which attributes most of the accidents to local or evil spirits who, in order to defend the subterranean treasures against the encroachments of man, oppose to his progress the waters, the gases, the fallings down, 6cc. There results a real evil from these superstitions: they afibrd a pretext for carelessness, already too prevalent among miners, and for neglecting to take the necessary precautions. Accidents are, moreover, multiplied with the extension of the subterranean works; and, while seeing men exposed all their lives to risks so terrible, there is no company or government that remains unmoved or has not sought to prevent them ; at first by wise prescriptions, and then to mitigate their effects. The estab- lishment of benefit societies — raisses de secours — is one method generally adopted. A fund created by a reserve from the wages of the workmen and other persons employed, and from the eventual profits of the society, is dis- tributed among the wounded, the widows, and the children of those who lalL These funds are administered by a council, presided over by the ad- mmistrator or manager, and of which the engineer, the cashier, and several master miners delegated by the workmen, form a part. This council regu- lates the number of pensions and the time which they ought to continue, according to the nature of the accidents and the position of the injured in- dividuals, as to means of subsistence.!

A fad of some interest, when viewed in connection with the subject of these pages, has been elicited by the returns made to the French govern-

AaaalM dM Mines, 1843, Vol. III. p. 933. t Bormt, p.

s

exiri nmtODUcnoN.

ment relative to the nvings banks of France. It appears that, in 1845, 123,000 workmen of different trades, were depositors in these banks ; and that, out of this number, no less than eighty-one thousand were miners.

Considering that the mining population of France is not as 1 to 20 of the working classes, it would appear from these statistics, that miners are here more economical and prudent than any other section of the labouring com- munity.

United States Of America.

Bituminous coal works. — With the exception of the Richmond aoal-field there are few works where the subterranean operations are sufficiently ex- tended to render them dangerous from the presence of fire-damp.

In March, 1839, an explosion toolc place in one of Heth's pits, Chester- field, Virginia, by which a number of lives were lost

These mines are from 400 to 700 feet deep, and are almost entirely work- ed by slave labour.

In 1844, another explosion took place in one of the Black Heath pits, while four Englishmen and eight negroes were in it

Anthracite CoUieries. — Some few of the deepest workings in the Pottsville district have been so far troubled with fire-damp, as to require some caution on the part of the miners. Explosions on a small scale occasionally occur, but we have no very serious cases to record, up to the present time ; although it is evident that, as the mines are deepened, the risk and danger increases, and it will require greater circumspection hereaAer.

In February, 1847, seven lives were lost by an explosion in Spencer's mine near Pottsville.

Benefit clubs and associations for relief in times of sickness prevail in thif mining district, after the English method.

Miners* Asylum. — A project was suggested through the columns of the Miners' Journal of Pottsville, in 1840, for the relief and support of such miners as became disabled by accident from pursuing their dangerous avo- cation. It contemplated the raising of a fund sufficient to erect a bnilding for the reception of sick and wounded miners, and an annual contribution towards its endowment. The plan was originated in charitable and philan- thropic motives, but was somewhat crude in its conception; and, as it pro> posed to be maintained from resources derived from a tax on the purchasers of coal, consumed at a distance and in great measure by other states, while the mining community was to be relieved from all the burthen, it was not likely to secure public favour. It has been thoroughly proved that no pro- ject of this sort is successful in its results, in which the expenses are not, to a certain extent, defrayed by the miners themselves; or, as in Belgium and in many instances in England, supported at the joint expense of the owners and the workmen, and carried on under their joint control and supervision.

No plan has as yet been decided upon, 1848.

In Pottsville, the great centre of the mining population of the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, we may infer that the moral condition of the work- ing class, particularly of the rising generation, is carefully looked after, from the establishment of so many schools for their education. It was ascertained, in 1842, that there were then in Pottsville the following schools and ber of pupils then receiving instruction in that place, which but a very few years ago was a barren and profitless wilderness.

mTRODnCTIOII.

cxlfii

Papilla Taichm*

Sanday schools, ... 1137 150

Eight public schools, - - 472 8

Private schools, ... 479 15

Oot of a population then amounting to but 4500 souls, brought together from various parts of the globe, we thus find eleven hundred children receiving the benefits of a sabbath school education, and nearly one thoo- 8U)d children who attended the public and private schools, during the week days.*

Mamck Chunky Anthracite District, — We have been favoured by the kindness of the Lehigh Coal Company with the following synopsis of the mining and general population, the schools of instruction and places of wor- ship within the limits of the Company's coal operations, in the year 1846, all of which had scarcely commenced to exist twenty years ago.

The mining accidents are not very firequent : they have probably averaged three lives lost a year.

DeUili.

"i

o .

1,360

2,496

1,080

ToUl mining popnlntion, Working men employed at the minei, SabtMth Kbools, English,

Common or public chooli, - Methodist Church, ...

Roman Catholic Churches, Presbjrterian Churches, ... Episcopal Church, ...

Division of Sons of Temperance, - DiTtsion of Odd Fellows, Beneficial Society, ...

And a population, at Mauch Chunk, of 1500 persons dependent on the coal operatioofl excluaiTc of those engaged in transportation ana the coal trade, kc, here and elaewbere.

We have brought together in the foregoing pages a small portion of the details which, were we writing on no other subject than the moral and phy- acal condition of the working population in the coal districts of various countries, would be rery inadequate to our purpose. But our scope is too limited to admit of further extension in this branch of inquiry, however interesting it may be.

In the sketch before us, we have had a two-fold object : first, of glancing at the innumerable casualties attending the miner's life ; at his moral and physical disabilities : second, at the means which have been taken by the philanthropic and the benevolent, in conjunction with his own exertions and the triumphant assistance of education, to ameliorate his condition, to com- pensate as far as possible for unavoidable privations, and to elevate him above a position which, as wc have seen, is too frequently one of extreme degradation. It will be regarded, with pleasure, that the efforts made in his behalf by the good and the influential of all these countries have not beeo

Miaen* Joarnal.

oxifiii mnoDucncav.

profitless ; and that the impnlsey thus given at the commencement of the work, has been seconded bj the majority of the workers themselves. This is the true, the rightful working of the system ; and the beneficial results already appear on every hand, where so many interests co-operate to alleviate the wretched, to inform the ignorant, to elevate the debased, to reform the improvident, to encourage the industrious, the successfiil issue appears inevitable ; it is indeed, already manifested in the improved condition of diose, to whom these benevolent exertions have been directed.

To those who have perused the sickening details recorded in the Report of the Midland Mining Commission, and the almost incredible evidence of the condition of the South Suifibrdshire mining population, so late as 1842, the prospect of any amendment of such a lamentable state of society mast be welcome. To those, again, who were apprised, for the first time, of the degrading and demoralizing employment of thousands of females in the ooal mines of England and Wales, and moral Scotland, the interposition of the legislature, sanctioned by the approbation of the wise and humane throughout the empire, must afford cause for rejoicing in the progress of a reform so needful. The beneficial effects of education, and of the Sunday school system, of which we have ample evidence, both in the New and the Old World, have had the most happy influence on the industrial classes, and on none more than the youth of the mining communities. The noble example set by the Belgian government in supporting the provident associa- tions of the miners in that country, will be followed by other European states, and is already in progress in France.

North America,

Comprisiho

1. The United States.

2. British America.

3. Russian America.

4. Oregon Territory.

5. Upper California. New Mexico.

7. Mexico.

8. Texas.

United States Of America.

Abba, exclusive of Texas and Oregon, estimated at 2,300,000 square miles.

Papvilalum. .

Popolation in 1840, 17,063,353

Of wbieh there were Slaves, 2,487,355

Population in 1845,* 19,914,362

Weights and Measures,

Ordinary estimate of BituraiDoiis Coal — 28 bushels sa 1 ton of 2240 lbs.

OccasiQuallj it has been customary to allow 30 do. a 1 do.

But, we also find it sUted, in the west, at 26i do. 1 do.

At Richmond coal pits the common measure is 5 pecks to a bushel.

The same coal put on board at Richmond, is 4 pecks to the bushel.

The Richmond coal bushel at the pit's mouth, is said to weigh 90 lbs. 24 bushels and 80 lbs. to 1 ton.

The four peck bushel weighs 72 lbs., and the ton contains 31 bushels iDdSlbs.

In the south, bituminous coal is sold by the barrel, weighing 172 lbs. There are, therefore, 13 barrels to 1 ton of coal.

In the anthracite trade the prevailing standard is by the ton of 2240 lbs.

Occasionally, in retailing, the ton is only 2000 lbs. ; it is so quoted at New York, Cleveland, 41&c.

On the State Canal, and the Tide-water Canal, the toll is levied per 1000 lbs. of coal.

Foreign bituminous coals are, or were, commonly sold by the chaldron of 36 bushels. A chaldron of these coals weighs 25i cwt

A bushel, measured when dry, weighs 84 or 85 lbs. ; but in Pennsylvania, m Ohio, at Clevelaud, and several odier places, the bushel is equivalent to iOlbe.

What used to be sold under the denomination of a Newcastle chaldron, weighed 2 tons and 13 cwt.

llie Nova Scotia chaldron is tons, or 3360 lbs. of 42 bushels; but the measurement yields 48 bushels.

The Boston retail chaldron is commonly 2500 lbs., but sometimes 2700 lbs.

The tariff duty was levied on the chaldron of 2880 lbs. or 36 bushels of 801bt.ea6h.

Aiaiiritn Alaanac, 1847.

4 UNITED STATES OF AlCERICA.

A cord of wood 8 X 4 X 4 feet — 128 cubic feet The Austrian corde of wood is 88| do. 40 feet of round timber I , . 50 feet of bewn timber f " I pound — 0 kilogr. 4535.

1 barrel of flour —08 do. 991. 1 bushel — 35 lit 236.

lyard 0 mt 9144.

1 Mexican or Texas Vara, rqiresents 83|f Engliab inches, 0 mdt 847 French.

Untied Siaia Currency. 1 dollar 100 cents, — is. Hd. .- 5/r. 35c. [4i. I6dec.] 1 cent, a 0/r. 5c. 35.

Par Talue of 1 United Sutes dollar in London, 47 pence. ;1 sterling a (4.84 nearly, — 25/r. 89 cents, to 25.76, legal value. 1 shilling, English, 0.24c.20. 1 crown 1.2J.

The value of the 5 firanc piece is fixed by Congress at 93 cents.

Jkomsk American Currency. 1 hard dollar, — 100 cents, 4i. 2if. 8 reales.

Previous to the 31st July, 1834, the American eagle contained 270 grains of standard gold, viz. 247 grains pure, and 23 grains alloy. By the Act of Congress of that chte, the weight of the eagle was reduced to 258 grains, of which 232 are pure gold, and 26 alloy. In consequence of this altera- tion, the sovereign, or pound sterling, that was formerly worth 94.57 cents, is now worth $A.8S cents.* Under the present American system, it is bdieved that gold is over-valued from to per cent

Money.

The mode still adhered to by many of quoting exchange between the United States and London, is both obscure and absurd; as the premium or discount is founded upon the fadse, or nominal par of $4.44, instead of the InM par of 4*86." In the calculation of duties at the United Sutes ous- toni-houses, since 14th July, 1832, the value of the pound sterling is fixed by law at $4.84.

The banks receive and pay out sovereigns at $4.85.t

Among the " Documens snr la Commerce exterieur," of France, pub- liriied in June, 1843, occurs' the following passage relative to the pound sterling. la 1842, an Act of Congress, of the 27th July, fixed the legal value of the pound sterling at $4S4, [—25/r. 8Skis.] for the conversion, in American currency, of prices to foreign agents, and for payments inio die American treuvry. Previously, this value was $4.44 23/9*. 75c] a rate that* the American treasury had substituted, in 1840, for that of $4.80, 25/r. OSc] esuUished by law of the 2d March, 1799."|

'EickneU'iOoMClMiit. AIm, Moori Pluladtlphia Pric Curraat."

t New York Joanial of Conmerce, Oct 1839.

X Tb coDtinaation of Uiia rabjeet, we Insert the following Ulaitrmtife note t

A CoKKCBciAL AmvnoiTT.The carreat qaoutioai, m 7, 8, or 9 per otnC preaiam for exchaoge on England, which we tee in the newapapera, do not menn a premium on the per Talue of the pound iteriing , but oa a Setitioaa Tilnntioa of the pound which preTiiled

cuERKinnr. 5

The weight of the Sptnidi tod Anerican dollar is 416 grains troy. 100 dollars, therefore, are equal to 211,742 Sicca rupees, or, deducting the duty, to 207508 Sicca rupees.* The dollar is a legal tender, at the price of 4j. 4dL English currency, in the East Indies.

Fo/iie nf Foreign Moneffi*

AS TAKBlf AT TRB CUSTOll-BOUSB IN NEW YORK, IN 1846.t

Barcelona and Caulonia litres, M.SS}

Brabeint florin, 0.34

Bremen dollar, 0.78

Bengal, Calcutta and Bombay sicca rupee, - - 0.50

China tale, 1.48

Crowns of Tuscany, 1.05

Denmark Rix dollar, 1.00

Ducat of Naples, 0.80

Dutch florins or guilders, 0.48

English pound sterling, fixed by law, ... 4.84

French francs, 0.18}

livre, 0.181

fife franc piece, 0.93

Genoa lifre, - - 0.18|

Halifax pound, 4.00

Hamburg Rix dollar, 1.00

Leghorn dollar, 0.909

Louis d'or, or Rix doUar of Bremen, ... 0.78|

Portugal milreas, 1.24

Russian rouble, - - O.lOi

Spanish rial of plate, 0.10

of fellon, 0.05

Saxon dollar, 0.69

Systems of Weights and Measures.

GENERAL USB, IN RELATION TO COAL, IN THE UNITED STATES OF ABfERICA.

In our progress through this section of our work, it has been our endea- vour, when reporting on given amounts of coal, whether anthracite or bituminous, to render them in one uniibrro atandard. We have efiected this, at the cost of much extra labour, and have brought out the results in a common denomination — that of weiobt. We have done so under the con- vieiion that, sooner or later, that principle must be universally complied

tku camntrr a cmtary ago, when the States were coloniei. For example, the pound teriiaf , Sr gold aoTereign, is to-day worth $4.86 in Wall street, which is ahont the per ▼alec as esublisbed bj law of Congress. A thoatsnd of them would be worth $48d0. The evTCflt rale of eichaage on Eoglaod in Wall street is now about nine per cent, premiun, the phnae ac, for bille payable in London or Liverpool. But this premium is not on $4AS, the per vaJue of the pound, nor yet on the pound sterling, but it is on $4.44, the old colonial ralne of the pound. For example, A. B. buys a bill of exchange for JCIOOO on Eaglaad, froai C. D., at 9 per cent, premium ; he pays $4844.44 (or it. Suppoee be gUTe a thneaand eoveieifna for it, at current value, there would be a balance in his favor, so that, in reality, the rate of exchange on England, instead of being nine per cent, against os, ie in ear fiiTor, l>ecanee bills can be obuined cheaper than gold. Or course, then, there in ohiect is aeadieg gold to England. Hence the abaurditf of this ideal mode of dealing

I oa England, which in etill kept up by our mercnaaU and newtpapera. HaadBookdrTndia, 1844, p 65. t WiHiwMfi liitMcnl Coapaaion, 1846.

6 UlflTED STATES OF AMERICA.

with ; whaterer may be the present prerailiog provincial cnatoms, or the ordinary usages of trade.

Whether 2240 be the most seientific or appropriate number of pounds to constitute one ton, or otherwise, it certainly possesses the convenience of general adoption, in the principal coal-producing countries of the world, in oar times ; and of being employed by the great maritime nations, among which Great Britain and the United States stand pre-eminent

In this country, there can be no sufficient reason assigned why bitumi- nous coal should almost invariably be sold in bulkthat is to say, by mm- sure — and anthracite by weight; or that the former should be calculated, in the eastern ports, by the chaldron ; in the southern by the barrel ; at the mines by the bushel : and, although much more rarely, by the European chaldron or the ton : — which ton is generally 2240 lbs. weight at the place of production, and 2000 lbs. at the place of consumption ; especially in the eastern ports.

Without altogether discarding the old denominations, in our returns, we have, at least, accompanied them by other tables, representing an uniform standard of weisht We have not limited the process to American returns, but have applied it to every country. In relation to the United States, we have done so the more readily, because we hoped, thereby, to be instru- mental in terminating the highly objectionable system of buying and selling a mineral substance like coal by measure ; whether that measure be a peck, a bush, a barrel, or a chaldron ; for we have all these varieties, and all are equally indefinite, equally liable to abuse, and equally disadvanugeoos to both buyer and seller.

In Europe, — in all the great coal producing and coal baying countries, it has long ago been demonstrated, after very full investigation in all its bearings, that there exists no fair and equitable system, suited alike to the buyer and the seller, the miner, the producer, thj transporter and the con- sumer, except that of weight.

Ix>cal usages and peculiarities are always sources of embarrassment in commercial transactions. We feel their influence in this country daily.

In Pennsylvania, for instance. In the tariff of tolls on bituminous coal and anthracite, — fixed officially and annually, and to be received on the State and Tide-water canals and railroads,— the article, mineral coal, is charged per 1000 lbs. weight Now, as in Pennsylvania there is no such weight recognized by the producer or by the trade, for the reason already assigned, that the bituminous coal is sold by measure and not by weight, this new denomination, applied to the article on its transit merely, is obriously a source of inconvenience to more parties than one.

So also in relation to anthracite ; for as all which is transported on these canals and railroads is mined by the customary ton, of 2240 lbs. ; conveyed to the landings by the ton ; freighted by the ton, and are bought apd sold by the same weight : the departure from a universal practice of the trade by the interposition of the 1000 lbs. standard, inad of the genuine ton, not only occasions unnecessary trouble, both to the payers and the collectors of toll, but interposes an unodled for difficulty in one branch of the trade.

Neither is the rule so general as to demand this interposition, on the score of conformity ; for instance, the coal which has descended the Tide- water canal, and has there paid toll per the 1000 lbs. weight, on |>assing into the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, pays its toll on the ton of 2240 Ibe.

Again, in relation to the movement of coal in neighbouring states, we miy remark on the want of uniformity in the system of weights, which cir-

WSIOffTS AND MKASUESS. 7

eamstance interferes with the means of acquiring correet statistical informa- tion. Thos, the bituminous and anthracite coals which pass down the Schuylkill navigation, in PennsyWania, are retnmed by the large ton, while all that pass over the New York canal is returned by the small ton, of 240 11m. less; and yet the same coal was imported into the state by a different scale of measure — both that which was shipped at Cie? eland or Erie, for Buffalo, or that which came from Pennsylvania by the Tioga railroad.

In Pennsylvanis, the Union Canal,* the Schuylkill Navigation, and the Lehigh Navigation, as well as the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, levy tlieir tolIs and arrange their freights, by the standard ton adopted by the trade : thus employing a different system to that used on the state works*

We will proceed to point out some of the extraordinary discrepancies which prevail in relation to the coal trade ; and which, considering we have heard for years past that great attention has been psid at Washingtoillo the establishment of a national system of weights and measures, our readers would not suspect was still remaining in full operation.

Towards the commencement of the coal trade in Pennsylvania, even anthracite was calculated by the bushel. In the vicinity of Pottsville and Wilkesbarre, in those times, leases of mines were grant, the lessee in the former place payinff two cents a bushel.t

In some parts of the bituminous coal-field, thirty bushels have been sup- posed to be equivalent to a ton in weight ; in others twenty-eight bushels for gross weight and twenty-five bushels for minimum weight ; and we have also heard of twenty-six bushels as representing the ton. For a long time, the usages of the trade, as regards anthracite, assigned twenty-eight bushels as the equivalent of one ton of Lehigh coal, thirty bushels of Schuylkill, ami thirty-three bushels of Lackawanna coal. It is needless to point out the utter worthlessness of a system, if system it can be called, so vague, so utterly incorrect and unphilosophical ; a practice which operated, so long as it was pursued, equally to the prejudice of the producer and consumer. Yet, it will scarcely be credited, the early returns, during several years, of Lehigh anthracite, were made in bu9hels.|

There are numberless and insuperable obstades to making weight and quantity synonymous terms. In point of fact, there is so much guess work : to much uncertainty, in assigning a standard of weight against a given bulk — which bulk is, of itself, entirely unsettled in real practice, that the consequence, not unfrequently, is that bituminous coal, in the large way, is not really measured at all. The present custom observed is this : Contracts for the coal which descends the Pennsylvania State Canals, are generally made by the ton of 2000 lbs. weight : considered equivalent to twenty-five bushels, each bushel being estimated to weigh 80 lbs. But what is termed the gross ton of twenty-eight bushels, which is supposed to represent the 2240 lbs., is in as frequent use ; one being as oAen used by the shippers from the Alleghany mines as the other.

On the western rivers twenty-eight Imshels represent a ton. On the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, the libersl allowance of thirty bushels to each legal ton is made and accounted for. Yet, in this case, the coal conveyed on the Union Canal is specifically heavier than that of the western rivers, in the proportion of 1.3! to spec. grav. The official returns to Congress

TIm rMnras of iMtomiaoai eoftl paMing on the Unioo Canal, oted onurtiiiMw to bo Bado ia boahola aad aometioiM in poundi.

t Paanhlot on the Coal and Iron boiineti, Ponghkoe|wie, 1828.

t Dr.JaaWaHiMoryof PMMjlvauaAMbnGito,MoflMinof thoBialorieal Socioty of Pfeaadolphia,voLI, law.

8 Uiotxd 8Tat£8 Of Am Srica.

oomprehend all bitamiaoaa ooab throughout tho Union, be their specific gnvities what they maj, at 80 Iba. to the bushel, and twenty-eight bushels to the ton. In Michigan, the eoal business is conducted by the biuhel measure.

At the coal pita at Chesterfidd, near Richmond, Virginia, the coal tiade adopted as the standard, fife pecks to the bushel ; weiring ninety pounds. Consequently each ton of 2d40 lbs. actually contains only twenty-four bush- els and 80 Iba. over. Thia measurement, it must be stated, aolely applies to coal at the pit'a mouth. At the terminus of the railroad, twelve miles from the mines, another syatem commencea. Here, at Richmond, where the coal is shipped, the orthodox bushel is four pecks. This bushel, there- fore, weighs 72 lbs., and the ton is now represented by thirty<one bushels and eight pounda over, instead of twenty-four bushels; notwithstanding which Uie salea in Boston and New York are made by the chaldron of thirty- aiz biirtiels, or by the ton of twenty-eight bushels. At Baltimore, twenty- eight bushela.*

In the southern porta, in Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, another and peculiar standard prevails for the sale of .bituminous coals; and we find that an indeterminate measure of capacity,called a barrel, prevails. Thirteen of these barreb constitute one ton ; each barrel, whatever be the q>ecifio gravity of the coal, being calculated to hold a quantity which corresponds with two and a half bushels. This coal waa purchased at the mines by the bushel.

With regard to the customs of the trade in the eastern ports : in Boston, fofeign bituminous coal is imported and sold by the chaldron; American bituminous coal is generally sold by the bushel ; and anthracite is purchased at the rate 2240 lbs., and retailed at 2000 Iba. the ton. Sometimea the returns are iven in tons, sometimes in bushels, sometimes in chaldron and one denomination being occasionally mistaken for another, we need not wonder at the aingular discrepanoiea in the published statements of the coal trade there. In Philadelphia, anthracite, both wholesale and retail, is alwaya aold by the legal ton of 2240 Iba. In New York and Boston, the ton is only 2000 lbs., thus gaining six tons on every carga On the Reading Railroad a ton of coal is 240 lbs., but a ton of merchandize is only 20001bs.t

Nova Scotia coal is imported, in some quantity, into Boston ; always by the chaldron. But what constitutes a chaldron seems a matter of aomewhat arbitrary character. It sometimes is fixed at 3000 lbs. weight; sometimes at 2928 lbs. ; but most frequently at 3360 lbs., or one ton and a half. The tariff duty is customarily levied on the chaldron of 2880 lbs., or thirty-aix bushels; while the retailer sells a chaldron, which is sometimes 2500 lbs. and sometimes 2700 lbs. weight The Nova Scotia chaldron of ton, ahould contain forty-two bushels, of 80 lbs. each ; but the custom of the trade, we are informed, raiaes the admeasurement to forty-eight bushels. In like manner, the ton is rated at thirty-eix bushels, instead of twenty-eight.

Amidst all the intricacies of these returns and dealings, it is very difiicult to get at the real quantity and prices of foreign imported coals ; as the num- ber of chaldrons purchased at the place of production, materially differs from that on which duty is paid, and from that which is sold to or by the retailer.

The registration of imports of Virginia coal in Boston and New York, is by the number of bushels only. At Sydney and Pictou, the mine or colliery

Btltimora Report, Not. 16, 1843.

t Reporta of tho ReadiBg RaUroad Coaiptiy, Jta. II, IStf, p. 15, aad Mteoqaeatlj.

W8I0HT8 AND MSAiUU0t

is tlurtjrji buabeLi to the too, e? en meaBarOi or twenty-four bushels helped meeaure.

While on thia subject it may not be altogether out of place to note that oomplainla have been made in Pennaylvania respecting the irregularly pre- vailing in relation to the weighu of other aubstancea ldea coal. We ha?e lecenUy observed an article in a Philadelphia paper to the following effect: It is a aingular bet, that our meaaurea for grain are larger than those of New York, Boaton, or Baltimore. This deviation from uniformity is greatly oomplained of by our country dealers and farmers, who ship to Philadelphia, from Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia. A very large quantity of gram ia ahipped from those atatea to New York and other ports, which would come here, were it not for the inconveniences arising from the falling short of the measure. Some years since, CSongreas passed a law providing for uniformity of weighu and measures throughout the Union. But we regret to say that oor old standard of dry measure still holds its place."*

llie same writer alleges that equal ground of complaint exists in rda- tioo lo the measurement of bark, and the same difficulty with respect to the retail measure of charcoal, in Philadelphia, has been lately settled by muni- eipal legislatioo.

In the lead region of Missouri the present standard of weight appears to be on the 1000 lb. weight, as in Wisconsin and Iowa. Formerly, the cua- tom prevailed of 106 lbs. to i cwt., or 2160 pounds to the ton.

In Pennsylvania, the weight of a ton of iron is local and arbitrary. Thus, we are informed by an experienced iron master, of Centre county, the num- ber of pounds usually assigned as a ton vary according to the following scale:

f tmn Om f Sometimes taken at 2240 lbs.

lion ure, j sometimes at 2480

{Pig Iron universally 2240

Blooms 24

Bar Iron 2000

In the tarifl& of the United States customs, in every case, the ton is re- quired to be of the weight of 2240 lbs.

Among many other irregular or uncertain customs of local weights and measure?, we extract the following from our notes.

In Kentucky, corn is measured by the barrel, which is five bushels of shelled corn. At New Orleans, a barrel of corn is a flour barrel full of ears. At Chicago, lime is sold by the barrel, and measured in the smallest sized cask of that name that will pass muster. A barrel of flour is seven quarters of a gross hundred, (1 12 lbs.J which is the reason of its being the odd measure of 196 lbs. A bbl. of tar is 20 gal., while a bbl. of gun- powder is only a small keg holding 25 lbs., and of cotton, a bale b 400 lbs., no matter in what sized bundles it may be sent to market

Ere we terminate this article, we will advert to two or tliree facts that have come to our knowledge respecting the uncertainty of any standard of measurement, after long experience, that can be adopted as a substitute for weight, in the sale of coals. For instance, I bushel of English coal, mea- when dty weighs from 84 to 85 pounds. The American bituminous coals are commonly averaged at 80 pounds per bushel. The same English coal, ifwuasured when wetted, paradoxical as it may appear, the weight will be found not so great. The fact is proved, conclusively, that in the dry coal the small particles run to fill up the cavities, making the whole almost TIm North Amerioan, Janaary lOUi, 1846.

Jo United States Op America.

M>lid mass : whereas a bushel of wet coals only doses op the hollow ca? ities ; the fragments clog together, and the whole do not weigh so much as the drj coal of the like admeasurement

With regard to the increased measure acquired bj breaking up coal, it was commonly proved bj the trade, that that which in the large or coarse state measured Jive boU$ (sajr tons or chaldrons,) when broken up, fine, in the hold of the ship after delivery on board, measured nine bolls.

As to the continuance or toleration of the system of heaped measure for coals, we trust that an end will ere long be put to what has, with perfect propriety, been termed " a barbarous custom." A commercial author, Mr. McCulIoch, observes that all articles that may be sold by heaped measure, aitghi to be sold by weight. In Scotland, indeed, the use of heaped nnea* sure was abolished above two hundred years since,** The French, Belgian, Prussian, Austrian, Spanish, Portuguese, and nearly all other European nations, adopt well ascertained weights for the purchase and sale of coal, and not measures of capacity. Throughout Hindostan, coal is always sold by weight. In the Indian countries north of the Nerbudda river, there is no dry measure of capacity, and every thing is, therefore, sold by weight. This appears also to be the case in most of the Nizam's districts, adjoining those of Ahmednugffer. The introduction of a system of measure into the Dec- can, seems to be of a late date.*

In the English Act of 5 and 6 of Will. IV. 1835, are the following im- portant provisions :

It aboiishet all heal or customary measures.

It prohibits " the mischievous practice" of heaped measure. All bargains, sales, and contracts, made aAer the passing of this act, by heaped measure, shall be null and void : and every person who shall sell any articles by heaped measure, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 405. for every such sale.

From and after the 1st of January, 1836, all coals, slack, culm, and cannel, of every description, shall t>e sold by weighty and not by measure, under a penalty of 40s. for every such sale.

All articles [except gold, diamonds, d&c.l shall be sold by standard atfoir' dupois weight, of 14 lbs. to the stone, and 8 stone to the hundred weight, and of 20 such . to the ton 2240 lbs.

The fact, that so monstrous a system should have been persevered in for more than a century, sets the power of habit, in reconciling us to the most pernicious absurdities, in a very striking point of view. Happily, however, the nuisance has been at last abated."t

The United Sutes is the only coal country, of importance, in the woild, where the practice remains uncorrected.

The (duty on foreign coke and culm, prior to the modification of the tariff in 1846, amounted to tiO per cent., on its wholesale market value — English, at the principal coal shipping ports, in 1846.

That on foreign bituminous coal was from 70 to 90 per cent., on shipping prices abroad, which is, among the hightnit duties, payable on any imported article, under the operation of the tariff of 1842.|

A drawback is allowed on foreign coal exported from the United States, in such cases, for instance, where it has been landed and placed in depot,

Martin's Cotottitl SUtiitict. Appendii it. p. 143.

t McCulloch*t Conmercial Dictionary, p. 294.

I Lctlar oftlM Bacreury of tba TrcMury to CoDgroit, Doc. 16, 1844.

Tariff.

for the use of the British steamers. This law was confirmed by the Senate of the United States in Jannaiy, 1840.*

Awurkam TarifofDtOy on For&gn Coab.

Iniort duties on foreign bitnminons coals brought to the United State& all cases the duties are collected upon the ton of S240 lb8.t

In

1 Ratal

Tear.

pr.buSiel

Per Ton of S6

Per Cbal. drooofM

atNewToik?

per et. on

bMped.

buthelt.

boihels.

per C:.aldron or Too.

▼alne.

CEHTl.

TAmivr.— 4Ui July . .

s

$0 56

,

lOUi Aagntt,

SmI May, . .

I79S

919*00 ClMkiron.

7Ui Jane, . .

IftJaljr, . .

18Is

3"60

. -

B7MCt7UiAprir;ci.>

18Is

20 to 23 Ch.

tnMd to 18S4, . . C

12 to 15 Cb.

Bj act Sad Mty, con-l tisMd to 1833, . . ]

10 to 11 Ch.

8 to 14 per ton. ually redoeod.

)56to 40

Aaffc30tb,

7 16 per ton. 5 56 do.

Eropooed Tariff in . .

defeated and aban- doned,

'iftDecenber, 1846, .

1846 anadvalo!

rem duty

ofaopret.

7 00 per ton.

BqaWaleMl

too 45

The amount of re-exported coal, on which the duty was remitted, was ll,d6i tons, in 1845, valued at 935,957.

We hare no official return of the amount of American coal annually exported into Canada from the lakes.

The act of Congress, passed July, 1846, rescinded the tariff of 1842, and substituted a modSed one, which took place, Dec. 1, 1846.

British Export Duties,

On coals shipped from the ports of Great Britain to foreign ports, from the year 1835 to 1842.

To foreign countries in British ships, 10 per cent, ad valorem,

m r u- M*' per ton, for large coal.

To British possessions in British ships, free.

These duties were abolished in 1845 ; no duties recei?ed since March,

There is no import duty on American bituminous coals or anthracite, Wonght into the Canadas, or any part of British America.

As regards Louisiana, by a treasury letter, July 3, 1821, the trade of Louisiana is placed on the same footing as that of the United States of Aroe- rica, by the gorernment of Great Britain.

nasard*f U. S. Commercial and Statittical Regiiter, 1840. Alao Commercial Recipro- otT— HBBt*8 Mag. Vol. i. p. 358 and 526.

t TlM taUe ia founded on the Report of tlio SecreUry of the Treaanry to CoBgrcea, Dee. 3, 1S4&.

I Ofioal DoevBCBti of Greet Britaiiu

It

United 8Tats8 Ot America.

Gross Impariaiions of Foreign Coals,

From Great Britain, British America, and all other places, into the United States, both in American and in foreign vessels, from 1789 to 1847, in- clusive, showing their declared vaiUe, the tariff, and the amount of duties received Ibereoo ; the commercial year ending on the 30th June, an- nually.

Official

Dntiea

Yean.

Bothelt.

Tons.

Ytlae.

ReceiTad.

TarUr. 1

DoUtn.

Dollara.

1789*

107,810

3,850

2ets. per

bashel.

125,357

4,477

8,3381

330,041

11,787

25,150 I

5 fits.

do.

498,643

17,805

25,810

392,857

14,030

19,907,

19,367

War.

War. ':

lOcts.

do.

98,398

3,514

Peace.

Peace, i i

1890t

073,711

24,061

53,685

do.

729,255

25,795

108,527

1,640,295

58,582

204,773

98,417

1,679,119

59,972

143,461

6ets.

do.

153,450

uv.

181,551

4,560,287

169,867

273,610.

141,526

41,163

116,312

'

87,073

236,963

18,267

85,771

224,483

151,021

$1 75 per ton.

1846t

378,597

274,492

148,021

370,985

123,662

30 per ot

From this table of gross importation have to be deducted, in order to show the actual emsumpHom the annual quantities taken out of storage at the depots for the Atlantic steamers, d&c. and reexported. This re-exported quantity is about one-twenty-liAh part of the entire importation.

There are other statements of the importations of English coal, differing from the foregoing, but we take the following table from the official returns of the British exports. The reduction since I 2, as compared with the seven preceding years, is attributable to the operation of the tariff of that year ; the imports from England have not materially changed in the aggregate, and those from Nova Scotia were about the same in 1847 as in 1842. At the same time the imporutions of English and colonial coal into Boston have increased since the tariff of 1842.

Sutifltieal Aonala oftha U. 8. of America, by Adam Seybart, M.D., 1818. t Report of the Seeretanr of the Treasury, 3d Dec. 1846, and aabaequenUy. t Commercial Liat of PkUadalphia, 1846-7.

Foreign Coal Trade.

CMBidanee Imparts and Etporis. TaUe of Briiiflh and eolonia] bituininoiis eoais, calm and coke, received in the United States, chiefly New York and Boston, from 1822 to 1846, dedacting the eoal re-exported, and showing the cmuumpHan: in tons of 28 bushels.

BUtkH

Coal! of C9rtn Britain onlf , ac*

Srtllih iui4

and OalonUl

tDfdifif

to tile PajrtlaniQtiiaf;

€ai(ifilal

lh tJ, S.

DtcUrvd ValDft.

TdBi.

Tooa.

n&n

S4,in

im,i9o

' Steriiaf .

Dollaf*.

37,31*

S. "1836

106,432

30,220

£17,080

71,062

46,674

29,362

T2U6stS

&

lB3t

U.e47

14fi.26

67,175

27,949

n 8,267

104,392

Ti

166,454

1S40

162,Be7

77,569

to

LiSii

fl843

155,394

62,273

1S33

311,017;

h

68,407

a..

4 1,163

?

tS34

400,277;

Sll

Itt44

874J73

29,233

"Si

Ib46

85,776

58,331

&

' 9

67,903

173,390

30inet.]S47

Average Prices of Foreign Imported Coals, At the ports of shipment, according to the official valuations, returned to

the United States.

Average priee per ton of

XMOIba. Forelf n Coal.

Wholeaale pricea

TMra.

Per Tton of

Teara.

at Philadelphia, per ton of

Foralfn Col.

Anthracite.

t2 27

19U

$5 50

The 4th column shows the average price, at the place of shipment, of all descriptions and qualities of foreigo coal, both English and colonial. The colonial coal is shipped at a lower price than the European.

The amount of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton coal imported into Boston during the ten years from 1835 to 1845, was 314,565. In 1S45, 33,628 chaldrons of this eoal were imported into Boston, or 45035 tons. In 1846, 26,861 tons only.

Umitiu) 6Tats8 Op America.

Condensed View rfihe Imporiatiom of Foreign Coal into the United States.

Tlie following statement is compiled from both the Americin and the Bri- tish parliamentary returns, and, although incomplete, will probably furnish the most approximate view of the actual importation of coal into the United States ; in tons of 3240 lbs.

In framing this statement, we hsve endeavoured to rectify varions discre- pancies in the returns, but not always satisfiictorily.

BrItftbOM],

CoIodEaI

V. SUls EiarBi.

froia olbef placei-

aroH

Itaportnllon. BttsfaIi init Qhaldront

to

Orltkli Cn*l

for rhe uh aflhc

OroM

VftfUlt of

per ton,

Porti.

laoi

1820 J la 1830) 183-t 11 IS45

15,103 49,310

39,K'5 19,,&85 46,674 62,930 53,373 68,407 10,917 S9,S3S fi7,903

Tobi,

to TAVa

Sl,40f 41,S34 63,920 61,777

40,387 78,314

106,876 71,908

1*8,621 85,951

103,121 d7,Ml

96,330

3,610

34,205

3€;5og

83,144 91,43S

163,460 m/183 181,661 163,610 166,394 76J03

S7,crr3

86,716 16,863 148,031

ToDi,

87 11,364

DolUr*.

1108,547

104,773

Sl!/)17

fOO,3TT 143,4£1 344,996

Ml

3S7,i3S

3S0,63fi 116,312 £36,963 233,919 378,697 370,986

14 Os

33

in

t n

Tarif IhUiee on Coah Imported.

The question of how far the coal trade of the United States required nv teotion from an external competition, has, at various times, been the subject of public discussion among the parties interested.

As may be seen in the preceding table, various modifications have beeo introduced, from time to time, in the scale of duties on imported coals.

The Committee of the Senate of Pennsylvania appointed to investigate the subject of the coal trade, reported March 4, 1834 ; and, among other important points, stated that they were led to the consideration of the que tion, " whether the bituminous coal of Pennsylvania can be brought into general use, east of the mountains, for manufacturing purposes, and be transported to the eastern markets upon such terms as to supersede the use of foreign coals f

The report proceeds to notice the effect that duties on foreign coal had heretofore produced on the sale of American coals, in the markets on the sea board.

In 1815, when the duty on foreign coals was three dollars and sixty cents,

PwliuBeBtary Tablet of Revenue, Commerce Iec. t Treesary Report U. 8., Dec. 3, 1846. I CommercUl List of Philadelpbie.

TARffF DUTIE8 ON COALS IBCPORTED. IS

the price in New York wai twenty-three dollars the ofasldron, of thirty-aU bushels.

From 1816 to 1833, inclusive, daring which time the duty was one dollar and eighty oenta, the tferage price waa about ele? en ddlarsi

From 1824 to 1834, the doty waa two dollars and aixteen centa, and the average price about fourteen dollara.

For the twenty yeara prior to 1834, the average price baa been abou| twelve dollara and fifty centa; and, therefore, it baa not varied in proportioD to the tariff; nor doea it appear to have been influenced by the ratea of duty — lor, in 1821, when the duty waa one dollar and eighty oenta per ton, the price of coala waa fourteen dollara; and, in 1830, when the duty waa two dollan and aixteen centa, the price waa only eight dollara. The difference in price, it would therefore seem, has been produced by other causes.

From 1824 to 1834, the duty was one dollar and eighty centa a ton, and. the average price during the same period, was about ten dollars ; yet in the latter year it declined to five dollars and fifty cents, and fie dollars per ton.

In 1842, when the duty was one dollar and seventy-five centa, the average price in New York waa seven dollars and sixteen cents per ton.

In 1844, with a duty of one dollar, the price was five dollars and fifty-aix centa. In 1846, with an ad valorem duty of thirty per cent., or about forty- five centa per ton, the price was seven dollara.

The authors of the Report observe, that there are other causes which co- operate in influencing prices, more than the tariff The price, heretofore, seems to have been governed, almost entirely, by the scarcity or the demand for fuel.

For ourselves, we think that inferences drawn from the state of the mar- kets at any period reaching further back than the last fifteen or twenty years, are of very little avail, and indeed ought to be discarded, as unsound. Pr viously to this period, the United States was not a coal producing country. Its fuel was the timber of the forest ; it supplied no coal for domestic use in the eastern cities, and consumed but an insignificant amount of the foreign coal ; which amount has been decreasing for the last twelve years, even with a diminished tariff. These duties could have exercised no influence on the prices, or upon the supply of anthracite from Pottsville, or of bituminous coals from beyond the Alleghanies ; because, in point of fact, neither of them had reached the seaports, previously to the time of which we speak.

There can be no foreign competition now feared in relation to anthracite; and, probably, very little in relation to any substitute for that fuel, in the shape of bituminous coals — foreign or domestic We do not think that the bituminous coal of Pennsylvania will ever find an extensive sale on the sea board. The use of anthracite for all domestic purposes is so firmly estab- lished, that no other quality will henceforth find admittance into our houses. It is for the home consumption of the interior, and eventually the countries lying north of the great lakes, that the northern coal-fields of the United Sutes may look for increasing markets. For the same cause, there never can be any large demand or sale for foreign bituminous coal at the sea-porta, except, perhaps, near the northern frontier; because its uses are, from the causira we have specified, much more limited on the eastern borders of America than in most parts of the world.

That these are not newly or hastily adopted opinions, may be seen from an article on the aame subject, published by the writer in 1840. After reviewing the position of the Pennsylvania anthracite trade from 1820 up to 1839, and that of the foreign importation of bituminoua coal along the Atlantic

16 Uhttbd 0Tate8 Of America.

aea-board, during the same period, the author remarks, It appears, that in a similar ratio as the consumption of this admirable fuel — the Pennsylvania anthracite — increases, so does the importation of foreign or English coals diminish ; and the remark eren extends itself to the diminution of Rich- mond bituminous coal, during a giren term of years."

The anthracite trade of Pennsylvania is decidedly on the increase ; while the bituminous coala, borne coastwise or imported, have either remained stationary or have furnished a diminished supply."*

The seven subsequent years of the Boston coal trade has proved that the writer's views were not far from the verified results. The comparative business done in the years ]84tl and 1847, are as follows :

Tons in 1840. Tans in 1847.

Peimsylvania Anthracite received, 73,847 358,093

American Bituminous Coal, 3,209 4,554

Foreign " " 49,997 65,203

Thus while the anthracite importation has increased three and a half times, that of the foreign and the American bituminous coal, has been almost stationary.

Preliminary Sketch of the Coal Fields and Coal Trade of the North Ameri- can Continent, as at present known to us.

The substitution of mineral coal, or of any other combustible than the timber of its indigenous forests, whether as a domestic fuel, or for the manufacturing purposes of an increasing population, had its origin in America scarcely more remote than the memories of the living generation. In Pennsylvania, the anthracites, which now number by millions of tons, their annual production, were unknown to the community twenty years ago, and had then but commenced to find their way into the dwellings of Sie wealthier inhabitants of our maritime cities.

It will be remembered, that nearly the whole area of the great basin of the Mississippi, the valley of the Ohio, and the western slope of the Alle- ghany mountain or Appalachian range, embracing the great central coal- field hereafter to be described, was — although geographically subdivided into several states and terrirories — until after the middle of tlie eighteenth century, in the partial occupation of Indian tribes. Until about a quarter of a century ago, this immense coal area, taking the country at large, was held to be of small value, even by the civilized successors of the aborigines. The purchases made, at sundry times, by William Penn and his family, and subsequently by the proprietaries, did not embrace any portion of the anthra* cite districts until 1749, or of the Alleghany bitummous coal region of Pennsylvania, until the year 1768. The acquisition of these coal-fields in no respect influenced the arrangement between the parties ; and, to this day, the supply of that description of fuel to the seaboard, is insignificant, when compared with the magnitude of the source from whence it is drawn.

By the terms of the treaty of 1768, which was the last purchase made by the proprietary, they became possessed, with a small exception, of the whole superficial area of the bituminous coal land of Pennsylvania : — that is to say, the entire country between Lycoming creek, the north branch of the Sus- quehanna, and the head waters of the Alleghany river, down to the Ohio, for the sum often thousand doOars. The presence of cdal, in certain places,

Report to tlie Dtaphin and Siwqaeluuiiia Coil Comptnj, by IL C. T., May 1, 1840.

Coal-Fields Amd Goal Trade Of North America. 17

beearoe known aboat this time ; for we have seen maps, of the dates of 1770 and 1777, whieh, among other places, marked the site of " coal mines" on the Ohio side of the river. In 1785, the first tract which was secured on acconnt of the Taloe of the coal upon it, within the new purchase, waa patented near Clearfield; and the first ark load of coal descended the Sus- quehanna from thence. In 1838, the first cargoes of coal from the Alle- ghany coal-field at Karthaus, reached Philadelphia and Baltimore ; but the distanoe from market was found too sreat, and the means of tran>ortatioa too imperfect, to hold out anj hope of a profitable coal business.

The eastern margin of the Alleghany coal-field has been approached in two places from the seaboard by Pennsylvania canals; and, in a third, by tlie Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in Maryland. It will also be traversed by the Central Railroad. The supply from these sources to the sea-coast is not Urge ; being of course regulated by the limited demand for this species of fuel, of which, anthracite, every where has precedence. It is chiefly in request for gas-works, forges, blacksmiths' use, and for certain industrial purposes. Wherever the two species of coal can be obtained on equal terms, or are equidistant from their centres of production, anthracite main- tains its indisputable supremacy. It does not appear probable that Penn- sylvania will ever acquire a large market to the eastward for her bituminous Goal, so long as her anthracite fields remain unexhausted. For precisely the same reason, it seems to us equally improbable that the anthracite coal tnde with the eastern cities will be perilled by the existence of bituminous coal-fields in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton. Where there is any thing like an equal choice, the demand for Pennsylvania and Virginia bituminous coals will continue small at the eastern ports, owing partly to the causes named, and partly to the heavy cost attending its transportation. Only one hundred and seventy-five tons of Pennsylvania bituminous coal are reported to have reached Boston, during the year 184(5, while the supply of the same description of coal from Virginia and foreign countries also simultaneously decreased. But there is another, a better, and a vastly more extensive market, to which Pennsylvania, Ohio, and probably Michigan, Buy ultimately look for the disposal of their bituminous coal. We refer now to the whole of the countries bordering upon the North American Lakes; embracing a large portion of the Canada frontier, now mpidly filling up with settlements, and all the opposite portions of the United States. These, in good time, it seems to be very certain, will more than compensate for the loss of a monopoly of two or three ports nearest to the coal-fields of Nova Scotia. Besides the demand for domestic and manufariuring uses, it is probable that much coal will be needed for smelting the copper ores of Lakes Huron and Superior.

From the Cumberland and Frostburg angle of the Alleghany coal-field, there teems a better prospect for the bituminous coal trade, than from Pennsylvania, although, probably, the larger part of the amount produced will be consumed in iron works on the spot. The conveniences for trans- porting the Cumberland coal to Washington and Baltimore, and for a ceruin export trade, added to the very high intrinsic value of the coal itself, and the comparative remoteness of the anthracite districts, will secure to this region a fair share of the bituminous coal business.

Surveys of vast bodies of land were made in western Virginia and Ken- tucky, io I7U5, and even previously to the revolution; but we perceive no evidence that those lands possessed any other than surface value, or that the presence of seams of coal, if known, conferred any additional value upon

13 UiriTBD STATES OF AMERICA.

them. Even at the present moment, we know thit enormons areas yet remain untouched, and that the time is not yet arrived when they can be estimated beyond their mere agricultural prices. It is only along the flanks of the principal streams, such as the Ohio and the Kanawha, that the vegetable fuel has, in some measure, given place to the mineral combustible.

At the period of running the boundary line between North Carolina and Virginia, in the year 1728, the narrator describes the country as yet in its pristine state of savageness. Settlements extended no further west from the Atlantic than a hundred miles, and the remainder was still the home of the Indian and the feeding ground of the Buflalo.* It was towards the close of that service, although the western extremity of the line was still left unfinished, that the expedition found itself amongst unknown mountain ranges, and were still remote from the eastern flank of the great Alleghany coal-field, and from that wild, bordering, elevated country of Tennessee, of which we yet know but little beyond the late reports of Dr. Troost.

South-west from hence, through the state of Tennessee, and far into the then French province of Louisiana, the coal-field has received but partial investigation. That part which terminates in Alabama was, but a few years ago, a part of the Cherokee country, from which the aborigines were then removed.

Along its course through Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, many iron works have been established within a few years ; but the insular position of this part of the region is unfavourable to the transportation of coal to dis- tant markets.

The last mentioned state constituted the easternmost part of the original territory of Louisiana, and the mountainous portion of it yet retains its wilderness character. Even so late as ISOO, — what in 1817 constituted the separate territory of Alabama, — its entire population did not exceed 2000 persons.

We have traced, in few words, the great Alleghany coal-6eld in its progress through eight of the Atlantic states. With the exception of a small area towards the north, it lies so remote from the seaboard, that it is not probable that much coal will find its way in that direction. On the south, its best market is the cities on the Gulf of Mexico ; and, already, great progress has been made in railroads and inland navigation with that view. These cities now pay enormous prices for coal that has descended the Ohio, the Mississippi, the Tennessee, and the Cumberland rivers, by very long and circuitous channels.

There are no reliable returns of the quantity of coal which descends to these markets, nor of the ordinary production of the states. Western Vir- ginia, in 1840, returned about 300,000 tons as her annual production. In the Ohio division of the Alleghany coal-field, coal was known preriotisly to 1777, since it is marked on Captain Hutchin's map of that date, although not mined until many years afler. In 1840, it returned 125,000 tons, as her share of the annual production ; a small yield, certainly, for a highly favoured district of 11,900 square miles.

But Ohio has since found a northern market for her coal, through the port of Cleveland, as Pennsylvania has done through her port of Erie; and hence, through the lakes to the Canadas, and the countries which border the great lakes. The present export of coal from thence, is about equal to one-half of the entire production of Ohio seven years ago; and nearly equals

HiKtonr of the Divklmfr line betwiit Virginia and North Carolina, by Colonel Wm. , Esq., of WewtOTer, 17S8.

American Coal-Fields. 19

the whole coosamption of the state in 1838. Erie also receifed 70,000 tons of bituminons coal, in 1847.

The Maryland division is one of the smallest of the Alleghany districts; jei as its coal is probably the best in America, there is no doubt but it will contribute a large quota of coal, and much iron, to the Atlantic ports, by means of the railroads and canal, now in full operation.

We close our circuit of the Alleghany coa]-6eld by reti|rning to western Pennsylvania. Although in 1840, this section returned 415,000 tons, the quantity was evidently much under-rated ; and we cannot assume the amount now annually raised at less than one million of tons. One-fourth of this quantity descends the Ohio river; one-half is consumed at Pittsburg and in the establishments around that great manufacturing city ; the re maining fourth is consumed in the interior.

Let it be borne in mind, that all this business has sprung up within the memory of persons now living. In the year 17.>3, there was, probably, no white man living within the limits of the present city of Pittsburg ; and, in 1775, only a few cabins were standing there. Yet, in our day, three-fourths of a million of tons of coal are annually received there, and the extent of the iron manufacture is so great as to confer upon the place the title of the Birmingham of America."

Not more than 40,000 tons of bituminous coal annually pass through the state canals, eastward. This is the maximum of the present demand for this description of coal. The largest portion of this is deposited at the iron works along the route. A very small quantity passes through the Union Canal. The remainder is either shipped at Havre de Grace, or is conveyed in boats to the Delaware.

Another outlet, besides that of Erie, for the northern section of the Pennsylvania coal-field, has been in existence several years. By the Tioga Railroad the coal from the little isolated coal-basin of Blossburg passes into the state of New York, and thence as far as Lake Ontario on the north and Albany on the east. The detached coal-basin near Towanda will, when the meditated improvements are completed, furnish another portion of the etate of New York with mineral coal. From the port of Eric, above men- tioned, more than 20,000 tons of Pennsylvania coal are annually shipped for exportation to Canada, d&c.

Such is the great Alleghany coal-field, whose outline and resources in mineral fuel, we have thus traced. It is impossible to contemplate its gigantic proportions, and its enormous, yet almost untouched resources, without being struck with the magnificent field which it presents for future enterprise.

There is a small detached basin of semi-bituminous coal, lying in Penn- Ivania, to the east of the Alleghany Mountain. This locality is called the Round-top Mountain. The coal at present is only employed for the con sumption of the neighbourhood, on account of the want of means for transportation.

We pass now to the great depository of anthracite in Pennsylvania ; the only one, in fact, of material value on this continent. Here we have the most interesting assemblage of isolated coal-basins that theworId has yet produced, or the geologist investigated. We can only now advert to them with extrem*e brevity; but here we can afibrd to be brief.

The physical features of this anthracite country are wild ; its %speci for-

20 United Btates Of America.

bidding ; its sarface broken, sterile, and apparently irreclaimable. Its areii exhibits an extraordinary series of long parallel ridges and deep inter? ening troughs. This group of elongated hills and TalTeys consists of a corre- sponding number of axes, all or nearly all of which range in exact con- formity to the base of the Alleghany Mountain. When viewed from the latter, they bear a striking resemblance to those long rolling lines of surf, wave behind wave, in long succession, which break upon a flat shore. A century ago a large portion of this region had received, upon the maps, the notpunapt title of *'The Wilderness of Saint Anthony."

Three-fourths of a century after, when the greater part of this area was still in stony solitude — when this petrified ocean, whose waves were sixty- five miles long, and more than a thousand feet high, remained almost unex- plored,— a few tons of an unknown combustible were brought from thence to Philadelphia, where its qualities were to be tested, and its value ascer- tained.

But the miner has entered into this Wilderness of Saint Anthony,— and canals have penetrated it, — and railroads have traversed it; — basin after basin of this combustible have been discovered in it; — tract after tract have supplied productive collieries in it ; — until, in a single year, [1847] it had furnished the surprising amount of three millions of tons; [or an aggregate of near nineteen millions of tons of anthracite within the last quarter of a century ;] and 11,439 vessels cleared from the single port of Philadelphia, in that season, loaded with a million and a quarter of tons, for the service of the neighbouring states.

Such then is the anthracite region, and such its rapid progress in pro- duction. To Pennsylvania, in relation to the future, its value, in connection with the corresponding advance of her manufacturing industry, surpasses the power of computation.

Some detached spots in the states of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, have, from time to time, furnished a small and irregular supply of anthracite. The presence of this coal, indeed, was known many years before the Penn- sylvania anthracite was first mined. Numerous efforts have been made, from time to time, to explore the coal beds in these places, but they have generally ended in failure ; owing, as we conceive, to the disturbed and contorted structure and metamorphic character of the inclosing rocks.

In attempting to introduce a fuel so difficult of ignition, at a period when the only coal known and used was of the fat bituminous variety, imported from Europe, and when no adaptation for burning it had been matured, it is not remarkable that the semi-crystalline anthracite of Rhode Island should acquire a bad reputation. Notwithstanding this, and its proverbial unfitness for all purposes of combustion, we believe in its intrinsic excellence — in which belief, both practice and the result of its analysis fully bear us out — and that there exists no better anthracite in the new world. But, as we before suggested, the unusually modified nature of the inclosing rocks, the tortuous and schistose characters which they now assumed, and in which the most experienced geologist might,fail to detect the representatives of the coal measures, seem to present insuperable difficulties in working the com- bustible to advantage.

Before quitting the Atlantic slope, we have to notice a bituminous coal- field, small in area, yet rich in the abundance of its coal, and most favorably situated in regard to facility of transportation. Almost in the centre of Eistem Virginia, between N. latitude d?"" and 38'', lies the little basin of Richmond, or Chesterfield. This field contains the oldest worked collieries

AMERICAN COAL-FISLDfi. 31

in America. Mr. McCliire described it more than thirty years ago; and it was, apparendy, for many years, the only point in the United States where bituminous coal could be procured, and shipped coastwise. The amount of this export trade does not appear to hafe ever been large. The official returns show an increase from 48,000 tons in 1822, to 142,000 in i833, and then annually diminishing to 65,000 tons in 1842. In the southern part of this field, howeter, new collieries hare been opened, which sent down about 50,000 tons of coal in 1847.

Crossing from hence to the north-west, we ha?e next to mention a coal- field of no mean size, yet at present known but to few, even within its im- mediate limits. It occupies an area of from three to five thousand square miles, in the centre of the peninsula of Michigan ; communicating readily with all the great lakes. The amount of coal mined here, is very trifling at present, the beds being quite thin ; and this country is so recently occupied, that as yet there has been no demand for this description of fuel. But it seems destined, ultimately, to be of importance, as the use of coal becomes general, and as the timber of the forest decreases. It possesses remarkable geographical advantages; being the only coal-field in a vast extent of coun- try. As population flows into the countries bordering on the lakes, this Michigan coal-field, although not so productive as some others, cannot but become, ultimately, of considerable value.

Passing now to the southward, we enter the great Illinois coal-field, which occupies an extent nearly equal to that of England ; yet the State has but recently commenced to make use of the coal with which nature has so bountifully provided her. Except in the vicinity of the larger towns and rivers, the business of mining coal here has made but small progress.

The existence of this combustible was proved by the French explorers at an early period. It was certainly known to Father Hennepin in 1679, almost a hundred years before the Pennsylvania coal was discovered, and is marked on the map which illustrates his journal. He points out a " cole mine," abore Fort Crevecoeur, on the Illinois river, near to the site of the present Ottawa. He further states, that in this country, then occupied by the Pimitoui or Pimitewi Indians, now Peoria, " there are mines of coal, slate, and iron ; and several pieces of fine red copper, which I have found, now and then, upon the surface of the earth, make me believe that there are mines of it."* This is the earliest notice, on record, of the existence of coal in America ; and the same may be said of the bouldered masses of native copper, which we know to have been drifled from their original sites, only discovered but recently, on the borders of Lake Superior. At this period, viz. from 1680 to 1698, and subsequently, the Illinois river formed part of the main route from the French missions on the Niagara, by Lake Karegnonde, now Huron ; by Lake lilinouach, or the Lake of the Illinois, now Lake Michigan, to the Mississippi, and thence down to its very mouth.t

We confess to entertaining strong feelings of interest in the descrip- tion of these newly explored countries, by the good missionary fathers of those days ; among whom stand conspicuous the names of Hennepin, Ga- briel, Zenobe, Marquette, and, a few years later, of Father Charlevoix, and

Map and description of a Urge country newly discovered in the Northern America, titrated between New Mexico and the Froxen Sea; tosether with the coarae of the great river Meachasipi. By Father Lewis Hennepin, Missionary Recollect and Apostolic No- UTj. 1688.

T The same line, from Lake Michigan to the mouth of the Illinois rifer, also formed the Bortb-wMt boondary line of the country which was ceded by the French to Great BriUin, in 1793.

22 Uhited States Of America.

Others. Thej were men of observation, yet of simple lives — messengers of peace and good will — mediators between the native savage and the white invader. Here, in these remote missions, thej erected the first Christian altars, and planted the first germs of civilization ; they shared the perils of exploring unknown regions, and they were the intelligent chroniclers of the times; — the &ithful and simple narrators of those hazardous voyages.

The records that these religious men have bequeathed to us, form the most interesting, the most valuable statistical memorials that we possess of the aboriginal state of the interior of this Continent. It were a service not unworthy of some man of leisure, to collect together, ere they are totally lost, these and many other illustrations which distinguish the progress of French discovery, and which so eecially belong to the history of this Continent

On occasion of the peace of 17C3, Colonel Croghan was sent by the British government to explore the country adjacent to the Ohio river, and to conciliate the Indian nations. This officer was captured by a party of Indian warriors, and carried up the Wabash river, through the Illinois country. At a point on this river, apparently near where Williamsport or Covington now atands, the author states that on the south side of the Onabache runs a high bank, in which are several fine coal mines." This is the earliest notice of coal in this part of the coal-field.*

Respecting the coal region of Missouri, we have very incomplete infor- mation. Tl geological distribution of the formations there are ill defined. It will, no doubt, be found, on attentive examination, that the coal measures exist in numerous patches or detached areas, whose boundaries are influ- enced by the physical configuration of the country, and that the coal series, although scattered at intervals over a great surfiice, do not cover, at any point, any very large areas; for as the carboniferous strata approach so nearly to the horizontal position, and, moreover, not being of much thick- ness, a large proportion of productive coal land has been removed by the erosion of the rivers, and similar causes of denudation and excavation. This is also apparently the case in relation to the Illinois coal field, last men- tioned. The patches of coal formation are scattered all across the State of Missouri, and appear at intervals over a Vide tract of counUry ; stretching through a part of Arkansas into the territory now occupied by Indian tribes, and thence, for an unknown distance, towards the south-west, apparently into Texas. The earliest notice of the existence of thick seams of excel- lent coal in the Osage country, bordering the river of that name, we believe, was furnished by Captain Pike, when on his exploring expedition, in 1806.

Of Texas, there exists at present no geological map or description. Both coal and anthracite are described as existing at the head waters of the Trinity, the Sabine, and some other rivers ; but this country is, as yet, in too unsettled a. state, to encourage mineral explorations, to any extent. It appears that coal, in detached areas, as in Missouri, crosses Texas and enters Mexico. An important coal-field which crosses the Rio Grande, in N. latitude 27° 80', near Loredo, has very lately been examined by an oflicer attached to the United States army of invasion. This coal formation bears away into the interior of Mexico, in a south-west direction, by Guerrera, on the Salado river, where it is of good quality. Coal is also found in the pro- vinces of Oajuca and Vera Cmz, and in abundance at Tehuantepec; doubtless geologically newer than the true coal.

Printed from the orifiBtl Joanul, in the Monthly American Joanal of Geology. 1831. Vol. 1. p. 257.

Amekican Oqal-Fieldb.

We can scarcely speculate here on the existence of bodies of true cos), along the Pacific slope of this Continent In some cases brown coal has been mistaken for the older coal. In the midst of the Rocky Mountain range, Captain Fremont discovered coal beds of dubious geological age; intermediate, apparently, between the brown coal and the true coal. A coal bed of considmble thickness has lately been noticed in the Raton moun- laina, east of Taos, and on the head waters of the Canadian river.

The scope of the present sketch leads us now to notice one of the moat interesting geological phenomena in the new world. We refer to that enormous range of brown coal, apparently of the tertiary period, which fol- lows the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, from near Mexico even to the Polar sea. Nature has, indeed, worked on a truly gigantic scale. We see here a deposit of brown coal, so extensive that tlHS magnitude of its ptoportions is far from being defined; yet enough is known to show that it exceeds, in longitudinal range and breadth, all others on the present sni free of our planet So far seems to be established, that, allowing liberally for interruptions in continuity, supposing that any such exist, it occupiea thirty-five degrees of latitude, or near 2500 miles, following its oblique range; and has a maximum breadth, at N. latitude 48°, of four hundred miles; the whole area, as near as we can venture to compute, being 250,000 square miles, or one hundred and sixty millions of acres — more than twice the size of Great Britain. Compared with this, the largest coal-fields in the world are absolutely small.

Should it prove that tlie coal, which has been traced at no very distant intervals, westerly from Mackenzie's river to the Icy Cape, by Point Barrow, and into Behring's Strait, — along the north coast of Russian America, — is also of the same geological age as that which ranges parallel with the Rocky Mountains, we might add twenty degrees more to tlie thirty previously men- tioned ; while, at the same time, the oblique direction of the latter adds fire degrees more to the total range.

Turning to the southwaH, afler an uncertain interval of twenty-five degrees, we find ourselves again on coal strata, apparently of similar age to the northern zone just described, and occupying about two thousand five hundred miles more. At certain points along the Pacific side of the southern Mexican provinces, from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to that of Panama ; and then, with a few interruptions, continuing all down the western side of South America to the Equinoctial line; and thence to Lima; and again appearing on the coast and adjacent islands uninterruptedly from Valparaiso to below Chiloe Island, and even through Patagonia, at least as far south as 50 lat, a belt of brown coal formation and tertiary strata, borders the Pacific, or skirts the Andes. At all of the points which have been succes- sively named, investitions into the quality of this coal and its fitness for the purpose of steam navigation, have, for some years past, been made, and the details will be furnished in the appropriate place.

Commencing our admeasurement near the Isthmus of Panama, in N. lat. 10, and'descending to S. lat 50°, the traces of a tertiary formation, con- taining lignites, and fossil wood, are re|>orted to extend, almost continuously, for four thousand miles. We are within reasonable bounds when we assume two thousand die hundred miles, as the extent, with occasional interruptions, in which brown coal or carbonized wood is traceable.

Thus there exists, ranging nearly with each other, but separated by a great breadth of unexplored ground, two apparently contemporaneous belts, 2500 miles long each, extending through both continents to points at least

84 UmTED STATES OF AMERICA.

one hundred and twenty degrees asander,— namely, the Frozen Sea or per- hape the Icy Cape to the north, and southern Patagonia to the south. We think we cannot be far in encn if we assign five thousand miles, out of eight thousand four hundred miles, to this remarkable coal formation. We do not know if this statement be entirely new. Were it not supported extensively by good geological authority, and by a series of facts and obser- Tations which will scarcely be called in question, we should hesitate ex- tremely ere we gave it circulation.

Returning once more towards the north, coal is mentioned as occuning near Monterey, in California. Petroleum and asphaitum, and perhaps anthra- - cite, occur in this parallel. Captain Fremont discovered coal, probably brown coal, in the centre of the Rocky Mountain chain, at an elevation of 6820 feet above the sea. Another coal-field was found by Captain Fremont, in his recent expedition, in N. lat. 41®, extending from 110® to 111® W. long. Both of these deposits appear to be about the Oolitic age. There is a coal range at an elevation of more than 7000 feet, in the great mountain range, east of Sant6 Fe, in about N. lat. 37® ; but of what geologic age we know not.

In Oregon we have had notices both of coal and lignite, from various explorers. Good coal is reported in Vanconvei's Island, in Queen Char- lotte's Island, Millbank Sound, and other points on the western border of British America. Passing round by the undetermined coal-beds of Russian America, there appear to be various scattered points within the Arctic circle, where coal has been discovered by our enterprising navigators. At Prince Regent's Inlet, at Byam Martin's Island, and Mellville Island, both true coal and brown coal were obtained.

Within the arctic regions other considerable bodies of the newer coal are known to exist, particularly at Disco Island, Hasen Island, and on both sides of Greenland.

All these northern coal localities seem scarcely more than mere objecls of geological interest ; for, in regard to their practical value, all that is known to us at present is their mere existence. Still, it can never, surely, be held as a matter of no importance, the fact of this local distribution of mineral combustible, throughout regions which have no timber, or even ahnibs, to serve the purpose of fuel.

Canada and the territory west of it, for a vast space, contains no known deposit of coal. This country is destined to be tribuUry to the sUtes of Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, for her future supply of mineral fuel, which can be transported at a very cheap rate through the chain of inland lakes.

New Brunswick, Nots Scotia, Cape Breton, and Newfoundland, make up, by the prodigious expansion of the coal formation in that quarter, for the deficiencies of the upper province.

At what period mineral coal first attracted attention, and was applied to the service of the original colonists, does not appear. The business of the General Mining Association, sole lessees of the enormous coal-fields of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, did not commence until 1827, but the coal of Cape Breton has been worked for sixty years at least. In the south- western part of the province of New Brunswick, the mining of coal seems to have commenced a Utde earlier, but the returns exhibit a meagre amount of business.

In Newfoundland coal is mentioned at an early period ; and, in a climate not particularly adapted to the growth of timber for fuel, the substitute was gladly welcomed.

AMERICAN C0AL.FIfiLD8. SS

The coal trade of Note Scotia and Cape Breton, is of comparatively modem date. It furnishes supplies to the cities on the St Lawrence, and a few thousand tons annually find their way, with or without commercial interposition, to the ports of Boston and New York, where, however, the use of anthracite is so completely established, especiaJIy for domestic use, as to exclude, in great measure, the smoky bituminous coals, come from where they may.

The coal-fields of British America, although possessing iron ore in great abundance, have no iron works established within their limits. It is no wonder, indeed, when we see regions so highly favoured by natural resources and advantages, neglected, or sacrificed to the paralizing influences of an imbecile monopoly.

In the foregoing outline we have traced, with such brevity as the subject permitted, the prominent features of those vast depositories of mineral coal which nature has so bountifully distributed over the American continent. We have shown, that the mining of this coal ; the establishment of an important coal trade ; the employment of the fuel in industrial arts, in steam engines and steam vessels, on railroads and canals, in blast furnaces, and iron works, and factories ; in fact, its application in a thousand forms, is but of yesterday's growth. We have shown, too, that a portion — immeasurably the larger portion— of these prodigious areas of coal formation, has still no appreciable value, but continues at present wholly unappropriated. It will, dkMjbtless, long remain in reserve, for the service of other generations.

Still, if we measure the future by the past — and we feel assured that we may safely do so in a vastly accelerated ratio, taking Pennsylvania as an example and admitting the surprising increase of population as an essential element in the calculation — the production and conversion of iron and coal, with all their attendant and ever increasing uses, together with the influence they cannot fail to exert upon agriculture, involve results of which we have now but a remote perception. We cannot but think that the close of the present century will witness an advance in the industrial resources of the country, and a consequent extension of domestic prosperity such as it may be presumptuous, at the present moment, ou our part, to anticipate.

mXtTBD teSATEM OF JJOKKA.

The Following Statement

Was prepared with a riew to show the progress and prominent authors of the Stat Geological Surveys, the names of the principal contribntori to geological discovery in the United States, and, also, of those of British America and other portions of the American continait, chronologically arranged. It will be a matter of regret if we have omitted any names that are entitled to appear upon our list of principal workers in the geo- logical field ; but we fear that it is unavoidable.

C Chas. T. Jackwn, M.D., Sarvey of the State, appointed in 1836, l 8 Reports, 1837, 8,9; Prat CleaTelaiid.

Maivs.

Nkw HAXPSHims. Br. Jackaon, nominated 1840, reported 1841 VsmxosT.

MAasACHraim.

RaoBK IiLAirv.

CosrvxcTTccT.

Niw YoiK.

Piv5Stltavia.

C Pro£ C. B. Adama, State G. Surrey, appointed 1845, vnHh Prof. l Hitchooek ; PraC Enimooa, 1844.

rite Surrey: Prot Hitdiooek, appointed 1830, pubinhed lepovt 1838, 700 pages ; re-minrejed by the same in 1837 ; final fsport in 1840; Dr. C. T. Jackson, in 1888, 1840 ; W. C. Bedfield, 1841 ; ProC Hitchcock, 1846; C. Lyell, 1846.

L. Vanaxem, 1825; Dr. Meade, 1820 ; State G. Surrey: Dr. €. T. Jackson appointed 1839, reported 1840; C. Lyell, 1845; ProC Emmons, 1844.

f

State G. Surrey : Prof. C. U. Shepard, report 1837 ; also, Prof. J. G.TexdTal, report 1842; Prof. Hitchcock, 1841 ; W. C. Red- field, 1841; W. W. Mather, 1834; Dr. Barratt, 1845; J. D. Whelpley, 1845.

rite G. Surrey : Profr. Emmons, Mather, L. Vanuxem, L. C. Beck, T. A. Conrad, and J. Hall, appointed in 1836, 5 annual reports, final report in — vols, with geological map ; Van Rens- selaer, 1825; Amos Eaton, 1820, 1824, 1830; W. C. Redfield, 1841 ; Proi: Dewey, 1845; R. C. Taylor, 1847.

fCist, 1821 ; P. A. Brown 1825, 1831-2; Dr. G. Troost, 1826 ; G. W. Carpenter, 1828 ; SiUiman*s Journal, 1839 ; G. W. Fee- therstonhaugh, 1831 ; R. C. Tlor, 1832, 1843 ; Packer*s Re- port, 1833-4; Prof. Silliman; W. E. Jogan, 1842; State G. Surrey: Prof. H. D. Rogent, coomicnccd 1836, 6 annual reports, 1836 to 1842; W. R. Johnson, 1839, 1841 ; Dr. R. Harian; Mining Journal, Pottsrille; M. Cheralier, 1889.

NlW JiBlKT.

fiOOUXaCAL IirV18TIGAT0ft& Ifgf

L.Tuiiizflaii, 183S-8; Dr. & G. MoitoD, 1828-9, 1834; Stele G. Bvanj : H. D. Rogen, onderad in 1836, fint leport 1886, final report 1840; C. Lyell, 1842-6; W. C. Redfield, 1841-8; W. LoMdftle, 1846.

DiLAWABS.

Mamjljlww,

'Dr. a G. Morton, 1828, 1834; Steto G. Surrey, 1837: Piof. J. C. BooCby two anniiiJ repofti one fioel report

H. Haydeo, 1820; Stete G. Siinrey: Dr. J. T. DuceH menoed 1834, eeren ennoal reports ; P. T. Tyeon, 1837 ; T. A. Conred, 1830-6, 1841 ; Proi: SiUioMA, 1838; L. Vanuxem, 1841.

TianviA*

NolTH CaBOLIVA.

Beimi Cabouva.

Gkomoia.

Wmt Flobida. Eait Flobida.

Alabaxa.

Mittistippi.

locisiaxa.

Abkavsas. Tswietii.

KiSTrCKT.

Oife. MicBieAJr.

pStete SuTiey : ProHW. B. Rpgere, appointed 1836, ax annual ) reporto; Dr. 8. P. HUdreth, 1836 ; R. C. Taylor, 1834; T. G. ) Clemeon, 1836; Pro£ SiUiman; Pro£ BaUey ; C. Biigge; H. L ' C. Lea, 1843.

Btete G. Snnrey: Piot Olmelead, 1824-; W.C.Redfield, 184}; Prot £. MitcheU ; J. T. Hodge, 1841-3 ; C. Lyell, 1842 ; T. A. Conrad, 1843 ; R. C. Taylor, 1846.

' L. Vannzem, 1826 ; C. Lyell ; M. Tnom, Dr. R. W. Gibb%

r J. R. dotting. State Surrey, commiMoned 1836, report 1841; J. I H. Couper; C. LyeU, 1842.

J. L. Williami, 1827.

T. A. Conrad.

C I. Lea, 1833 ; Prof. Brumby, 1838 ; T. A. Conrad ; Dr. R. Har- l Un, 1841 ; C. LyeU, 1846-6 ; Dr. J. H. Kain, 1846.

B. L. C. Wailei 1846 ; Dr. M. W. Dickenon, 1846.

Brackenridge, 1814; Darby, 1818.

T. Nuttall 1819, 1821 ; H. R. Schoolcraft, 1818; Major Long 1820; G. W. Featherrtonhangh, 1834; A Geological Surrey recommended by the Governor, Not. 1846.

C State G. Surrey : Dr. G. Trooet, 1831 to 1846, 8 reporta ; T. A. I Conrad, 1836; Dr. D. D. Owen.

C D. TrimWe, 1836 ; State G. reconnoimnoe : ProU W. W. Mather, l 1838 ; W. Cooper, 1832 ; C. LyeU, 1842.

Dr. a P. Hildreth, 1836 ; State G. Surrey : Prof. W. W. Mather, BMSted by Dr. S. P. HUdreth, PioC J. Locke, Prof. J. C. Briggi J. W. Foster. 2 reports, 1837, 1838 ; VnL Briggi 1838; PnC J. HaU, 1843 ; Dr. J. 8. Taykr, 1845.

rSdiooleraft, 1821 ; State G. Surrey : Dr. D. Houghton, 1838, 4 leporta to 1846 ; Dr. C. T. JackKm, 1846 ; numerous Reporlen C of Surveys in the Copper Regkm of the north. '

Urited Rates Of America.

IimiAVA.

iLLIVOIf.

C StAto G. Surrey : Dr. D. D. Owen, 1837, 8 reporti, 1837-8 ; Prof. I J.Locke; Piof. J. Hall, 1843.

r FaUier Hemiepiii, 1680 ; Cokmel Croghan, 1763 ; Dr. D. D. Owen, i 1839, 1844; Pro£ C. U. Shepord, 1838 ; Pto£ J. Locke; Prof. C J. Hall, 1843.

fCaptain Pfke, 180&-7; Biadbniy, 1809-10-11 ; Brackenridge, I 1814; Major Long, 1819-30; H. R. Schoolcraft, 1818; Dr. MiMOvmi Statb. J Danbenj, 1838; T. G. Clemeon, 1838; J. N. Nicollet, 1841 ; I J. T. Hodge, 1842 ; G. W. Feathentonhaugh, 1836-6 ; Pn£ I. U. Shepaid ; T. Nnttall, 1819 ; Major Can, 182p.

''Lewis A, C]ark 1804-6; Capt Pike, 1805; Major Long, 1819 -80; Dr. Jamee, 1819-80; H. D. Rogen, 1834; J. N. NicoUet, 1838 to 1841, reported in 1843, with his large map; G. W. Feathentonhaugh, 1834-5; Brackenridge, 1814; £. Harris, 1846 ; Lieut A. R. Johnston, 1846.

MxttouBi Tammi- Tomr.

Wiscovsiir.

Iowa.

OnBeoir Sc UFPsm Calipobvia.

Tbxas.

Nsw Mexico.

Mexico.

C Dr. D. D. Owen, 1839, 1844 ; Prot J. Locke, 1840, 148 ; Major i Long, 1880.

J. T. Hodge, 1848.

C Capt Fremont, 1843-44 ; Wilkes's Exploring Expetion, 1841 ; I Pro£ J. Hall, 1846 ; Pio£ J. W. BaUey, 1845.

W. Kennedy, 18U; Lieut B. P. Tilden, 1847.

Don Mannel Aharei, 1847 ;*Lieut CoL Emoiy, 1847.

C A. Yon Humboldt, 1809, 1883 ; M. Chevalier, 1836 ; Lieut B. P. 1 Tilden, 1846-7.

British America.

NoTA Scotia.

Oapb BnxTov.

r

eews. Jackson and Alger, 1841 ; Halliburton; Dr. A. Gesner, 1840-8-8-5; J. W. Dawson, 1843-6; R. Brown, 1843; W. E. Logan, 1848-6 ; C. Ljell, 1843.

r The Abbe Rajrnal; R. Brown, 1845; J. W. Dawson, 1845; C. i Lyell, 1848.

NiwFoviroLAn. Mr. Jokes ; Sir R. H. Bonnecastle. Casadas.

C Dr. Bigsbjr, 1819-80 ; ProWndal G. Surrey : W. £. Logan, 1848 'I -4-6 ; A. Munrny, 1844-6 ; Capt Bayfield.

NemTH-wssT Tbb-

miTOMT.

GBBXjriAn.

fOapt Franklin, 1880-1-6-6-7 ; Dr. Ridiardson, 1880-1-6-6-7 ; Sir A Mackensie, 1789, 1798; Mr. Heame, 1769; Dr.Bigaby, 1981, 1884; Capt Parry, 1819-80-4; Capt Ross, 1830-1-8 -S; Mr.Isbisler, 1846; Capt Beediy, 1886-6; Capt Back, 1833; lieut Wilkes; Capt Fremont, 184-4; Meern. Simp-

C onandDease, 1837-8; Edw. Harris, 1846.

Capt Soorasbj; Capt Clavering.

Alleghany Coal-Field. 39

The Alleghany Or Appalachian Coal-Field,

COMPRISING WHAT IS FREQUENTLY DENOMINATED THE GREAT CENTRAL BITUMINOUS COAL RANGE OF THE UNITED STATES.

We may add, also, that in some of our most ancient topographical maps* this fast range was formerly known as the Endless Mountains."

Some of our cotemporaries, following up the suggestion of Mr. Darby,* prefer the term Appalachian, to that of the Alleghany, coal range, and, appa- rently, with some reason. That able geographer was no doubt governed by good evidence, in favour of its adoption in its generic and most extended sense, while admitting the word Alleghany in what may be termed its specific or local application : thus employing the one to designate an entire system ;' the other as an integral part of that system. We think that it was so meant by Col. Long in 11, t and by one or two cotemporary geologists. More than a century before this, we remark the use of the generic term, '' the vast Appalachian range of mountains," by Col. Byrd, in his lively narrative of the running of the dividing line between North Carolina and Virginia, in 172S; which diary did not appear in print until 1841.

Our cotemporaries of the Virginia and Pennsylvania geological surveys, we believe, have adopted the general scope of this designation, yet with some modification ; conferring, if we mistake not, the term Appalachian on the magnificent central and elevated region, within whose borders yet lumber, in undisturbed darkness, untold millions of acres nf coal and iron.

It seems to us, however, that the entire Appalachian system of the geo- graphers was intended to comprise a widely extended series of mountains, some of which are far removed, by space as well as by geological structure, from that which is generally designated, throughout its course, the Alleghany coal-field. The Alleghany is therefore a coal range, par excellence, which the Appalachian certainly is not. Hence apfiears the peculiar fitness of the term "Alleghany coal-field.%

Col. Byrd's reference to the Appalachian mountains seems to indicate merely the Blue Mountain and those parallel ranges which stretch co-exten- sively with the main escarpment of the great coal-field.

We would, therefore, in the following pages, venture the use of this phrase, wherever, in its local application, it is unmistakable : for our con- viction i?, that whether we choose to adopt it or not, it will ever continue a term in general acceptation — a name imperishable as that of the Alps. Let us add here, that we find it marked upon our maps, of every age, and

DarbT*t Geology of the United States.

t Monthly American Journal of Geology. 1S32. P. 347.

! We stoTer papers. Petersburg, Va. 1841.

As to tlie orthography of Alleghany or Allegheny, we know of no standard ; any mon in fact, than there is for all the other Indian namea. It appears to be conuDonly writtei m tkm first Bi&ner, and here we follow Darby.

30 Unitcd States Of Akerica.

in all parts of its course, from the southern borders of New York state, even into Tennessee. We even see the name, " Alleghany Mountains,'' pro- longed eight hundred miles further northward, as far as Cape Gaspd, and the gulf of St. Lawrence.*

According to the scheme of Darby, the entire Appalachian system oc- cupies one hundred and twenty thousand square miles; Messrs. Rogers estimate it at 130,000. Of this great area, the bituminous coal field of the Alleghanies occupies about one half.

In the primitif e maps, which have come under our notice, no part of this range is recognized as essentially Appalachian, beyond the northern limit of Alabama ; the country, first of the Appalachians and since of the Cherokees. Daniel Coxe, an admissible authority in geographical nomenclature, shows us, in his description of the province of Carolana," a. d. 1722, that this prdonged range of mountains in Alabama, formed a part of the royal grant of 1630, half a century before its supposed discovery by the French, and was named the Palachean Mountains."! It has generally been admitted, that the warlike Indian tribe of that name, for the most part occupied the rich low ground which bordered on the gulf of Mexico. They were there first found by the Spaniards in 1528 ; and there, in the Appalachee coun- try," subdued only as late as 1702, they have led their traces in correspond- ing local names. Tlie Appalachicola and the Appalachie rivers, yet mark their origin, as does the bay of Appalachie, where Narvaez first landed in 1528. The map of M. G. De L'Isle, in 1720, shows the site of the town of the Appalaches, in 1540, a little south of the present city of Mobile.|

In Father Charlevoix's map, also, in a. n. 1720, republished in English in 1766, the Appalachian mountains appear, extending to about N. lat. 35°, which again is the northern limit of Alabama, as previously adverted to, and nearly corresponding with the north boundary of what was then South Carolina, ceded by France to Great Britain, in 1763. The same moun- tains were assigned by Father Hennepin and Mons. La Salle as the boun- dary of lA)uisiana, and were so considered by the Spaniards, and previously by the French.||

Mr. Jefferson, who wrote his "Notes on Virginia," in 1781, ascribes the origin of the term to the Indian tribe of Appalachies, who resided on Ap- palachicola river. " Hence," he observes, the mountains giving rise to that river, and seen from its various parts, were called the Appalachian mountains ; being, in fact, the end or termination only, of one of the great ridges passing through the continent European geographers, however, extended the same, northward, as far ns the mountains extended; some giving it, af\er their separation into different ridges, to the Blue Ridge, others to the North Mountain, others to the Alleghany, otliers to the Laurel Ridge ; as may be seen in their different maps. But the fact, I believe, is, that none of these ridges were ever known by that name to the inhabitants, either native or emigrant, but as they saw them so called in European maps."fl

Martin*! Sutiitici of the Coloniet of the British Empire. Pp. 147 — 151.

t Description of the Province of Carolana, bj the SfMiniards called Florida, and hj the French La Louitiane. By Daniel Coie, of New Jersey, 1722.

t Carte tie La Louisiaae, par Gaillaume De L*lsle, de PAcademie Royale dea Sciences. Amsterdam, MDCCXX.

A map of the Britiah Dominions in North America, as settled by the Treaty of Peace, 1763."

U Brackenridge's Loaisiana. 1814, p. S6.

Y Jefferson Notes on Virginia, p. Iq, 1784.

▲LLBQHAinr OOAL-FIKLD.

In the authorities we htTe cited, we think we have perceived evidence of the actual extent and limit of the Appalachian area : but we do not object to the adoption of the name, on a far wider scale, if it can be advantageously introduced. We desire only to retain for the coal range, a name for which we confess we entertain great affection.

Certain of our American archaeologists do, indeed, go a little further ; they are so impressed with the fitness and comprehensiveness of the term,. that the New York Historical Society has propounded, in all seriousness, the adoption of Alleohania for the name of the whole Union.*

We now turn to more direct geological considerations. The Appalachian system as contemplated by Darby and his successors, comprises a vast series of parallel ridges, in advance, to the east and south-east, of our Alleghany region, and includes not only the bituminous coal-field of the latter, but imirty every known American rock formation, from the new red sandstone down to thegranite. It comprehends the whole carboniferous group the anlhiicite basins of Pennsylvania, and the bituminous coal-field of the Alleghanies ; the subjacent Devonian system ; and, beyond this, the entire Silarian series and paleozoic rocks, and finally the primitive group.

Id physical geography, the arrangement is wholly unobjectionable : — as applied to geology, it seems to be too indefinite, and suggests the subdivision its members.

The distinguishing geological characteristics of the Appalachian system have been traced b/ the Messrs. Rogers, with a masterly hand.t Every one who seeks to know something of the physical topography of the roost valuable and remarkable portion of the American continent, cannot fail to derive advantage from the perusal of this lucid exposition.

A Report of the Hittorical Society of New York, dated Slat March, 1845, containa the following reaolation : That the name of *Alleghania* be recommended aa the beat, coDvidenoff that it ia derived from the grandest and moat uaeful natural feature, common to the whole country ; an eternal type of strength and union ; stretching firom the gulf of Meiico to the great lakes ; — that it is associated with the most interesting portions of our history ; and that, in adopting it, we should restore to the land one of the primordial titles of the aborigines."*

t On the Phjcical Structure of the Appalachian chain. . of the Associmtion of Ame- ncaa Geologists. Vol. I. p. 477. 1843.

S2 Uhitxd States Of America.

The Alleghany. Appauchian, Or Endless Mountain Coal-Field,

Described According To Its Eight Provincial Divisions.

This magniiiceDt coal-field traverses eight of the principal states in the American Union. In the greater part of these states, geological surreys have been in progress, for a number of years; and periodical or preliminary reports have, from time to time, been submitted to the legislatures of those states respectively, by the surveyors. In but a very few of them, however, have the final details of the survey ; the engraved and geologically coloured maps ; and the various essential illustrations, incidental to the whole work, been published. The design, therefore, of these geological investigations, has but very partially been carried out, on account of the alleged expense ; a failure which is much to be regretted. We may add, that our own labours in preparing this part of the present volume, would have been greatly curtailed, had those geological surveys been brought to maturity.

Dimensions.

The greatest length of the entire coal*field, measiuing /

along its centre, 750 miles.

The greatest breadth, 173 "

The average or mean breadth, - - - - 85

By the computation of Professor Mather, the area, in round numbers, is 50,000 square miles.* In calculating the actual size of this region, we have comprised within its limits those rocks which, by every geologist, are associated closely with the coal ; that is to say, the sandstones, conglome- rates, shales ; the argillaceous slates, and occasionally the intercalated lime- stones, which combine to make up the series usually called the coal mea- sures or carboniferous strata. From this maximum superficies, we have made no deduction for accidental areas, occupied by inferior formations ; such, for instance, as are brought to the surface by one or several anticlinal axes. We have reason to know that the aggregate of these interposed areas is considerable. Neither have we made allowances for the numerous cases of denudation ; for the partial removal of large areas of coal strata ; — for the wide and deeply indented valleys ; or for the innumerable ravines which cut away the productive strata, leaving large unprofitable areas. It is un- usual to enter into such details; yet if they were investigated and computed, their aggregate would bring down the result of the available or productive areas to an unexpected degree. We know of vast bodies of so-called coal

Second Oeologicml Report of Ohio, p. 7. 183S.

Alls6Hant Coal-Field.

lands, whbin this field, that have scarcely the tenth acre really productive in that combustible, through a combination of the circumstances just alluded to. Our estimate of the Alleghany coal-field is, for this reason, an extreme one, jet we believe it is strictly correct as to the general superficies.

Taking, therefore, for our principle of admeasurements, the areas in question in their most enlarged sense, — the gross rather than the nett returns, if we may so speak, — we find the areas of the provincial divisions of the Alleghany bituminous coal-field, to be as follows, in round numbers :

ifttM.

Area of the Wbola Suu.

MeOMloeb.

Area of Bit's

Coal tftrau

therein.

Note.— The older retuma of the respective areas of the Sutes give

by S. A.Mitche]],iii 1836aDd sub- sequently. These returns, there- fore, make the aggregate oF the seven sutes io the adjoiniog co- lumn, 350,449 square miles, in- stead or 364,620 square miles ; the Former being probably the more accurate.

Viu.

AlabiMa, . . GMTfia, . -

TeOMMM, .

Kentockj, - Virgioia, - . MarylaMl, - Ohio, - . - PeDoajIraiiia,

Square Milet. 51,770 58,000 45,000 40,500 64,000 13,950 44,400 47,000

Bqaare Milei.

8,400

4,300

9,000

21,000

11,900

15,000

Totil,

66,300

Since completing this computation, we have observed that Prof. H. D. Rogers has calculated that the superficial area of the Alleghany coal-field " upon a moderate estimate, amounts to sixty-three thousand square miles."*

Were we to make the deductions for unproductive areas, for erosions of strata, and for such coal beds as are never likely to be reached by the miner, it would perhaps be a liberal estimate to rate the workable area of the whole at forty thousand square miles.

Even on this principle, we have here in this field, no less than 25,600,000 acres of productive coal : an enormous aggregate, of whose ultimate value DO present estimate can be formed — no array of figures or of words can adequately portray.

It is beyond the scope of human vision to contemplate, in our day, the results associated with these millions — the industrial facilities, the wealth, and power, and influence at home and abroad, which they must inevitably confer upon the future inhabitants of the country.

Trans. Assoc. American Geologists and Natoralists, vol. i. p. 436.

CITtTED STATES OF AKERICA.

Louisiana.

It has been very recently announced in the south, that bituminous coal has been discovered in situ on the Iberville river, and in sufficient quantity to supply the ordinary demand for coal in this part of the country. Should the report prove correct, of which we entertain some doubts, the existence of the coal formation, or an insulated portion of it, prolonged in the range of the main coal-field of the United Sutes, to a point so near the Gulf of Mexico, is not alone a highly interesting geological fact, but a very important one as regards the coal statistics and the mineral resources of the southern portion of this country.

Another report [|1847] is of a species of coal, found, it is said, on the shores of Lake Bistmeau, on Red river, and which is proved to be adapted for the forge or grate. This lake is bordered by a sandstone, over which fossils are described to be deposited, and fossil wood: tertiary lignite t

Again, another announcement [lt7] is of coal at Lake Borgne, below Lake Pont Chartrain ; probably carbonized wood.

The bulk of the coal which is consumed along the southern shores of Louisiana and Alabama, is not derived from resources exbting within the latter state, but has descended from remote places high up the Mississippi and the Ohio rivers, or by the circuitous navigation of the Tennessee, the Cumberland, and other rivers, which originate to the northward of Alabama.

For want of railroad and canal facilities for transportation to the south, the exports of north Alabama, amounting to about one*fourth the products of the state, are now transported along the rivers we have mentioned, to New Orleans, a distance of from fifteen hundred to seventeen hundred miles.*

The bituminous coal which arrives at New Orleans and Mobile, is sold by a local measure called a barrel, and not by the ton weight, or by the bushel or the chaldron, as in other parts of the United States. Thirteen of these barrels are estimated to be equivalent to one ton.

The following statement from the local commercial returns, exhibits the number of barrels, of western bituminous coal, sold in the port of New Orleans, annually ; the fiscal year commencing on the first of September. The prices are very fluctuating : we have seen coal quoted as low as 75 cents, and as high as 91 25 per barrel : the average is not far from 80 cents; average for 1847 is 75 cents per barrel. The increased demand is very great of years, as seen in the table below.

Yemrt.

Bmrrli.

TMtrfl.

Barrtlt.

Ytart.

Barrels.

Yeart.

Barrala.

40,800 60,000 85,338

99,330 99,915 131,333 140,583

1R44

255,568 327,788 381,600 363,800

366,500

Report OB tiM Alabona, Florida, andGooffia Eailroodw— OmvMI.

Louisiana.

S6

We add here, firom t late report of Colonel Abort, of the United States Topographical Engineers, a few notes on the internal commerce of New Orleans, in 1846.

Valne of commerce of western rirers with New Orleans, - 9 9,737,354

EzporU and imporU of New Orleans, in 1842, officially, - 50,566,903

1846, " . 62,206,719 Natural internal water-coorses in communication with

New Orleans, — miles, 16,674

Popalation of internal water-courses in communication

with New Orleans, — persons, - . . . 8,877,456

99 UNIT£D STATES OF iM£RICA.

I. Alabama Division.

Bituminous Coal Absa, These Thousand Four Hundred Square

BflLES.

Respecting this, Tery little is known ; no geological or officitl inrestiga- tion has been made that we are aware of.

The fossil coal plants of Alabama, were, subsequently to the date of Mr. Lyell's paper, submitted by him t6 the inspection of Mr. Bunbury, who identified several of these vegetable remains with well-known European fossils. Out of sixteen species thus examined, one half agreed with the plants of the old carboniferous formation in Europe, and the rest belong to genera which are common in the English coal measures. Thus, at the distance of nearly five thousand miles, Qthe broad Atlantic now intervening]] we observe a new proof of the wide extension of a uniform flora in the car- boniferous period.*

The numufaeiure oflrom is steadily increasing in Alabama. Vast quan- tities of ore occur in Tuscaloosa county.

Coal-Field Of Tuscaloosa.

Under this title Mr. C. Lyell has described the southern part of the Alleghany coal-field.t We derive the following abstract from that account as published in Silliman's Journal.

The city of Mobile is supplied with bituminous coal for fuel and gas, chiefly from this coal-field, by means of the Tombecbee river ; a navigation of more than three hundred and fifty miles. Mr. Lyell, had at first sus- pected from various circumstances, that this deposit might be related to the Richmond coal in Virginia, which has been shown to be of newer date than that of the Alleghany range. This impression was, however, entirely removed on inspection of the district in question.

The coal seams are worked in open quarries, where the outcrops of several seams are dug successfully ; the quality being good. They are covered with beds of the ordinary black, carbonaceous shale; full of im- pressions of more than one species of catamite; with Pecopteris and Neuropteris, Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, and occasionally Stigmaria. The perfect identity of these coal plants with those of Europe, of Ohio and Pennsylvania, was recognized. They also differed essentially from the vegetable remains that are most abundant and characteristic in the newer coal-field of Richmond.

The strike of these coal beds of Alabama, on the Warrior river, and to

Pmceedingt of the Gcol. Soc. August 1, 1846. t SUlimui*! Joonial, May, 1846.

Tuscaloosa. 87

the eastward, is north-east and aouth-west; aeeing with the general direction of the Alleghany Mountains, of which they are, geologically speaking, a southern prolongation, and are bent into anticlinal and syn- clinal ridges, similar to those of the Alleghanies.

The carboniferous strata here appear to come into direct contact with the cretaceous rocks. The productive coal measure seen by Mr. Lyell on his tour, consisted of the usual sandstones, shales, and clays, with seams of coal ; the thickest Been by him being about four feet ; but a ten foot seam has been discorered further to the north than the localities he visited. This carboniferous formation is many hundred feet thick ; succeeded by a great series of ffritstones ; and thence passes downward into thinly laminated sandstones and dark slates.

Under this carboniferous group lies a limestone formation, with roach utermixed chert and hornstone. In the pure limestone, which is fetid no fossils occur ; but in some of the associated siliceous beds, fossils abound, apparently those of the mountain limestone. Throughout the entire range of the inferior limestone, occurs an enormous mass of brown hematite. Prom the accessibility and richness of this ore, its proximity to the coal- iMd, and to the navigation of the Tombecbee river, I can hardly doubt that, like the coal itself, it is destined, at no distant day, to be a source of great mineral wealth to Alabama.'*

A brief account of this coal region was published by Professor Brumby, in Barnard's Almanack, for 18. It is impossible to determine the number and thickness of the seams of bituminous coal, as no regular survey of this state has been commenced.

Mr. Lyell adds, that the fossil planU of Alabama, situate in latitude 10' north, form a subject of peculiar interest ; being apparently the extreme southern limit to which the peculiar vegetation of the ancient carboniferous era has yet been traced, whether on the western or the eastern side of the Atlantic.

On this point, however, we believe we shall be able to show an extension of the true coal formation much lower south than the Tuscaloosa coal, at ZV 10'. Coal and anthracite are reported at a number of points in Texas, stretching in a south-west direction across the headwaters of the Trinity, the Brassos, the Colorado, and other rivers which empty into the Gulf of Mexico, and even crosses the Rio Grande into Mexico, below the latitude of2d. More than this, we know that coal is worked at Guerrero, on the river Salado, for the use of the American steamers on the Rio Grande, in N. latitude 27° — being six degrees lower than Mr. Lyell's extreme southern limit

Ii. Georgia Division.

We possess no details of this small angle of the coal formation. It pro- bably does not comprise more than one hundred and fiAy square miles of bituminous coal area, and was, until a few years back, owned by the Qierokeea.

38 iimrrKD statu of jurrica.

Iil Tennessee Division.

This part of the AUeghiny nrnge, occupies an area of 4300 square imles, the greater part of whiim coiudats of the derated local group known aa the Cumberland mountains.

The geological surrey of this state has, during many years, been confided to the charge of Professor Troost, who has communicated to the General Assembly of Tennessee, a series of eight periodical reports, between the years 1831 and 1846. Those which more especially refer to the coal region, are the third, dated October, 1835, and the eighth, dated in November, 1845, but they contain very few practical and economical details respecting mineral coal.

It is understood that West Tennessee has received some investigation from Dr. D. D. Owen, and that the Messrs. Rogers have made some recon- noissances in East Tennessee; but as none of these have, we believe, been published, we are precluded from the advantage of citing the geological results ascertained by those indefatigable investigators.

From the maps which accompany the state annual reports, we perceive that the boundaries of the coal formation are singularly irregular ; occasioned

a the numerous projecting spurs of the Cumberland mountains, forming ttnate bays and promontories, on their western flank. These maps are exceedingly coarsely executed, and do not afford the details we could have desired. We are unable to collect much statistical information from the pub- lished reports and maps, respecting the number or thickness of the several coal seams in this section of the great coal-field. In the first report they are somewhat vaguely alluded to as " several outcrops of horizontal strata of great extent." In no instance, in that report, are the respective thicknesses of coal beds recorded; nor can we form any opinion of the amount of the production or consumption of coal, within the district. The quality of this coal is, however, spoken of as excellent. Analyses of two specimens are furnished by the geologist, whence it appears that the coal here approaches m character to the semi-bituminous variety in Pennsylvania and South Wal and that it possesses only from fourteen to seventeen per cent of . Tolatile matter.*

The following Section we have compiled from data furnished by ProC Troost:

Fig. 1. Sedian of the Tamenee Coal-Fitldt aarom the Cumberland Moufdains.

9m19 ao wOUs t# mm iadL 7i i/w.

c CmI , alwrt ft#HxMUi.

Ck§rtf 8mmd*un wHk /rmi On.

c € Bitmmimtug SkmU,

44 JfaimUfa £t— to— — Ofttffc aWf.

f Vnm' ViwHaM rtU, pnhMf hnUn If pmrmlUi wm. Sm Um Tablet of Antl jtii it the tad of diii wo

Tennessee Division. 39

It is erident that much remains to be done in Tennessee, in the way of geological elucidation, and the development of the coal and iron of the state. We believe, however, that very little progress has yet been made in cod operations, or in any branch of mining industry, and, consequently, that opportunities for examination in so wild a region, were rarely afforded to the geologist. He observes, that the deposits of coal in southern and central Tennessee, are evidently of sreat extent, and are, as yet, only par- tially brought to light; while those that are best known are only slightly penetrated. Most of them, in fact, have done nothing further than merely to furnish the fuel for the blacksmiths of the surrounding country.

Notices of a great many coal seams appear in the eighth report ; but the continuity of these has been so little made out, that there are, at present, no means of determining their number and continuity, so as to be able to recognize them in other parts of tlie region. The geologist enumerates several beds, of two feet, three feet, and four feet, in thickness ; one of six feet, another of eight feet ; one of twelve, and a large one of twenty feet. These are all described as good coal, with various qualities and adaptations.

The reporter concludes with the observation, that there exists an inex- haustible treasure of this combustible ; which, if once the means of trans- portation are established, by a railroad, will make Middle Tennessee entirely independent of the uncertain water communication which is generally una- vailable here during the summer season, and may be the means of trans- forming this portion of the state into a manufacturing country.*

In the vicinity of the Cumberland mountains a considerable quantity of coal is consumed in the iron works. Some is also transported to distant iron works, and another portion descends the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, and thence, circuitously, by the Mississippi to New Orleans and the intervening towns, and even to Mobile. At the Dover iron establishment in Cocke county, East Tennessee, the proprietors bring from the coal region a hundred thousand bushels per annum.

According to the third report of the state geologist, this coal is shipped from various points, but particularly from near Kingston ; from whence it passes down the Tennessee river more than six hundred miles to the Ohio, and thence, more than a thousand miles further, to New Orleans ; making a voyage of no less than seventeen hundred miles of inland navigation.t From the western margin of the Tennessee coal-field, a certain quantity of coal is sent down the Cumberland river, nearly an equal distance, to its place of destination.!

In the eighth annual report, Dr. Troost states that, in 1845, only a few loaded boats descended the Tennessee river, some of which readied New Orleans ; but as that city is now much more conveniently supplied from the Ohio river, although quite as long a voyage, he thinks it doubtful as to the future descent of the Mississippi river for Tennessee coals. There is a pro- ject under consideration, and urged by the state geologist, for making a rail- road from the southern border of Tennessee, near the Georgia line, across the coal-fields of the Cumberland mountains, to Nashville ; a measure which would greatly favour the interests of a large area of coal land.

Eighth Geological Report of TenneMee, p. 15.

t Third Report to the Legislature of Tennessee, hy Gerard Troost, M.D. 1840, p. 4.

t Report on the Alabama, Florida, and Georgia Railroad, 1838, p. 6.

40 United States Of America.

Production.

We will not quote the congressional return of bituminous coal mined in this state, in IbflO, because it is obviously incorrect The report of the Secretary of the Treasury, on the domestic products of the United States, of the 6th January, 1845, is still less entitled to credit ; being yet more mea|rre and incomplete than the other.

Like the other coal-fields of this country, that of Tennessee has contri- buted very little of the ore from which iron is smelted. This is owing, probably, not so much to the absolute deficiency of the argillaceous carbonate of iron which usually accompanies the coal measures, but to the greater abundance, if not tp the superior quality, of various other kinds of iron ore, which are distributed throughout the country. Those employed in the fur- naces of Tennessee are the Red Oxide," and the various " Hsmatitesy" and brown ores ; and being smelted by the aid of charcoal, produce an iroa of excellent quality.

North Carolina.

We have no authentic knowledge of the bituminous coal in this state, but anthracite to a very small amount is raised here. The return to Con- gress in 1840, on which, by the by, little reliance can be placed, shows only fifty tons in that year, and seventy-five bushels of bituminous coal.

Bituminous coal occupies a detached basin on the borders of the Roan- oke, and near the state line adjoining to Virginia, in Rockingham county.

Another small basin is situated in Chatliam county, in the centre of this state, ten miles south of Pittsborough. This bituminous coal is described as occupying a thin bed, and at present is not worked to advantage.

Other insulated patches of coal are stated to exist in the same range, but, to the present time, little or no advanUge has been taken of the presence of thb invaluable mineral combustible in various districts of this state.

WXSTSaN YIROINIA. 41

Iv. Western Virginia.

Virginia Division Of The Alleghany Coal-Field.

We have preriotiflly assigned for the space held by Virginia, no less than twenty-one thousand square miles. Of this enormous area the actual amount of coal land now in profitable operation is comparatively small. Large bodies of land on the western slope of the Alleghany range, descending to the Ohio, still continue unsettled, although there is, at the present moment, a current of emigration setting in that direction, and a strong impetus is evidendy given to industry and improvement in a heretofore much neglected disthcL

Dr. S. P. Hildreth, in an unusually long and elaborate article in Silli- man's Journal of Science, a few years ago, furnished numerous illustrative details of the coal strata in the western borders of this state.

This communication, made under some disadvantages in a scientific point of view, was quickly followed by a series of reports from the able geologist appointed to that service by the state.* These have placed a large mass of useful geological information before the public ; although, as relates to sta- tistics, they are somewhat less copious.

It will be observed, on reference to the tables of analysis in our Appendix, which we derive almost solely from the state reports, that the wefstem coal seams are much more bituminous than the eastern. These western coals contain nearly equal proportions of volatile matter and carbon, and belong strictly to the class denominated Fat ; adhesive bituminous coals.

At Wheeling, and for fourteen miles down the Ohio, the cliff or bank of the river presents an uninterrupted bed of highly bituminous coal, about ten feet thick.t This seam, with some other smaller ones, constitute Prof. W. B. Rogers's " Upper Coal series," and extends from Pittsburg, southward to Clarksburg, in the parallel of Marietta ; and, according to Prof. H. D. Rogers, does not extend beyond the Guyandotte river.

Along the valley of the Monongahela are several fine beds of coal. One of them distinguished as the " Pittsburg seam," is the ten feet bed before spoken of, which, to some, is known by the name of the " Main Coal" of northern Virginia, and is readily recognized where it crosses the Great and the Little Kanawha rivers, and thence to the Big Sandy river, on the bordeis of Kentucky.

The greatest thickness of workable coal is stated to be nine and a half feet, at the mouth of Scott's Run. The second coal seam in importance, is about five feet thick. A third is from three to four feet. A fourth, geo- logically the highest known coal bed of any value in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, is five feet in thickness.}

Th Act pftMfd in 1835; the " Report of the Geological Reconnoitiiiice," appeared ia 1S36, asd a geological tanrey of Virginia, was officially directed to follow that Recon- BoiMaoce.

t Hildwib-tB SaiiiMB't JoareAl, lSd5.

X Sute Geological Report, 1840, p. S6 to 92, hj Prof. W. B. Rogen.

42 Unitkd States Of Ambrica.

On the Great Kanawha are large developments of bituminous coal, as may be inferred from the foregoing paragraphs.

The workable coal seams in the upper group, are thus enumerated by the State geologist

Fut. The first, or main seam, 5 to 9

Third " sj

Fourth " 7

25 feet workable and one vein not workable. Besides beds of limestone, amounting to fiAy feet thick.

The middle division, or group, contains five feet coal in three beds, and twenty-four feet of limestone, in eleven beds.

The lower coal group contains five small seams, whose aggregate is but nine feet, only one bed of which is workable.

It would seem, therefore, that of these thirteen coal beds, having an 'SSgsc thickness of forty feet, four seams, comprising eight yards of workable coal may be relied upon, through nearly the whole length of the slate, as the productive power of Western Virginia.

For the analysis of the coal of these seams, at various localities, we refer to the tables at the end of this book ; they are derived from the State Re- ports.* We regret our not having the advantage of quoting the final report of the scientific gentlemen at the head of this department.

In 1835-6, it was suted that in the salt region of Western Virginia there were ninety establishments, producing one million bushels of salt annually, and consuming 5,000,000 bushels, or 200,000 tons of coal.t

In 1840, the amount of bituminous coal mined in the Alleghany, or wes- tern counties, was returned at 298,608 tons of twenty-eight bushels. The iiggregate of coal, at that time produced m all Virginia, was 379,369 tons — which is probably less than the actual amount — would be about equivalent to nine acres annual consumption from the upper group of workable coal beds, in Western Virginia. The number of workmen, or miners then in employ, was nine hundred and ninety-five, and the capital so engaged was estimated at 91,301,855.

These Congressional Reports so abound in discrepancies as to materially impair their usefulness. For instance, Pennsylvania, which makes a larger retorn than Virginia, viz. 415,023 tons of bituminous coal, employing one thoosand seven hundred and ninety-eight miners, rates the capital invested at only 9300,416. The results of that inquiry (Congressional,) are really BO vague, that we can venture to draw no inferences from them.

Cannel Coal.

Near Charleston, Kanawha County, a bed of this description of coal has been subjected to experiment, with satisfactory resulu. Its range is appa- rently of considerable extent

Report Geol. Burr, of Virgimi. 1840.

t Records of General Science. Vol. V. 1836. Alto Americin Jonntl of Science. Vol. XXX1X.1836.

WESTERN YIRGINIA. 4t

The nonhern extremity of Virginia correspoDcb, in req)ect to number and quality of its coal beds, with those to which we are enabled more particu- larly to adrert in the State of Maryland.

At the position oTerlooking the Potomac Valley, called Brandt's Mines, there are described five workable beds, from three feet to fifteen or more feet thick each, or thirty-five feet in all.*

IRON MANUFACTORY OF WESTERN VIRGINIA. This is of growing importance, but our details are scanty.

Wheeling.

The following is a statement of the annual products of the Iron business, for the years 1845 and 1846, showing the increase of business in that branch.

Iron Works at Wheeling,

300,000

$435,820

Foundries,

74,000

99,000

Engine building.

60,000

96,000

On approaching the eastern margin of the great coal-field, it has been found that the prevailing quality is much less bituminous there than near its opposite margin.

Immediately west of the escarpment of the great Alleghany ridge, in Hampshire county, are parallel and nearly horizontal coal seams, extending along the borders of the Potomac; five of these are of workable thickness, the aggregate being about thirty-five feet thick.

Charles KinseyU Letter to the Union Potomac Company.

44 nOTBD 1TATE8 OF AMERICA.

Eastern Virginia.

SMALL DETACHED AREAS OF AirTHRACTTE AND SEBO-BITUinNOUS COAL.

For some yean it has been known that here and there a few patches of coal occur in the mountain ranges which run parallel with the eastern base of the Alleghany mountains. In Berkley county, a few developments of excellent anthracite in a ridge near Martinsburg, led to the formation of a working company, some years ago.* The undertaking failed, it is under- stood, on account of the deficiency of the supply of coal. In several other counties, along the same range, which corresponds with that of Schuylkill county, similar anthracite traces prevail, although of inconsiderable value.

Other localities occur in this parallel in which coal of the semi-bituminous species appears. The seams of this coal vary from three to seven feet in thickness, in Botetourt and Montgomery counties, in the Little North moun- tain.t Their analysis, which wSl be found in the tables at the end of this work, shows them to resemble the coal of the Round Top mountain, in Pennsylvania.

Only two hundred tons of anthracite were returned as the production of Virginia in 1840.|

Richmond Or Chesterfield Bituminous Coal-Field.

This is an area which has been longer known and worked than perhaps any Other in the United States. The geological map of McClure — the father of American geology — was prepared to illustrate his memoir in 1817. In position and form, as there represented, this coal-field differs in no ma- terial respect from the maps of the present day — and thirty years of opera-' tions there have not greatly enlightened us as to its details.

Mr. Nuttall, in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia, some years ago, furnished a short notice of the vegetable fossils which characterize the shales of this coal basin, and adverts to the vestiges of fossil fishes which had already attracted the attention of previous na- tundists.

Some reference to these Virginia coal plants may be found in Stemberg;|| but Mr. Nuttall was the first to point out the prevalence of certain fossil vegetebles, which seemed to confer a peculiar character on the formation, although the value of such a test was probably unknown to, and unsuspected by the observer of those days

M. Adolphe Brongniart has figured and described some coal plants from hence, considering them as belonging to the true carboniferous period.

Memorial or the Baltimore Convention to the Commonwealth of Virginia, 1834.

t Report of the Geological Roconnoitance of Virginia, p. 90.

t Congreaatonal Report on the Cenaui, 1S41.

% Joarnal Acad. Nat. Sciences. Vol. II. p. 36.

Sternberg. Book III. p. 16. 18S6.

V Hiatoire des Vegetaoz Foitileiy p. 1S6.

fiAgTERN VIRGINIA. 4$

The iitthor of this woiit, in 1834, addressed a memoir to the Geological Society of Pennsjlrania, respectiirg a portion of this coal-field. This paper waa accompanied by seteral diagrams, among which was a vertical section of one of the deep shafts, the first illustration of this description, that the coaJ-field had received.* This communication was followed by another from Mr. Clemson, on the analysis of the coal collected from several of the mines on each side of the James river.t

In the same year a brief account of this basin and its coal trade was given in a Report to the Senate of Pennsylvania.1

In 1899, a concise description of the same district appeared in an able Report of the Committee on a National Foundry, ascribed to the Hon. W. Cost Johnson. It also refers to a document, submitted at a public meeting at Richmond, February 6th, 1838, wherein it is affirmed, that every cannon foundry in the United States is furnished with coal from the Black Heath pits, and that other pits supply large quantities to the northern iron fao- toriea."

The Richmond coal basin has senerally contributed the principal supply to the gas works at Philadelphia, for which it is well adapted.

The geological age of this coal-field has been a subject of some investiga- tion, owing to the anomalous character of the beds of shale and sandstone which overiie the coal. These difler entirely from those of the regular coal series in other parts of the American Continent. Those occupied by shale are distinguished by peculiar fossils. The numerous suite of interstratified rock beds consist of granitoid sandstones, or psammites; derived from the de- struction and reproduction of the primitive rocks in which this basin is placed. A rock of precisely similar appearance, crosses the Schuylkill from seventeen to twenty miles above Philadelphia; the resemblance being so close as to show no distinguishable difference in hand specimens. The sandstones of some coal-fields on the European Continent are of this cha- racter. The coal of the basin of Blanzy, in France, occurs in a gneiss valley, and alternates with granitoid psammites. That of Fins et Noyant, also in France, reposes upon granite; and that of Ahun consist of strata which are recompcMsed from the debris of granitic rocks. Near Oporto, also, anthracite occurs, interstratified with granitoid psammites, overlying primi- tive rocks, and covered by chlorite slate. In Northern Bengal and Bhotan are similar granitoid sandstones, containing brown coal.

During a transient inspection of these strata, in 1834, it seemed to the present writer that the series was at least contemporary with the ordinary cod measures. Perhaps the well known presence of the fossil Calamitts — recognized by A. Brongniart himself from hence|| — a species common to the anthracite shales of Wilkesbarre, to the lowest bituminous shales of Continental Europe, and to the old coal measures of England and Wales, contributed to this impression.

Subsequently, the vegetable fossils of these remarkable strata have been maturely investigated. To the fossil fishes have been applied the test of modern science ; and the opinion is now settled that we must look to a later period than that of the carboniferous era for the origin of the Chesterfield deposit.**

Trut. Gol. Soc. ofPenna. 1S35. Vol. I. p. 275. PI. 16. t Ibid. p. 295.

: Sente Journal. Vol. II. 1833-4, p. 567.

Nttioiiil Foundry Report. Doc. No. 16S, p. 41.

ti Hifftoire det VegeUux FomUm, p. 126.

t Coant Sternberg. Book IV. p. 16. 1826.

Proceeding! of the Academy of Nitural Sciencei, Jtnaaiy 1S42.

46 UNTTBD STATES OF AlfSRICA.

In 1843, appeared a memoir on the age of the coal rocks of Eastern Virginia," by Professor W. B. Rogers, which has thrown additional light on this interesting subject We will briefly endeavour to convey the author's views and the testimony which appears strongly to sustain them. Abundant evidence, of a satbfactory character, is produced, of the geological peculi- arities of the numerous series of beds which overlie the thick deposit of coal here. This bed is of irregular thickness, in consequence of the uneven surftce of the primary rock on which the coal was deposited, by which, at certain points, it is only a very few feet, and at others deepens to upwards of orty feet The author assigns for this coal the same geological age as that of the shales and granitoid sandstones overlying it The entire group pre- sents, it is conceived, striking analogies, in its vegetable remains, to the oolite coal formation of Brora, in Scotland; of Whitby, in Yorkshire; and of certain other European localities. Some of these plants appear to be specifically the same as the English fossils of that epoch; while the rest are Tery closely allied to certain species of the same genera found in connection with the oolite coal of Yorkshire and Sutherlan£hire.

It is to be regretted that no figures of these fossils illustrate this able paper, the value of which would have been greatly enhanced by such essen- tial aids. Nevertheless, the elaborate descriptions of the plants from the coal shales are decisive, in most instances. The fishes, mentioned many years ago by travellers and geologists, have been fully investigated and named by Mr. W. C. Redfield, and go fiir to settle the point

These fiicts seem strong enough to justify the referring this coal-field of Eastern Virginia, to a place in the Oolite system, on the same general parallel with the carbonaceous beds of Whitby and Brora — that is, in the lower part of that group.*

We have to add, in corroboration of these views, that, at a meeting of the British Association, Sept 1846, Mr. Lyell stated that he had lately exam- ined this coal-field, and had submitted some of the fossil fishes, obtained from it, to M. Agassiz, which he referred to the Oolite period. The fossil plants, likewise procured from hence, were examined by Mr. Bunbury, who considers that they present an assembage which agrees with those found at Whitby in Yorkshire, and therefore of the Oolite period. This coaleld, consequently, is newer than that of the true carboniferous formation.

We must not forget, however, in relation to priority of observation, that Mr. Nuttall had long ago, recognized among the fossil plants of the coal- shales here, the Zamia or Cycas, and the leaves of one of the ScUaminea, similar to those of ginger, and some enormous flaccid-leaved gramineous plant; all of which are characteristic of the Oolite period, although not so applied, at the time, by that inteJligent naturalistt

We rejoice to perceive this triumphant application of the test of organic remains, in determining otherwise very doubtful points as to the age of rocks; a principle which, some years ago, we, with all the partialities of an original disciple of William Smith, almost feared, was not appreciated as it deserved.

Whether the entire body of the coal itself be referable to this epoch is by no means settled. It has been suggested that the fossils above-mentioned, and seen at some of the pits, represent a distinct formation of coal from

Tram. Auociation of Amer. Geologists. Vol. i. p. 308. Also the State Report for 1840. P. 36. t Jooraal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, VoL II. p. 36.

Eastern Virginia.

the main or true carboniferoufl formation, and many suppose it a dq>osit of

On the 14th of April, 1847, a paper was read before the Geological Society of London from C. Lyell, on the Richmond coal-field of Eastern Virginia. It is stated that the shells in these coal measures consist of countless indi? iduals of a species of Posidonomya, much resembling the P. minuia of the English Trias. The fossil fish are homocercal, and di&r from those previously found in the new red sandstone, [Trias ?1of the United States. Two of them belong to a new genus, and one to TeirofmwUpiSt and are considered by Prof. Agassiz and Sir P. Egerton, to indicate the Liassic period.

In the charcoal Dr. Hooker detected vegetable structure, not of Ferns or Zamites, or any Conifer, but perhaps of Calamites.

Mr. Lyell considers this coal as of the age of the inferior Oolite, or the Lias.

The foas'd plants of the Richmond coal field have been also carefolly examined by C. J. F. Bunbury, Esq. Fifteen different forms are described; of which, however, only ten are sufficiently well preserved to be determined with the requisite precision. Six of them are ferns ; of which three are new species ; one of them being identical with a species characteristic of the Oolites of the Yorkshire coast. One species of Equisetum, undistin* guishable from that of Whitby ; one or two Calamites ; two of 2mites. Mr. Bunbury thinks that the Richmond coal-field is of later date than the great carboniferous system, and that it must be referred either to the Jurassic or the Thassic series, — more probably to the former.

Fig. 3. Section qf thM BitunUnoui Coal FMd mar Richmond, Va.

OrmuiU,

UnetrUin.

D0$forking§.

800 /M<. Dip 35<' U W.

OfmiU,

We have seen no satisfactory announcement of the superficial area of this basin, and from local circumstances, it is not very readily defined. It has been considered as thirty or thirty-five miles in length, having a maximum breadth of eight, and an average of five or six miles. The state report of 184i) estimates the length at thirty miles. We believe that we shall not err greatly in assigning one hundred and eighty-five square miles as the extreme productive area of the Chesterfield basin.

There exist, probably, no data by which the depth to which the cod

9Samitn*9 J<. , 184S, p. 9.

8Tate5 Op Amkuca.

fli tfe noi|li cm present be ascertained. The outcrop, on aic fiietirz sKirpx riKs at a owch higher angle than that on the western. lai tfie iLnMr. the sUb are 6r deeper than any others in America. The utckAri :<vctK pWiJlfd bf the Geological Society of Pennsylvania, in ISKSk ow Beans the deepest in the district, for there are other pits ar pbced at a giealer distance from the outcrop of the great mass of CMi ReiOTs 4ecp pit at Chesterfield, to which we refer, measures four bMiAiid aaii twelve feet fiom the surfece to the granite floor. The follow- i( juaaiarr abows the nomber of seams of rock, sandstone, shales, and <W. wlttcbweffv peaetiated by this shaft. It is to be obsenred, however, ihM is th strata were not intersected at right angles, but at the inclination H wbieh tbey weie cropping out to the surfiice, they are proportionately and i8MliKiu;iIlv of greater thickness, as represented in the table, and traversed bftbe pit than in strict accuracy, ought to be assigned to them. The entire series, so fir intersected, comprises ninety-four beds. Forty consisting of varieties of carboniferous, micaceous and argillaceous ahalest iwcupy an aggregate of one hundred and thirty-four feet Fifty-one other strata consist of granitoid psammites, carbonaceous sandstones, white or gray micaceous grits of various degrees of texture ranging from conglo- merates up to schistose sandstone, and comprise a thickness of two hundred and sixty-seven feet At the base of the group are two or three coal beds with intermediate shales; the whole embracing a thickness of from eleven ID forty feet of coal, and even fifty feet, according to the irregularities in the gftnite floor.

As bofmre sUted, there are other shafts which reach the coal at a deeper part if the basin than at this point ; and as the operations are carried down the sliH' of the main seam, the works are necessarily becoming deeper, and the Oil is excavated and brought to the surftice at a corresponding increase i4 ex|Mrnse. Up to the present time, we believe, the eastern outcrop alone is that which is almost exclusively wrought, and owing to the steep inclina- tion of the coal measures, not to a greater breadth than from one half to three quarters of a mile. The general course of this eastern boundary is S. fU W. or thereabouts, and every investigation shows the arrangement to be that of an extremely elonted trough, occupying a hollow in the primary rocks. In the workings examined by the present writer, the coal was only separated from the granite by a bed of about a foot thick, of porphyry.

Some of these deep mines contain a good deal of water, and are conse- quently attended with expense to keep dry ; for as the structure of this trotigh precludes the possibility of draining and working by the economical sYstem of adit levels or tunnels, all the water, as well as the coal, has to be elevated to the surface by machinery, and generally, by steam power. Other mines are comparatively dry, even in the vicinity of the wet shafls. This fact speaks conclusively as to the dislocated nature of the coal basin, near its eastern margin.

The iMaidenbead or Heath's mines are remarkable for their dryness, and no water occurs in any of the workings : such, at least, was the case in l83o, at which time no steam engine was needed for pumping. Some portion of this freedom from water is perhaps attributable to the subsidence of old works.

Tlie Black Heath mines were then on fire, and could not be worked. Tlie Bell workings had been on fire for twenty-ftve years, and the fire had advanced to the workings of the Rise abaft Thej were all walled up.

Eastern Virginia. 40

No flame arose, but a hot, smothering fire continued, year after year, the heat from which was sensibly felt, at some dbtance.

Only one trifling accident, it was said, had, up to that time, happened from fire damp.

The Bell and Rise workings, of above four hundred feet depth, belonging to Mr. Mills, gave way on the Christmas eve of 1833. Being a holiday, it was fortunately the cause of saving the lives of a great many miners, who osually worked there, at all hours ; and it is remarkable that not a single life was lost on that occasion, although few workmen were still below, employed in pumping, when the alarm was given. On the succeeding morn- ing, the course of all the underground workings could be traced on the surfiice, as on a map, by the lines of fissure, running in the same direction, and extending along the ground.

JExplosions ofjire tkanp have been of occasional occurrence in these mines. In March, 1839, an explosion occurred in one of Heath's pits, by which a number of lives were lost, chiefly of coloured miners, to the num- ber of fifty-three out of fifty-six persons, who were then in the mine.

The shaft of the mine was seven hundred feet deep, and the fidling in of the earth was so great, that sufibcation must have ensued to all who escaped the fire. Explosions, we are informed, occurred several times in the Maiden- head pits, prior to this period, and on these occasions several men were killed and burned.

Great improvement in the system of ventilation have been recently adopted in these deep mines. The first accident, firom this cause, took place about 1817 : fortunately the explosion occurred when the miners were out at their dinner, about one o'clock, in the day.

In 1841, and preceding years, several accidents by explosive gas occur- red in Wills's mines, by which some lives were lost, and several men were severely burnt

In June, 1844, an explosion took place in one of the Black Heath pits, while four Englishmen and eight negroes were in it. According to the statements of the time, only one person of this party was taken out alive.

Subterranean Temperature.

Prof. W. B. Rogers has communicated the result of a series of observa- tions on subterranean temperature, in the Chesterfield mines. The con- clusion arrived at is, That from the invariable plane, downwards for many hundreds of feet, the temperature augments at the rate of one degree for every sixty feet of depth."* This result agrees with that recorded by Pro- fessor John Phillips, in determining the ratio of descending temperature in the deep mine at Monk Wearmouth, nearly sixteen hundred feet deep. In this case it was also determined that the temperature increased one deme for every sixty feet of depth.t

In the American Journal of Science and Arts, of July, 1842, is a Geo- logical and Sutistical Notice of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Rich- mond," by A. S. Wooldridge, President of the Mid Lothian Mining Com- pany.

The principal mines then in operation, were those of the Maidenhead or Black Heath company, by several shafts which vary in depth from one hun-

Tnni. Amoc. American Geologitti. Vol. i. p. 538. t Pliloeophieal Mtftiiae. Dec. 1844.

50 UNITSD STATES OF AlfSRICA.

dred and fiAy to six hundred, and eren to upwards of atten hundred feet. The coal from- these mines is of good quality, and averages thirty-six feet in thickness.

To the north of these are Wills's pits. A shaft here is about four hundred feet to the bottom; from whence two inclined planes, following the slope of the seam, are conducted, so as to increase the depth of the mine, about three hundred feet more. The coal is here thirty feet thick.

The Gowrie pit is four hundred and sixty feet deep— the coal only six feet There are various other workings in this region, the shafts of which vanr from one hundred and fifty to four hundred feet deep.

The Mid Lothian Company's mines lie to the south of the Maidenhead mines. Coal was struck here in 1899, in a shaft, at the depth of seven hundred and twenty-two and a half feet The coal was thirty-six feet thick, and the sump below the coal being sixteen and a half feet deep, the entire depth of the shaft is, therefore, seven hundred and seventy-five feet The coal inclines to the westward at an angle of thirty-five degrees, and in some pUices is foil fifty feet thick, owing to Uie uneven configuration of the bot- tom rock, as was observed in other places.

Mr. Wooldridge states that large quantities of inflammable gas are con- stantly thrown out from the coal in this mine, and great care is taken to prevent the disastrous consequences of an explosion.

Our limits do not allow us to follow the details further. It appears that many new collieries are brought into operation, and a number of others are either exhausted or have failed from pecuniary or other diflSculties.

It seems almost certain that the bituminous coal of Richmond, being of an age not older than the Oolitic or Jurassic period, partakes inevitably of the defects of the coal of that period, and can never attain to the rank of the better class of bituminous coals in the United States, any more than the Yorkshire coals of the same age in England. Its chief excellence consists in being a good grate coal for domestic use.

Price Op Coal At The Mines.

The various circumstances attending the quality, locality, &c., affect cor- respondingly the prices, and render it unsafe to quote any statements, that may be considered as representing an average.

In 1836, it was stated that the coal proprietor could deliver coal at Rich- mondy twelve miles, at fifteen or sixteen cents a bushel, shipped on board. This appears to be a high estimate when compared with the Alleghany coal which is brought by canals, from two hundred and fifty to more than three hundred miles, and sold in Philadelphia for eighteen cents per bushel.

In 1838, in the National Foundry report, it was sUted that "coal could be furnished and pay a reasonable profit to the collier, at ten cents per bushel on the north, and twelve and a half cents on the south, side of James' river, — 92.80 to 93.50 per ton.

In 1846, Richmond coal obtained from twenty to twenty-two cents per bushel, in Philadelphia, which was two or three cents per bushel higher than Alleghany bituminous coal.

The average annual amount of Richmond coal received in the port of Philadelphia, in the six years from 1824 to 1829, was 124,305 bushels, or 4,143 tons.

Numbers.

to

ao

2a

2S

EASTERN yiROmU. '

Tlie average annual amount imported into Boston during seven years, from 1835 to 1841, inclusive, was 103,552 bushels, or 58U5 tons. The entire importation of American bituminous coal into Boston was diminished to little more than 4000 tons, in 1847.

Quality.

Some analysis of the Chesterfield coals will be found in the appendix. They were also subjected to the scrutinizing investigation of Pro£ Johnson, in 1844. The number and species of American coals* experimented upon were about forty ; and we find, from the tables of results furnished in the Report, that the Chesterfield coals, taken from four difierent pits, ranked aa follows :

Rank in the order of their relative weights, - - - 10 " of rapidity of ignition, - - 8

of completeness of combustion - 6

" of evaporative power under equal weights, 20

" of evaporative power under equal bulks, 24

" " of ef aporative power of comb'ble matter, 22

" " of freedom from waste in burning, 20

of freedom from tendency to clinker, 20

of maximum power under given bulks, 25

" " of maximum rapidity of evaporation, 1

Clover Hill Coal Mines.

In 1845, the Clover Hill Railroad Company constructed a road from a shipping point on the Appomattox river, near Fredericksburg, to what was then a new coal region, but is ascertained to be an extension of that which had been long known and worked, in a north-east direction. These mines are about fourteen miles south of the most southerly, previously wrought, and there is a space of ten to twelve miles between the two regions, in which no mines are yet opened, but in which the coal measures, and in fact, coal, is known to exist in greater or less extent, although it has never been explored. The general impression, among colliers, is, that the coal is co-extensive from one end of the field to the other, and some even extend their views further sooth, and place it in North Carolina, where coal is found west of Raleigh. The Clover hill portion of the field has been practically opened to commerce only during 1846 and 1847. The coal is not shipped at Richmond, but at twenty miles disUint, near City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox nver. Consequently, it is not included in the Richmond returns, and the amoant is additional to the Richmond reports.

We are informed by J. Hopkins, Esq., that since the completion of the road, up to the 1st October, 1847, there has been sent by railroad 2,187,000 bushels of coal, besides some sent by other conveyances ; of which 1 ,502,880 bushels have been shipped for northern or southern ports ; the remainder was consumed in Richmond and Petersburg. The business of 1847 is at the rate of 1,500,000 bushels or 53,500 tons, and is increasing. It will probably exceed 2,000,000 bushels or 71,000 tons in 1848.

Rport to tin Ntvy DtptitaMBt of the United SUtei on Americta Coals. By W. R. Joha-

Oiitid 8Tate8 Op Ambmica.

PBODUCnOX.

In 1S40. the congivaBioiii] retnrn of the annaal productioo of this coal* icid I tons. Bt a subsequent return to the Virginia legislature, k appears that the qoantitjr of bituminous coal raised here, between the vears and IS41, indusiTe, was forty-nine millions ofbushelssa ] ,750,000 iMnv beiQ at the average rate of 87,500 tons per annum, for twenty years. The exDense of raising this coal was stated to be $1.12 per ton, or four aettH a buabcL

TMe 0f Annual Shipments of Virginia Coal,

Firoaa Richmond, exdusiTe of the home consumption. The original returns are in bushels, a pernicious custom which should be abolied, but for cooTenience of reference we have reduced them to tons of 2240 lbs.,* as iu all cases where measures are quoted instead of weight

TMft.

Ttan.

TbM.

Ttan.

TOBfl.

Tean.

Tom.

18 18t4 18M

48,314 59,857 79,314 89,357

91,786 117,867 110,714 110,714

96,428 85,714 78,671

71,071 65,750

III 1(7, the CloTer Hill mines fumishe4 at the rate of 53,000 tons a year, as before mentioned, in addition to that from the Chesterfield district Current prices of coal at Richmond, January Ist, 1848.t Chesterfield coal, 10 cts. to 18 cts. per bushel — $2.80 to $5.04 per ton. Beat CloTer HUl coal, 20 cts. " $5.60

Iron Manufactory Of Eastern Virginia.

In the entertaining diary of Colonel Byrd, written between the years 17W and 1730, but first printed in 1841, occur some curious and interest- ing details of the iron works of that period. There were, in 1732, four funiaoes in Virginia ; but at that time no forge had been erected in this oolouy ; althouffh a very good one was then in operation for making bar iron, at the head of the bay, in Maryland. " It was feared that the English parliameiit would soon forbid us that improvement; lest, af\er that we should go farther, and manufiicture our bars into all sorts of iron ware, as they already do in New England and Pennsylvania. Nay, it was questioned whether we should be sufiered to cast any iron, which they [the English] can do themselves at their furnaces."

Colonel Spotswood, who furnished Colonel Byrd, in 1732, with much

Bactical information, was not only the first in Virginia, but the first in urth America, to erect a blast furnace [about 1715.] He stated that ihey ran* altogether, upon bloomeries in New England and Pennsylvania, III! hui example had made them attempt greater works. In the laUer colony,

KMialr of the Treamiiy. AIm HaQt*t MercbtnU' Magitma. Vol. viii., p. 548. t moWoad Newtptptfffl.

Ba8Terh Yirouoa.

6S

they have so few ships to carry their iron to Great Britain, they must be content to make it only for their own use. The four furnaces, then at work in East Virginia, circulated a great sum of money, for provisions and all other necessaries, in the adjacent counties. They are, besides, a consider- able advantage to Great Britain, because it lessens the quantity of foreign bar iron, heretofore imported there, and paid for in silver. On the contrary, all the iron they receive from the plantations, they pay for in their own manu&ctures, and send for it in their own shipping."

Colonel Spotswood also erected an air-furnace at Massaponux, which he broQgbt to perfection, and was able to furnish the whole country with all sorts of cast-iron, as cheap and as good as ever came from England."*

In 1750, a bill was passed in parliament for the repeal of the duties on the pig and bar iron made in the British colonies of America ; but the in- terest of the iron manufacturers in Great Britain prevailed so fiir, as to add to the bill a clause, prohibiting the erection of any mill or other engine for slitting or rolling of iron, or any plating forge, to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for making steel ; for it was feared that the colonies might interfere with the manufactures of their mother country.

In 1775, the American war with England broke out, and, at its terminft- tion, a new era commenced in the history of the American iron trade.t

WestoTer Manuicripts. 1 84 1 .

t ScriTenor'f History of the Iron Trade.

Til I- it npp' years I Ions, The (- cents :i -:TK ACK.

. ::i llicir lirst

From ...,. Liruit,.s

:; 111 MlllicH'Ill

''' . 0 lu-d : but

I . N f llir Soulli i>r

. }>lant-, it will ho : :\]i (li)iu's, with iju*

r ; tii.tt is, iIu'v <1o not

YC'r. To the' ooJlU" piTJo*!,

!id lo l!;e coiii-iiiioii

": ;;:;i:ii('-litiiially, ri'inaiiw

r.'.i inl)t'r ol* ulmrli, ur

.'latioii. 'I'iii'H,. ri'-

.. ooiile : and, likr liuni.

; : we liavt' a->i;,MH d lhi . ronp of I'liropi*. I'nr

li. .. .Niittall li.is d'-i-rilM-d

r . . .:.;- rest niMni: llitM.'

i:

j. ilso >ati*fii (llii?ii-.i|f that

t ;..;- hj:inii- -Mnd>uiir is im-

V .li Mipertii'iiih oiM*np:r> a

; .:; and iliin <.ani< of nnpuri*

. arc of fiiMjui 111 orcurruu-r

AiiH-r i Mi Jii

wmomuL

in these feldspathic BandsUme beds, |onsoiiaIly termed " upper aecoodirj sandstone/' which are, in many places, largely intermingled with dark coloured micaceoua slates and bituminoui shales.

Pstboleum.

In the Talley of the Little Kanawha, about' riz miles from the mouth of Hew's River, is a spring from which from fifty to a hundred barrels of petroleum are annually collected. Petroleum also rises in nearly all the wells in the salt region of the Kanawha.

S6 United States Of America.

V. Kentucky Division

Of The Great Alleghany Coal-Field.

The superficial coal area within this State we have computed at 9,000 square miles.

Professor Mather computed it at only seven thousand, which if we esti- mate the workable or productive area of coal alone, would be very ample. In 1837, an address, recommendatory of a State geological survey, was'made by' Mr. Trimble to the Kentucky legislature. In consequence of this movement. Professor Mather was instructed to make a geological recon- noissance of the state, which was accomplished the followin'g year, 1838. Since that time, no further progress towards a more detailed survey has been made, and our information b less ample than could be desired.

The congressional return from Kentucky, in 1841, shows that she raised in 1840, 5Sb,167 bushels, or 21,000 tons of coal, an amount far below the actual production.

There appear to be several qualities of coal here. The " main seam," which extends from Pittsburg and Wheeling through Virginia, is said to reach Sandy river at the boundary of this state, but does not pass into it, or extend but a very short distance, southward.

Of Cannel coal, several seams are said to be found on the Kentucky river, and the quality is highly commended.

Nearly all the coal brought into use in Kentucky is reported to be of the description called Cannel. It is slightly bituminous, but rarely cakes in burning. Its analysis seems to ally it to the dry or semi-bituminous coal of tHe Cumberland mountain, described by Dr. Troost

Mr. Trimble details some experiments made by steam-boats on the Ohio, from which it was ascertained that the daily expense of fuel, when mineral coal was used, was less than one half that of cord-wood.

Four hundred and fifty steamboats, using twenty cords of wood in the twenty-four hours, and running two hun- dred days per annum, will consume an amount of wood, whose value at $2 50 per cord, would be $4,500,000

By the use of coal, during the same time, and producing

similar effect 1,500,000

Annual saving $3,000,000

The price of this coal at Louisville, in 1844, was seven and a half cents per bushel, by the boat load, equivalent to two dollars and ten cents per ton.

Mr. Mather's report (1838) to which we shall now more particularly advert, states that, at that time, at least one million of bushels [35,714 tons] were annually sent to market from the mines on the principal rivers.

He estimates that the coal formations of Kentucky cover twelve thousand square miles, of which seven thousand square miles contain workable coal beds.

Hon. D. Trimble ; Report on the coal and iron trade of Kentucky, 1837.

Kentuckt. 57

The coal is of three Yarieties —

1. Bituminoas — Caking coal.

2. do. but not adhesive.

3. Cannely or Splint coal — Steam coal.

Besides the million bushels which descend the principal rivers, about two millions more are consumed in the iron and salt-works of the State; thus amounting to 107,143 tons. This shows the fallacy, we have before pointed out, of the census returns, which, two or three years afterwards, when the production was greater, only included 21,000 tons.

The use of coal for steamboats, the reporter urges, is increasing rapidly, and its recommendations, for that purpose, are principally these—

1. It makes a more uniform and more ealy regulated fire than wood.

2. The economy in the use of coal, over wood, is three-fifths.

3. The weight of equivalent quantities of coal and wood is as one to three.

4. The bulk do. do. as one to nine.

5. The labour and expense do. patting on board, as one to four.*

The geologist enumerates a great many details and localities within the Kentucky region where coal prevails.

The Cannd coal, on the bank of the Kentucky river, occupies a bed of four feet thick, of which about three feet are of this variety, the remainder, or upper part, being common bituminous coal.

The bituminous coal seams of Kentucky appear seldom to exceed three feet thick, and in general are of less dimensions. They are, however, accompaDied, throughout the entire extent of the coal field, by the valuable mineral, argillaceous carbonate of iron. Mr. Mather's calculation is that it averages one yard thick over the whole 12000 square miles; equivalent to 38,400 millions of tons: quantity sufficient to supply a ton of iron, annually, to every individual in the United States, [the population being then fifteen millions,] for 2,560 years." But we have stated that not more than 7000 to 9000 square miles contain workable coal beds. If such an amount of iron ore really exists as three feet in thickness, under the entire area of the coal-field, it far exceeds any thing of the kind in any other region we are familiar with in the United States; for rich as the States are in this niineral, in the aggregate, the supply from the carboniferous strata, appears to be but feeble and uncertain; although the deficiency seems amply compensated for in the immense supply of hematite furnished by the subjacent limestone series.

Robert Triplett'i Circular.

66 United 9Tate8 Of America.

Vi. Ohio Division

Of The Great Alleghany Coal-Field.

The superficial coal area within this State we haie computed at 11900 square miles.

At what period the principal deposits of mineral coal became known is UQoerUin. On the ratification of the treaty of peace in 1763, Colonel Croghan was the first agent deputed by the British go?emment to descend and explore the Ohio, and conciliate the Indian occupiers. His private journal, which was only published in 1831, makes no allusion to coal in this state, but he especially noted the beds of coal on the banks of the Wabash.* It was certainly known shortly afterwards ; for in Captain Hutch- insT map, published in London in 1777, we observe that coal mines are marked on the western side of the Ohio river.

Occasional notices of portions of the Ohio coal region, and certain local developments dierein, have long ago appeared.

In 1835, an elaborate artide was published in Silliman's Journal of Science, " on the bituminous coal deposits of the valley of the Ohio," by Dr. S. P. Hildreth. It furnished some useful details of coal operations and statistics, in this and the bordering States. This memoir was illustrated by a great many wood cuts of fossil remains, local sections, and a geological map of the Ohio valley, including parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio. The geological investigations set on foot in those States, by direction of their local governments, have, in great measure, already superseded Dr. Hil- dreth's memoir. Nevertheless, as the work of an individual explorer, unassisted by the official patronage and the treasuries of those States, it is deserving of honorable mention, as a serviceable contribution to American geology.

It has been, not unfrequently, observed, in relation to the State surveys, that they have more regard to technical and theoretical geology, than to practical and industrial results. In this light, it has been argued, these State surveys have somewhat failed in the utilitarian results expected from them. Perhaps it were scarcely fair to unite all these multifarious duties in the same party. Geolosts are commonly occupied with duties sufficiently onerous and laborious m their specific departments, and in investigations over fields heretofore little trodden by men of science, to make much pro- gress in economic and statistical researches. It were better, no doubt, that these distinct subjects of inquiry were divided, or that they should follow each other. On the whole, we think we are not far wrong, in the belief, that the American geological surveys do, in point of fact, contain more de- tails of statistical, commercial and industrial utility, than can be found in the geological reconnoissances and memoirs of any other country.

MontUy Joonud of Geolocy. Yal.L

Ohio. 59

r dF Ohio. The attention of t]ie legislature having

ct by the governor, a select committee reported on

ncy's message as related to a geological survey of the

.Mather, in association with Dr. J. Locke, and other . (.'inmenced the survey, and one report of their joint i'*':{7, and another in 1838. As the reports of the for- >::\vays characterised by special attention to economic ' >.i:i) furnish a large amount of important statistics, from

lowing notes are derived. - iMido uf this coal field, which comprises one third of the ":. Snic — bordered by the Ohio river for three hundred ' (.ltd, longitudinally and centrally, by the Ohio and Erie ft nltly be perceived that its coal mines must be classed with tiiirces of local productive industry. of the reporter, it is estimated that about twelve thousand 'r uiiduubledly underlain by coal, and five thousand by toork' .1 \aluable mineral." This estimate appears to be a very fair -:uili's all misapprehension as to the available amount. .1 il features of the country arc favourable to the working of / iitnl coal strata, by the simple means of adit levels; and it will I he wants of the community call for another system of working, :c.iin power, deep shafts, or costly macliinery. A mean thickness of six feet of coal, capable of being worked, ' i'Hi>and square miles, is a moderate estimate of our resources in iiiible."* According to certain data, there are now beneath the t' ihe.'e five thousand square miles, thirty thousand millions of tons III the ordinary method of computation, in these cases, we may iiiiinte that at least twenty-three thousand millions of tons are avail- Could we contemplate a demand for Ohio coal as large as five mil* i' tuns per annum, there will be an annual supply unexhausted until 'Tiniiiation of four thousand six hundred years. I'l :iit.' seond annual report, the author, after revising the geological data h form the basis of this computation, affirms, that from the information -i:i-''lfjcntly acquired, in 1838, he felt not only justified in sustaining the : irt'iroing statement, but in materially enlarging it, for it had been proved liv later investigations, that, in some counties, the coal was from twenty to iliirty feet thick, in the aggregate.t

In the official report to Congros<<, in 1841, it appears that there were raised within the State in 1840, 125,478 tons of bituminous coal; employ- ing four hundred and tliirty-eight workmen, and $46,775 of capital. In 1838, the quantity produced was estimated at 107,100 tons. The Ohio geologist urged the substitution of mineral coal for the ordi- nary charcoal, in iron works. It had already been partially adopted by means of a mixture of the two kinds of fuel. The Ohio coal is proved to make excellent coke ; and in that state is used in e(]ual proportions with the charcoal. In effective result, it is ascertained, that an increased make of iron occurs; equal, it is affirmed, to thirty-three per cent.

The price of coal here, as elsewhere, fluctuates according to the demand. It ia considered to be worth four cents per bushel at the place of production;

First Annual Report, by W .W. Mather, p. 6. 1837. t Second Report, 1838, p. 7.

80 United States Of America.

and after being con?eyed one hundred miles, to the ports of Cleveland and Erie, it usually sells for fourteen to sixteen cents per bushel ; and, at more distant points, it produces eighteen cents per bushel ; equivalent to from three to five dollars per ton, at the places of consumption, according to the distance of transportation ; even reaching as high as ten or twelve dollars a ton at New Orleans.

The ordinary charcoal furnaces in Ohio require a command or resource of from two thousand to five thousand acres of wood land, to keep them constantly supplied. Now, with six feet of coal beneath the very ground upon which the furnace is erected, the produce of only half an acre, annu- ally, would be needed, while its surface would still grow timber, or be under cultivation. Such are the different circumstances which attend the two de- scriptions of fuel.

Like all districts which are covered with primeval forests, Ohio will long continue to make use of wood for domestic use, until it be exhausted, or shl become more expensive to procure than coal.

One hundred and four thousand three hundred and twelve tons of fuel were consumed in the iron works of Ohio, in 1840.

Raw bituminous coal has at length [1846] been solely employed in a blast furnace in this State, at Poland, on the Mahoning river. This is the first American furnace in which pig iron has been so made.

At CarPs Run, one hundred and sixty miles below Wheeling, and two hundred and four miles above Cincinnati, an important seam of coal is mined, and this fuel is supplied to the steamers as they pass along the Ohio river. It is dug almost at the water's edge; and, consequently, the cost of transportation is a mere trifle. The price of the coal is generally six cents a bushel. In regard to quality, this is a lighter and drier coal than that of Wheeling; being less bituminous and less adapted to the uses of the black- smith; but it is better approved for steam-boats and for reverberatory fur- iiaces. The same vein is worked on the Kentucky, or opposite side of the river.

Capacity.

Professor Briggs divides the Ohio coal district into two geological series; the higher and the lower group.* The lower series embraces but a portion of the main area towards the east, in Jackson, Scioto, and Lawrence coun- ties. In these he has observed three workable beds of coal. The aggre- gate thickness may be safely estimated at from ten to twelve feet." The groas quantity of the coal beneath this area, which is represented to be two hundred and fifty square miles, is computed to be two thousand two hun- dred and fifty millions of tons ; which, upon the ordinary method of compu- tation, and presuming that it is accessible to the miner, may be reckoned about seventeen hundred millions of tons, of available coal. It would be more prudent, however, not to extend the estimate beyond fifteen hundred millions. It is but right to add here, that a more detailed examination, subsequently, led the reporter to enlarge his computation to three thousand millions of tons.t

In the Ohio second annual report, is an account of the coal of Muskingum County, through which the river of that name passes. Here are six work- able beds; four of which extend nearly thirty miles through the county, and

Bringt> Fint Report, AnttUnt Geologist. 1837. 1 Briggt in Seeoad Report of Ohio, p. 141. 1838.

Ohio.

two extend about fifteen miles. The aggregate thickness of available coal being determined to be eighteen feet, the amount of fuel is hence computed at three hundred and fifty-nine millions of tons. Admitting a profit of only twenty-five cents per ton, the result on this comparatively small fraction of the gross productive coal area, is found to be about ninety millions of dol* lars— 990,000,000.

The Tuscarawas valley and adjacent district, lying north of the preceding, comprehend, according to the authority last quoted, an area of about five hundred and fifty square miles; which on a rough calculation, is considered to be underlaid by an average thickness of six feet of coal. These data, therefore, furnish a gross result of thirty-three hundred millions of tons, of which probably about two thousand millions are attainable.

State Improvements In Ohio.

State Canals and Roads, eight hundred and fifty-two miles, cost il5,38Sy 783. Gross revenue derived from the six canals and other State works in Ohio.— In 1844, $569,676; in 1845, $494,313; in 1846, $6,770.

The Lake Trade From Cleveland.

Since the opening of the canal, from the coal-field to Lake Erie, at the Port of Cleveland, the latter has become an important outlet for the pipduc- tions of this State.

The following table comprises the collector's annual returns of mineral coal which arrived at Cleveland, via the Ohio Canal, and also the amount which was shipped at the port.

Received by Canal.

Shipped.

Teari.

Buthelt.

Toot.

Tout.

5,100

12,269

9,298

Ib39

140,049

6,000

167,045

5,065

479,441

17,122

4,329

466,844

16,673

2,825

1B43

387,834

15,515

11,168

550,842

22,035

16,613

889,880

31,781

893,806

31,921

1,238,622

44,236

Lake Commerce Of Cleveland, Ohio.

%i

Exclusive of teamboate.

Steamboau.

Coal Eiported.

Valntof Eipocu.

!l

Arrivals.

Depar- tures.

Tons.

Value, dolls.

1835 38 IMO 66 IMl SO 1M3 86 1844 98

1,029 3,962 9,304 H,67I 9,3S6 11,738

1,344 1,418 1,382 1,473

1,344 1,412 1,432 1,622

1,050 1,100 1,260

1,050 1,100 1,260

2,825 11,168 16,613

7,119 36,204 48,889

$5,851,898 $7,040,492

Vnitbd States Of America.

In 1841, out of 1364 arrivals at this port, 437 were from Canadian porls on Lake Erie, and from Amerioan and Canadian ports, via the Weiland Canal.

Oat of 1366 departures, 433 were to Canadian ports, and similar places as before named. In 1843, entered from Canada, 356; cleared for Canada, 363.

In 1846, the foreign [Canada] trade of this port was as follows :

Arrivals And Clearances.

In American vessels, 165 vessels, 13,358 tons. In British vessels, . 163 18,759

337 vessels, 31,017 tons.

Hence it would appear that the trade with Canada is diminishing at this port

Commerce Of The Lakes Above Niagara Falls.

As bearing coUaterally on the progressive advancement in the indigenous production and commerce of the States which border upon the Upper Lakes, we add a few statistical notes.

OeneraJ Camwurce of the Upper LakeSf showing the periodical increase.

T.

ObMTTitloiu,

afatl kinds.

Tosnafe

SlnHibftil '

tS35

Tonnige on th Lftkei, . - -

9,500

1S3S

Firii jear opcAuig the QMoCuul

S,bM

Second ;eaf/ - .

10,471

tas,2is

l$$B

Fiflh fef,

%i,047

Is

Setfaih je*r, , -

Nintb jemTf . . .

4J

f7i5,63

Tendi jeir, . . - - On all ihe Ukei - . - -

41,164 M,t54

7fi7,li|

Faitrtecfith jEar,t

3S0

78,000

ToDiiKgc al the end of tM iSOi jear, '' oil mil tbe lmke.

4A3

184t

10 comaiMJopj 9a tlie wwteni Itkei

113,000

There are now steamers on the Western Lakes, of 1140, 1300 and 1705 tons burthen.

Port Of Buffalo On Lake Erie.

Number of arrivals from the lakes in 1825, only 200 of all descriptions; in 1846, steamers, 1310, propellers, 200; other vessels, of various denomina- tions, 2,357. ToUl arrivals, 3857; aggregate tonnage, 912,957 tons.

Value of the property arrived and cleared on the cand at Buffalo, in 1846, 938,214,025.

Coal received at BuflUo from the lake, chiefly from Pennsylvania,

995 tons in 1845 TVms.

43:)0 1846 Arrivals from Canada, 487 vessels, 95,879 7716 " 1847 Cleared to Canada, 492 96,441

Letter oa tlie Lake Comntroe, by J. L. Bartoa. Bafale, 1846. t Baflklo CoauMVotel paper, Sift. 9, 1847.

Lake Comixbce.

Port Of Erie.

Export of BituTninoaB Coal recei?ed from Pennsylfftnia.

YearB. Torn. Valui.

1845 8507-1 921,218

1846 21,584-1 53,835

Total receipt of coal at the Port of Erie, by the Erie Extension Canal,

1846 25,000 tons.

1847 70,000 "

Number and description of vessels built on Lake Erie, during six years, from 1841 to 1846, inclusive: Steamers, 47; propellers, 19; sailing veaeelt, 185. Total, 251 vessels, having a tonnage of 49,801 tons.

New York State.

Statement of tolls received at three of the principal lake ports of New York, viz. Buffalo, Black Rock, and Oswego, in the years 1845 and 1846, ahowiog an advance of 50 per cent

1845 f677,922

1846 1,013,478

Michigan.

Value of exports from Detroit, Monroe, St. Josephs, &c.

In 1840 $1,305360 Tons. Seamen.

1846 $4,647,608 Tonnage enrolled, 26,928 1800

Detroit.*

Value of exports in 1842 $1,108,000 " 1844 1,747,000 1846 2,495,333

TOTAL COMBfERCE OF THE LAKES.~CLOSE OF 1847.

By a report furnished by the Topographical Corps, through the Secretary of the Treasury, at the close of the year 1847, we have an official account of the Lake Commerce in 1846, of which the following is a summary: Nett value of the bona fide trade for 1846 — being nearly double

the amount in 1841, $61,914,910

Amount of registered, enrolled and licensed tonnage on the

lakes for 1846 — being nearly double the amount in 1841, tons 106,836 Number of clearances and entries, ... Number 15,855

Goods exported and imported ; the whole American lake tonnage,

in 1846, Tons, 3,681 /8

Goods exported and imported in 1841, . $2,071,893

Number of passengers conveyed, in 1846, not less than 250,000

A rooont of passage money paid, $1,250,000

Number of mariners employed, 6,972

Cost ofshipping, in 1846, $5,341,800

Boirt'f ICmbaats' MagasiM, liaroli 1897, p. SSt.

64 Unit£D States Of America-

Population dependent upon the Lakes as the means of commu- nicating with a market, 2,928,925

Steam tonnage of the lakes, 60,825

Sailing tonnage 46,011V 75.136,836

British shipping employed in the American lake trade, 30,000 j

Receipts in 1846, 813,184,910

Western Rivers.

From the same official source, we add the amount of the

steamboat navigation of the Mississippi and its tributa- Miks, 16,674

ries. )

Steamboat tonnage on the Western Rivers in 1842, - Tons, 126.278

" " in 1846, - " 249.055

4000 boats of other kinds, of 75 tons STerage each, '' 300,000

Tonnage ofilat boats, making two trips a year - 600,000 Merchandize tranrted, 1,,750 tons, of the value of $61,914,910

Vii. Maryland Division

Of The Great Alleghany Goal-Held.

Hie raperficial ooal area within this State we have computed at 550 qoare miles.

The topographical details of the published maps differ so much, that it is quite impracticable to be precise in estimating the areas and subdivisions of Ibe Maryland coal region. The external lKundary of the entire field is suflkientJy defined : we are not so certain of the interposing areas of the subordinate rocks, which divide the district into at least three portions. The geologist of the state appears to have experienced the inconveniences conse- qaeai on so imperfect a topographical survey. In page 48, Report of 1896, the Frostburg coal area is stated to be 180 miles square. In the final annual Report, of 1840, page 18, the area is given at 90 miles, and bv another statement 135 miles. Our own admeasurement is 150 miles. These di crepancies arise, evidently, firom the uncertainty of the point adopted as the southern termination of the district in question. Taking the Frostburg region at 180; (the largest admeasurement,} the middle area between Negro and Meadow mountains, at 120; and the northwest or Youghagany field, at 250, the aggregate of bituminous coal land in the State of Maryland is 550 square miles. We make this statement with some hesitation; but we con- ceive the entire amount will not exceed, and will possibly fall short of what we have computed.

As before stated, we assigned 150 square miles for the productive area of the Cumberland or Frostburg coal-field. By reason of the basin-shaped conformation of its stratification, and by the uprising of the subordinate old red sandstone formation to the surface, this eastern area is separated firom that to the westward by a belt, a few miles broad. The second coal area, situated beyond the great backbone ridge of the Alleghany mountain, has an uncertain southern termination; being separated by another denuded belt of red sandstone, from the tliird coal-field, which thus fills up the remaining part of the northwest angle of Maryland.

Although the aggregate, 550 square miles, appears small when compared with some of the vast areas appertaining to other States, yet, in productive value, and in advantages of locality, we conceive that it is gready superior to the bulk of the coal land which is situated beyond the State line, on the west, and intermediate between that boundary and the Ohio slope. As an accession to the resources of Maryland, — for the substitution of what was regarded, a quarter of a century ago, as almost a worthless appendage to the Slate, for that which now promises to be the most productive, may justly be deemed an accession,— it cannot fail to be appreciated for its almost immea- surable importance. After long years of expenditure, in constructing canals and railroads, to communicate oetween these abandant coal depoaiis of the noantains and the seaboard, this enteipnauig State has but now teen the

ae UNITED STATES OF ABiERICA.

partial completion of her principal works; and it only remains for her to reap the reward to which the perseverance of her citizens entitles her.

From amongst the Tarious reports, public and private, of the Maryland coal region, or more properly speaking, of the Frostburg or Cumberland portion of it — for of the back country we know very little indeed ; we can- not positively determine the number of workable coal be48 ; even in the best explored portion of the latter district

There are, according to Dr. Ducatel, at George's Creek Valley, four workable coal seams, which have an aggregate thickness of thirty feet.* South of this, at Westernport, two veins are mentioned, comprising eight feet : and beyond these are four or five others, imperfectly known, but pro- bably are continuations of the preceding, or of a part of them. At Dug Hill,"* another position in -George's Creek Valley, the reporter ennmerates ten coal seams, which average four feet each, or forty feet in the aggregate. We are not informed how fiur these may be repetitions of those before men- tioned.t

. A published report of the George's Creek Coal and Iron Company con- tains a section of the excavations which have been made at this " Dug Hill," which we infer is the place, on which, more recently, has been conferred the name of Lonaconing. There are shown here ten coal beds, of which four only are workable, and of which the aggregate thickness is thirty feet. That of the six others is only ten feet| The corrected Lonaconing section plale iii. of the State Geologist's Report of 1840, exhibits six workable seams, which have an aggregate thickness of thirty-five feet ; the other four seams amount only to six feet. Below this, thirty-five feet series, viz. from Lonaconing, down to Westernport, twenty-five feet of coal are known, but are chiefly made up of small seams, of which about fifteen feet are workable. By these data we make out fifty feet, as the maximum workable coal of the Frostburff region : but according to Dr. Ducatel, not more than forty-five feet can be calculated upon.

In another part of the basin, at the works of the Maryland Company, in one position, the explorations have developed three seams of coal, amount- ing to twelve feet thickness. At Mount Savage are six other seams, form- ing in their aggregate twenty-six feet of workable coal. These form part of the general group.

At a (ace called Barrellville, in the Cumberland district, eight veins occur, whose average is three feet, six inches each, in thickness.

Portions of the areas of the lower beds are destroyed by the erosion of the valleys. For instance, George's Creek, according to Dr. Ducatel, " has scooped out its bed through twelve hundred and fifty feet of perpendicular elevation ; while Jenning's Run, he observes, has, in the short distance of six miles, cut, both longitudinally and transversely, even into the subjacent red sandstone." The lateral ravines have also subtracted largely from the area of the lower beds. It was the knowledge of these extensive denuda- tions and removals, especially in the most mountainous portions of the coal- fields, and in those districts where the coal formation undulates, that gave rise to our previous remarks on the necessity of making large allowances for barren or inaccessible ground, when calculating coal areas. We could

Stite Geological Report, in 1836, p. 50 — 54. The assayi of these coals will be finmd at the conclasioa of this book, t Annual State Report for 1840, p. 28 — 33, and plates i. ii. and iii. t George's Creek Coal and Iron Company's Report, 1836, p. lly Map and Sectionii, i Report, in 1844, by Messn. Silliman and others.

MARYLAND. fff

point oat considerable districts, towards the northern termination of this Alleghany coal-field, where, certainly, not one acre in ten, and oflen not one acre in a thousand contains a bieid of coal in a workable condition, or even a single ton of that mineral*

In the northwest angle of Maryland, part of the coal measures are cut out by the Youghagany ri?er ; also by two parallel zones of the inferior red sandstone, along Deep Creek ; and there is an extensi?e sweeping awfty of strata along the Potomac valley, which b a trough at least fifteen hundred feet in depth. When due deductions are madq for these interruptions to the continuity of the coal formation, our estimate of fi?e hundred and fifty square miles will be found a very liberal one.*

This principle has been fairly observed in the last Sute Report, when applied to the Frostburg or eastern coal-field. By attending to a rule so obvious and so indispensable, the geologist is compelled to reduce the area of actual coal bearing surface to 1S5 square miles, or 86,847 acres.

According to ihe foregoing data, the result gives, as the gross amount of ooal in the entire basin, supposing the whole to be accessible, 6,305,1 tons, and the available quantity, on the ordinary mode of calculation, will be upwards of four thousand millions of tons.t

The price of Cumberland coal, delivered at Tidewater, Georgetown, was, in 1838, about 20 cents per bushel ; a higher price than is usually obtained in Philadelphia. The cost of mining was 9 1 per ton, and of trannx>rtation, by canal, to tide supposed to be 92.85 per ton : to which must be added the respective profits of the land owner, the producer, and the merchant. This estimate was thought, at the time, to be considerably below the mark.| The representations and reports of interested parties, all strenuously advo- cating their individual or local claims on the attention of Congress and the public must, of course, be received with a requisite degree of caution. At this distance of time, we shall, doubtless, be pardoned this remark, while necessarily reviewing the statistical merits and details of the entire coal resources of the country. We continually meet with the unreserved and unqualified assertions of these claimants, that the coal of their particular mine or district, no matter where, is the best yet discovered, for every prac- tical use. Now, as they cannot all be the best, it follows that a good deal of exaggeration prevails, in some of these cases. It is not inappropriate to state here, that there are probably a dozen or more of coal companies, in England, Wales, and America, who announce through the press, that their particular coal has been decided by the agent of the Great Western Steam- ship Company or some other steamer company, to be the best generator of steam of all coals yet tried. One gentleman has also conclusively shown, that one ton of the bituminous coal of Cumberland, Ya., is, in mechanical efiect, equal to two tons of anthracite.

However, the test of science restores all things to be their true value.

Vide Uic map and profiles appended to the State Report, for 1840.

t We may form lome estimate, from thii computation of available coal within an area to small scarcrly to be noted npon our map, of the enormous quantity in the ogsregate of the American coal-fields. There needs no fear about exhaustion, at least not before the termination of a great many thousand years, according to the present rate of consamptioB. In to the Old World, also, the progress towards exhausting the numerous coal-fields 18 comparatiTely insignificant. We have computed, from five coal-fields in Great Britain, a prodoction ot 1 16,000,000,000 tons, or more than 6500 years supply for consumption and eiportation, on the preient scale. The Lancashire coal-field will yield 8400 millions; the Mid Lothian district 6710 miUions; the NewcasUe 9000 millions ; the Soath Wales basia 64.000 miUions of r>BS, arailable.

: ComouuicatiAr 1 to the CommittM of CoBgrass on t natioBil fbuBdrj, pp. 71, 147, 167.

08 United States Of America*

The examinati(H]8 of Prof. Johnson, in 1844, have dispelled many illusions ; and have assigned to all the principal varieties of American coals their appropriate place in the catalogoe : and here, the Cnmberland coal takes the very highest pllce, in the series, in the order of e? aporative power.

The analyses of the Cumberland or Frostburg coals show that the quality is, generally, of the kind denominated dry or close bummg ; an interme- diate species between the fat, bituminous, caking coals, like those of Pitts- burg, for instance, and the non-bituminous varieties, like the Pennsylvania anthracites. The largest, or ten feet seam at Lonaconing contains twenty per cent, of volatile matter, and there are some beds which do not possess more than from thirteen to fifteen per cent of volatile matter, including moisture. The carbon in these coals amounts to firom sixty-eight to eighty- one per cent, which circumstance accounts for the deservedly high reputa- tion, as generators of steam, that they have enjoyed.

Were it needed in the process of iron manufacture, there is no difficulty in making good coke, from the majority of the Cumbland coal seams. All these varieties have undergone a chemical examination by scientific experimenters. Professors Silliman, Shepard, and others have shown that the main or ten feet Frostburg seam, which, having been the longest worked, has conferred a character on the Cumberland coal, contains but 13.34 per cent of bitumen, besides 1.66 of water. Such an amount as 82 per cent, of carbon which these analyses show it to possess, while at the same time it retains enough of the properties of a flaming coal, carries its own best com- mendation, and places it very high, if not the very highest, in the scale of American coals; a reputation which is fully sustain by the subsequent investigations of Prof. Johnson. It closely resembles some of the Stony Creek semi-bituminous coals of Pennsylvania, in all the essential particulars ; except that the latter does not swell nor cement so much in burning.

A special report of the president of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Com- pany furnishes the details of an experiment at sea, 22d October, 1839, made on board of the U. S. steamer Fulton.

The object was to test the Cumberland semi-bituminous coal, against a highly bituminous Liverpool coal.

The chemical characters of each of these kinds might have at once sug- gested the exact results obtained. The Cumberland coal having more car- bon, would acquire a more intense and concentrated heat; and, as it possessed less bitumen, would give out less smoke than the fat coal.

The former, from the same reason, would have its fragments less changed and cemented ; while the latter would be caked or agglutinated in a mass, like all caking coals. The Cumberland coal made most clinker ; the Liver- pool coal possessed most sulphur.*

With a knowledge of the chemical composition of various qualities of coal, it is superfluous, at the present day, to institute a series of experiments like this, between anthracite and bituminous coal, or their modified varieties, now perfectly well understood. That any fuel of the specific nature of the Frostburg coal, can readily produce all the comparative results afforded by the experiment, there cannot be the slightest doubt.

The application of bituminous coal to the purposes of iron making after the method of the English works, has proveid so successful, that between the years 1840 and 1844, five blast furnaces and two rolling mills were

Special Report of the Pref. Chef, ind Ohio Canal Co., 1839, p. 38, 39.

Ma&Tland. 09

ereeted in Maryland and Pennsylvania, upon this principle, instead of the old charcoal furnaces.*

Some of the coal of this region, within four miles of the town of Cum- berland, was submitted to the examination of the late Da?id Mushet a few years ago. He remarked that it was the very best bituminous coal he had ever met with," and considered it well adapted to iron making. Three specimens of the varieties of iron ore of this region were, at the same time, reported upon by Mr. Mushet. The results of his analysis were as follows :

Brown fibrous hematite, of excellent quality, yielded ot best cast

Common argillaceous iron stone of the coal measures, yielded, 34.3

A very fine argillaceous iron stone, yielded of best cast iron, - 41.4

These were probably selected specimens, and are above the average result

Productive Capacity.

In the report of the Baltimore convention, December, 1834, is introduced an extract of a report of Mr. Roberts, to the directors of the Baltimore and Ohio Canal Company, to the following effect :

" As each square mile of the great vein alone — thirteen feet thick — would yield more than sixty millions of tons, if it could be exported at the rate of five hundred tons per day, it would require four hundred years to exhaust one square mile of the great coal vein !''t

There is surely a great miscalculation here. In the first place, the seam of coal contains little more than twelve, instead of sixty solid millions of tons per square mile, at the thickness named ; and, according to the usual allowance in these estimates, would not yield more than from eight to ten millions of tons. Messrs. Silliman, in a subsequent report of the same locality, in 1838, state that this main or ten feet coal seam can only be worked nine feet or three yards.| This gives, for the solid cubical quantity in the ground, nine millions of tons per square mile. Making the custom- ary allowance of one fourth for waste, for pillars, broken ground, casualties, dtc., the available amount is 6,750,000 tons, instead of sixty millions. At five hundred tons mined per day, it would, therefore, with these data, require little more than forty, instead of four hundred years, to exhaust one square mile.

Even on this corrected scale, the resources of this region are demon- strated to be of very productive character; surpassed, probably, by none on the eastern margin of the Alleghany mountain range.

The statistical returns of 1840 show the production of bituminous coal in Maryland, to be 222,000 bushels: equivalent to 7,028 tons. At that time the means of transportation were very limited, and access to the mines was difficult.

But the quantity is obviously under-rated. As early as 1832, 300,000 bushels were annually sent down the Potomac river. Very little of this descended lower than Harper's ferry, but the quantity increased every year.

Letter of the Committee of the Iron and Coal Trades of Penntjlrania, AprU, 1844.

t Report of the Baltimore Conrention, 1834, p. 49.

I Report of the Marylaad Mtniag Compan j, bj Meaart. Silliman, 1838, p. Ifi.

United States Of Aubmica.

Fig. 3. Giohgiaa JPrfUg thi Coal Btuim if MidryUmd.

45 JUi/M. OU JUd SmnitUnt.

CputtrneUd Dr. DmfUTs Urgwr Mctto*.

As relates to the two other coal areas which lie in this state to the west of the Alleghany ridge, and of which we have been able to say so little, we possess little or no information. Situated as they are, in the midst of a wild forest region, the mere existence of bodies of coal is inferred rather than proved, and they will, in all probability, remain undisturbed for many years.

Cost Of Transportation, Toll, Etc.

These, being matters of annual revision, it would be useless to occupy space in detailing.

In 1846, the toll on the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, viz. from the Cum- berland depot to Georgetown, or tidewater, was fixed at half a cent per ton, per mile.

On the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, the rates of transportation, for the same year, were as follows :

The Cumberland road, 2 cents per ton, per mile.

To Baltimore, 1846, $3.00 per ton, and $2.50, in 1847.

To Washington city, $3.56 per ton.

By a report in 1847, it is announced that the Chesapeake and Ohio canal will be opened to Cumberland, in 1849, and it was estimated the coal of the Frostburg district will be delivered at the low rate of $2.50 to $3.00 per ton, at tidewater. 4

The current price of coal in Baltimore, in 1848, $6.00 to $6.25 per ton.

IfARTLAND.

Maryland.

Lignite.

In the Geological Report of Ann Arundel county, lignites or fossil min- eralized wood, are stated to occur in great abundance. The adies, which are derived from the spontaneous combustion of this lignite* form the prin- cipal material employed in the manufacture of alum and copperas, at the Baltimore works, on Locust Point.*

On the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, on the banks of the Ma- gothy, there occurs a considerable deposit of lignites, apparently in the upper secondary or green sand formation. These lignites are associated with iron pyrites and aniber, the latter of which contains nests of insects converted into amber, and appears to have been formed around the smaller twigs of the wood from which the lignites have been produced.

Six miles below this locality, on the banks of the Severn, is another deposit of lignites and amber.t

Report of MirylaiKl, 1836, p. 30.

t Tnoaactiont of the Maryland Academy of Science and Literature, toI. i., part 1.

79 UNITED iTATBS OP AMERICA.

Viil Pennsylvania Division

Of The Great Alleghaits Coal-Field.

Estimated area 15,000 square miles, or 9,600,000 acres. Like most of the other states, Pennsylvania possessesno geological map. It is greatly to be regretted that the unfortunate pressure of the times and the imperious demand for the resources of the state for other objects, have made the posl- ponement of the publication of the map, for which materials were collected during the geological survey, commencing in 1836, a matter of necessity.

In point of magnitude, this is the hurgest of the eight divisions of the Alleghany coal-field, with the exception of Virginia. As regards geogra- phical position, it is, at the present day, more fortunately circumstanced than any other.

Some years ago, when geological investigation was in its infoncy, a com- mittee of the ccl trade of Pennsylvania reported that the bituminous coal formation, within the state, covered 21,000 square miles.*

Our own computation is, that about 15,000 square miles are actually occupied by the carboniferous formation, or that which is usually denomi- nated the coal measures. Various other statements have been made as to the size of this area. Among these is an announcement that Pennsyl- vania contains more bituminous coal than all Europe. All Europe contains about 2000 square miles of bituminous coal : Pennsylvania has 10,000 square miles/'t Here seems a remarkable misconception as to the area of coal in Europe ; because, without passing on to the continent, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland alone contains more than 1 1,800 square miles of coal formations. In five out of fifly-one coal-fields within the latter area, eminent practical men have computed the available contents at 116,000 millions of tons. That of Pennsylvania, on the authority of the state geologist, contains 300,000 millions of tons.|

For ourselves, we think that sufficient local details have not yet been acquired to enable a computation to be made of the available amount of coal within this extensive region. A superficial area of 15,000 square miles, to yield 300,000 millions of tons, would require an average thickness of twenty feet of accessible or workable coal, throughout every acre of that immense district. But, judging from the annual geological reports, there are very few points where twenty feet of coal could be worked at any one locality, and the average of aggregate thickness of such veins appears to be from ten to fifteen feet, viz : at the best exposed positions where sections

Report on the Coal Trade, in 1834. Senate Journal, vol. ii., p. 488.

t Hant*t Merchant's Magaiine, Aaguat, 1S45, p. 138.

X Uaxard*! United Sutea Register, rol. y., p. 99; Harrisburg Intelligencer; also, Mr. Riddle's PotUville Address, 18th Janaarj, 1841 ; also, Mining Journal, of London, Octo- ber 23, 1841. The previous paragraph is a specimen of the absence of correct statistical inronnation, which has characteriaed the publications of the daj, on the comparative mag- nitude of coal areas. More than one of those cited here conuin the annonncemeBt that Pennsylvaoia contains ten thoM$emd timt$ more bituminous coal than Great Rritaia tad Ireland."

PfiNNSTLVAKU.

coald be obtained,* it is well known that a very large area towards the northern eztremitj of the coal measures contains but a very small fractional portion of productive coal. We ha?e seen statements that this field contains ten work- able coal seams.t It is possible that within the entire series from the con- glomerate upwards, ten such seams may exist — but we have not seen a position where more than half of that number could be approached and seldom more than two or three are available at any given locality, except in the centres of the basins.

Until the publication of the final report, and until the sections, obtained with so much care during the geological survey, furnish the means of con puting with greater accuracy than do the crude and isolated details at pre- sent within reach, it seems inexpedient to pursue this investigation any further.

We have extracted from the State Geological Annual Reports, the ki knring notes as to the greatest number and thickness of seams of bituroi- Dous coal in the Pennsylvania Division, at any one workable or avaikUe spot

LoCAlltiM.

No. of workable beds.

ToUl thickness..

Pbilipbarf— Motbannoo ,

S

8 ft.

Near do.— Gom>,

Clearfield Creek— Wright's,

Karthaut,

Benneu** firancb— Section,

m

Tobyi Creek, Little Toby'i Creek,

Portage Railroad,

lot

Cooemaagh River,

19*

Laurel Hill— Weitern Summit,

Lockport — Conemaaghitiver,

Rogen* Mill— Do.

Ligonier Valler,

Soulb of the Youghtogheny,

—

Elk Lick— Main Section, '

Cogenboute — Lycoming county.

Lick Run, and Queen's Run,

Tangaicuttck,

Ralston — Lycoming county.

Blossburg — Tioga River,

Allegbtny River,

Cooemaugh,

10*

Somerset county, Frostburg— (Silliman,)

Average of 34 localities.

lOi feet.

Geological Notices.

A( the period of the author's first acquaintance with the bituminous and anthracite coal-fields of Pennsylvania, nearly twenty years ago, he entered upon the investigation of American geology, imbued with the prevailing impression at that time generally advocated in Europe, and taught by nearly

Rogers* 8ii Annoal ReporU of PeonaylTania.

t Geography of Pennsylvania, p. 122 ; Logan's Memoir on the Cotleldf of Peaatylva- Bia aad Nova Scotia Proceediaga Geologtcu Society of Londra, voL iii., part 2.

74 UNITED BTATBS OP AltfiRICA.

orery geologist of eminence, that the anthracite deposits were of older origin than those of bitnminoas coal. In fact, the presence of anthracite was at one time thought to be condosive evidence of a transition or gnti- wack period, in contradistinction to the bituminous coal of the secondary ibrmations.

The attendant circumstances of position, structure, mineralogical, and general charactera, in the accompanying formations, — differences seemingly apparent even in several species of the coal vegetation, — all tended, at the outset, to confirm those suggestions, in a field which had previously received no scientific examination of moment.

By degrees, however, more correct views prevailed. Obscurities gradually cleared up ; a host of intelligent observera almost simultaneously entered the field. At first, forming separate opinions derived from limited data or from a circumscribed range of observation, geological speculations were as nume- rous as were the obrvers. The pursuit was new to nearly all ; the ground was almost untrodden. On entering upon so interesting a 6eld, what more natural among ardent followers of the most fascinating of sciences than a variety of opinions ? What more probable, at the commencement, . than the advocacy of systems which more matured judgment abandoned as untenable ?

As facts accumulated, and opinions were interchanged, difficulties van- ished. The points of difference, at firet so numerous, almost ceased to exist as new light came in. The energetic laboura, applied at once over the greater part of the United States; the frank co-operation, during several successive yeara, of the various explorers, entitle them to all praise, and must ever render it a remarkable epoch, wherein was accomplished one of the most rapid and successful geological developments, that has occurred in the history of the science.

Let it not be inferred, however, that we conuder the work as finished ; it would be more proper to state that the general outlines only of American geology have now been satisfactorily tra, leaving for future observera to fill up the details.

Respecting the identity of the anthracite and the bituminous coal-fields of Pennsylvania, it is right to state that this view was entertained and advo- cated by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, in a course of geological lectures, delivered in Philadelphia, in 1831, illustrated by diagrams. It was then maintained that the anthracite basin of the Wyoming valley exactly resembles the regular coal basins of Europe, of the bituminous kind."* The present writer, at that time, held an opposite opinion, as did other geologists ; among whom a professor of high eminence, writing in 1833, remarked, — We have in the United States three deposits of anthracite : the largest is in Pennsylvania ; the next largest in Rhode Island ; and the smallest in Wor* cester. I have examined them all, and have come to the conclusion, that all the rocks containing this coal are at least as low down, in the series, as the transition class ; and I am rather of opinion that they all lie below the independent coal formation of Europe."t

Something like this view seems to have been held by Mr. Eaton, in 1830; for he stated the anthracite regions of Lehigh and Carbondale belonged to his Third Carboniferous or Lower Secondary formation," while the bitn-

Report or Mr. Feathoraloahaoffh*! taoth Gaological Lectare, in the United Sutet Oesette. Miy 8th, 1831. t Report OB the Geolofy of Meiwchaietto, hj Edw. Hitohoock, 1833.

Pennstlyakia. 76

minous district of Bradford, Tioga, and Lycoming countiefli comprised bis Fourth Carboniferoas or Upper Secondary."*

Eren as late as 1837, in the geological report of Indiana, we meet with this psssage : — It is not likely that anthracite coal will ever be found in Indiana ; because that mineral is usually found in the primitive and gran* wack formations."t

By thw time, however, the doctrine of the supposed antiquity of the sylvania anthracites had been abandoned, by common consent It seemed no longer debatable in the United States. The reconnoissances of the various geologists of Pennsylvania, appear to have sufficiently established the per- fect geological identity between the formations of coal under their separate aspects ; and the results of the state geological survey put the matter beyond all possible doubt.

We may, however, mention that " the anthracite formation of the United States," is even now regarded by some French geologists as belonging to the upper portion of tlie transition series," and is still considered by them as older than the bituminous or true coal formation.}

The absence of fossil shells in the shales of the American anthracite beds, and their presence in those of the bituminous coal strata, both in the United States and in New Brunswick, have had their influence in leading to the opinion of a difference of geological age in these formations.

Statistical Notices Of Pennsylvania Bituminous Coal.

At what precise period the mineral coal of Western Pennsylvania first came into use does not appear. By the treaty of 175S, between the Indians and the Proprietaries, as the Penn family and their coadjutors were then styled, the boundary of their lands extended eastward along the Alleghany or Endless mountains, across Pennsylvania, so far as they range through that state. These lands had been conveyed by the Five Nations, in 1736; but from the vagueness of their definition, had been long a. subject of dispute. The whole district, now known to us as the anthracite region, appeara to have been confirmed by the Delawares in 1737 and 1749.

According to Mr. Sergeant, the last purchase made by the proprietaries from the chiefs of the Six Nations, was in November, 1768. It enclosed all the area lying south of a line commencing at Owego, on the north branch of the Susquehanna; down to Towanda, and up that creek to the head waters of Pine Creek, and thence down the same and up the Susque> hanna to the Indian town of Kittanning on the Alleghany river; and down the Alleghany and Ohio rivers to the south line of 5ie province. It will be seen that, with the exception of that portion which lies nortnward of Kittanning, and which was not purchased until 1784, the proprietaries by this purchase came into possession of the whole bituminous coal-field of Pennsylvania, stretching from Towanda on the north-east, to the south-west angle of the state, a distance of two hundred and seventy miles, besides the northern or Wyoming anthracite region. The cost price or purchase money

EatiHi** Geolofficftl Teit Book, 1830, pp. 39-43. Map and SectioBi.

t ¥tm Report or the Geology of the Sute of Indiana, bj David D. Owen, 1837, p. 90.

t Barat. Du gitement dea Combuitiblei Fottilea, 1846, j>. 49.

% View of the LamI Laws of Penoajlvaoia, bj Thomes Serfeaat Esq., 1838, p. 31.

78 United Itates Of America.

of these magnificent coal-fields appears to have been the sum of ten thousand doUars only.*

In the provincial maps, as early as 1770 and 1777, the sites of beds or mines" of coal were marked on the shores of the Ohio. In the vicinity of Pittsburg the outcrops of coal seams were not noticed, or at least were not made use of until after these dates. In 1753, when the position was first examined by Washington, there was probably no white man living within the limits of the present site of that city; and, in 1775, we are told that there were not more than twenty-five or thirty cabins or houses standing there-t

The value of mineral coal was well known to all who had seen or heard of its employment in Europe ; but the abundance of timber in the newly acquired territory rendered the substitution of any other description of fuel quite unnecessary.

Among the first positions where land was acquired from the common- wealth, for the sake of the coal it contained, was one on the upper waters of the Susquehanna, near the present town of Clearfield, and the Indian village of Chincleclamoose, where the horizontal coal seams are very conspicuous. A tract of coal land was taken up and patented here, as early as the 1st No- vember, 1785, by Mr. S. Boyd ; but it was not until after the lapse of nine- teen years, that a quantity of coal was forwarded eastward of the Alleghany mountain. The first ark load descended the Susquehanna from this place, in 1804. It was sent down by Mr. W. Boyd, and was landed at Columbia, on the Susquehanna, a distance of two hundred and sixty miles ; and it was a matter of great surprise," he observes, in an account of this experi- ment, to the inhabitants of Lancaster county, to see an article with which they were wholly unacquainted, brought to their own doors."} This move- ment was followed by more ark loads forwarded by other proprietors firom neighboring sites ; and, subsequently, a limited trade in bituminous coal has been carried on, along the towns and iron works of the Susquehanna, partly in periods of finsshets by means of arks, and partly by canal boats, during the last thirteen years. But it was not until 1828 that the first cargo of Pennsylvania bituminous coal reached Philadelphia firom Karthaus, and aome was also forwarded to Baltimore from the same source.

From the Congressional returns, obtained during the taking of the census of 1840, it is seen that the bituminous coal-field of this State produced 415,023 tons; employing 1798 workmen, and a capital of $300,416. It is |[enerally supposed, that this return was below the actual production, and it is certainly most diiroportionate to the amount of capital.

There will always be great difficulty in ascertaining the bituminous coal

ENioction of Pennsylvania, or indeed that of any part of the Alleghany coal- d; because the frontier is extensive, and the avenues firom it are numer- ous, while at the same time there exists no machinery or organization for ascertaining the annual consumption of fuel, for manufacturing or domestic tise; particularly in a country where every former is at liberty to extract coal for himself or his neighbours.

Anthracite, on the contrary, has but a few channels to market, and these are public routes on which weekly statements of the tonnage conveyed are made, and almost every ton is under supervision and record, between the mine and ship-board. We think that the quantity of bituminous coal mined

Geognphr of PenBiylniBii. Trego, 1843, p. 19. t Ibid p. 171.

t Joarnal of the SeoAta of Peaiitylfania, 1834, rol. ii., pp. 481 and 561.

Pennsylvania. 77

is about a roiUioD of tons. It has been estimated at much more, but this is mere surmise. In 184S-6, the quantity of coal received on the Ohio at and near Pittsburg, was reported officially at under 700,000 tons; of which 300,000 tons descended the Ohio to other markets, out of the State. This seems about the proportionate increase since the returns of 1840. Various circumstances are daily contributing to enlarge the demand for coal in the valley of the Ohio ; the most obvious of these are the diminution of wood in the vicinity of great rivers; the multiplication of furnaces of iron and sail- works; of steam engines and steam-boats; of manufacturing establishments, and the remarkable accession to population every year. , We have ventured to make an approximate estimate of 1,750,000 tons as the annual production of bituminous coal in the United States — which quantity is more than double the actual return in the year 1840. Of this amount, we have apportioned 1,000,000 of tons as the quantity yearly raised by Pennsylvania. It must be borne in mind, that the bituminous coal-fields of America are still, and probably for centuries will continue, the great forest regions of the country, where mineral fuel, except in the cities, is very little resorted to for domestic uses, and where, at the present day, comparatively but a small amount is consumed by the iron works, steam-boats, &c.

To show, however, the extreme uncertainty, the difficulty, of estimating the actual quantity of bituminous coal raised in Pennsylvania, we may men- tion that one calculation, which is circulating in the newspapers, gives as the probable amount of bituminous coal mined in this State, in iSl7, ten millions of bushels; equivalent to 357,000 tons.

In the absence of the final Geological Report of the State, the reader may peruse with advantage the masterly description of the Aappalachian coal strata, by Professor H. D. Rogers, and the paper on the physical structure of the Appalachian chain, by Professors W. B. Rogers and H. D. Rogers, in the Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists,

In the first communication it is shown that the coal is distributed " in a series of parallel and closely connected synclinal depressions, the direct result of the system of vast flexures, into which the whole of the Appalachian rocks have been bent, by the undulatory movements that accompanied the final elevation of the strata, and terminated the era of the coal."

Extent Of Individual Coal Seams.

In the article from which the last paragraph is quoted, are some very interesting facts on the great extension of certain coal seams in the Appa- lachian system. We have no space here, to do justice to this truly philo- sophic memoir. We must restrict ourselves to citing a single example. This is the great seam which is finely exposed at Pittsburg, and along the Ohio and Alleghany rivers, and nearly the whole length of the Monongahela, and is denominate the Pittsburg seam." With the advantage of competent asastance, the author has traced this bed through Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio. The longest diameter of this "-eat elliptical area is very nearly two hundred and twenty-five miles, and its .maximum breadth is about one hundred miles. The superficial extent of the whole coal seam, as near as I can estimate it, is about fourteen thousand square miles." But these limits, he continues, though wide, fall very far within those which the bed an-

Pp. 483 tad 474, Ml.

78 United States Qv America.

ciently occupied, which " must have been at least thirty-four thousand square miles; — a superficial extent greater than that of Scotland or Ireland."

Ify as the writer conceives is pbable, and in whicli we entirely coincide, this seam is identical with the great bed which occurs in all the anthracite basins of Pennsylvania, we shall then behold, in all its conditions of gra- dation, from anthracite to semi-bituminous, and to highly bituminous coal, a single stratum measuring at the most moderate calculation, four hundred and fifty miles in length, and two hundred miles in breadth, and covering a space of at least ninety thousand square miles."

The author has, with much ability, traced the regular gradation which this remarkable bituminous coal bed experiences in size ; diminishing gently from south-east to north-west: — that is to say, from twelve or fourteen feet thick on the south-eastern border, to eight feet at Wheeling and Pittsburg ; and, still more westward, in Ohio, to five or six feet

Local Statistics.

It would be altogether inconsistent with the plan of the present work to enter upon the Retails of individual coal operations throughout this area. Many of these will be found adverted to in the annual geological reports of this district, particularly as relates to the region west of the Alleghany range.

Towards the northern and north-eastern side of this range, the seams seldom attain a greater thickness than three or four feet. In the vicinity of Philipsburg, and along the valley of the Moshannon to its head waters, several good coal beds appear. Three of these are from four to four and a half feet thick each, and one main seam is, including some slaty partings, nine feet thick. A detailed section of this local district, crossing the Alle- ghany Mountain to the Bald Eagle valley at its base, was published by the author of the present volume, in the year 1832, in the Monthly American Journal of Geology, conducted by Mr. Featherstonhaugh. We believe this was the eadiest geological section, in detail, of any portion of the Alleghany Mountain, and of the coal-field overlying its eastern escarpment.* Mr. McClure's transverse sketches, can scarcely be said to form the exception. This section was reconstructed from accurate admeasurements and actual levelling, on a greatly extended scale, in the succeeding yeara 1833 and 1834.

Near Karthaus, eight coal seams have been traced, amounting to twenty feet thickness; but three only of these are workable — the largest being six feett

Near Farrandsville and Queen's Run, two beds of three or four feet each, have been worked for some years. This coal is in good repute, but of limited area. At Ralston, and in the detached small omI basins which bor- der the Lycoming creek, the coal measures occupy a comparatively small thickness. The two principal seams have about eight feet of workable coal. There are commonly four seams, altogether, existing within the formation in the north-east extremity of the Alleghany coal-field ; but it is seldom that more than two workable beds occur in the same locality. This region has been minutely investigated by the present writer, at various periods since the year 1831. The coal is well adapted for iron making.

At Blossburg, and around the head waters of the Tioga river, from three to six seams occur, but not more tlian one or two have been mined, and

Monthly Americtn Joarnal orGeology. Vol. I. p. 433.

t Report to the Clearfield Coke ud Iron CompeDj, 1839, W. R. Johnton.

Pennsylvania.

the ooalii are sent by railroad into the state of New York. One of the beds, at one point, appeared to be six feet thick, but in general the seams are about three feet each. A geological survey of this resion was made by the writer in 1832; and, at subsequent periods it has rmed the subject of several communications to scienliBc journals. In 1831-2,.the country was then in a state differing little from the primitive wilderness ; but time has changed its aspect, and a large amount of business and travel is said to be done here. Few districts have been more fully illustrated, geologically, than that of Blossburg,* and in many respects it is very interesting to the geologist and the naturalist

Fig. 4. Trantvine Sidiam qfddmdM BUuminout Coal boihu im PmmjflvamUL.

Generally speaking, the bituminous coals of the north-east end of the great Alleghany coal-tield, here subdivided into numerous small detached coal basins and outlying patches, consist of dry coals, yielding a consider- able per centage of grey ashes ; burning with but little tendency to cement or cake in the open tires, and yielding not much smoke. Sometimes rather sulphurous. We might employ a familiar mode of comparison with the fat coals of England, and perhaps those of Western Pennsylvania and Virginia, in remarking that, in their domestic use, the former never accumulate a sufficient quantity of soot to render the sweeping of chimneys necessary; they remain comparatively dean, for many years together.

The Lycoming, or Ralston basin is illustrated by the last section, which shows its relative connection with the filossburg basin. This Lycoming basin consists of two areas, separated to the depth of one thousand feet, by the valley of Lycoming creek. The coal and iron ore beds are open here, on both sides, but the present amount of business is but small.

Production And Consumption Of Bituminous Coal At Pittsburg.

Besides the main bed of workable coal at Pittsburg, which is there about six feet thick, there is another seam of less value, on account of the inter- mixture of slate that it contains. These are considerably above water level. It has been ascertained, during the process of boring for salt water, in the vicinity of Pittsburg, on the opposite side of the Monongahela river, that four good seams, t>esides two small ones, lie at a considerable depth below the surface. The whole depth bored was six hundred and twenty-seven feet The four coal beds were each about three feet and a half in thickness, and were reached at the respective depths of two hundred and eighty, four hundred and forty, four hundred and eighty, and five hundred and eighty

Mineralogical Report on tho Coal Region in the environs of Blotsbarg, R. C. Taylor, 1S38. Trans. Geol. Soc. of Pennsylvania, on tho coal-field of Blossbnrg. R. C. T. 1S36. Magaxine of Natural History, Vol. VIII. p. 529 ; London, 1 835. R. C. T. Philosophical Magazine, London, 1836. R. C. T. Penny Mag. London, do. Amerioui Journal of Science, Vol. XLI. No. 1. Section across the Blossburg and Lycoming Coal Basina. Sectioa acroM the Towanda and Loyalsack Coal Basinn. R. C T. Joly, 1841. Traoa. Asaoc. of American Geelogista and NatariUaU, 1843, Art. by R, C. T.

80 Unitsd States Of America.

feet Gas wis evolved from each of these veins, ind continaed to discharge ibr three or four weeks. The salt water was reached at six hoodred and twenty-five feet, and rose to the height of thirty feet above the surface; dis- charging at the rate of seven thousand gallons in twenty-four hours.

This city and the mannftcturing establishments in the vicinity, form the great focus for the consumption of bituminous coal in this state.

In the year 1825, it was estimated at one million of bushels, or 36,714 tons. In 1833, it was returned [in bushels] at 255,910 tons — there being ninety steam engines in operation.* In 1834, eighteen iron foundries, eleven rollinff mills, and one hundred and twenty steam engines were at work at Pittsburg and its environs. In 1838, the consumption, by engines and the advance of manu&ctories had greatly increased, there being now three hundred steam engines and as many factorie8.t In a communication to a Congressional committee on a national foundry, in that year, it was annoaiiced that the quantity of coal consumed was seven millions of bushels

K annum, and of that exported three millions of busheb; in all ten mil- is of bushels, or 357,140 tons, of 2240 lbs.; each bushel weighing eidbty

It was computed, in 1842, that the consumption in Pittsburg alone had DOW risen to eight millions of bushels — or 285,714 tons; the aggregate production at the same time, being 420,000 tons. The number of steam- Doata owned in the district was eighty-nine, of an aggregate tonnage of 1%486 tons.§

In the annual message of the Governor of Pennsylvania, January 1846, we find it announced that the consumptkm had reached the following amoant:

Bushels. Tmi.

Consumed in Pittsburg and its vicinity, 13,000,000 464,288

Exported from that pc down the Ohio, 6,000,000 214,286

Production, 19,000,000 678,572||

The progress of improvement may be noted in relation to the advance of population.

1753, No white man living here.

1813, Population of Pittsburg, 5,748 persons.

1848, " " about 50,000 "

In the year 1846, were built fifty-three steamboats, which cleared from

the wharves at Pittsburg, having an aggregate toniuge of 8551 tons, and

costing $684,000.

In 1847, fifty-six more steamers were built, whose tonnage was 9954 tons.

The tonnage owned in Pittaburg, on the 1st September, 1847, was as

follows:

Steam tonnage, 24,472

All other kinds, 2,546

Total, 27,018

Joarnil of the Senate ofPeBStylvuiia, 1883, p. 488.

t Proceedings of the Union Ceael CoDveotioa at Uarriabrf , in 1838, p. 18.

X Repoit of the Conmittee on a National Fouadrjr, 1838, p. 60.

i Geography of PenniTlvania, flrom Uania*a Direclorj.

N If eaaage of GoTenMr ghaak, 7lh Jaaniry, 184A.

Pennsylvania.

Tbos rapidly did this city spriDff up in the wilderness. Her population now employs more than twenty millions of capital in these active pursuits ; and communicates, by means of fifty thousand miles of steam navigation, with almost every part of the valley of the Mississippi.*

Prostburg Bituminous Coal Region.

Extension Northward Into Pennsylvania.

We will complete our notice of this detached or frontier coal area by ad- Terting to its small peninsular extension into Pennsylvania.

In the absence of the official geological reports, wherein the boundaries may be e&pected to be defined, we can only roughly estimate this at about 25 square miles, of actually available coal land.

In the details of the coal seams there is little difference on either side of the State line. From various statements, we are apprised that about ten yards of coal may be calculated upon, within the area we have mentioned.t Assuming this to be correct, and that it extends beneath that entire surface, there are in the ground 750 millions of tons of coal on the Pennsylvania aide. But the basin form arrangement of the strata, and the reduced area occupied by the upper beds, seem to forbid this process of calculation, and to demand a considerable deduction, iuto the details of which it would be profitless to enter here.

The expense of mining and conveying this coal to tide, was calculated at 931 per ton, exclusive of the profits to the landowner, and his lessee, the merchant, dtc, and interest of capital. The Special Report of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Nov. 16, 1843, estimates the cost to tide $3.17.| It is contemplated, however, independent of the large expected sale of the coal on the seaboard, to employ it on the spot in the manufacture of iron, for which, from its excellent properties as an intermediate quality l>etween the fat coals and the anthracites, it seems to be well adapted, and is eminently entitled to consideration.

See our account of these coals in the Maryland division.

North-West From Frostburg.

The coal region in this part of the Alleghany Region, has been detailed in Transactions of the American Geologists, &c., in 1842, in a memoir on the Physical Structure of the Appalachian Chain, by Messrs. Rogers. I'he following sketch is reduced from the section which illustrates that memoir.

Fig. 6.

8tdi9n aerpu th§ eattem portion of the AiUgkany Coal-Field, in Pennsylvania, showing

the undulaiiont or gentle flexuret cf that region.

Ckutuut Ridge.

LemrtlHUl.

JfBgre Mn.

aOailM.

Hfturd's Register orPeDnfyWania, Vol. XVI. p. 22.

t Report to the Alleghmnj Coal Companj, in 1S41, W. R. Johiiton ; and Reports of olhtr Coal Cowpaaiea ia the viemityorFroatbari. Alao third inDaarreport of H. D. Rogers. t Special Report oftho Pioi, an l>i|f. Chos. and Ohio Canal Co., 16 Not. 1843, p. 17.

United States Of America.

Cannel Coal.

Near Greenabarg, in Beaver county, Pennsylvania, is a bed of Cannel Coal, about eight feet thick, resting upon three feet of ordinary bituminous coal. This Cannel is light, compact, ignites with great facility, and burns with a strong bright flame.*

A similar quality of coal is found in Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, and, we believe, in Tennessee. It is not commended for any purpose of iron making and manufacture, but is well approved of for steam engines.

Statistics Op Bituminous Coal Production.

Pennsylvania Coals Descending East.

Cumberland Bituminous Region commencing at the south-west angle of that portion of the State whrne market for coal lies at the seaboard, we have little to report upon its supply heretofore ; as the facilities of transpor- tation by canal and railroads are only now brought to completion, and the amount of trade is therefore prospective, merely. The high repuUtion that this coal enjoys will secure it a ready sale, and even a preference ; if the coal merchants can furnish it at reasonable rates. These coals will be con- veyed from the south-west Pennsylvania collieries to the Atlantic, through the State improvements of Virginia and Maryland.

The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal will, it is probable, 'be complete in the course of the year 1849, when a large amount of coal business will, it is calculated, be the immediate result

By the Pennsylvania State Canals, from the Alleghany CoatL-fiM,

Tom. 14,610

6,448 3,464

Tom.

19,000

10,476

1,110

36,319

46e 19,416

3S.42S

.),916

3S,818

There being no other outlets for the bituminous coal, to the eastward, with the exception of the small district near Cumberland, than through the State improvements, it is probable that the above statement very nearly represents the aggregate which is shipped in this direction from the Alle- ghany coal region. A large portion of this is deposited, on the route, at the iron works and towns of the interior.

The distribution of the remainder, for the use of the cities on the sea- board, is, for the most part, through the following channels.!

Trego in the Geography of Peooiylf&nia, p. 179.

t From the annaal Reports of the retpective companiet enumerated in the table, and alao Trom the Canal Committtonera' Reporta. Alto Uoni*8 MerohaaU* Mag., Ang. 1846, p. 1S6.

Pennsylvania.

in and pounds reduced to the common denomination of tons

O/2240 lbs.

/MItdays.

OUMl.

RecM. at

Sent by

By Tide-

By Delaware

Arrived In

Tmn.

NorUram-

Union

water Ca-

and Cbeea-

Philadelpbla

Imrf.

berUnd.

Canal.

nal.

peake Canal.

by wattr.

Tom.

Tont.

Tont.

Toni.

Tone.

Total.

Tone.

1S43

2,079

3,923

19,000

11,685

1,706

7,547

6,114

13,040

2,660

11,963

11,291

2,400

2,702

6,334

1,068

Consuwtion of Coal in the Glass Manufactures of the United Slates.

In 1846, by a report on the subject, it is shown that in the 19 establishments ibr making flint glass in the United States, there are annually consumed as ibilows.

Tons. Bituminoas coals, chiefly PennsyWania and Virginia, and Jg part

only foreign, 44,640

Pennsylvania anthracite, - - 5500

Besides 8,666 cords of wood.

Total 50,140

Importation of Foreign Bituminous Coal into Philadelphia, from Great Britain and the British Provinces.

Teara.

BotheU.

Tone.

84,510

3,018

1S34

61,286

1,831

The respective proportions orqaantitj are

10,066

at follows :

146,904

5,211

Received from Great Britain, 6,733

140,362

6,013

y NovaScoUa, 43,026

274,282

9,792

406,081

14,608

Tons, 49,759*

36,196

1,292

j 1841

244,688

8,736

1 Of late jeai

t there have b

en no foreign importationt of coal.

Importation of Virginia coal into the Port of Philadelphia, in 1847. Dur- ing this year there were measured, 268,790 bushels 9,600 tons.t

Bituminous Coal Descending West.

The coal business of the Monongahela slackwater Navigation, in the year 1845, as partially shown by tlie amount which passed through Lock No. 1, to Pittsburg, was

1845 2,657,488 bushels =95.000 tons of 28 bush, each for Pittsburg.

laiA ( 2,575,375 bushels 9 1 ,977 tons do. for the use of the city.

( 5,-206,495 bushels 185,930 tons for export down the Ohio.

do. do.

for the lower trade, or

Haxard*i United Sutes Register, 1S39. t Bicknel'f Reporter, Jan. 4th, 1848.

S6 United States Of Abierica.

known to consbt of a great many separate or subordinate basins. Any attempt of ours, in tbis place, to unravel the local intricacies of this series of coal basins, would but complicate a description which we design only to be general. Fortunately, their investigation has been committed, by the commonwealth, to able hands ; and the results, we anticipate, will be of a useful character. Until these are before the public, it seems advisable to adhere to the old local classification ; and in continuing, for the present, the order heretofore observed, although obviously defective, we shall perhaps best consult the convenience of our readers.

During the last twenty years the anthracite deposits of Pennsylvania have acquired no small celebrity. They have attracted towards them a larger amount of capital than ever before was invested in mineral operations in the United States ; and, consequently, have called into exercise a corre- sponding amount of productive industry. One result of this state Qf activity, is, that able geological investigators, and writers of intelligence have by no means been wanting to demonstrate, not alone to the proprietors, but to the commercial and manufacturing interests, and to the scientific world, the enormous value of these concentrated . resources. To Pennsylvania, the almost exclusive possession of this species of combustible, within reasonable distance of the seaboard, is a boon of inestimable price, which places her in a position of enviable superiority, and baffles speculation as to the point, to which it may ultimately elevate her. The statistical details, scattered through the following pages, justify such conclusions, notwithstanding that the financial difficulties by which the country was beset, a few seasons ago, deeply affected the best interests of the state ; and somewhat retarded the progress of improvement in the anthracite regions, in common with that of all others. Happily, that period of gloom and depression has at length passed by, and energy and enterprise have succeeded to apathy and despondency.

History And Progress Of Anthracite Production.

With the exception of three or four detached basins or patches, of very limited extent and value, in other states, Pennsylvania is the great depositary of anthracite, on the North American continent. The entire area is made up of a numerous suite of coal basins, produced by alternations of anticlinal and synclinal axes, which range nearly parallel with the base of the Alle- ghany mountain. An acquaintance with tlie extent and number of these separate little coal troughs has only been acquired af\er years of investiga- tion ; and in fact is, even now, very far from complete. As in the case of the bituminous coal-fields of this sute, it is much to be desired that the state geological report and map should be published, and tliat the public should, afler the lapse of twelve years from the commencement of the suney, derive some benefit from that important work.

Allusion has already been made to the geological age of the anthracite districts, and to its obvious agreement, in that respect, with the bituminous series. Respecting this point, it is remarked by one of the best authorities in the science, that these deep anthracite basins, abounding in curious structural features, and containbg thick seams of coal, are highly interest- ing by the geographical position which they occupy. " iMore than forty miles distant from the general denuded margin of the main 6r western coal-field, they nevertheless present, in the character of their strata, and of the rocks, upon which they repose, unequivocal evidence that they and the

PENNSTLVANU. g7

bitaminoos basins were once united."* But it is worthy of note, that at ,the north-eastern extremity of the bituminous coal area of the Alleghanies, it approaches within ten miles only of the Wyoming coal basin, which con tains the hardest species, of white ash anthracite. In the map, which we annex, we have been able to point out this proximity, accurately.

Passing now to the historical development of resources so valuable to the interests of Pennsylvania. In 1749, the lands between Mahanoy creek on the east side of tlie Susquehanna river, and the Delaware north of the Blue mountains, were obtained from the Indians; apparently, in part or the whole the present counties of Dauphin, Schuylkill, the south parts ot Northumberland, Columbia, and Luzerne; Northampton, Monroe, and Pike.t The space thus defined comprehends the landb between the Blue or Kittatinny mountain range to the south, the Susquehanna to the west, and a line drawn from the point of the mountain at the mouth of Mahanoy creek to the mouth of Lackawaxcn creek, at the New York state boundary, and at the junction of that creek with the Delaware river ; being one hundred and twenty-five miles long, and thirty miles average breadth. All this little territory of 3750 square miles embraces the entire group of anthracite basins, which are comprised in what are usually styled the southern and middle coal-fields, and the whole was transferred by the Indians to the pro- prietary government, for the sum of Jive hundred pounds. From the same territory has been acquired, within the last quarter of a century, nineteen millions of tons of coal, of the value of seventy-tive millions of dollars; and in the production and disposition of wiiich tifty thousand persons derive their support In the year 1847, three millions of tons were brought to tidewater, whose value there was twelve millions of dollars.

In the purchase made by the proprietaries, in 1768, by which they acquired from the chiefs of the six nations the bituminous coal-fields within the state, they became also owners of the northern, or Wyoming anthracite basin ; the value of which, at that time, was very little anticipated by either of the parties to the contract.

From all that we can now trace, it would seem that anthracite was first observed, and its combustible pro|)ertics tested, in this northern district, in 1768. On the authority of an article in the " Memoirs of the Historical Society of Peimsylvania," the adaptation of this newly observed substance to the purposes of fuel, was discovered by certain blacksmiths, about the year 1770, two years only, after the ratification of the treaty of purchase, and three years previously to the laying out of the borough of VVilkesbarre, by the Susquehanna Land Company of Connecticut. The first cargo of this coal was sent down the Sus({uehanna, in boats, and reached the U. S. armory at Carlisle, in 1775: but it was not until 1808, that grates were constructed at Wilkcsbarre, to burn it for domestic use, under the direction of Judge Fell.§ It is very probable that the fine natural sections of the coal measures in this valley, occasioned by the cutting of the river Susque- hanna through its margin, at two points, and the deep lateral ravines which also laid bare the thick bed of coal along its borders, were the means of displaying the carboniferous strata, and, os now, facilitated their develope- nient, at so early a period. Not less tlian three millions and a half or pro-

Origin of the Appalachian coal straU. By Prof. H. D. Rogers — in Trant. Amoc. Amer. Gel. and Nat. 1S43, p. 436.

t View of the Land Laws of Pennsylvania. Dy . Sergeant, Ksq. 1S3S, p. 30.

I Speerh of Mr. Ramsay in Con(j;ress, April 29, 1844.

Memoirt of the Hiaturical Society, VoL H. p. 154. Art, bj Ertkine Uixard, Esq.

as UNITED iTATES OF AMERICA.

bably four millioiui of tons of anthracite hafe been sent to markets on the seaboard from hence, since the year 1829. The latter year was the com- mencement of the coal works at Carbondale.

In the Schuylkill division of what has been customarily called "the southern coal region/' anthracite appears to have first attracted the notice of the scanty population, settled near the present site of Pottsville, about the year 1790.* It is extremely probable, that an obscure knowledge of its existence, and an undefined surmise of the combustible properties of this mineral substance, had existence some years earlier ; especially as it had been seen, and partially tested, and had been spoken of in the Wilkesbarre district, for twenty years previously. The number of emigrants who arrived in the country, and who were accustomed to the use of coal, also facilitated the knowledge of this description of fuel.

We are the more confirmed in this opinion from having seen a large map of Pennsylvania, published in 1770, from SculFs older map, in which the site of " Coal" is marked, and shown to prevail about the head waters of Schuylkill creek, and stretching thence westward, to those of the Swatara, and to " the wilderness of Saint Anthony."

Near the eastern extremity of the same southern region, on the lofty ridge which overlooks the valley of the Lehigh, anthracite was accidentally discovered in an enormous mass, open and bare to the very surface. This occurred in the year 1791. It was the first knowledge of the now cele- brated Mauch Chunk mines, which, even at the present day, are worked as an open quarry. Having purchased from J. Weiss the newly found site of the "Summit Mines," the " Lehigh Coal Mine Company" was formed in 1793, for the developement and working of this unproved combustible; but it was not until 1814, that the first twenty tons were conveyed down the Jjehigh and the Delaware rivers, at great labour and cost, to Philadelphia, where a few wagon loads had preceded them, from the Schuylkill district, in 1812. It was as late as the year 1820 before the comparatively large quantity of 305 tons of anthracite reached their destination at Philadelphia.

The first volume of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania contains " a brief account of the discovery of anthracite coal, on the Lehigh," from the pen of T. C. James, M.D., which was read on the I9th of April, 18S. The author states, that in the autumn of 1804, having, in company of a friend, crossed the Blue Mountain, they found themselves bewildered in a secluded part of the Mahoning valley, and at length obtained shelter for the night, at a solitary mill, kept by Philip Ginter. This was the indi- vidual who discovered the coal on the Mauch Chunk mountain, and who conducted Dr. James and his companion to the spot where is now the open mine, or rather quarry, of anthracite.

" At that time there were only to be seen three or four small pits which had roach the appearance of rude wells, into which one of our guides descended with great ease, and threw up some pieces of coal for our examination. After which, whilst we lingered on the spot, contemplating the wildne:fs of the scene, honest Philip amused us with a narrative of the original discovery of this most valuable of minerals, now promising, from its general diffusion, so much of wealth and comfort to a great portion of Pennsylvania. His only resource being that of a hunter in the back woods, he was, on the occasion alluded to, returning, towards evening, over the Mauch Chunk mountain, entirely unsuccessful and dispirited, having shot nothing. As he

Packer*! Report in Senate Journal, Vol. II. 183S-4.

Pennsylvaku. 89

trod riowly over the ground, his foot stumbled against something, which, observing to be black, he took up. Having listened to the traditions of the country respecting coal in the vicinity, it occurred to him that this, perhaps, might be the Stone-Coal" of which he had heard. He accordingly, on the next day, carried it to Colonel Jacob Weiss, who, being alive to the sub- ject, brought the specimen immediately to Philadelphia."*

The result was the formation of a company to work the newly discovered coal, which, however, was neglected until 1806, when two hundred or three hundred bushels were brought down ; but, not being understood, it failed to give satisfaction, and the enterprise was again suspended for several years. The writer closes his communication by stating, that he commenced burning the anthracite coal in the winter of 1804, and had continued the use of it until that time, 1826; "believing, from his own experience of its utility, that it would ultimately become the general fuel of this [Philadelphia] as well as some other cities."

The Mauch Chunk Railroad, of nine and a half miles, was begun Jan- uary J*2th, 1827, and was finished in May, of the same year, since which time the whole mountain has been intersected by railroads, tunnels, inclined planes, schutes, and numerous other works, and contains a large population of operatives.

The " Middle Region" is the most complicated of the three, being made up of a series of axes of elevation and depression; in the troughs of which thick bodies of coal occur, which, even now, are but imperfectly explored, but become subjects for investigation in proportion to the gradual advance in the demand for coal, and consequent increase in the value of those tracts of land which are so fortunately situated as to contain it. From its wild, mountainous, and inhospitable character, unattractive to settlers and little adapted to cultivation, this district was the last to make known its buried treasures ; as, owing to the natural difficulties of approach, it was the latest to become the theatre of industrial operations. Tlie progress of geological discovery was still farther retarded by the prevailing ignorance of the ele- mentary principles of stratification, deposition, and extension of coal seams; eacli exposure of mineral coal being conceived to be, and treated as an isolated mass and a local deposit ; such, for instance, as that on the summit of Mauch Chunk was long considered to be.

Yet the proprietaries were not altogether ignorant of the existence of coal within these limits, for we have seen, in the large North American Atlas, published by Faden, of London, in 1777, from an earlier map of 1770, that coal pits or mines are marked in the neighbourhood of Mahanoy Creek, above Crab Run.t

Passing from these early notices, we find that the coal trade of Pennsyl- vania, which had its beginning in 1820, had, in 183:3, already arrived at a magnitude so much beyond anticipation, that the Senate of the common- wealth considered it expedient to appoint a committee of inquiry, and to invest it with powers to investigate extensively into the subject.

That committee appears to have most sedulously applied itself to the duty assigned. The report produced by its chairman, Mr. S. J. Packer, exhibius evid<' of great care and labour. It concentrates a multitude of local and stitistical facts, then for the first time presented to the public; and desenedly merits the eulogium which we desire to bestow upon it. The ground and the subject matter were comparatively new, although the inter-

Abbreviated rrom Dr. Jamet*a paper, in Memoirs, Vol. I., p. 316.

t AUm of .NorUi America, Faden, London, 1777, fiom 8cuUi Mapof PeoBfjlfUiia, 1770.

90 United States Of America.

ests involf ed were considerable. The difficulty was enhanced by the uncer- tainty or complicated character of some of these interests, at the time. We believe it was nevertheless conceded, on all sides, that this document,— the earliest official report on the coal business of Pennsylvania, or indeed of that of any portion of the United States, — was drawn up with ability and perspicuity, and evinced much practical good sense. Superseded as it now is, or inevitably must soon be, by the mature developments of more recent times ; by laborious private investigations ; by highly occomplished observers; and, beyond all, by the results of the state geological surveys, under the zealous superintendence, during many years, of one of the ablest geologists of the day, yet the report of Mr. Packer, in 1834, will never be thrown aside as useless. Although, strictly speaking, not scientific, but illustrated in the coarsest manner, it will always be regarded as a business-like memo- rial,— adapted to the times and circumstances, — and a valuable contribution to the mining and statistical information of the day. In fact, it belongs to it is identified with, and greatly illustrates, the commercial and industrial history of Pennsylvania.

In succeeding years, detached notices, both practical and scientific, of local sections of the anthracite coal basins, have appeared in various cotem- porary publications. Among these we name Silliman's American Journal of Science ; the Transactions of the American Geological Society ; the Monthly American Journal of Geology ; the Journal of the Franklin Insti- tute ; the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society ; the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences ; the Miner's Journal, and the Anthra- cite Gazette, both of PotUville ; the Commercial List, of Philadelphia ; the Mining Journals, of London and New York ; the Mining Review ; the Transactions of the Geological Society of London ; the Transactions of the Association of American Geologists; the Annual Reports of the State Geologist; and several other occasional and local authorities. All these have en extensively quoted by that portion of the public press, including the Registers and Magazines, which is more especially devoted to the circu- lation of useful, practical, and statistical information.

Among the class of periodicals and occasional documents, not strictly scientific, yet comprising authentic communications of a business character, may be named the numerous annual reports of companies, committees, and BBSociations, and of the State Legislature and of Congress, bearing upon the staple products of Pennsylvania ; their avenues to markets ; their modes of transportation, both internal and coast-wise ; their adaptation for domestic consumption ; and, finally, the facilities they furnish to manufacturing enter- prise. We advert to this temporary and commercial literature, because of Its remarkable diffusion, its cheapness, its influence, and its employment, in this country, to an extent unknown in any other part of the world. It forms an economical substitute for books of a more expensive and pretending cha- racter, and may be found in every man's hand.

General Canal And Railroad System Of Pennsylvania.

Those of the State, '

Those belonging to Companies,

Private Railroacib to Mines and under ground.

Canals.

Railroads.

Mile*.

4;i2

1280 855

Pennsylvania.

CANAL AND RAILROAD SYSTEM IN RELATION TO THE ANTHRACITE DISTRICTS OF PENNSYLVANIA.

The following table shows the principal state and private Canals and Rail- roads which are in direct communication with the anthracite mines of Penn- sylvania, and which were constructed almost entirely for the purposes of the cotl trade, since the year 1821.. We believe that this statement is below the actual result, and might be materially increased, independently of the capital invested in the mines and in the coal operations of this important region.

NUBMOf

Sailsoads And Canals.

Canals.

Railroads.

TetalCost. Dollars.

No. 1 Miles.

No. 1

MUes.

Lehigh NiTintion,

High aod Sotqaehanna Railroad,

87*

94.466,000

1,360,000

Mauch Chunk aod Sammit Railroada, &c.

831,684

.Delaware DiTiaion of the Peon. Canal,

1,734,968

Beaver Meadow Railroad, Haxelion Railroad,

360,000

120,000

Bock Moonuin Railroad,

40,000

Samnit Railroad,

20,000

Delaware and Hudaon Canal— partly in N.

Jeraej,

3,260,000

Morris Coal Canal, in New Jersey,

4,000,000

'The Schuylkill Navigation,

6,786,000

The Rfading and Pottsville Railroad, Little Schuylkill and Tamaqua RailroAd,

11,590,000

600,000

Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven and Ei-

tension, to Swatara,

660,000

Danville and PotUville, 44( m. unfinished,

29*

680,000

(Mount Carbon Railroad,

156,000

i Do. and Port Carbon Railroad,

120,000

Schuylkill Valley Railroad,

300,000

Mill Creek Railroad,

120,000

Railroads by individuals,

180,000

Under-Ground Railroads,

76,000

Lyken's Valley Railroad,

200,000

Wisconisco Canal,

370,000

SwAUra Railroad,

North Branch Canal— division.

1,491,894

Do. extension, , 1

1,298,416

Wyoming Improvements, not ascertained,'

! 8

623*

. 17

There are many private railroads, constructed since the above was drawn up. The whole may be estimated at more than forty millions of dollars.

Pennsylvania Anthracite.

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF ANTHRACITE OVER BITUMINOUS COAL, FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES.

The author of the work on " Fossil Fuel" devotes a page or two, with great propriety, to the subject indicated above, and, if our space permitted, his views should be introduced, without curtailment here. He observes, that the smoke given off, during the combustion of flaming coal in most large towns, especially the prodigious volumes of it emitted from the chim- neys of manufactories, form a serious annoyance in many situations." We must quote a passage on the smoky nuisances attendant on the consumption of this fuel in London and other English cities, agreeing as we do in many, although not all, of the opinions of the author.

92 UNITfiD STATES OF AMERICA.

A very striking contrast to the murky exterior of some of the large towns in this country, [EndandJ is presented by the appearance of the city of Philadelphia, o?er which, notwithstanding its thousands of coal fires, constantly kept up, there is no smoke. The inhabitants mostly bum the anthracite, a substance resembling the stone coal, or culm, of Wales ; the carbonaceous or stony coal of Kilkenny ; the glance coal of the Germans ; . and the blind coal of Scotland.

These coals are difficult to kindle ; [no difficulty at all to a Philadelphia housemaid ;] but when once thoroughly ignited they burn for a long time ; [upon the admirable principles which experience has suggested, whether for open grates or for the infinite variety of stoves and furnaces common to all the houses in Philadelphia, New York, or Boston ;] they make a hot glowing fire, like charcoal, without either flame or smoke.'

The author goes on to account for the non use of anthracite in Great Britain, which possesses a fiir larger area of anthracite than exists in Ame- rica, or any other part of the world.

It is owing to these coals commonly emitting noxious vapours that they cannot be pleasantly used in dwelling-houses in this country, though they are in considerable demand amonff malsters, dyers, &c. ; more especially for the furnaces of steam-engines and breweries, in those situations where smoke is a nuisance."

And what habitable place is there, among communities of men, not even we believe excepting an Esquimaux Indian's, in which smoke is not con- sidered an intolerable nuisance, an atmosphere unfitted for living and breathing in ? the author and his readers take the word of one who, like most Europeans, from early custom, long preferred the brightly blazing, yet sulphurous and smoke-producing bituminous coal, to the non blazing, yet cleanly and economical anthracite : let him and them be assured, that, with the familiar modes, the ready appliances, and the improved methods, now in universal use in the Atlantic cities of America, there cannot be a reasonable apology for hesitating as to the choice of the two combustibles for domestic use. The difficulty suggested about ignition, even were it found so in practice, is deprived of all weight from the consideration, that with ordinary attention, a fire, when once kindled in the fall of the year, may be kept up until the return of summer, if needed. The supposed ten- dency of anthracite to emit a greater amount of noxious vapours during combustion than bituminous coal, is contradicted by the daily experience of those who employ the former in their apartments, and is much less objec- tionable, on that head, than bituminous coal.

Our tables of analysis at the end of this volume, will, if doubts remain, decide this matter. In fact, they show that the anthracites contain less sul- phur than the blazing coal ; the consequence of that obnoxious substance having almost entirely been expelled, during the conversion from bituminous coal into anthracite. The following analyses are from the Report of Prof. U. D. Rogers, in relation to Pennsylvania coals of each description :

Bituminous Coals.

Anthracites.

Salphur per ceot.

Sulphnr per cut.

The Karthaus Coal,

Blairsville Coal,

2.G0

Lehigh Anthracite,

Pottsville, White Ash do.

Do. Red Ash,

We have neither soot in the chimneys, nor smoke in the atmosphere.

Pennstlvania.

Ar£A Of Anthracite Formations In Pennsylvania.

The origioal estimate of the superficial area of the three anthracite regions in Mr. Packer's report, was nine hundred and seventy-fife square miles, or six hundred and twenty-four thousand acres.* It is customary for every writer on Pennsylvania statistics or topography, to adopt these admeasure- ments. Professor Rogers, however, reduces this computation materially, and offers two hundred square miles— one hundred and twenty-eight thou- sand acres, as the approximate area.t This result presents such a contrast with former estimates, that were we not familiar with the general accuracy of that gentleman's estimates, we might suspect some error, unless the cal- culation be limited to the two southerly regions, as is probable.

A different result has been published by Mr. S. B. Fisher, a district sur- veyor, long engaged in the anthracite regions.]:

Sq, MUti. Acres. I. The Southern or Schuylkill coal-field, workable

coal measures, exclusive of the external margin I hq 7r qca

of conglomerate, 67,600 acre8+8,450 acres on r /o,tou

Broad Mountain,

II. The Middle Coal District, comprising several' basins, stretching from Shamokin to the Lehigh, over Broad Mountain, but exclusive of some of )- 133 the small basins north of Hazleton. Mahanoy coal-field, 59,450a + the small basins 2(5,075, J

III. Wilkesbarre or Wyoming, or Northern Coal Dis- trict—estimated by H. Colt,

Total, with the foregoing exceptions.

85,525

76,805

372 238,280

Our own computation, although by no means exact, as even now the boundaries are not generally determined, is as follows :

Sq, Miks, Acres,

I. The Southern or Schuylkill coal region, consist-")

ing of three principal basins, viz. 1. The great [

southern basin; 2. The basin north of Mine [

Hill; 3. The basin south of the Mahanoy creek, J

1G4 104,960

f The Mahanoy and Shamokin, principal ba-

J sins, including several minor basins or troughs, )

I the eastern group of basins, at least twenty-six

III. The Wyoming coal-field in one area, but broken into several subordinate undulations or basins, )

48,000 25,600

75,520

397 254,080

To render our exposition of the Pennsylvania group of anthracite basins

Report to the Senate, 1834, p. 438.

t H. D. Rogera in Trans. Amoc. American Geologiata, Vol. I. p. 436.

: Mintn* Joiimal ofPotUvUle, March S9th, 1841.

M United 8Tatb8 Of America.

more complete, we have preparel the map hereto annexed. It will be seen that, although in a fewidetails, hereafter to be supplied, something might still be amended, yet otir draft is greatly superior in topographical minatia, in gedogical features and physical characteristics, to any other which has heretofore been published. We should have been happy to have had a precedent to follow, in a State geological map, but, as none yet exists, we have been thrown on our own exertions and resources to produce the present one.

I. THE SCHUYLKILL COAL REGION OR SOUTHERN DIVI- SION AND GROUP OF ANTHRACITE BASINS.

So many repeats have been published relating to the property of indi- vidual coal companies, and to the general interests and characters of this district, that we cannot undertake even to enumerate them. On the more prominent of these, however, we shall bestow some cursory notices.

Without designing any injustice towards other regions, it may be expected, in the present instance, that we exercise somewhat less of brevity ; seeing that for some years it has occupied an extremely prominent position in the mineral statistics of Pennsylvania. It appears entitled to this consideration at our hands, inasmuch at it lies the nearest to the ports, or places of ship- ment; it has employed the greatest amount of active capital; has been the moat extensively worked, and the most assiduously investigated ; and, more- over, has caUed into exercise the largest quantum of practical and scientific intelligence ever concentrated in one mineral area on the American con- tinent

Among the earliest original describers we may mention Professor Silli- man, who, in his Journal of December, 1830, called attention to the extra- ordinary development of anthracite at Mauch Chunk.

We have already adverted to the excellent report by the chairman of the Pennsylvania Coal Committee, in 1834. One section of this report espe- cially relates to the Schuylkill coal-field, as then understood, and to ito mining statistics, up to that period. The summary of these details, for the year 1833, is at follows :

Coal mined and sent to market, ' 429,933 tons.

Capiul invested, $6,022,780*

To this special report succeeded many temporary as well as annual reports of coal companies, to which we cannot advert in detail; and many inciden- tal statements quickly followed, in connection with railroads, canals, public improvements, and private enterprise.

Most of these were illustrated by maps, sections, and other instructive diagrams, appertaining to the country in question. Some are on an exten- sive scale, and embody a large mass of information. In fact, it may be stated that few coal districts in the world have received more ample illustra- tion, within a similar period, than has the Schuylkill coal-field, from the united exertions of the topographer and the geologist, the chemist, the operative miner, the engineer, the artist, the economist, and a variety of subordinate contributors and fellow-labourers.

As a state undertaking, the annual reports of the geologist, on the pro- gress of his survey, have a primary claim to consideration and commenda- tion. We await, with confidence, the final report, which will complete our

Packer*! Report, p. 468.

PEimSTLVANIA.

knowledge of this lotereBting coontiy, and of the results of many years of iodefiitigable researeh.

It is only by an elaborate survey, such as that ordered by the state — for we can scarcely contemplate a private undertaking of this magnitude— that we shall be led to a right understanding of this subject, and receive enlight- enment on phenomena so irreconcilable with those displayed elsewhere.

We are greatly in need of detailed maps of all the anthracite basins.

SKETCH OF THE SCHUTLKILL OR SOUTHERN COAL-FIELD-COltlifENCING

East.

Fig. 6. SeeHm qf tht Jfinidk Chunk AnthncUe Region, looking Eatt.

LtenHMm.

JUueh Chunk SnmmiL Mm.

Coal MeaturtM, A

The remarkable exposition of an enormous mass of anthracite, which was quarried to open day on the summit of the Mauch Chunk Mountain, near the eastern termination of this coal-field, excited, for a time, no small atten> tion, not only in the United States, but in Europe.* We have already cited some historical notices attending this discovery, and the difficulties origi- nally encountered in rendering it available. The great bed on the summit at Mauch Chunk is estimated to be from fif\y-five to sixty feet thick, includ- ing the inferior seams, and also some shale beds. The open quarry here is more than thirty acres in area of excavation : in fact, there are now several of these open workings. At the neighbouring coal works of Room Ran, the main bed is found to be fifty feet thick, resting, as at Mauch Chunk, upon a thick bed of under-clay, filled with stigniaria. From these two work- ing points, have been abstracted and sent to the markets of Philadelphia, New York and Boston, about three millions of tons of anthracite.

Nesquehoning Or Room Run Section.

Fig. 7. Section at Neequehoning y or Room Run, looking East.

Zts

Skarf MomnUin.

mm Red 8hmU and RU Sandatone, Comrte A*. 65" E. ! H Ceuflomtrate. ee Coal Measmrts. d jf Kliciiiui/ or Saddlo. The rBwrkAM UiiclraeM of the coal at tbe amnlt appeart to be the retail of the doablliiff bi of tko twcatj-eight feel team upon iUelf, makinr an aggregate thickneto of tttjalx fMi.

8Uliinan>a Americui Joornal of Science, 1S30.

06 United States Of America.

.There are about twelve cod seams on either side of the axis forming this basin ; eight of these were in work in 1847, and had an aggregate thickness of one hundred and sixty-three feet of anthracite, of which a fair proportion consisted of merchantable coal. These were all south-dipping seams; those CD the corresponding or opposite side of the axis, apparently contained at least an equal amouut of good coal, probably the repetition of the same veins.

It is no means easy to convey a true representation of the position of the coal beds on the summit at Mauch Chunk, owing to the numerous con- tortions of that part of the general basin. The extensive works recently put in operation, will go far to develope the intricacies of this singular district. The further advance of these undertakings in regard to production, will be detailed in a subsequent page. At present, we must make a hasty travel from end to end of this basin ; stopping, for a brief space, at a few promi- nent points on the way.

Leaving Mauch Chunk and the Room Run mines, 'which have acquired some celebrity through the notices of travellers, geologists, and men of science,* and product in 1637, 334,929 tons, the next important position is that of Tamaqua.

TAlfAQUA.

The section we here introduce, represents the arrangement of the coal eeama on each side of the valley or synclinal axis; those on the Sharp lioontain or south side, being nearly vertical.

Fig. 8. SVmiMfM SicHon qf iki 8ekit$lkiU Coat Bagin at TVunafiia, looking towardt tlu Wat,

But it is especially interesting on account of ite containing in the Sharp Mountain, a coal seam which is no less than seventy feet thick, nearly vertical. This valuable coal area was illustrated, in 1835, by an article in the Transactions of the Geological Society of Philadelphia, accompanied by a petrographical map and section," by Mr. Koehler.t These illustrations exhibit a transverse section of the entire coal-field at that place, and the position of thirty-two workable coal seams, of three feet thick and upwards. it does not appear to have been suspected at the time, by the author, that this number represented duplicated seams, arranged in synclinal form; and that, consequently, the true number represented was not more than the one half of his supposed series, which embraced a total thickness of many feet of coal, the largei team then known, being twenty-eight feet The anthra- cite of Tamaqua is less indurated than that near the Lehigh. An investiga- tion into the nature of this coal and its ashes had been previously instituted by Professors Bache and Rogers.|

Joarnal Academy NiUral ScieacM Philmdelpbit, Vol. V. p. 17. Eiperimentfl on aa- thrtcita by L. Vftnoiea. t Trtni. Geo). Soc. ofPeiiDtylTmnw, Vol. I. p. 386. X Ibid. Eipcrimentt on tbo asbos of tatbrscito. Vol. VIL p. laS-.

Pennstlvanu. 97

Ptaing by Tuscarori, and by several mining villages that have sprung up within a few years, we reach Pottsfille and a circle of colliery establish- ments in its ficinity; the focus wherein is concentrated an enormous amount of productifB and mtnafacturing industry, such as has few parallels in the new world; considering the short period since the origin and development of its resources. The magnitude of the mining business of the Pottsville district will appear from the tables which we shall furnish in another -place. Numberless are the documents, reports, maps, and statistical statements, |Hiblished and unpublished, that have contributed to give celebrity to thia district. A transverse section of this coal-field, in the meridian of Pottsville, has been for some years in every body's hands. It appears to have resulted from the combined observation of many local explorers, practical operators, and mining engineers and surveyors. The same mistake was made here, as we have mentioned at Tamaqua, in reference to the repetition of beds by means of undulations in the strata, and by the recurrence of several alternate axes of elevation and depression. In 1836, the supposed consecu- tive series of coal seams numbered in Mr. Wilde's section, seventyight, which had an aggregate thickness of four hundred and iifly-four feet of coal. Several years al&rwards, this number had been increased to one hundred and eight, and the total thickness was augmented in the like proportion.

Of late years, the accuracy of opinions so confidently expressed by merely operative persons, without the intervention of geological investigation, gradually began to be doubted, by those geologists who had acquired experi- ence in unravelling the intricacies of districts of complicated structure, and in studying, on an extended scale, the eflfects produced by disturbing agencies of great power. We are unable to say, with precision, with whom these new and correct views originated. Like most subjects of this nature, they were, doubtless, the result of gradual development, as facts and illustrations accumulated. Even now, manv details have to be collected, ere all the phenomena of this district, the oouieversements of its mineral beds, and the repetition of its groups, shall be thoroughly elucidated.

Our own views, in this matter, entirely coincide with those of the State geologist, and we perceive also, that Mr. Logan, provincial geologist of the Canadas, who has 'examined the Schuylkill coal-field, adopts similar opin- ions. All recent investigations tend to confirm these conclusions, and to show that the series of coal seams in the Pottsville section, which were formerly considered to be so numerous, and to embrace an astounding thick- ness of anthracite, ought to be reduced to one fif\h, in certain localities, on account of the repeated flexures within the general coal area, which occasion many recurrences of the same seams.*

The necessity for revising all the old statements which may be found, regardmg the local topography of the anthracite country, and which have been transferred into works of standard repute, both in America, and in Europe, will appear from a very few examples; but, at the same time, owing to the remarkable subdivision of the groups, it becomes no easy task.

A description of the mines of the southern coal region was officially pub- lished some years ago ; wherein it was stated that there were at the Room Run mines fifteen beds of anthracite, whose aggregate thickness was two hundred and forty-two feet Like most of the early reports, which were

ProceediDgs Geol. Soc. of Londoi, Vol. III., On the coal-fieldi or PenDtylvaaia,*' bT M. E. Lofan, March, 1842, p. :07. Th auUior adterU to the ttigmaria bedi in Uiia field, sMociated with the CMI9 sad b/ them he wai enabled to detect the WTorted poeitioa rthaatrmts.

98 UNITED flTATSa OF AMERICA.

generally made by anscientific persons, this cootaiiied glaring errors and exaggerations ; by reason of counting the same seams two, three, or more limes over. Another report, from the same quarter, announced the total thickness of coal in nine proved beds, on the north side of the basin only, at one hundred and de? en feet, and ninety feet on the south side ; being two hundred and one feet in the aggregate.* This is no otherwise incorrect than as relates to the doubling ofUie series.

At the commencement of operations at Beaver Meadow, in 1836, the present writer was informed by the engineer, Mr. Wilde,' that he had proved three hundred feet of coal there, but it appears to be admitted, now, that about forty feet constitute the principal working series, in that quarter.

A report to the legislature of Pennsylvania, by a committee appointed to examine the Swatara coal mining district, in 1899, announced the presence of seventy veins there, of from three to more than twenty feet in thickness etch, then known, and many others were supposed to remain undiscovered.t No accurate transverse section has yet been made, across the field, in the meridian of Pinegrove ; but from what we already know of that region, it is prcrfmble that at least eight repetitions of the same series of coal seams occur there, and the number of actual and distinct seams is, consequently, lowered to a comparative few.

We shall quit this branch of our subject, for the present ; merely ob- serving, by the way, that a clear insight into the actual arrangement of the coal-fields, respectively, can only be completed after the construction of more authentic maps, sections, and diagrams, and by more actual admea- surements, for the purpose of geological elucidation, than are now at hand. A very large and, apparently, very valuable portion of the aggregate area, remains, still, in nearly its original obscurity.

The local maps, which have been issued in a coarse and cheap fi>rm, for the temporary requirements of parties having local interests, are somewhat numerous ; but they have very little scientific merit or artistical pretension. Illustrations of a far superior character to these are now called for ; and the augmented value of mineral property here, would render the cost of such a work, a comparatively light burden upon the owners.

Capital Employed In Its Production.

The Statistical Return to Congress, in 1840, exhibits the ) gro aq amount of anthracite raised, - - - j c>v,ooo tons,

of men employed in mining it, - 2,977

of capiul invested, - - - $4,334,102

Like most other returns on this branch of industry, msde at this period, this is evidently below the mark. It was shown, in 1839, that in the Schuylkill mining district alone, capital to the amount of 910,360,555 was inyested-l

As far back as the year 1833, when the coal trade was, comparatively, in its infancy, the capital invested in the production of anthracite, and in the means of transportation, in canals and railroads, in the purchase of coal lands, and in working capiUl, was $19,176,217.

Raport ofUit Lehigh Companj, Jaoniry, 1844, p. S4.

t llaport to the LegitUUira, by H. K. Strong, 1839, p. S9.

t llaport to the Legitlatnro of PraotyUtaia, oo the Swatara ITiaiaf Diatrict, 1819.

% Report to tha Lagialatora of Peanaylfaiiia, on the aaljaet of the Coal Tradt| 1894.

Pbnnqtlvania. 99

This calculation does not include the value of store-houses whanres, landings, d&c, in Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and other places; or the Talue of the vessels and the capital employed in shipping this coal.

In 1839, a statement, emanating from some persons well acquainted with the business afiirs of this neighbourhood, showed that the capiul engaged in mining and transporting anthracite ; including the lateral railroads, en-

{'ines, cars, wagons, boats, land and houses, amounted to the sum of 7,994,975.*

In 1843, at a public meeting of persons engaged in the coal trade, in Sehujlkill county, 31st January, a report on the coal statistics of that county was made ; by which it appears that the capital invested under the foregoing beds, with the addition of the Reading railroad, the Danville and Pottoville railroad, and the Schuylkill navigation, amounted to 917,526,000.

Population engaged in, or entirely dependent on the

coal trade, 17,000 persons.

Nomber of horses employed in boating, and at the collieries, 2,100 horses.

Agricultural products annually consumed, $588,572

Merchandize consumed, - - 9918,325

9ifi06fi97

These statements are understood to comprehend only the coal production of the county of Schuylkill.

At that time, there were in use, in this county, thirty steam engines, amounting to upwards of 800 horse power : 22 of these engines were manu- fiictured there. 850 canal boats, 2100 horses, 145 miles of railroads, and 3900 railroad and drift cars, were in full employ : and all this had originated within about fifteen years.t

In 1846, the number of steam engines employed in the collieries of Schuylkill county alone was 68, having an aggregate horse power of 2018 ; in addition there were constructed 38 others, having a power of 903 horses: in all 106 engines and 2921 horse power.}

M. Chevalier, who investigated the canals, railroads, and resources of the United States, in 1839, remarks of Pennsylvania, — after describing the extent of her canals and railroads, both public and private, — projected and completed, — that such a result would be ver}' remarkable on the part of an ancient people, who had, for a lon period, applied themselves to the per- fecting of their communications. It appears prodigious, when one remem- bers, that all these works, with only one or two exceptions, were not com- menced,— were not even projected, in 1825.

" II (aut faire un effort pour concevoir comment un population aussi restrainte que celle de la Pennsylvanie, a pu cntreprendrc, et achever k peu pres, un pareille masse de travaux dans un delai aussi court."

IfiMra' Joarail of Pottif ille, Jinnary 5, 1839. t MiAcrt' Joanial ofPotUTille, Janaarj 1, tnd Februarj 5, 1S4S. t An. Rep. Board of Trade, April, 1847.

HiatorM et deacription dea voiea de comuanicttion aax Etata-Unia, tome premier. p.641.

Untteix States Of America.

I. Schuylkill Coal Region.

CENTRAL AND WESTERN DIVISIONS OF THE SOUTHERN BASIN, OR GROUP OF COAL BEDS, EMBRACING SCHUYLKILL COUNTY.

The anDuai returns of coal production from the different coal-fields are becoming more difficult of clasaiiication, every year, and must of necessity be abandoned lor a more general system, especially as relates to the districts usually known as the southern and middle coal-fields. As these regions become blended together by a net work of railroads, the original distinc- tions become obsolete, or are lost. Already, for instance, some of the coal of the Wyoming or northern region descends the Lehish, and swells the returns made from that channel, which already receives the coal of half a dozen other basins.

So also the Pinegrove region sends part of her coal by the Union canal, and part by the Reading railroad or the Schuylkill navigation ; thus affect- ing the results of the yearly returns. In like manner, the anthracite of the middle region will reach market by various routes, and be blended with the contributions of all the other districts.

Annual ProducUam of anthracite sent, by canals and railroads, to market from the mines, exclusive of the coal consumed upon the spot, or in the vicinity, from the commencement. This return from Schuylkill county necessarily embraces also that part of it, which is known as the Swatara or PinMB(rove district, and also the Little Schuylkill district.

We have adq>ted the statistical returns of the Miners' Journal, with the exception of a few corrections from official reports of companies.

Ymm.

Tom.

Yemn.

Tom.

Ymn.

Tom.

18S5

6,600

253,971

608,345

18S6

16,787

1S34

1S43

573,373

31,360

353,399

700,300

47,284

443,756

874,860

79,973

539,734

1,131,734

89,984

1,395,938

81,854

1S39

465,347

1,583,374

183S

S0e,S71

476,151

Total, . . . 10,536,422

The Miners' Journal of Pottsville makes the amount, 10,213,120

The production of anthracite from the eastern or Lehigh dwisian of the southern basins, and central group of coal beds, will be separately arranged under the returns from the Lehigh district, in a succeeding page. The return for 1847 was 643,973 tons, and the aggregate, since the open- ing of the trade to the Ist January, 1848, is 4,360,108 tons.

The foregoing table embraces the Little Schuylkill or Tamaqua coal dis- trict, having its outlet at Purt Clinton, which, in 1847, produced 106,401 tons, and altogether from the opening of the district, in 1832 to 1847, inclusive, furnished 664,657 tons, as its quota. The arrangements, in progress at this establishment, will ensure a vastly accelerated supply, in future.

We hare stated that the Schuylkill coal-field supplied three species of anthracite. The environs of Pottsville furnish two of these ; and we are indebted to the editor of the Miners' Journal, of that place, for a statement

Pennsylvania.

of the rdatife proportions of each kind, that were sent from thence, in the jearl846.

Including Pinegrove.

White aah coal, 703,000 tons. 703,000 tons.

Red ash coal, 539,000 592,928 "

1,242,000 " 1,295,928 "

The Journal last named informs us that the number of colliery establish- ments in Schuylkill county, in 1846, was 142, including ten in the Swatara region : of these 35 collieries are below the water level, ?iz. they are drained by steam power. There were, further, 22 collieries in preparation, of which ten are below the water level.

During the agitation of the tariff, in 1846, at Washington, it was stated by Mr. Cameron, of Pennsjlvania, that thirty years ago, coal was entirely unknown in this country ; yet, in 1846, it gave employment to five millions of days' work, annually. It kept in movement a thousand ships of a hun- dred and fiAy tons each, and afforded a nursery for the training of six thou- sand seamen, who earned three millions of dollars yearly. It gave circulation to a capital of fif\y millions of dollars. It kept in activity Meen thousand miners, and sustained a mining population of seventy thousand souls, who annually consumed upwards of two millions worth of agricultural productions, and more than three and a half millions of dollars worth of merchandize.

Decrease Of The Number Of Operatives In The Schuylkill Coal

Region.

We observe, in a late statistical report of this district,f some details, which appear to be deserving of a passing notice. There were only one hundred operators engaged in mining coal, in the whole Schuylkill region, during 1847. As the expenses of mining increase, the number of opera- tors are gradually diminishing. This is apparent from the fact, that, although the number of collieries have increased during the last year, the number of operators in the region have diminished, down to about one hundred. Three years ago, they numbered about one hundred and forty. Some of the larger operators now work five or six collieries."

The Schuylkill collieries are, (Jan. 1, 1848,) situated as follows: Above water level, - - 101

ToUl, . - 143

Price of Labour in the Coal district of PottsviUe.

.

..Waget per day.

ObflnratloBf.

MiMn. Labonra.

184S

1847$

87

The Uriff of 1828 on coal and iron, in full force.

The roduced Uriff in operation. Wages paid in goodt,

making a difference of 15 to SO per cenL againtt Uie

labourer. Paid in traffic— one half the laboorert had no employment. The Uriff of 1842 took full effect; all were employed, and

labour waa in . Botineaa continued at in the preriona year. Buaineaa improTing in activity ; all wages paid in money,

aa haa beeo the case for four yean.

Minen' Joarnal, Jaooiry 30, 1847.

t Potttrilla Miners* Joanitl, Jtaa—

Unitsd States Of America.

The details of the foregoing table were arranged, from the books of one of ihh most important cod companies in the United States, with a view to show that there had been an advance in the price of labour in the mineral districts of Pennsylvania, under the influence of the tariff of 1842 ; a state of things which had been assumed, somewhat theoretically, to be un- founded.*

We have ventured, towards the commencement of this volume, to suggest, for reasons assigned, that the imposition of duties on imported bituminous coal has had, and will continue to have, very little influence on the prices of anthracite.

Tabk of Prices of Anthracite in PhiJaddphiay New York, and Boston, in the following fearsA

Philadelphia.

New Tork.

Boeton.

TMn.

Wbotetale. per

Betall. per ton

Retail, per ton

ton of 40 llM

oraoooiba.

of 2000 Ibi.

#5.50

9.00 to 10.00

9.00 to 11.00

8.00 to 9.00

4Ji5

6.00 to 6.50

6.00 to 6.50

6.00 to 6.50

6.00 to 7.00

OJyOto 7.00

3.85 to 4.00

5.50 to 6.00

6.50 to 7.00

In 1840, mining labour was $5.00 to $7.00 per week ; in 1846, 98.00 to 910.00 per week.|

6Watara And Pinegrove Division Of The Schuylkill Region.

Having its outlet by the Union CkmaL

Proceeding westward, afVer leaving the Schuylkill river, we arrive at the Swaiara Coal District, which in 19, and nearly for the first time, was investigated by direction of the legislature. Although possessing a great number of very excellent coal seams, the business enterprise has heretofore greatly languished, on account of difficulties, both local and temporary, in this quarter; especially those arising from inadequate facilities of transpor- tation. Many of these disadvantages are already overcome, and the rest will vanish in proportion as the near prospect of profitable remuneration awakens the energy of the proprietors and adventurers.

Many associations for coal mining, canal or railroad purposes, have here invested capital, and these are already busily occupied in carrying out their respective undertakings.

We insert the following statement of the quantity of anthracite which was sent down from the Pinegrove or Swatara district, by the Union Canal and Feeder, according to the annual reports of that company. We will observe that the first communication between the Swatara coal region and

PottfTille Minera' Joarnal, Jane, 1846, and subfequentlj.

t Report orth Board ofTrade of Scbnvlkill county, April, 1846, and labtoqaentlj.

t Speech ofMr. Cameron, in Congreaa, JaW 22, 1846.

Report to the XegitlaUire of PanaajlTama on tba SwaUra Miaing District, ISdS p. S9.

Pvnkbtlvaicll

lot

the Unmn Canil, was eflfeeted in 1833. In 1847, a railroad being com- pleted from the district around the head waters of the Swatara and the Reeding railroad, 43,145 tons of anthracite were conveyed hence to market at Philadelphia, bj the Schuylkill route, in addition to 67,437 tons via the Unko Canal.

Tmm.

TOBt.

TMra.

Tooa.

The details of bitominous coal in these coIqidds are derired from the annaal reportt of the Managera ; the years eading lit Not. and the tons consisting of 2240 lbs. each, or of 28 bushels.

6,911 13,891 11,710 16,560 13,000 20,639 23,860

17,653 32,381 22,905 34,916 47,928 55,504 62,549

CooTeyed

bj the U. Cam

1, Toul,

Within the area drained by the Swatara river and its tributaries, the main coal-field separates into two forks, one striking towards the north-west, the other directed towards the south-west, and stretching almost to the Susque- hanna. The north fork, which is a double basin, is eighteen miles in length, and the southern one, which is a single basin, is thirty miles ; and, at the termination of the former, they are more than ten miles apart.

The entire breadth of the Swatara region is occupied by a series of anti- clinal and synclinal axes, by means of which the numerous coal seams are repeatedly brought to the surface ; exhibiting, in the aggregate, indications of a vast amount of anthracite.

Fig. 9. Section qf the Swatara Coal-Field— Penntylvania.

si ]

11

m m

J

a

?

it

5 mUet,

Heretofore, the wild and broken character of the surface has opposed difficulties to the complete geological development of the numerous highly inclined strata. It is only by means of the gradual progress of local im- provement,— of the operative mining industry of the country, and of a more correct system of sun*eys, — that we shall acquire a thorough insight into the structure of this region.

The committee on the Swatara district, in 1830, were compelled, from the difficulty of the task, to abandon all expectation of obtaining a list of the coal seams. They stated, however, that about forty beds, of from three to more than twenty feet in thickness, had then been opened. The lowest number of Beams in a condition to be worked, they estimated at seventy,

104 umrxD nykTSS of America.

without passing into the north or Broad Mountain. We know well, at the present day, the erroneous nature of this view, and that what was then Uikea to be one general series or continuous group, was, in fact, a series of repe- titions of a much smaller number, as we have already suggested.

From the very remarkable physical characters of the Swatara region, at the point or pivot from whence diverge the two forks, of which we have spoken, it would be but reasonable to expect an unusual extent of dis- turbance, through the crushing influence of a movement so stupendous as we perceive must have there taken place. We could scarcely fail to suspect the prevalence of such phenomena as frequent lines of dislocation and cross fracture ; and, accordingly, we perceive abundant evidence of the fact, in the numerous transverse ravines, of great depth, at right angles to the strike of the strata, and now formin|[ so many outlets or channels for the drainage of the interior area. The thirty-six breaks or gaps, which in 1839 were Tiewed as particularly advantageous circumstances, favorable to the mining economy of the district, we are led to believe, mark, with unerring exactr ness, the sites of original fissures or fractures, crossing perpendicularly the longitudinal axes of the coal measures. Whether, as has been sugged, there has been any lateral movement or heaves, to disturb the linear con- tinuity of the strata, we are at present unaware. Hitherto we have perceived no evidence of such a tendency ; we are only surprised to observe so little interruption to the general range of the coal beds.

Dauphin County Coal Districts.

The North-west or Bear Vattev Fork, in Schuylkill and Dauphin coun- ties, will, at some future period, be the theatre of very extensive mining operations. It contains a numerous suite of coal seams, two or three times repeated ; some of these are of great power, and all of them are of excel- lent quality, especially adapted to domestic use. They are of the white or grey ash variety of anthracite, but of easy combustion ; while those at the south- em side of the region, towards the Sharp mountain, consist of the red-ash and free burning kinds ; a description which is highly esteemed for domestic fud, but not so efficient for the iron furnace. An investigation of the western extremity of this district, in the fall of 1846, has been the subject of an elaborate report by the present writer, addressed to the Lyken's Valley Coal Company* About 60,000 tons of coal were mined here within the last ten or twelve years.

Fig. 10.

Sectim at Black Spring Gap, LAamon county, looking West,

MUrp §r Third JtemuUin, tntuHh §r R$d MounUim,

ltd SkdU. Uvl PUking Cr§ek, 700 fet TUs. R9d SiuU;

Ssflli 1000 /Ml te m ImA, h0a vHifl mud UHmhIsI.

Report to Um Lykao'i YalUj Coal Compaay by R. C. Taylor, 16Ui Dm. 1846.

psiriiiTLyANiA. 106

Tie Smith toeti Fork termiiiatef , acutely, within two miles of the Susqufr- haona river, and formed the subject of two very detailed reports, in 1840 bj the present writer.*

After passing Fishing Creek Gap, and entering Lebanon county, at Black Spring Qap, foyrteen beds of coal, nz. eight on the south side and six on the north side of the axis, were proved ; whose aggregate thickness of fre burning red ash coal, was ninety-one feet At Kausch Gap, nine southern seams were proved. In number and volume the series then decreases, as we proceed through Dauphin county, and the mountain contracts in breadth, untU, at eight miles from the Susquehanna, it presents a very slight prospect of advantageous working, further to westward. Finally, it contracts into a narrow insignificant ridge, terminating entirely before reaching the Susque- hanna river.

Chakge Of Character In The Coal Of The South- West Fore.

It is within this small district, along a distance of more than ten miles, that the coal parts with a portion of its anthracite character, and assumes of a semi-bituminous, dry, and blazing coal ; resembling the steam coal of South Wales, and having a slight tendency to adhere or cake. It pos- sesses properties which eminently entitle it to the reputation it has already acquired, as a valuable species of fuel ; the more remarkable as occurring in an anthracite region, and as being part of the same beds which consist of compact, pure anthracite, as we advance towards the Lehigh.t The gra- dations and modifications of this semi-bituminous Stony Creek coal, adapt it for a variety of purposes, and a selection of any required quality can here be made. Our table of Assays, in another part of this volume, shows this transition with great distinctness.

Among the early notices of the passage from the purest known anthracite to a species which is not only less dense and ponderous, but contains a gradually increasing portion of volatile matter, we find that of Mr. Packer's Report, in 1834, who adverted to the already well-known change in the condition and character of the Schuylkill coal, when traced from the eastern to the western extremities of the region. His remark, in substance, is, that " extending westward the coal becomes somewhat lighter ; the specific gra- vity of the Maucli Chunk coal being 1.494 ; the Schuylkill, in the vicinity of Potisville, 1.453; and the Pine Grove, Wiconisco and Stony Creek, about 1.400. The latter is somewhat more inflammable and easy of igni- tion, or, to use a prevailing idea, ' partakes more of the bituminous cha- racter.'"

This bituminous character of the last mentioned coal had been investi- gated, some time previously, by Professor Renwick, and was especially adverted to by him in a printed circular, in 1832 ; also, by Prof W. R. Johnson, in his letter, dated April, 1838, to the National Foundry Committee.

Changes And Variations In The Mineral Character Of Coal Seams

In an appendix to the Stony Creek Report, already alluded to, the writer, who was familiar during twenty-five years preceding with precisely similar phe- nomena in the basin of South Wales, endeavoured to illustrate these pa-

Reports oa Um Mineral Lands of the Stony Creek Estate, and Uiose of the Danphia Coal Conpaoj, bv R. C. Tajlor, President of the Board of Directors, 1840. t Report, Tables iii., U., x., xi., zii., and lix.

Im Uritbd States Of America.

fld]d eiaes by a fleries of antlfBes both of American and European rarieties coaJ. These details were derived from well known authorities. Following up the plan, we have prepared a table of at least eleven hundred analyses of coals in all parts of the world, as a fitting and elaborate illustration of the present work. These tables will be found at the end of this volume. The authorities cited are the following :

in Europe. — Mushet, Ure, Dufrenoj, Berthier, Thomson, Schafhentl, Robin, Karsten, Ffyfe, Richter, Kirwan, Richardson, Murchison, Ljell, Varin, Baudin, Piot, Elie de Beaumont, Flachat, Logan, Liebig, Pelouze, Reffoault

In America. — Troost, Ducatel, Jackson, Hayes, Clemson, Ellet, Johnson, Frazer, Shepard, Olmsted, Bache, Silliman, Rogers, Booth, Lea, Renwick, Chilton, Boye.

To all these we must eroecially add the highly comprehensive and in- structive memoir of Prof. H. D. Rogers, in the Transactions of the Asso- ciation of American Geologists, on the Appalachian Coal Fields. This paper is a rich contribution to American geology ; and it is due to the writer thereof to state that his views oo the subject on the transition from anthracite to bituminous coal had been stated through the medium of his public lectures, in 1837, and were more fully developed in 1843.

For local statistics we have frequent acknowledgments to make to the newspaper press, among which we are bound to name the Miners' Journal, and the Anthracite Gazette, of Pottsville ; the Mining Journal, of New Yoric; and the Commercial List and other leading journals of Philadelphia. From such prolific sources as Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, Hazard's Register, the American Almanac, &c, we have been permitted to glean many valuable details* To proceed : —

That changes in the composition of the coal, from a partially bituminous state to that of anthracite, occur in other parts of the worid, several in- Unces will be found in these pages. Those of South Wales and of the Donetz coal-field in Russia, and on a smaller scale in several of the basins of Franoe, are cases in point.

In like manner the flaming coals of the Auvergne and Bourbonnois basins, are shown to contain a complete series of dry coals with a short 4ame ; of fat coals with short flame ; of fat with long flame ; and dry with long flame. Also, in the basin of Commentry, we find, at some hundred metres of distance, and upon the same margin of that basin, the anthracite of Chambled, and the dry coal with long flame of Ferrieres.*

The Schuylkill coal region possesses striking points of resemblance, although upon a somewhat diflerent scale, to the great coal basin of South Wales. The latter is ninety-four miles long, and averages about fifteen miles in breadth. Of this elongated area, the western seventy-four miles consist of anthracite beds, with the exception of some partly bituminous seams on the south side of the basin. The remaining twenty miles, on the east, consist of dry bituminous coals, semi-bituminous coals, and steam coals ; but, occasionally, the same section yields beds of coal of modifica- tions of all these varieties.

The Schuylkill region is sixty-fife miles long ; extremely attenuated for eight or ten miles, at its western extremity, so as to be unproductif e there to any important amount For about eighteen miles out of the sixty-five, at its western prolongation, the quality of coal is of an intermediate cha- racter, like the steam coal of Wales. It then gradually passes to free bum-

AbbiIm dM MiMt, Vol. I., 1842, p. 96.

PEmfSTLYANIA. 107

ing aothraehe on entering Schuylkill county, from Lebanon; and, still farther east, to the hardest and purest anthracite. We have, elsewhere, pointed out a similar passage from the extremes of each quality, like those in Rnasia, and we add that of the coal basin of St Gervais, ini Herault, France.

Geological Models.

In intimate connection with the physical and economic geology of the Schuylkill coal region, the author may be here permitted to advert to a spe- cies of illustration, for the first time introduced in America, by himself. In 1840, a geological model was constructed of the western half of the Schuyl- kill coal district and its vicinity, upon a scale of two inches to the mile. The area so represented comprises seven hundred and twenty-three square miles, or 4(S0,ti00 acres, being in breadth sixteen miles and in length forty- five miles. This model was first exhibited to the Association of American geologists and naturalists, at their meeting in Philadelphia, in April, 1841, to illustrate an address " on the most appropriate modes of representing geological phenomena."*

Dr. C. T. Jackson, in hb first general report of New Hampshire, in 1841, also takes occasion to recommend, strongly, the process of geological illustra- tion through the aid of models. He, however, states his regret at the ex- pensive nature of such works, and the length of time requisite for their completion.t

Ii. Middle Anthracite District.

First Subdivision. The Shamokin Coal-Field.

In proportion to its magnitude, this is the richest and most regular of all the Pennsylvania basins. The coal seams are unusually abundant. The writer ascertained the out-crops of upwards of twenty, towards the centre of the basin, in 1847, and more remain to be developed. Some of these are of large size, one being twenty-seven feet ; and one, much larger, is called the Big or '' Mammoth Vein." Its maximum thickness is said to be here about my feet

Silliman't AmericaD Joarnal of Science, toI. zli., p. 81, 1841. Alio, Traniactiont of tbe Asaociation of American Geologitta and Naturaliats, to], i., p. 81.

t Report of New Hampshire, bj Dr. C. T. Jackson, 1841, p. 36.

Note. — In Europe, geological models and models exhibiting lines of railroads, mines od harbors, and even estates, are much coming into use ; although the frequency of em- ploviog so desirable a mode of representation is impeded bj the heavy cost of such works. This objection applies with even stronger force in tne United States, where capital is less abuadant and where economy is indispensable.

We perceive by a paper read to the Institution of Civil Engineers, in London, on the construction of geological models," by Mr. J. B. Denton, May, 1842, that the cost was tated at from 2. 6d. to St. 6d. =$0.60 to 76 cents, per acrt. Of course the eipense is influenced by the scale on which the mode is projected. As Mr. Taylor's model of the Schavlkill region contains 460,800 acres, it would amount to a considerable sum, even at one iflieth part of the above named prices.

Again, the author referred to states that a model, showing the line of a railroad or canal, would cost ten pounds [X'lO,] per mile. There are about one hundred and seventy miles of canals and lines of railroads and projected railroads shown on Mr. Taylor's model. If these rates include all the preliminary eipenses of surveys and the collection of deuils, they are perhaps not so greatly overrated.

Since wriung the foregoing paragraphs we have seen the commencement of a model of the Sbamokin and Mahanoy coal basins in Pennsylvania, and rejoice at the adoption of this excellent mode of representation.

IQB UNITfiO RATtt OF JMEBICJL

At Bear Gap, towaida the western termiiiation of this field, is a fine natural displaj of outporops of all dimensions. Like all the anthracites in their progress westward towards the Susquehanna, their specific gravity diminishes, and they become soAer. A cubic yard of thb coal, here, weighs one ton and*seventy-three pounds. Specific gravity, 1.371.

At Shamokin, an immense quantity of coal occurs in the northern rise of the strata, which are here displayed in a double axis. The beds vary from five to deven and a half feet in thickness, with the exception of the Mam- moth Vein," which consists, it is said, of sixty feet of coal of various qualities and degrees of purity. In general, the Shamokin coal has a white ash : it is a firee-burning antliracite, of fair repute in the domestic market, but is considered to be somewhat too soil for the most advantageous applica- tion, as a fuel, for a blast furnace. The large vein appears to be identical with that seen at Tamaqua, at the Swatara region, in the Wyoming coal-field, Beaver Meadow, d&c The direction of the Shamokin beds b N. 82® K

Amount of col sent to market from the Shamokin district, via a rail road oraxteen miles to Sunbury on the Susquehanna, for the nine years in opera- tion, finm 1839 to 1847, inclusive, 1 19,31 1 tons. This coal is of the white ash q>ecies. We have seen an analysis, which assigns 89.99 as the propor- tion per cent, of carbon in the harder variety.

Second Subdivision, Or Biahanot Basin.

This area contains a splendid suite of anthracite beds, none of which have been yet worked, nor has there been made a railroad for conveying the coal to market ; so that, at the time we write, this valuable coal basin remains entirely unproductive.

Advancing eastward, we arrive at the Girardville coal works, now tempo- rarily abandoned for want of the means of transporting the coal, but where an enormous development is exhibited. In structure and quality, the anthracite is more solid and ponderous than at the positions mentioned westward ; a cubic yard weighing one ton and four hundred and sixty pounds. Specific gravity 1.600.

This extensive coal property, upwards of fourteen miles in length, was the munificent gift to the City of Philadelphia, of tlie celebrated Stephen Girard, and is destined, ere long, to yield a splendid addition to the corpo- rate revenues. Some years ago it furnished a considerable quantity of anthracite to Philadelphia, but the business has been for some time suspended.

Third Subdivision. Eastern Group Of Small Basins.

Retaming, for the sake of convenience, the topographical arrangement heretofore in general use when speaking of the Pennsylvania anthracite dis- tricts, we have to remark that this is much more complex in its physical features than the southern region, which we have previously noticed. We shall convey the best idea of this middle region, by describing it as made up of a somewhat numerous series of troughs or elongated basins, and separated from each other by as many anticlinal axes or flexures, which commonly bring up to the summits of the ridges the underlying red sandstone and shales. So frequent are these undulations, that on one estate of eight miles in length which has come under our examination on the eastern portion of the region, we observed six or seven of these nearly parallel basins, whose

P£Nn8Tltania. ]O0

prerailing direction is about ten degrees to the north of east The general surface is thickly co?ered with diluvium, so as to conceal the out-crops of the coal seams ; but in general there is an unusual agreement between the configuration of the surface and that of the basins themselves : the cod measures, which are the highest strata in geological position, occupy the bottoms of the ravines, while the red shales and sandstones, upon which the anthracite is imbedded, ascend from beneath them to the highest crests of the mountains. Thus, therefore, we learn to regulate our researches bj the general rule, and seek for the superior rocks in the lowest positions, or the synclinal valleys.

Taking these local basins either as a group of individuafly, we find them much shallower than occura in the Pottsville region. This fiict was also inferred by Mr. Logan, from the frequency with which the conglomerate iM brought to the surface.* In the present instance, too, we are struck with the circumstance of the greatly reduced thickness of the entire coal series and subjacent conglomerate, as compared with the same rocks in the southern field ; even so near as Tamaqua, eight or ten miles only to the south.

The basins of which we have been speaking, are separately indicated with his usual perspicuity, by Prof. H. D. Rogera, in his third annual reportt Details of these are doubtless reserved for the final report of that survey. In the meanwhile we may observe that this country contains many associations for the working of anthracite deposits. Most of these companies have pub- lished siatistical reports of their respective localities, with maps, analysis, and other suitable illustrations. During the last five or six years prior to 1846, the development of these valuable depositories of mineral fuel proceeded with languor, owing to the financial embarrassments of the country. Of late, much of this property has changed hands : new areas have been laid open, and a spirit of activity has again manifested itself with the returning prosperity of the times.

The section below represents the relative position of the various anthracite basins which are crossed by a meridian line from Mauch Chunk mines to the Wyoming coal valley, a distance of thirty-eight miles.

Fig. 11.

Trmuterte Sfdira qftke Penmylvania Anthraeitt BaHm, im a north and mmik Urtetim

looking west.

SSfliilcf.

The eastern group of coal basins belong to various associated companies. Those which have made the greatest progress in mining coal and making rail

Proceeding! Geol. 800. London, Vol. III. p. 710, 184S. t Third Report of the Bute Geologist, p. 25.

110. umru) STATES of America.

roads, are the Sammit Ckmipany, the Hazdton, the Sugar Loaf, the Beaver Meadow, and the Buck Mountaia Companies. Their workings are chiefly limited to the main seam, or rather to a group of three or four seams, amounting to about twenty-eight feet, the coal of which is a remarkably pure anthracite, highly esteemed. Our notice of these establishmento must be necessarily brie£

The Summit Coal Company's operations until lately have been carried on, in great measure, as an open quarry, not possessing a rock roof The entire mass is, estimated at twenty-eeven feet thickness, in four beds or divisions, and from the undulation of the strata, it is brought up two or three tiroes to the surface within the general area. The works are recendy carried on by means of a vertical abd and the produce is as follows : —

In 1846 11368 tons 1847 32,280

The Haxeltan mines are worked by " slopes" and steam-power, on both the north and south sides of the basin ; that is to say, dipping in opposite directions to the centre. About twenty feet thick of coal, in three seams, are mined at this colliery. The basin contains two or three smaller beds, as at the summit mines. The specific gravity of the coal is 1.550.

Amount of coal sent down to market from the commencement of the colliery in 1838 to 1844, inclusive, was

271,066 tons In the year 1845 70,659 "

" " 1846 08,150 " '' 1847 105,766

Toul 545,641

The Sugar Loaf mne takes the coal of the north slope of the Hazelton basin, and from the same general bed.

The aggregate in four years, ending 1845, is 85,439 tons only. Circum- stances of a financial character have interrupted the coal operations for two or three years, but they are now on the point of renewal on an enlarged scale.

Beaver Meadow Colliery exhibits a considerable section of coal, raised by steam power. A cubic yard of this splendid anthracite weighs one ton and four hundred and sixty pounds. Its analysis, together with that of the other mines we have enumerated, appear in our general tables. The returns from the Beaver Meadow mines commenced in 1837. From that year to 1842, inclusive, a period of six years, the aggregate sent to market was

231,894 tons

la 1844

70,379 "

77,227

" 1846

85,648 "

109,363 '-

Total 57411

P£Nnstlvania. Hi

The Bud Mouniam contains four coal seams, the thickest being twenty- two feet The company here sent down

In 1843

2JS44 tons

13,749 "

23,914

" 1846

46,103

60,847

Total 137,457

Tliere now exist ftcilities, by means of several rail roads, and by the Lehigh Navigation on the east, by the Schuylkill Navigation on the south, and the Pennsylvania Canal on the west, for transporting to tidewater an unlimited supply of a mineral fuel, unsurpassed in point of purity, probably, in the world. So late as 1834, the Coal Committee reported to the state legislature that the whole quantity of coal mined in this middle anthracite region, was estimated at only five hundred tons, which were hauled in wagons to supply the neighbouring districts." What has been accomplished since, appears from the preceding notes, and show an aggregate production within a very few years, of about a million and a half of tons.

III. THE NORTHERN OR WYOMING, WILKESBARRE, AND LACKAWANNA, ANTHRACITE REGION.

In the western half of this elongated basin, the coal formation occupies the beautiful valley of Wyoming; the remainder extends eastward to the Carbondale works, the coals of which almost entirely go to New York, and are of first rate quality.

In geological character this is but a repetition of the first and second coal 6elds below, although it has been less disrupted. Mr. Logan constructed a transverse section in 1842. Mr. Featherstonhaugh had made one in 1830. Here are several coal seams, varying from three to thirty-two feet thick ; but their number is not yet fully ascertained.* Near Wilkesbarre, the principal coal mine or bed, consists of a series of layers, amounting to twenty-nine feet thickness ; of which only eighteen feet are, or lately were, worked. This is mined by leaving pillars of fourteen or sixteen feet square, and the coal is extracted by blasting ; commencing with the upper seams. There are several mines towards the west, from this position ; some of which are accessible from the Susquehanna river. They are worked by means of open galleries, twenty to twenty-four feet in height. These are generally of the denomination of red or grey ash coals ; those to the eastward are commonly of the white ash kind.

It was formerly thought that the Wyoming coals were inferior in quality to those of the other districts. This evil reputation was, in great measure, derived from the impolitic method of mining, during the early years of coal operations in this valley, whereby much inferior coal was permitted to go to market. Where regard is had to a proper selection of the purest seams, or parts of seams, the coal is entitled to a character equal perhaps to that of

SUliBAo'f Joanal, ISIO. Alio Haurd'i lUfiitar, vol. x. p. 319.

110. umru) iTATEs of America.

roads, are the Sammit Company, the Hazdton, the Sugar Loaf, the Beaver Meadow, and the Back Mountain Companies. Their workings are chiefly hmited to the main seam, or rather to a group of three or four seams, amounting to about twenty-eight feet, the coal of which is a remarkably pure anthracite, highly esteemed. Our notice of these establishments must be necessarily brie£

The Summii Coal Company's operations until lately have been carried on, in great measure, as an open quarry, not possessing a rock roof The entire mass is, estimated at twenty-seven feet thickness, in four beds or divisions, and from the undulation of the strata, it is brought up two or three times to the surface within the general area. The works are recendy carried on by means of a vertical abd and the produce is as follows : —

In 1846 11368 tons

The HazdUm mines are worked by slopes" and steam-power, on both the north and south sides of the basin ; that is to say, dipping in opposite directions to the centre. About twenty feet thick of coaJ, in three seams, are mined at this colliery. The basin contains two or three smaller beds, as at the summit mines. The specific gravity of the coal is 1.550.

Amount of coal sent down to market from the commencement of the coliiery in 1838 to 1844, inclusive, was

271,066 tons In the year 1845 70,659

1846 08,150 "

" 1847 105,766

ToUl 545,641

The Sugar Loaf mine takes the coal of the north slope of the Hazdton basin, and from the same general bed.

The aggregate in four years, ending 1845, is 85,439 tons only. Circum- stances of a financial character have interrupted the coal operations for two or three years, but they are now on the point of renewal on an enlarged scale.

Beaver Meadow Colliery exhibits a considerable section of coal, raised by steam power. A cubic yard of this splendid anthracite weighs one ton and four hundred and sixty pounds. Its analysis, together with that of the other mines we have enumerated, appear in our general tables. The returns from the Beaver Meadow mines commenced in 1837. From that year to 1842, inclusive, a period of six years, the aggregate sent to market was

231,894 tons

In 1844

70,379

" 1845

77,227

" 1846

85,648

Total 57411

P£Nnstlvania. Hi

The Buck Mauniam contains four coal seams, the thickest being twenty- two feet The company here sent down

In 1843

2344 tons

13,749

23,914

46,103

" 1847

60,847 "

Total 137,457

There now exist ftcilities, by means of several rail roads, and by the Lehigh Navigation on the east, by the Schuylkill Niavigation on the south, and the Pennsylvania Canal on the west, for transporting to tidewater an unlimited supply of a mineral fuel, unsurpassed in point of purity, probably, in the world. So late as 1834, the Coal Committee reported to the state legislature that the whole quantity of coal mined in this middle anthracite region, was estimated at only five hundred tons, which were hauled in wagons to supply the neighbouring districts." What has been accomplished since, appears from the preceding notes, and show an aggregate production within a fery few years, of about a million and a half of tons.

ni. THE NORTHERN OR WYOMING, WILKESBARRE, AND LACKAWANNA, ANTHRACITE REGION.

In the western half of this elongated basin, the coal formation occupies the beautiful valley of Wyoming; the remainder extends eastward to the Carbondale works, the coals of which almost entirely go to New York, and are of first rate quality.

In geological character this is but a repetition of the first and second coal

fields below, although it has been less disrupted. Mr. Logan constructed a

transverse section in 1842. Mr. Featherstonhaugh had made one in 1830.

Here are several coal seams, varying from three to thirty-two feet thick ; but

their number is not yet fully ascertained.* Near Wilkesbarre, the principal

Coal mine or bed, consists of a series of layers, amounting to twenty-nine

feet thickness ; of which only eighteen feet are, or lately were, worked. This

is mined by leaving pillars of fourteen or sixteen feet square, and the coal

is extracted by blasting ; commencing with the upper seams. There are

Several mines towards the west, from this position ; some of which are

Accessible from the Susquehanna river. They are worked by means of open

Sleries, twenty to twenty-four feet in height. These are generally of the

denomination of red or grey ash coals; those to the eastward are commonly

the white ash kind.

It was formerly thought that the Wyoming coals were inferior in quality those of the other districts. This evil reputation was, in great measure, derived from the impolitic method of mining, during the early years of coal perations in this valley, whereby much inferior coal was permitted to go to arket. Where regard is had to a proper selection of the purest seams, or of seams, the coal is entitled to a character equal perhaps to that of

SUlimta*! Jomraal, ISIO. Alao Haurd*a lUgiator, vol. z. p. 319.

United States Of America.

any other. In fiiet, there is here, as in every part of the anthracite Oelds of Pennsylvania, a great variety of ooal, even in the same general seam.

The existence of this combustible was, apparently, known much earlier, than that of the southern coal-fields ; and we are informed that it was fur- nished to the United States armory at Carlisle, in 1775 and 1776 ; but that it had been in use since 1768, in small quantities.

Carbondale is the most important working point from the Lackawanna region, at its north-east end; from whence, in 1829, a railroad and the Dela- ware and Hudson Canal were opened to convey the coal to the Hudson river, and thence to New York ; the amount transported the first year being 7000 tons.

In 1834 and 1845, the capital invested in this coal undertaking, was stated to be as follows:

1835 1845

Canal and Railroad, 123 miles, $2,30599 2,910,558

Colliery esublishment, canal boats, lands, &c 862,501 245,971

3,168,100 3,156,529

In 1828, there was but a solitary house on the site of Carbondale. It contained in 1833, 2000, and in 1840, 2,398 persons, chiefly employed by , the company, or in transportation, 6lc,

There is no description of fuel, for the use of the Hudson river steam vessels, in higher repute than the Lackawanna coal.

TaNe of the awiauni of ArUhracUe exported from the Northern Basin or

Dhnsiom.

LncktfTAnnm Bl4

THn.

Yin. 1 Tom. 1

By Cmnil And .

By Lehigh.

Tom.

7,000

123300

Todi,

76,331

43,000

148,470

I3it,300 '

ia3s

148,470

111,770

lS4a '

S27,60&

33,917

326 J 87

Is34

43,700

342,000

47,346

374.85]

&0,000

67,740

' 359,740

Ism

S€I,4S9

llfifOlS

1 367,033

115,387

1S46

3l8fQ00

178,401

46 t, 836

76,331

38,203

102,603

6p865

516,363

389,89f

10,340

e7S801

The oaantitT thus &r recMtered, as sent from this region between 1839 and 1846, iscle- siTe, is 3,733,686 tons ; which is eridently less than the amoant exported from the I

betides the home eonaomption, ,.

riTor.

It is impossible to tell the amonnt which pasted down th

The coals of the Lackawanna or Carbondale district are transported to New York bj the Delaware and Hudson Canal, 108 miles; railroad, 18 miles; and river nanjration, 91 miles. Total, 217 miles.

The coals of the Wyoming district descend the Susquehanna 194 miles, to tide at Havre ; the returns are from the Canal Commissioners reporu ; distributing coal at numerous points along the river.

Passed the Tide water Canal in 1845 - " 1846

58,131 tons. 67,905

Psnkstlvavu. Us

The Lackawanna is conaidered the lightest of the white ash coals that come to market ; the usage of the trade formerly assigned thirty-three bushels to the ton ; Schuylkill thirty, and Lehigh twenty-eight bushes. Our tables of specific gravities of the whole series of Pennsylvania anthracites will, however, bM exemplify this.

Mr. Logan, in a communication to the Geological Society of London, in 1842, states that he had taken some pains to construct a section of the Wyoming basin, at Wilkesbarre ; and furnishes the details of the formations there. The coal beds, he estimates at 14 or 15 in number, with an aggre- gate thickness of 70 to 80 feet

IV. BROAD TOP MOUNTAIN— SEMI-BITUMINOUS COAL- FIELD IN BEDFORD AND HUNTINGDON COUNTIES.

Hie area of this small detached coal-field we have not seen announced. Our own calculation is about forty square miles.

Of how many coal seams this basin is made up, we have not ascertained, beyond the six or seven that we have examined. They vary in thickness, from three to eight feet An article in the Transactions of the Geological So- ciety of Pennsylvania, by the present writer, in 1835, furnishes, in conjunc- tion with the Section, PI. VII., a view of the principal geological features of this coal-field. The analysis, in the same paper, furnished by Mr. T. G. Clemson, shows not more than 17 per cent of volatile matter, and 70 per cent of carbon.

An analysis from coal of this region, in the State report, shows only 11 per cent and 84 per cent, of carbon ; while a third examiner, Johnson, finds IG per cent, of the one and 77J per cent of the other.

The requirements of the neighbouring iron works, dtc, occasion but a small amount to be annually mined; while the insulated position of the coal-field, in the absence of a canal or railroad, prevents a coal business of consequence being done here to advantage. There are no returns on record of the quantity produced in this small region, for the reasons assigned. The peculiar character of this coal, which greatly resembles the Stony Creek coal, although from its remote position it will for many years remain in reserve, must always confer a high value upon it for furnace, foundry, and steam purposes.* The mountain, in which these coal seams occur, " is a broad irregular plateau, having several spurs, running out towards the bounding valleys." t

Remarks.

We are aware that, by geologists, the foregoing details of the Pennsylvania anthracite regions may be thought somewhat too statistical. Yet if geology be estimated with relation to its practical usefulness, and in its cconomiod sense : — if it be viewed in its tendency to benefit the community ; to de- signate new channels for productive industry ; and,— especially as regards the New World, — to almost boundless sources of remuneration, we need not terminate this portion of our subject with an apology for the abundance of that species of information. It would be difllicult, indeed, to select a finer field, wherein to demonstrate the practical and useful applications of the science, tlian the country from whence we write.

*On certain coal beds near Broad Top Mountain, described nnder the denominttion of Bitamiooaa Anthracite.* '—R. C. T. in Trana. Geolog. Soc. of Penn., p. 176, 1836. t Geogiaphy orPesnajlfania, p. 184.

UNITED gTATSS OF AMERICA.

Production Of Pennsylvania Anthracite.

Tn the following summary are exhibited the periodical yearly |>roduetion of anthracite, and the aggregate amount of tons sent to market by fariooa avenues, at the corresponding periods. Of the home conaamptioo for domestic ose, for manufectoriea, blast-furoaces, forges, rolling-mills, and the coal which is conveyed by other routes from the mining districts than the railroads and canals, we possess no returns or direct means of judging.

As the best illustration of the rapid progress of the coal trade, and of its influence on the domestic commerce of Philadelphia, since the opening of the mines, we annex to our table, in the fifth column, a statement of the enrolled and licensed tonnage of Philadelphia, and in the sixth column, the coistwise arrivals at the same port, and in the corresponding years.

§

Ferlodieal inereM.

oMrket in

fiten

Afgrente

apply at corretpond- tBI periods.

Todimim

ofPkttad.

Enrolled and 11-

Cetwtae arriTala at PblUd

Is48

Tirat cargo of coal aent to Philadelphia.' In this year there were raised at Manch I 1820K Chunk, in Abe Lehigh region, which continued the only source of supply tor five years,

he first returns from the Schuylkill coal district, and which, with Manch Chunk, formed the two sources far four

.years,

First returns from the Lackawanna dis>' trict, which, added io the former, pro- duced in the three coal regions, during five years,

The Swaura district opened, forming' the fourth, for three years, I A fifth region, the Beaver Meadow/ came into operation,

f Another colliery, the Hazleton, in the

middle region, now commenced, and,

I [ with the five others, sent to market,

J The Shamokin and the Sugar Loaf mines, now contributed to the supply, altogether furnishing ;The united eiportation from all these! 'localities was

The Wyoming, or Wilkesbarre district, now first appears in the returns, 32,. 1 917 tons. To this may be added the A amount mined, during several preced- ing years, by the Lykens Valley Com- (pany, estimated at 60,000 tons. General production this year, ( Includes the first returns from the Buck ) (Mountain, )

General production,

(General production, including many) >new collieries, (

(General production comorises a great S number of mines, opened within a few ( years, particularly in Schuylkill Co., ) (General production, business increase) (638,317 tons, 5

Tons.

34,893

113,083

383,547 881,036

739,S93

819,327 865,414

1,108,899

1,018,001 1,263,539 1,631,669 2,023,052

2,343,992

2,982,309

Tons.

53,935

355,015

1,941,736 4,131,548

4,870,841

5,690,168 6,555,582

7,607,398

.8,715,399 9,978,938 11,610,607 13,633,659

15,977,651

18,959,960

Tons, 24,117

29,421

27,494

46,653 58,237

60,161

63,790 67,045

71,588

100,641 104,340 114,894

VttseU

10,860

11,188 9,706

11,738

10,457 7,659 8,016

11,476

14,971 18,069

There are various tables in circulation, but none are complete in all the details. In compiling the foregoing statement, we bare adhered to the official returns of the various companies u far as poMible, asaisled by Ibe

PKNNSTLYAmA.

tnnual somnitrj poUiahed in the PoUayiUe Mineii' Joama], and the PhUt- delphia Commercial Liat

PHILADELPHIA, READING AND POTTSVILLE RAILROAD, For the Transportatum ofAiUhradte.

The increasing demand for the anthracite of Pennsjlrania, the rapid in- troduction of this combustible into most of the Atlantic states, and the cities of the seaboard, for domestic purposes as an economical substitute for wood, and its enlarging consumption in manufacturing establishments, and almost ererj here, where steam was the mo? ing power, accelerated, at a corre- sponding rate, the requirements of the owners and uses of the collieries for adequate facilities of transportation.

The project of a continuous railroad from the mines of Schuylkill county to the rif er Delaware, the nearest point of shipment at Philadelphia, first receif ed the legislatife sanction in 1833, and in 1835 the arrangements ha?ing been organized, the work was commenced.

On the 16th of July, 1838, the railroad between Reading and Norristown, uniting there with the Philadelphia and Norristown railroad, altogether a distance of fifly-four miles was opened for the conveyance of passengers. In December, 1839, the line of railroad between Philadelphia and Reading was opened for transportation. Subsequently, the works were extended at its southern extremity to its terminus at Richmond, on the Delaware, near Philadelphia, and northward to Port Carbon, near Pottsville. On the first day of January, 1842, the first locomotive and train passed over the whole line, between Pottsville and Philadelphia, a distance of ninety-three miles.

The following statement exhibits the amount or quantity of coals con- veyed on this railroad, and the receipts for transportation of the same, from the commencement, in 1841, for the years ending November 30th, annu- ally, compiled from the annual reports of the Company.

Yean.

Tom of tB40 Ikt of roal only.

Frelf ht and toll for coal.

Freight per ton.

49,753

218,711

421,958

814,279

1,188,*258

1,360,681

278,840

448,508

886,939

1,600,667

1,698,664

tl.27

Total,

4,054,489 1

From the same official reports we perceive that the amount of running machinery, in employment in each year, on this railroad, was as follows:

1!

Locoinour BDginei,

11, 11

CoaJ Cirt,

31Cm

Ff*ighi Cirt,

ao

nb

42. 503

PitBcngpr and Bigipige Curs,

19) n

££jra Cira for wood liidra, kjt.

46, $4

Stationary EnKinei, and

PortabJ Steam F.nginin,

n

s

QotaM,.

UNITED nAr$B or averic a.

I%e mmiber qfpMMOigtrs irmttporUd, the reufir tkeirfan, and tki mmber of miles traveBed are Miff

Tean.

Nonberof ptsiengert.

66f554 66,50S 63,719 88,641 97,463

MUm tnTeUed,

3,467,439 3,159,909 3,049,493 4,154,914 4,560,360

Receipts.

f71,895 93,363 103,411 141,749 156,301

Hie total length of lateral railroads connecting with the Reading railroad, under other chvters and corporations, but all contributing to its business, using its cars, and returning them loaded with ooal, was about ninety-fit e miles, in 1846.*

According to the annual general account of the company for the year ending 30th November, 1846, the total cost of the railroad, locomoti? es, cars, real estate, depots, and materials, is $11 fi89jQd6.

During the year 1846, there were cleared from Port Richmond, the ship- ping depot of this company, on the Delaware, Number. 7,485 vessels, carrying 692,464 tonst of Schuylkill coal.

Alio 1,468 181,792 Lehigh coal.

Total 8,d53 1,074,256

In 1647, 11,439 from Port Richmond.

8Chutlkill Navioatiqn,

JPor ike iranspartaiien ofAnikraeUe-eiigik ome kwidred amd efghi amd a quarter mUe$t hekage six hoAred and tmenhfftet.

This canal, which was commenced some yeare before the importance of the Pottsville coal-field was known, or even suspected, affords, through the annual reports of its directors, an unerring criterion of the rapid advancement of the coal trade.

Table of the annual number of tans of Anthracite, the amotaii oftoU received thereon, and the average rates of toUper ton on the SchuyUtiu Naoigatum, from the commencement of its coal trade in 1825 ; compiled from the com- pans annual reports.

Tetn,

TMt. '

Per In.

Yfttn.

Toll.

Per t<ni.

#9,700

$1.40 1

449, 60S

9381,198

issa

47,Sfi4

46,201

1840 1

453,291

373,400

0.H2

Sd,984

ft7,m

0M7

1B41

fi84,691

432,490

]S33

209,371

I84A

401,603

235,544

}Hu

3t6,9i

aM,4dQ

O.dO

1S43

447,068

230,714

Q.58

]8Sd

319,508

it0,47$

0.&1

398,887

169,880

0,43

99,47I

01

363,687

0,33

6ft3,ias

4M,7f9

0.&S

3,440

Om

Is38 1

433,S75

S8fi.(lt4

1S47

fn,m%

BflMfi' Joamal, Janoanr S3d, 1847.

t pyiaddphu Commercid List, JiAMry l6Uiy 1847.

PSNlfSTLVAlfU. 117

M. Chevalier eoneetly remarks, that the falne of thie anthracite regioii [giaenient] has literally become immense ; and its workings fexploitation] mve accomplished a rerolotion in the domestic economy of the Atlantic states.* This canal was commenced in 1817, but it was not until 1825 thai anthracite commenced to form the principal part of its tonnage.

In 1883 the number of canal boats used on the Schuylkill Navigation, was 580.

In 1843 the number of loaded canal boats which passed down the Schuyl- kill Navigation, was as follows —

Covered boats, adapted to the direct trade from Pottsville to New York, averaging sixty tons, 278

Oj canal boats, for coal, 434

Lime boats, and misceUaneous, 58

Registered, as passing the Fairmount locks - - 770

The usual boating season is thirty-live weeks, annually.

The tonnage has been annually advancing, from 32,000 tons in 1826, to 540,000 tons in 1845. The charges on the transportation of coal have been reduced during this period.

In 1826 the tolls received amounted to somewhat less than 1 i cent per mile. 1843thewhole charge, including freight and toll,

The actual toll received each year from 1825 to 1845, is shown in the preceding table.

In the latter year, the universal voice of those concerned in the coal business, and of the great body of residents and proprietors of manufactories along the line, having for some time called for further improvement of the navigation, the stockholders resolved to enlarge the works, so as to pass boats of three times the former tonnage. Accordingly, the whole of the season' of 1840 was devoted to this undertaking, and the navigation was necessarily suspended during that year.

Four thousand men were employed on these works, and it was with great difficulty that an adequate supply of mechanics could be raised to carry on the work with a rapidity commensurate with the wishes of the directors.

Amidst many difficulties and embarrassments, caused by repeated freshets and the destruction of half completed works, the great object was accom- plished at the close of ld4G, in a satisfactory style, and with a rapidity which admits of no parallel in the history of the internal improvements of this country. The report of the president and managers of the company, 4th January, 1847, details all these circumstances, and the final result.

The capacity of the present navigation, is therein stated as being nine times as great as the canal when originally opened to the trade. It now arerages more than seventy feet in width, and six feet deep. It is adapted for boats of not less than one hundred and eighty tons burthen, and will be adcc|uate to the convenient transit of a million and a half of tons.

The aggregate investment of the company on the 1st January, 1847, including all liabilities, as well for the construction of the work as for boats and cars, dtc, amounted to $5,785,667.

Besides the canal boats specified above, the company possess three hun- dred cars, to run upon the lateral railroads.

Hittoire et detcriptioii det Voiei de comiDanieatioo tux Etata-Unif, par M. ChtvalMr. Pans, 1840.

United Tat£8 Of America.

Quantity of SckuyUaB Coal mmuatty soid in PkUadthJda.fcr home sianption, which desanded by the SchuylldU Namgatinu

DeliTered at Philadelphia,

Tears.

Tons.

Tmn.

TOBt.

Ir39

61,944

71,916

98,707

100,694

90,000

89,000

88,000

97,600

836,610

The registration of the consumption in Philadelphia, appears to ha?e been discontinued. The quantity which was received by Philadelphia in the year 1847, by railroad, was 2030 tons.

Frehts of SchuyVaU Cod camtuMyfrom PottsmUe in the snomth of October in each year pet ton.

fTo Philadelphia bj Canal,

$0.85

Freight aid Toll J From PotUTille 5

To Philadelphia by RaUroad,

To Richmond,

To New York,

a.35

fTo New York,

To Albany and Troy,

Freifflits From the Depot . at Richoiond oa ]

To Hartford, Con. -

To Salem,

To Boston, - - .

2Jk)

the Delaware

To Fall RiTer and Profidence, To Baltimore, To Washington,

On the enlargement of the Schuylkill Navigation, in 1846, it was esti* mated by the directors thai the actual cost of freight from Pottoville to New York, with an adequate supply of large boats, would be about 91*35 per ton. The freight in August, 1847, was, however, $2.00 to Richmond only.

The direct exportation of coal from the Schuylkill region, which de- scended the Schuylkill Navigation and the Delaware and iritan Canal, to New York.*

rMi*. L<Md.d Cuil Boat*.

Ton*.

27,000

64,388

1841 1,354

78,296

1842 2,243

126,554

1843 2,045

119,972

1840 Nat. suspended.

We have seen a stiteroent, purporting to exhibit the importance to Penn- aylvania of the trade in anthracite : — that in the year 1845, independent of the quantity consumed in the State, there were shipped to other states, as

Aaanal Reporta.

Pennstlvaioa*

much coal as amoontad at the average value [94.00 per tonj at the place of shipment, to the sum of 95,000,000.* In 1847, the value of the anthra- cite shipped at tidewater for other states, was not less than 910,000,000.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE ANTHRACTTf OF PENNSYLVANIA.

With the ezceptioD of iron, in the mining and manufacture of which, according to the census returns of 1841, more than twenty millions of capi- tal were employed in the United States, — nearly eight millions of which appertained to Pennsylvania,— the coal production of this State then gave employment to more workmen, and more capital than all the other minerals in the Union combined, or more than times ; as is shown in the follow- ing tahle:

Men emploTed in mioiog Capital inveated, Escluive of the caoali railroada, Pertoni,

United SutM in 1840.

Peoniylvania la 1840.

Lead.

Gold.

All other Ifeule.

Antliraclte.

BIcnnlD. one Coal.

Total Coal.

1,017 $1,346,756

1,046 $334,325

Sum tot.

$238,980

$1,820,061

2,997 $4,334,102

1,798 #300,416

4,796 4,634,518

In 1847, the capital invested in the canals and railroads, communicating with the anthracite regions of Pennsylfania alone, amounted to more than forty millions of dollars. This is wholly independent of the capital employed in the coal regions, and the trade consequent upon it.

Rapid Augmentation Of Production And Consumption.

With the exception of the two distressing years, from 1841 to 1843, when every species of property was alarmingly depreciated, and all business appeared to be paralyzed, the anthracite trade in its various departments, although not yielding enormous profits, steadily and rapidly acquired im- portance, from the period of its commencement. Each succeeding year saw new fields explored ; new deposits discovered ; more enterprise exerted in opening approaches from the seaboard to the coal beds, and more avenues for the transportation of the mineral fuel through the wilderness ; more capital invested in this fruitful branch of industry and commerce. Each year added to our acquaintance with the extent, the limits, the existence, of these vast carboniferous masses ; and advanced our progress in the science of industrial and economic geology. As in the building of the mighty £g}'ptian pyramid, each year saw arise, with augmented bulk, and still in- creasing magnitude, that immense fabric which had commenced from nothing.

The time has not yet arrived when an elaborate description of the - sjlrania coel-fields can be satisfactorily presented. Tliat task will, no doubt, ere long be executed by able hands, under all the advantages which the in- fluence and the resources of the State government can center. In the mean while, a selection from the notes which have accumulated under the authors hands, — although derived from sources common to all, — in the absence of

AnUiraeite Gaiette, Feb. 7th, 1846.

130 U5ITKI> nriiTBS OP AHERICA.

data more scientific, and of statistics more oflleial, w31 be the best subatitnte he can ofTer.

The following table in the diagram form, so ftr as extends down to 1842, is compiled by adding to the amount sent to market in each year, the quan- tity of coal on hand at its commencement, and dedooting the snrfrfos remain- ing at its expiration. The succeeding years represent the production, annually. From 1842 to 1848, the returns are of the amount which reached tide.

Adhering to the metaphor which he has emfoyed, the writer presents his readers with a diagram of this statistical pyramid; — built, not with granite, nor sienite, nor ponderous marble, but with Pennsylvania anthracite, and reared by her industrious citizens and free labourers.

Which of the two fabrics, — that of the olden time," or this, in the build- ing of which most of us have had a hand, — is most conducive to the good use of man V let the economists say.

Mr. Gliddon tells us, that the Egyptians, in daya of yore, builded their pyramids from the top downwards" — and so, too, have we constructed our pyramid. We are, therefore, not without good precedents, as venerable as they are substantial, for such a practice.

And now let us compare our work with theirs.

We are told that it employed 100,000 men, during twenty years, to con- struct the Pyramid of Cheops, or Shoopho, and that ten preceding yeara were requisite merely to prepare the materials, and to convey them from the quarry, a distatice of twenty miles. Now this, the largest of all the pyramids, contained an area of 3,300,000 cubical yarda. Allowing the ordinary com- putation, that a cubic yard of anthracite is equivalent to one ton in weight, and as we have brought up from the bowels of the earth about nineteen millions and a half of cubic yards or tons, and have conveyed them an average distance of at least one hundred and fifty miles, we have, in twenty- five years, acquired materials about sufficient for the erection of six such structures, united in one. Such are the colossal proportions of our Penn- sylvania Pyramid.

To be sure, the outline is not synmietrically beautiful, nor in that strict geometrical proportion which the eye delights to dwell on, or which the architect loves to contemplate. True, its upper portion is somewhat too attenuated ; but, then, we make it up in the base. At the beginning of the work, we admit, the outline had more of the spire than of the pyramid about it ; but then we were short-handed ; and, moreover, as soon as we discovered our error, we lost very little time in correcting that, as the books show; and we soon adopted more substantial proportions.

The base is now so broad and so firmly planted, and the structure has withstood such heavy storms of late years, that no fears for its permanence and future increase can now be entertained.

Success, then, to our great Pennsylvania Pyramid! May its proportions increase and overshadow the land !— may it ensure protection, security, and prosperity to all who seek its shelter, or who labour around its base ! — to all who contribute towards its enlargement !

mniSTLYAlflA.

lot

12.

STATISTICAL PTEAMID OF THS ANNUAL OONSUBfPTION OF AMERICAIT

ANTHRAnTfi.

Tmisi

m

Uniteq Otatss Of America. Anthracites-Statistics Of Production.

Lehigh Companyt Muu$, So rapid was the increase in the demand for anthracite, after the export trade commenced in the year 1825, [although the home market originated in 1821,1 that in ten years, as appoirs from the official returns in 1S35, the number of coasting vessels that received freights of the coal which had descended the Delaware, was one thousand and siztynine.

AmomU o/AnihracUe sent dawn from the Oompamfs mines ai Mauck C%ukk

ana Room Run.

11 years, previoasly to

Yetrt. 1 co.t ninet.

Tears.

Tom ftom the Co.'f minet.

307,887 44,683 133,441 800,000 154,693 143,507 103,364

78,164 163,763 138,836 319,345 257,740 274,633 334,9<29

Oeneral statement of the Coal eofweyed on the Lehigh Navigation.

Until so late as 1837, the only coal sent down to market was from the Lehigh Company's own mines, in the Southern Region.

Tean.

Periodical lacraaae.

Tom of coal traMported.

Tolta chiefly artoinff

The annual aoantity had increaead firom 365 tone ia 1820 to (Bt the addition of the BeaYer Meadow coal from the)

2d District [ iThe Haxleton Company'! miaet oaiM into operation,' ! and the whole 'The Sugar Loaf minee comnaaeed ia addition, making

ithii year Additional mines were pot ia work ia the 2d Region, ; in this and following years.

The reduction is owing to tiM damtfo to the eanal by! (a freshet. Quantity sent down by tho Labigh Navigation,

delay on accou nt of strika or boatmen,) )

A considerable improTemont ia the trade of thii year. A very favourable year fbr traaaporutioa. do. do. do.

do. do. do.

148,211 824,095

214,211

221,850

225,585

143,038

272,553

267,826

429,492 622,297 643,612

$110,905 149,266

125,411

141,300

143,335

157,844

173,660

170,759 203,405

Shments of Lehigh Cod from Bristol to Philadelphia, and ports on the

Delaware.

Tears.

Tom.

Yean.

Tears.

Tons.

Lehigh Co. Others no separate account kept Mince 1844.

11,245

12,601 25,000

50,780 77,840 35,972

History of the Lehigh Coal and Nantioo Company, 1840, p. 61. t Annual reporu of Uie Managers. The separate amounts of toll on the coal are not diatioguiahod in tha pablitbod roUmM.

Pennsylvania.

Lehigh Coal Statistics.

The flowing table ftom the Pennsylvania Canal Commiaaionere' annoal reporta, shows Sie amount of anthracite received on the Delaware division of the State Canal, at the andermentioned points.

Seot MMUiward from Easton, IUcivMl at BriMol,

Tom. 301,956 290,105

Tom.

398,821 835,199

Tons. 622,990 387,786

Tom. 450,178

Shipments and clearances from Philadelphia and Bristol, laden with Lehigh coal, in 1846, 1468 vessels, exclusive of boats, carrying 181,792 tons.*

Summary of Coal brought to Tide from the three principal regions.

I The anregate of cotl brought down by the iLebigh Navigation from the commencement [of the trade in 1820, incloding that from the |LebiCompao7*a minea, the Beaver Meadow, iffazleton, Sagar Loaf, and other coUieriea, to jlS45-6>7, [exclaaifo or81,9S5 tona from Sha- mnkin coo? eyed by another route,] I The Schaylkill region had prodaced ap to I the tame period, [excluaive of 233,288 ton from Pinegrove,]

I The Northern region ient to market by the nana/ OMinift,

Tom.

3,205,734

7,392,744 2,676,473

Tone.

3,635,187

8,953,098 3,088.341

Tona.

4,313,085

10,587,054 3,767,142

In the annexed diagram, bearing the title of Stream of the Lehigh eoal trade" we have exhibited, under one view, the whole extent, past and present, of the trade, from its origin. We represent, in this sketch, the main stream and the lateral channels through which the anthracite finds its way to market. True it is, the stream has heretofore flowed somewhat irregu- larij; sometimes embarrassed by natural obstacles and unexpected calami- ties; sometimes interrupted by temporary causes; yet has it ever pursued its accelerated course, and onwards advanced in an accumulated volume. Notwithstanding every check, always has it surmounted all barriers; always maintained its progressive character. Always has it given promise, in no distant time, of a mighty flood; prolific — fertilizing — reproductive. Suc- cess, then, to the Stream of the Lehigh coal trade! Onward may it flow; swelling in its volume; bearing on its surface and in its inmost depths, the elements of prosperity to all who embark upon its waters ! For ourselves, and in our day, we perceive but the beginning. We approach but the fountain head ; — the margin of a stream to whose capacity we can suggest no ultimate limit. We see, but darkly, the outline of that magnificent future to which all things are tending, when its projectors shall cease to exist

Philadelphim Conmaroial Liat, 16th January, 1847.

rac

UHITED tTATBt Of IIBRICA.

Fig. la

The Stream Of The Lehigh Coal Trade, D0Rino Twentt-Eioht

Tears.

Htireh Chtink to

CkpaI.

Ttari.

Tod..

Ydrji.

Tottft.

28,393 41,760 13l;250 314,211 225,585 272,653 367,826 377,094

52a,as7

643,971

1M1

30,000 2O,60g 3,755 30,210 48,431 49,700 23,000

EmIoh to Brliiol.

183S

1&I6 Is47

112,081

151,78$ 171,210 211,817 197,000 290,105 335J99 387,786 450 J 79

1fH5

134,667 30,385 49 J 60 43,649 31,000 11,679 30,009

ShsTd

IJf iftfi' u Rf/nff

rrt / 1

M

r

BbLppd to Phtla-

E*tlrD Port!.

lasi

184fi

i25 1 12,60t 50,780

laipTSt

1B33

iK30 1N38 )S43

25,52)1 15,271 30,000 4 4,000 117,397 IS!tn26 13<U074

'

%;

%Jl

Psnnstlyanll

lU

EXPORTS OF Ain'HIlACrrE FROM THE SCHUTLEaL AND DELAWARE.

Statement of the number of tons of anthracite, which had descended from the Lehigh and Schoylkill navigations, and which were Bhiin>ed for export- ation coasiunset together with Uie number of vessels of all sorts, [brigs, schooners, and sloops,] freighted therewith at Philadelphia or Bristol.

This natement is exclusive of the coal which jmud through the Dela- ware and Rarilan, and the Morris canals.*

Umgk OmI. flilpped cMitwiM

Sebnylkill OmU kMM StSrtirlM from tiM DelaWmre.at PhilaBBi&ud Port Rlcliinond.

AMi Erbtol UMl Pkiladelpbla.

VeMelB

Vmm*

▼cMeli

Tom.

cleared.

Toip.

cleared.

No.

lass

m

U95

r8

18S0

30,753

2,010

198,Hb

18M

70,194

2,361

Mm

30,076

3,226

18S7

6,549

i 3,070

38,977

1 2,695

278,888

I8S9

44,000

; 2,561

286,888

1 3,065

367,818

ftomBrlalol.

117,397

' 2,134

256888

130,074

181,792

7,485

892484 From Port 1,375880 iBidunond only.

184lf

11,439

PRICES OF ANTHRACITE IN PUlUlMUPBIA.

Jvcriye Rdail Prices for unbroken Coal, delinmnd im Philadehia, per ton rf SC240 lbs., chief y derived from the Cgmmwtiul List, and from BidndtM Reporter, and iJte Pennsylvania Inqmnr*

Ttara.

Ukteh 0chB9. WUte Radf

law

1S30 l(i36

Yeara.

; White Aab.

88. 87i>0 I 1840 6.00 6' 1S42 6.00 6.00 ; 1844 6.00 6.S6 I 1845 6.00 7,. 1846 6JM), 6.00.: 1847

Bchiiylkill Red Aeh

$5.50 85.50

5.00'

3.50 to 4.00 4.25 to 4.50 4.50 to 4.75

See alio tba diagram of Lehigh prices of aathrBOiie, [Fig. 14.]

Thoae prioca an, or coorac, only approiioMtO.

The Bekmifltaf white ath coal haa of lata Yoan almoat luperaeded the use of LtUmk eool. in Philadelphia, and ia gaMllj lOtiiied at 25 cenu per ton, bolow tto Bchaylkill red aah.

SeediagiaBi. [Fig. 15.] Schuyl- kill priooa ofulhraeite.

Partly taken from the Commercial Liat of PhiladpUa, Jaa. 9, 1847.

Im

TOHTBD STATIt OP ASOAICA.

Pxnnbtlyanu.

Dslaware And Raritan Canal.

PemiBjrlftiiia coals [Schuylkill and Lehigh] which passed through the Maware and Raritan Canal to New York. Ytar$. Tons.

1842, 171,754

1644, 367,496

1845, 872,072 Tons.

1846, 339,923 Lehigh Coal, 134,667

1847, 540,200 ] Schuylkill, 405,533

Number of Canal Boats which cleared from Bristol, on the Ddaware CanaL

Years. Boats.

1842, 4603

1845, 7361

1846, 7785

1847, 9206

Total number of clearances from the port of Philadelphia, in 1846, of coals of aU descriptions, 8953 fessels, averaging 120 tons, and containing 1,063|228 tons, in addition to that shipped in from the Lehigh.* In the year 1847, the number of clearances of vessels laden with coal, from Port Richmond, near Philadelphia, was increased to 11,439.

Rates of Commission as regards coal, adopted by the Philadelphia Board of Trade.

Commission on Sales, 5 per cent Receiving Commission, - - - - 10 cents per ton.

Domestic Commerce Of Philadelphia.

The following tables show the progressive increase, in periods of five years, of the enrolled and licensed tonnage, engaged in the trade of Phila- delphia, and of the total registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage of that port ; which increase is, in great measure, attributable to the coal trade of Pennsylvania, within the last twenty years.!

Ttan.

CoMtwiM.

ToUl Ton- nate regttt- ered, enrolled and licensed.

; Yean.

Coastwise.

Tout Ton- nace ref 1st. ered, enrolled and licensed.

LkenMd and enrolled TonnAfe.

Enrolled and

licensed Ton-

nage.

18M

3,922 7,326 8,032 11,000 16,803 29,360 24,117 29,421

67,620 90,946

103,011

87,264 83,676 95,011

24,236 49,860 67,045 71,688 67,749

72,216 86,446 103,944 106,806 100,641 104,340 114,894

There are a few unavoidable, but not very material, discrepancies in some of these returns, owing to the different sources from whence the data have been obuined.

Pfeuladelphia Comnereial List, 16th Janoarj, 1847.

t Statistical Aanali of the Usit Sutai. AdMi 8ybert, MJ). PbUa. 1818, sod

UNITED nATEM OV AMERICA. FOREIGN COBfMERCE.

As regards the foreign eommeree of PhUaddpkiay oor returns exhibit a gr falliDg off, whilst that of New York and Boston has considerably augmented. The following abstract is snffioieol to show the relatite (no- portions of the foreign trade enjoyed by these three principal ports.

TaUe of ike Foreign Arrivals and Dqarimts, and of the aggregate Value of the Exports and Imports.

PblUdclpbU.

n*w Toffc,

CUr And SiAla.

w

'a

'B

fl

fl

a

fl

p

B

q

m

,

" ,

It 2 m

R V

:22

&tz

>J5

147918

$i5fii,mB

326,436

948J44,€7

lum

,4S6j54&

643,610

7,067,452

5&4Joqo

' t

Hj$4,3$4

79,21447

S6g86S,280 M,0W,140

liM

ie,1l9,IJS

834,054

118,536,669

tB49

Ss3

ns,BSi

lM6fl,&]5

9,isa

1,931,810,

S&,4S3,000

063,87

17,794,000

BOl

]6€,Sl0t

7,453 p006|

25jl7$

7J3,7S7

27,667t!*43

im5

7S7

8,6U3,91S

81,164,479

25,37 5, 6iS

Img

173,000

8859,925

njSGS

3,176,&81

ni,S89,B0 147>l6,Ur

4,im

79e,7&l

34,507,073

Vabio of Exports domestic and farei, from the Custom-house returns, from the Ports of Philcidelphia, New York, and Boston.

Ttan.

FhtlitdlpliUu

Hw .

BortOB.

3,059,171 3,664,626 3,916,833 5,118,054 8,589,265

$8,526,739 30,422,672 35,607,367

9,370,857

8,576,384

Vabe of the General Commerce, foreign and domestic-lmports and

Erports.

Importi and Bxportf .

Ytf.

Philadelphia.

New York.

Boacmi.

11,733,590 13,426,669 20,725,202

111,289,696 147,9151

30,962,734 31,202,050

Hasard*a RMit. ofPeiiBa., 1828.

t Dictionary ofConmerce.

X Geography of PenntylTania, Trego, p. 145. Commercial Lift and Philadelphia Prices CurrenL American Almanac, 1845-7. *8 Merchant!' Magaiine. NUet'a Rcfi. M*CaIloch*a Gaxetieer. fimigruiU* Directory, ISSO. Commerce tad Najrigaiioa of iIm

8., Iffvv*

Directory, ISSO. Commerce S Csttom-hottte retant.'CoBmefeiftl LisL

PENNBYLVAinA.

In the subjoined statement we have shown the amount of tannage, owned, registered, emd enroUed, of three of the principal commercial ports of the United States, at stated periods, whereby the contemporaneous advance of their trade is made appajrent— compiled from ofiicial returns.

Poru.

16S1.

18S4.

Tonnafe*

ToOBtg*.

TOBDAfe.

TonDafe.|Tonna(e.

ToBBrnge.

Toniift(.

New York,

Boatoa,

Philid't,

268,548 149,121 125,258

286,438 138,174 79,968

359,222

212,536

85,520

430,000

203,615

96,862

496,965 201,323 104,340

525,162 114,894

625,875 227,994 14731S

655,695 241,520 148,068

For the more complete illustration of the relative commercial importance of these ports, we have added a table of their foreign arrivals and coast" wise arrivals respectively, during the years subsequent to ISlO.t The later years are from the Philadelphia Commercial List.

ForelffB ArrlTBlt.

ArrivAU

Cokl Tride of

1-

Isl

. a

Hi

£1

m O 1

1,477

1,195

63,137

1,808

1,064

4,600

3,538

2,849

12

]fiS,442

1,932

1,156

3,537

2,686

156,154

1S35

2,094

1,302

3,879

3,573

2,381

267,139

2,293

1,462

3,944

3,764

3,225

a44,8l2

1,790

1,553

4,01B

10,860

2,791 317,245

1,953

1,628

4,251

,188y

2,118

1,791

4,446

,738 J

jncfudiiig tb to&l trade.

1,962

1,719

3,803

3,862

10,4571

1,832

],68S

4,734

4,964

ictuiiirorthe

2,208

2,174

fi,009

8,016 K

eoAl Indfl.

2,043

2,304

5,770

8,(129 f

Port RicbmoDd.

]i(46

2,113

6,683

8,953 1 1,D6£,22S

3,147

2,734

4,864

17.0S3

11,439 1 1,375.000

From this view, it is seen that in the greatest increase in the number of foreign arrivals, Boston stands the first, while New York is the second ; and on that of coastwise arrivals, if we include the coal trade, Philadelphia con siderably outnumbers those of the two other ports. The apparent diminution in the coastwise arrivals at Philadelphia, from 1843 to 1846, is owing to the omission of all the small crafl which it had been customary to include. So great are the discrepancies among these statements, that it is impossible to know which to select. There seems no rule observed, by which the actual state can be known through the returns, which can be increased or diminished

Seybert't Statistical Annalt, p. 308.

t Hasard't U. S. Register ; Pbiladelphia Commercial List, and other loarcei. CommerM of Bottoo, Hunts Merch. Mag., Vol. jC., 1844. I Commercial List, Jan. 16, 1847. i Commerce of Philadelphia — Cniton-lioaM retnma.

United Itates Of Iherica.

at pleasure, accordiDg to the number of the smaller vessels incorporated therein.

As iar as the port of Philadelphia is concerned, the annual returns in the table are exclusive of all ships, barques, brigs, and schooners, in the service of the U. S. government They are also, with the exceptions marked, entirely independent of the enormous amount of coastwise shipping engaged in the coal trade.* These we have given, where we possess the data.

Statement of the enrolled and registered tannage of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia— employed in the foreign and coasting trade, including temporary registers, and exclusive of the ireheries :t omitting fractions, dis- tinguishing the foreign from the domestic tonnage.

NewToriL City And Bute.

BoctoB and MMtacbvMtU.

PhUadalphia.

Yeart.

ForelfB

ToDi

Regtourad.

Ooattlng

TODt

Enrolled

and lleented.

ForeifD

Tont

EefUtarad.

COMtiOg

Tont

and liemieed.

Porelfn

Tone

Reglttared.

CoaeUnf

Tone Bnrolled

and lleeaaed.

45,355 97,791 121,614 188,556 180,664 115,632 159,327 110,163 200,780 202,370

226,072 237,240 253,888

13,986 51,553 67,812 83,536 100,960

233,401 271,273

135,599 213,197 285,689 352,806 1 399,298

61,402 75,080 107,260 115,827

60,924 95,631 77,238 109,628 77,199 69,458 65,590 47,979 51,588 52,268

42,891 99,445

4,679 7,380 10,016 14,255 19,875 24,117 29,421 24,236 61,676

67,749 64,894

Batton

157,116

165,482

176,330

1 191,853

Ofi/y. 36,385 37,116 35,554 42,146

1846— 4onnage owned by New York, 655,695; by Maasachusetts, 541,520; by Pennsylvania, 148,058.

Note. — In commercial navigation, the registration or enrolment of ships at the custom-house, is designed to entitle them to be classed among national shipping, and to enjoy the privileges of the country and port, to which they belong, and in which they have been built.

Licenses are granted under certain regulations ; among which are their limiting the vessels to certain maximum proportions, and not to be square- rigged vessels, or propelled by steam. These licenses contain an accurate description and admeasurement of the vessel, the names of wHich may not be changed, and their owners must give security by bond as to the employ- ment of the vessels, which are restricted to the uses assigned.

The retqnii for theee veirt in the table are from a ttatittical ttatement in the U. 8. Ga- Mtte, Feb. 17, 1847. In Bicknell't Reporter they are thue tuted— in 1845, 4620 1 in 1846,

t Seybertt Statiitical Anoalt, p. 321—324, and evbteqaent lonrcea.

I McCulIoch*! Commercial Dictionary.

Pennsylvania.

Number of Cltaranus and Entrances of Vessels engaged in General Cem" merce, fir the year ending June 20th, \S47, from the following Ports.

OnimBcaf.

Namber.

Tonnagt.

Craw.

Botraneat.

Toul Nomber.

Number.

ToDa.

1. New York,

8.BoMon,

d. Phiiadelphia,

2,401

2,060

758,745 281,874 143,143

30,247 14,412 6,166

2,738

2,120

853,668 325,426 199,774

6,139 4,180 1,204

JVole.-*In the scale of importance, of the American ports, New Orleans ranks as Na 3, and Baltimore No. 4.

Steam Engines employed in the Coal business in Schuylkill Countyi

in 1846.

InPottsFille previous to 1846, inrottsFiiie, built in 1846.

In MinersTiUe and Port Carbon, Employed in 1847,

No.

Ilorae power.

In the valley of the Schuylkill were, in 1847, 324 miles of railroad and 108 miles of canal; in constructing of which have been expended upwards of 919,000,000, while the improvements in railroads and canals, in connec- tion with the transportation of anthracite in the Lehigh Valley, is ascer- tained at 87,045,000; in other avenues $8,000,000; and in the whole more than 837,000,000.

In justice to individual enterprise, at an early period of the employment of an almost untried combustible, we are bound to note that in January, 1825, Messrs. Jonah and G. Thompson of Philadelphia, completed for their Phoenix Nail-works, op French Creek, a steam engine in which anthracite was employed. Tinderstand this was the first successful application of this fuel to the generation of steam4

Employment Of Anthracite In Iron Making.

In the " Revue Generale de TArchitecture," M. Michael Chevalier pub- lished in 1840 an account of the anthracite basins of Pennsylvania. His statements contained nothing particularly remarkable, save that they brought down the condition of the operations in coal to a later period than that of Mr. Packer's report in 1833, upon which they are obviously based. Ue remarked, that the Americans have found out the means of making anthra- cite available, — not only for manufacturers, — but what was equally novel,

OSetal Retama.

t From Uie PotUTille BfiniDg Joamfl, Jan. S3, 1847. A)ao, aonual reporU ofllM Potta- TiHe Board of Trade. /

X Moathly Aatricaa Joanal of Goology, O. W. Fealhemonhaofh, Vol. I. p. 7S, 1831.

132 United 8Tatx8 Of America.

for domestic purposes : so that it has not only almost superseded the use of wood in eastern Pennsylvania, but in most towns and cities along the Atlantic shore. New applications of anthracite are discovered, and the Pennsylvania iron masters, in imitation of Mr. Crane, have successfully applied this combustible in their furnaces.

For domestic purposes its use has been greatly aided by the employment of stoves, the adaptation of which to this species of fuel has been advancing, from year to year, in a continued series of improvements, until there is little left to amend or desire.

After enumerating some of the difficulties attendant on its introduc- tion, and on the acquiring a knowledge of its properties, which were made apparent almost by accident, M. Chevalier adds, — " Mr. Wetherill; one of the principal manufacturers in Philadelphia, showed me in 1835 the place where, twenty years before, he had dug a hole to bury the anthracite, then looked upon as incombustible refuse."*

In relation to the present estimation in which anthracite is held, we may trace its growing importance in exact proportion as, year after year, new methods of application were, almost involuntarily, invented, and as one diffi- culty after another was surmounted.

Long within the experience of the present writer, large areas of anthracite land heretofore neglected and commanding only insignificant prices, have acquired a value wholly unexpected. Tt is no &rther Imck than 1828 that we find Mr. Bakewell, a geologist of no slight eminence in his day, lamenting that the quality of the Welsh coal was " so inferior,'' and, in fact, so impracticable as to be of little comparative use.t

Let us hear what is now said of this formerly despised combustible, by an intelligent authority writing from the same region : — Anthracite may be termed a native mineral, containing ninety-four to ninety-ix per cent of carbon ; burning without smoke or clinker in the grate, and almost wholly free fVom sulphur. One hundred tons of this anthracite are equal, in effect, to a hundred and forty-four tons of bituminous coal. Therefore, it enables steam vessels to carry, in the same space, nearly twice the quantity of efTec- tire fuel ; while the use of anthracite in these vessels lessens the cost of stoking ftve-sixths. The wear and tear of bars, boilers and furnaces, owing to the absence of sulphur, is less. Furnaces of the same dimensions yield, on the average, forty per cent more iron with anthracite, without any addi- tional cost for labor. Anthracite pig iron is found to possess greater strength and tenacity than any other. In re-mehing, the iron runs more fluid, and is very strong — a union of qualities most desirable, but seldom met with ; and, owing to the intense and continued heat of anthracite, some of the richest iron ores, not fusible with bituminous coal, are now eay Bmelted."

The rapid progress made in the manufacture of iron in America, by meai\s of Pennsylvania anthracite, since the commencement of the process in 1840, and even during the subsequent years of unexampled prostration in every department of business in this country — especially unpropitious to the introduction of a new branch of manufacturing industry — attest the growing importance of this description of fuel. In this State no less than thirty-six furnaces have been erected during this interval, and several others are reported to be in progress. Those completed yielded in 1845-6, at the rate of 107,200 tons per annum of anthracite iron : being one-third of the

Rene Generate de PArchitecture 1840.

t BakewelPt IntrodqeiioB to Geology, 3d edition,

I Miniog Journal of Londoo, Vol. X. p. 189, 1840.

PfNNSTLyANIA. 133

entire production of pig iron in the United States heretofore. In 184G, the production of 43 anthracite furnaces was estimated at 1 19,437 tons. To this statement must be added a corresponding proportion of refining, pud- dling, rdling mills for bar and railroad iron, and other works, in which this fuel is now solely used.*

The Board of Trade of Schuylkill county published the following state- ment of the number of furnaces and rolling mills in Pennsylvania and New Jersey which employed anthracite as a fuel, and were in operation pre?iously to April 1846: premising that there were only four anthracite furnaces in actirity prior to 1842 :

Tont. Tom.

42 furnaces, producing of pig iron per week, 2360 or 122,720 annually. 27 rolling mills, nunufacturing annually, 114,500 "t

It has been somewhere maintained that coal which yields a red ash never works well in blast furnaces, in consequence of the sulphur it contains. It is urged that this sulphur can never be effectually gotten rid of, except by the complete combustion of the coal and of the sulphuretof iron which pre- Tails— the process of coking, whether in ovens or pits, only reducing the per to the DTiMulphnret. IVkiie ash coals, it is therefore suggested, should always be selected for blast furnace work, whenever practicable. We con- ceive that these observations were intended to have reference to the varieties of Welsh bituminous coal in the iron districts, and does not apply to anthra- cite here. If so, no comment is needed.

In Pennsylvania, the subject of the comparative values of red ash and white ash anthracites used in blast furnaces, has been discussed by practical persons, most of whom conceive that the one is equally advantageous with the other. In one respect the preference is given to the white ash variety, on account of the greater density and compactness of its structure than the red ash coals, which are softer, and are supposed to make a less strong fire. But with respect to the theor)' that red ash coals contain more sulphur than the white, it has yet to be proved that in an equal average weight of each there is any appreciable difference, taking one coal seam with another.

It is well known that the white ash coals of Pennsylvania contain a larger amount of carbon than the red ash species, and that their specific gravity or density is correspondingly greater. The excess of carbon in the one being balanced by an increase of earthy and ferruginous matter in the other. Yet this excess of earthy matter, containing among other materials a small amount of sulphuret of iron, is very insignificant, and would scarcely pro- duce any perceptible difierence in the iron produced by the agency of that variety of coal.

To ascertain the respective amounts of ashes in these two classes of anthracite, we have consulted a variety of tables of analysis of Pennsylvania coals — the results are as follows :

Per CcnL Twenty-three analyses of diflferent white ash coals give an average

of ashes, 4.62

Twenty-one analyses of red ash coals in Schuylkill region, 7.29

The red ash has, therefore, only about two and a half per cent, more of

L(itt>r of the Committee of the Iron and Coal Trade of PeontyUanii.

t Fourteenth Annual Report to the Coal Mining Aaaociation, Fotuville, April 1S46, p. 9.

; Dau for the qae of blMt Airnacet, by 8. B. Rogert, Nant-y-glo.

134 tmiT£D fiTATES OF AMERICA.

earthy matter,— of which portion only eight or ten per cent consists of iron, — than the white ash.

But what is more directly to the point, is the summary of results of Pro* fessor Rogers' analysis of both kinds of anthracite from the Pottsville dis- trict, wherein the red ash -had absolutely less sulphur than the white. ' The introduction of anthracite and the hot blast in the iron-making dis- tricts of South Wales, has materially changed the relative proportion of the materials. Formerly, when the bituminous variety was employed in the coke furnaces of Monmouthshire, the materials necessary to make one ton of iron was, as stated by Mr. Rogers of Nant-y-glo, as follows :

Coke, containing 4032 lbs. of carbon, 2 tons or 4480 lbs.

Calcined iron ore, containing 2240 lbs. of iron, 2i tons 5040 lbs.

Limestone, - - - 2105 lbs. ton 2240 lbs.

Atmospheric air, 360,000 cubical feet about U ton 2700 lbs.

To make one ton of iron, 1460 lbs.*

In the United States, the employment of either species of coal and the make of iron from each, will be partly governed by local circumstances, and particularly by the proximity to the main deposits of fuel ; while large quan- tities of iron will, for a long period, be made through the agency of wood. The most rapid advance in iron making, of late years, is in the vicinity of the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania, where, as has been already stated, thirty-six blast furnaces, employing anthracite alone, have been put in opera- tion since the year 1840.

We will endeavour to present an epitome of the iron making of Pennsylva- nia,— premising that many of these returns are extremely defective.

nut far-

Forges RolU

Pig iron Bitd*

Tmus.

Buet.

lac MUU.

toot.

1838, 1830,

' 45

1842,

1843,

190,000

1844,

((

246,000

1846,

((

368,056

By a pamphlet on this subject published in 1847, by C. G. Childs, there were in the year 1840, by the census returns, —

Tont.

Of furnaces, 213 producing 08,395 cast iron.

From the bloomeries, forges, and rolling

mills of the State, - - - 169 87,244 bar iron.

Fuel consumed in the process, chiefly

charcoal, " 355,903

Number of workmen employed in all these operations,

including mining fuel and ore, ... 11,522 persons.

Production.

The Committee of the Coal and Iron Association of Pennsylvania reported in July, 1846, an estimate of the iron manufacture of this state, from which we derive the following summary :

Mining Joarntl of London, 1840, 1841, and sabteqaeBtl.

PENNSYLVAinA.

Tons of trim Number, annually made. Farnaces operating by the use of charcoal 274 248,569

Faraaces employing anthracite, 43 119,487

Increase in the number and production in Ibor years, being at the rate cent in that period.

368,056

xluction m )

of 142 per 104 216,171

Coital employed in the production of this amount of pig meial.

Chareoal fornaees, $47 capiul to every too of pifmeul manufactured. 1

ADthrmeite furnaces, $25 capital to each ton f of pig metal man ufactu red . J

Increase of capital invested in foot jean

Coital required in the conversion qfthM pig metal.

One half the aggregate made, converted into) bars, hoops, sheet iron, nails, &c, at $20 the ton, )

The other half, into castings, at $10 per ton.

$6,109,400

3,680,560) 1,840,280)

$8,660,418

$14,669,818 5,520,740

$20,190,658

Population employed in this branch of industry.

In mining the anthracite and ore, 4,978 miners

In making the charcoal, 12,428 workmen

Persons dependent on these for their subsistence, 69,624 persons

Population connected with the production of iron, 87,030

Persons deriving support by the labour in the con- )

version of the iron, estimated at a similar number, ) '

Total 174,060 persons

Without reckoning those who are connected with the manufactories of iron, machinery, &c., or in the transportation and sale of coal and iron, or in the business of railways, canals, 6lc.

Statement of the supplies of Pennsylvania iron received at Philadelphia from the interior of the state, by cantUs and railways, during the year 1846.*

tons of 2240 lbs. Pig iron and castings 66,568 Wrought iron, 15,588

Blooms, 6,278

Nails and spikes, 4,745

Total

93,179

Abstract of a Uble published m the North AmerioaB Janury td, 1847.

136 UNITED .STf OF AMSRICA.

SMemeni rftke importaiian of foreign iron inio the port of PhUaddphku

ATtr. of SjrMn,

lasStoKN. Tom.

18

Iron, cbieflj rtilrod iron.

Steel,

Manufketqred iron.

76,132) 3,276S 1,330 J

79,738

3,714

35

The recent reduction is attributable to the fast extension of the domestic production*

Gas as an avxiUary in smelting iron, in Pennsylvania,

The quantity of coal [anthracite] usually required in the iron works, has of late been reduced by the process of heating the blast by the gu from the top ; and the steam engine is worked by heat derived from the same source — the boiler being at the top of the furnace.

Wire ropes or cables adopted in mining shafts and on inclined planes, in preference to hempen ropes. See some valuable practical results, under the head of " Prussia ;" also in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, of Pennsylvania.

It does not appear that the use of wire cables in the hard anthraoite collieries of Schuylkill county, has been altogether successful as a substitttte for hempen rope in the slopes." The difficulty arises from the chafing of the cables, and the clogging of the rollers by fragments of anthracite, which injure the wire cables much more rapidly than it does the hempen ropes.

Delaware.

Lignite or Fossil wood occurs in the cretaceous group and green sand formation, and was especially exhibited in the lower mass of strata, in the deep cutting of the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal. Dr. S. O. Morton has adverted to this deposit in his Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group. The author observes that, " Lignile at one period was considered to be indicative of tertiary formations, but it is now frequently recognized in the green sand of Europe,'' and proceeds to point out its existence in similar strata on the Atlantic border of the United States.

like the strata of this period in various parts of Europe, the lignites here are accompanied by Amber, [Succinite.]*

The vast beds of lignite which occupy so much space between the Mis- souri and the Rocky Mountains, may probably be referred to the super- cretaceous period ; corresponding with the green sand formation of Dda- ware, rather than to the tertiary.

Sjnopni, by Dr. 8. G, Morton, 1834.

Nsw Tobk. 137

New York.

Petroleum And Springs Of Carruretted Hydrogen Gas.]

Tilis bitaminoas substance is commercially known under the name of " Seneca or Genessee Oil," in the town of Cuba, in this state. Mr. Van- axero described this " oil spring" in his state geological report, in 1837. It is a dirty circular pool, about eighteen feet in diameter, furnishing but an inconsiderable supply of petroleum. The oil is much used by farmers, and has a ready sate.

Tlie reporter observes that, " There is no necessary connection between oil springs and beds of coal ; the presence, merely, of bituminous matter disseminated in the rock, accompanied by decomposing pyrites, suffices to account for its presence; or a depth at some former period, sufficient to give the required temperature necessary to disengage the petroleum from bitominoua matter."*

On Cayuga Lake also, and at Cataraugus county, in this state, petroleum is found,- and in several other localities in York state. Carburetted hydro- gen also rises from the water courses in many places. Both of these mat- ters are, in this state, connected with beds of marine shells, and with salt water. So constant, Mr. Vanuxem adds, is the accompaniment of carbu- retted hydrogen with salt water on the borders of the upper part of the Ohio river, that the presence of this gas is considered a sure indication of the vicinity of salt water.

The details of the number of these " gas springs," are to be found in the chemical reports of Dr. L. C. Beck to the Governor of New York, in 1838.

Fredonia Natural Gas Lights. — Among the most interesting of the cases described by Dr. Beck, is that of Fredonia, in Chautauque county. The gas is collected by means of a shaA, sunk in bituminous slate. It is conveyed by a tube to a gasometer, and from thence, for the purpose of illu- mination, to diflferent parts of the village. This gasometer had a capacity of about two hundred and twenty cubic feet, and was usually filled in about fifteen hours, affording a sufficient supply of gas for seventy or eighty lights.f For interesting details as to the employment of natural jets of gas, see under the heads of China and Virginia, at Kanawha; also near Pittsburg.

Coal, — The intelligent mineralogist above quoted, reports that, in this state, throughout almost the whole series of its transition rocks, both an- thracite and bituminous coal have numerous localities; but invariably in quantities too small for usi'ful or economical purposes. In Europe, this most important fossil substance gradually acquires a maximum, then diminishes to a minimum; passing from plumbago to anthracite, thence to the bituminous, through its various varieties, to the acetous bituminous; thence to fossil wood and peat; and finally terminates in the perfect vege- Uble.l

Mr. Vanniem-t First Annoal Geological Report of New York, 1837, p. 195. t Dr. L C. Beck*i Report in 1838. See alao tome additional intereating oiatler vadar the head of China. I Ibid. p. 196.

13B

United States Of America.

Cupriferous Lignites of the CatskiU Mountain series. — Vegetable cists, replaced by grey sulphuret and carbonates of copper, occur in the same series of red and grey shales, as we have seen in various parts of Pennsyl- vania.*

Peat Or Turf.

Professor W. W. Mather has especially directed attention during the pro- gress of the geological survey, to this substance, both as a manure and a fuel. It is very common, and at some points has been in use for a great many years. A vast number of localities are pointed out in the State Reports, and estimates are made of the amount of peat therein.

As an instance of the value of peat, the case of a bog of 40 acres is cited, which furnishes a supply to the city of New York — wheie it is sold for $4.50 per cord. The peat being six feet deep, the produce of the sale per acre is $4500, a little more than a third of this being expenses.t

In Mr. Vanuxem's district some valuable deposits of peat are also men- tioned.

Dr. Emmons has, in like manner, furnished particulars of peat bogs within his geological district, and pointed out the high economical value which must, sooner or later, attach to this combustible, especially in those countries where coal is absent, or expensive.

Perhaps it would be saying too much to assert that peat is more valuable than coal ; but when we consider that for creating heat it is not very inferior to bituminous coal ; that it contains a gaseous matter equal in illuminating power to oil or coal gas; that its production is equally cheap; and in addi- tion to this, that it is a valuable manure if properly prepared, its real and intrinsic worth cannot fall &r short of the poorer kinds of coal.'*!

Consumption of Fud in the dty of New York (exclusive of foreign coal)

Wood in Loadf.

YMn.

out Coal. Tons.

Charcoal In Tabi.

ValaaofPutl.

397,686

Anthracite, 23,606* Virginia, 16,293

$814,817

S66,192

63,417

347,792

1,327,607

1,127,430

1,100,480

267,676

Bycanali, 96,431

303,284

249,944

336,895

2,600,000

Retail annual average prices of Schuylkill Anthracite broken, per ton of

2000 ibs.

Ystra.

Arerag. Pricfc

Ymra.

Avenge price.

5.m

1W7-8

Mither*i Fourth Report, p. 229.

t Aanaal ReporU on the Geol<y of New York, 1838, 1839, 1840. Mather and Vanoiem. t Enmont* Reoort on the Geology of New York, 1839, p. 216. See nolea on Peat, in rarlouf parta ofthit Tolame. ilAxird*t Register, 1833 to 1841. Thia Uble is incomplete. Alio Lehigh Co. Reporta.

New York.

Iso

WMesaie prices by the cargo of Anthracite and Bituminoui Coals in New York* the duty $1.75;i€r ton from 1892 to 1847.

1833. 1 1844.

1845. 1 1846. 1 1847.

Qaallty or Locality.

Per ton of 1140 Iba.

ChaldroiM axdnaiTe ofdaty.

Liverpool coal par chal-

1 1 1

#1 1 .50 tlS 50 #8 50 to 0.15 #6.00 to 7.S0

rtoio

#7 to 8 00

#8.50 to 8.7ft

NewcaaUa do.

lt.50i 7 00 to 8.00' 5.40 to 0.10

6to 9

6 to 7 00

8.00 to 8.15

Hcotcli do.

6.50 to 6 75 4.00 to 4.10

6to 8

6 to 6.50

Fictoo and ffydnejr do.

6.75 to 7.00

4.10 to 5.40

6 to 7

6.00 to 6.50

American Anthraclta,

pf ton, 9000 ItM.

5.00 to 6.11

5to 6

6 to 7.00

5.50 to 6.00

chaldron.

9.00 8.00 ; 1

6 ta 6 50i Ton.

I'he retail prices in the years quoted are from 91.00 to $1.25 higher, exclusive of the duty. The chaldruu is rated at 36 bushels, and the ton is 2000 lbs. weight.

Population of the city of New York in 1845, 365,000.

Emigrants and passengers arrived :

Yemrt.

VeiteU.

Pasienfra,

57,337

2,280

115,230

Value of Imports into the port of New York in 1846, $70,269,81 1 Value of Exports from the port of New York in 1846, 36,423,762

$106,603,573

Value of Imports and Exports to and from the port of New York in 1847 official acccount.

Imports, $96,447,104 Exports, 53,421,986

$149,869,090

Cost of the Slate Canals of New York,t $30,987,335

Aggregate of tolls in 1846, more than 9 per cent. 2,842,214

" in 1847, 12 per cent. 3,635,330

The average number of days in which the New York canals were navi- gable, (accidents not included,) in the twenty-three years previously to 1847 viz. from 1824 to 1846, inclusive, was 231. There about 1,100 miles of canal and inland navigation in the State. Capital invested in the railroads of New York, in 1846, $12,750,000. Aggregate length of twenty-one railroads, in 1847-8, 768 miles then in operauon, besides others in progress. Nett income received, about 7 per cent

Number of locomotives, 107 " of passenger cars, 212 of freight cars, 542V893|| of mail can, 139J

New York Commercial Adfertiier Aoguit, 1844.

t New York Evening Pott.

t Annaal Report of the Comptroller, 1846.

% lloot't Merchaou' Maffsiioe, November, 1847, alto Janaary, 1848.

II American Railroad Jonrnal, Jan. 1, 1847.

United States Of America.

The toUl value of all the property which deared from and came to the Hudson River, on all the canals, in the following years :

Boata. Valoe ofCargoet. Tom.

Arrived and deared in 1844 19,393 987,782349

'' in 1845 20,040 100,906,298 1,428,956 " in 1846 115,732,780 1.601,535

The value of the entire movement of property, in 1846, from and to the Hudson, is greater by $77,845, than the value of all the goods imported into the United States during the fiscal year, ending July 1844; and exceeds by $9,039,207 the aggregate value of the imports and exports of the port of New York, in 1846. r r- r

Statement of the tannine, toll, and value, of articles of all denominations, which passed through the State canals of New York, eastward, to tide water at Albany and Troy.

Value at Albany

Tears.

Tons.

Toll.

and Troy.

553,596 774,334

$2,034,882

$13,405,022 27,225,322

The total valae of the exports from the port of New York, in the year 1847, was $2,071,795.

666,226 834,283

1,749,197 2,081,590

22,751,013 28,376 599

1,019.094

2,446,374

34,183,167

1,204,943

2,646,453

45,452,301

1,362,317

2,842,214

51,105,256

1,744,288

3,635,330

73,092,414

The total amount of tolls upon the New York State canals, received in the twenty-four years, from 1824 to 1847, inclusive, was $34,334,356.

Statement of the number and tonnage of canal boats of every class, which passed upon the canals of the State of New York, in the years 1843 and 1846, showing the comparative increase in the latter, both in number, and capacity, and amount conveyed.

Tears.

Number of Boau registered.

Averafe tonnafs.

Aggregate

lonnage.

Agregaieor Arerage coiiTej. tons conTeyed. ed by each boat. Tons.

2,126 2,725

1 17,553 168,287

1,513,439 2,268,662

Statement of the quantity and value of mineral coal, chiefly the bitumi- nous coal of Pennsylvania and Ohio, which was transported on the New York and Erie canal, eastward.*

Reached Tide at

Teara.

Shipped at Bnflklo

Albany or Troy,

Value.

Bloetborg

ttom the Lake.

by ranal.

Tone.

TonaofttiOlba.

TontofSilOlba.

8,045

$15,586

8,816

18,101

6,528

32,588

8,250

55,993

21,339

119,496

1,461

8,414

47,116

14,055

84,000

30,110

Aniiaal Report ofUie Commiaaiooera ofUio ctoal Aind, Jan. 5, 1846.

RHODE ISLAND. ]4l

The rate of toll on mineral coal was rednced to one mill per 1(H)0 lbs. weight per mile, on the New York and Erie canal, on the Ist August, 1845. As the old rates amount nearly to a prohibition, this reduction secured a retenue to the New York canals, from a source which had previously yielded little or nothing.* The new and old rates are as (bllows :

1845 1846

C. M. C. M.

Mineral coal, per 1000 lbs. weight per mile, equal to

miles per ton of 2240 lbs. per mile, ... 0.4} 0.1

All coal used as fuel in the manufacture of salt, Free.

Rhode Island.

Localities Of Coal.

The report of the Geological Surrey of this State, appeared in 1840, from the pen of Dr. C. T. Jackson. This duty, of course, embraced the examination of the Coal formation, the collection of characteristic speci- mens for analysis, and of organic or tegetable fossil remains; wood engra- vings of which illustrate the report. Like all the public papers proceeding from this gentleman, it is characterized by special attention to whaterer tends to those practical and useful results which constitute essentially the aim and object of his labours.

The two positions where anthracite is found are, Ist, in Cumberland county, north of Providence ; and 2d, at Portsmouth, in Rhode Island, 23 miles to the south.

Cumberland. — Only a single bed of anthracite is mentioned here ; dipping to the south. All attempts to mine this appear to be abandoned for the present.

Mr. Hitchcock has traced anthracite also at Middleborough, at West Bridgewater, and at Wrexham.

Bristol Ncr.k, — Slate rocks, the grauwacke of the reporter, containing an abundance of fossil plants of the coal period — corresponding with the coal formation on the opposite shore of Portsmouth — occur here, overlying granite; but no coal seam has yet been noticed.

Pappoosc. — S(j Hate's Neck near Bristol, contains the same series of slates and compact rock, termed grauwacke ; and similar vegetable remains as at Portsmouth ; but no regular bed of coal is observed.

Cranston. — On Sockanosset I Fill — strata of similar character, with gra- phite and impure anthracite, show the extension of the coal formation in this direction.

Hunri Merchanta' Mtgaxiat. Fb. Md , 1846, tad otlir loarcei.

142 United States Of America.

Warwick Nuh. — Similar carbonaceous grauwacke, which is more pro- mising for coal than at most localities, and the local situation is ver j fa? oura- ble for mining.

Providence, — From excavations near the Court-house some anthracite was obtained, underlying tertiary clay.*

Newport. — Anthracite beds, a few inches thick, occur in the south part of Newport, in the slate, commonly denominated grauwacke.f

The whole area in Rhode Island State, where rocks of this age appear, covers about 150 square miles. The central part of this is overlaid by horixontal clay and sandy beds, apparently of the tertiary period, but without shells or other fossils.

Portsmouth Coal Measures.

Anihracite, — Some instructive details respecting the beds of anthracite and their contiguous rocks, occur in Mr. Hitchcock's Geological report of Massachusetts.

We do not know the date of the first working the coal here, but the operations failed between the years 1809 and 1816, and were subsequently resumed.

Dr. Meade, in Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, January 1820, says that the main seam of anthracite was then in work, and was 14 feet wide; yield- ing from 10 to 20 chaldrons a day, with the labour of only fifteen workmen. These works were soon after abandoned.

Previously to 1827, the mine was again put in operation, and the quantity of coil raised in that year, by 20 men and 5 boys, was 2200 tons, and an equal quantity of slack or small coal. The former sold at the mine for 94.50 per ton, and the latter for one dollar per ton. The agent, as is usual, represented these beds as capable, in the much hacknied phrase, of furnish- ing " an inexhaustible supply ;" yet we find that, in the succeeding year It, the mines were again abandoned, as unprofitable.

Prof. Hitchcock states that " six beds of anthracite are exposed, and more than thirty are said to exist in that part of Rhode Island." The six main seams are probably reducible to three, on each outcrop of the basin ; but of the " thirty,'' we confess ourselves somewhat sceptical.)

It appears by the reply to a circular addressed by the Secretary of the Treasury for statistical information, that the quantity of anthracite mined in Rhode Island in 1844 was only 2800 tons. The price at the mine has been uniformly 93 per ton ; but the mine is since once more abandooed ; never having been profitable. §

In 1846, Rhode Island coal imported into Boston, 165 tons.

Mr. Vanuxem was one of the earliest investigators into the quality of the Rhode Island anthracite — in a series of experiments, published in the Jour- nal of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1825. The result will be found in another part of this work.

Jackaon, 1840.

t Hitchcockt (;eoIoffyi p. 362, 276. X Geology of MattmchateUt, 1833, p. 277. i Report December 3, 1846, p. 338.

y Joaraal of the Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Vol. V. p. 17. ExperimenU oa Aatbracits, Plan. Ikifo, iKCy bj Lardner Vanuxem, March 16, 1826.

Rhode Island.

Portsmouth Anthracite Formation.

Proceeding now with the State geologist's description, — '' The main for- mation consists of slate rock, which is here and there charged with beds of anthracite. Several small seams of coal have been found as far south as New- port. On Quaker Hill a small coal bed was struck many years ago, but was not wrought Lawton's valley exhibits the clay slate without any coal beds. Butts' hill, in Portsmouth, presents a mass of stratified rocks, alter- nating with and overlaying the slates of the coal measures. The strata dip towards each other from each side of this eminence, from Case's coal mine, on the east, to the old Portsmouth mine on the west. In Portsmouth town- ship several seams of anthracite occur, included between beds of carbona- ceous slate, subordinate to the fine grauwacke rocks. These mines were abandoned by the proprietors, about the year 1825.

The coal beds are stated to be three in number, varying from 2 to 12 feet in thickness, and quite irregular.

The main Portsmouth coal mine is included between walls of slate, and is stated to measure three feet in thickness.

The analysis of the specimens obtained from hence, gave the following results :

[ Firat Specimen.

Second.

Third.

i Carbon, 84 6C. 1 Water and volatile matter, 10.(K

Hence, it is evident that this coal will bum freely.

The anthracite is obtained by blasting, in large masses, and its compact- ness ensures transportation without waste by fracture.

The best coal is that which is impregnated at its natural joints with per- oxide of iron and manganese, (rusty coal,) while the glassy and greyish black masses are more charged with argillaceous (and siliceous) matter, and decrepitate violently when thrown on the lire. Owing to the presence of so large a proportion of water, the coal burns with a flame ; the water of composition is decomposed during combustion, and carburetted hydrogen and carbonic oxide are produced. The former gas burns with a yellow, and the latter with a blue flame.

It is evident, from their composition, that the ashes of all these coals will form slags or clinkers.*

The reporter arrived at the conclusion that there is a valuable supply of coal that can be economically obtained at the Portsmouth mines. The opinions formerly entertained as to the difficulty of burning this coal have now no value — for the people of New England did not then understand the art of burning anthracite. A calculation, founded on the supposition that there are three workable seams of three feet each, within the basin of Ports- mouth, showed an amount of 37,800,000 tons of coal, available.

The northern and north western portion of the Island of Rhode Island, occupying a space of not less than eight or ten miles long by two wide, essentially form the coal basin of the Island ; if we limit the definition to the area which possesses that form of arrangement in its stratification. On the

Rhode Itlaad Report, 1840.

144 UNITED STATES OF ABfERICA.

outer or south-eastern border of this basin, commencing in the centre of the Island, the strata arching over from beneath the coal bearing formation, dip eastwardly. A cursory examination of this basin with some diagrams were made by the present writer in 1841.

Geological Characters.

One of the earliest impressions made on the traTel]er,%T:'>. in mitiog this region, brings recollections of ordinary coal fields, is the fpfimitive, or rather the metamorphic and disturbed geological character of the entire rock series, much of which is probably new to him under its changed aspect In fact very few persons, in passing through this region, would conceive them- selves in the midst of a coal formation at all.

That we might the sooner attain a correct understanding regarding these novel appearances, some transverse sections were constructed, and also a profile following the east shore of the island. The west coast, being flat and without cliffs, did not well admit of such a mode of illustration.

Thejirst transverse sution, crossing from Narraganset Bay on the west by Butts' Hill Fort, to Mount Hope Bay on the east, exhibits an uninterrupted basin-form arrangement of stratification, having coal beds cropping out on opposite margins. Pursuing his inquiry, the geological observer will no longer doubt but the whole group of strata, many hundred feet tliick, con- stitutes an actual coal formation, although its separate members seem to have little resemblance to such rocks as usually comprise our coal fields.

Fig. 16.

; TranMvene Section qf the Porttmauth Anthracite Basin, Rhode bland, looking North.

M)/r*nset ButU kill Ml. Hmf

Bay. Frt. Bmg.

ComI fame Talrote Coal,

dip 4d £. Sekitt.

Based uiK>n more than one mass of very coarse conglomerate, in some positions consisting of large round pebbles of white quartz and fragments of primitive rocks, and in others of oval slaty fragments, formed from sub- jacent schistose rocks, are countless strata of greenish talcose slates; upon and amon the lower series of which are conformable seams of white quarti* occasionally three feet thick ; or again a net work of smaller quartz veins from a few inches to a foot thick, traversing both the conglomerate and the talcose slates. Among these slates occur darker lamina;, and these contain distinct impressions of the usual coal plants. Passing from these, the pre* dominant mass consists of talcose schist, among the divisions of which may often be obscurely traced magnificent cists in relief, of ferns, pecopteris, &c. But for these intelligible characters, one might imagine the schista were of much greater geological antiquity.

Following southward along the eastern shore, the cliffs, although not lofty, an* suthciently so, with the aid of the transverse ravines, to develope the structure of the adjacent country. In the course of two miles of tlie cliffs of tlic eist coast, the conglomerate beds are six times thrown up, and as often descend below the tide level. Then occur a numerous aaiteof twisted and contorted schists, of grey laminated slates whose surfaces singu- larly resemble the grain of birds-eye maple; and again anoUier scries of

Bhode Island. 145

greeoy talcose, contorted schists, crowded with crystals of iron pyrites; crossed in every direction by innumerable feins of white quartz, and suc- ceeded by coropacter beds which almost possess the qualities of sandstone. Perpendicular upthrows and heaves, and again the reverse movements, divide the whole series into large and separate sections, rising above or sink* ing below, watet level. The inclination of the respective masses is continu- ally changing. To the rocks we have enumerated succeed a mtlangt of metamorphic slates, of grey fissile beds, of conglomerates, quartz veins, and black shales ; of veins and filons of asbestos, and of talcose laminated strata; undulating, fractured, contorted, inverted — in short, disposed with such absence of order and arrangement, as to defy the pen and pencil of the geologist to delineate.

Leaving the coast line at Clark's Mill and Creek, our second tratuveru section, of 3j miles, crosses over to the opposite or western shore. During half this space, the metamorphic rocks alone, to which we have alluded, and which are named Grauwactce in the state report, appear on the sur&ce and dip to the eastward. The schists and coarse slates, the carboniferous shales, and the quartz veins, which here seem to be appropriate to the coal-bearing series, are again seen arranged in the basin form, stretching to the coast near Lawton's Valley. We only observed one bed of anthracite, whose immediate out-crop exhibited about foot thick, increasing as it descended. How far to the south this trough extends we did not attempt to trace ; but as thin seams of coal are seen among the modified rocks, on the coast east of Newport, it is probable this arrangement continues through the entire length of the island.

Returning to our first transverse section of the coal basin, near the pa- rallel of the Portsmouth mines. Certainly, there are many features here presenting themselves that have no parallel in our ordinary secondary coal fields. Among these are the vast assemblage of talcose, waving slates; the veins and seams of asbestos, abundant even among the coal shales, and occa- sionally penetrating the anthracite itself; the quartz veins also in the coal ; the unusual appearance of vegetable remains on these greenish-grey, schistose lamina; ; the traversing veins of white crystalline quartz, and the plumbagi- nous nature of nearly all the out-crops of coal. All these characters might readily lead geologists to ally the series to the transition or primary rock&

Details of the Coal Beds. — Yet perhaps these are entirely due to the metamorphic influence to which the whole group, in common with all others in the surrounding country, has been subjected. There are three coal seams proved on the western side, occurring at the distance of ninety feet from each other, and dipping, at an angle of 38° to the centre, but probably flattening in that direction. Towards their out-crops all the strata evince the etTects of great pressure and squeezing ; producing corresponding irregu- larities in the thickness of the coal beds, such as will probably always render the working or productive results uncertain.

In some particulars there appear to be analogies between the talcose schists and accompanying beds of anthracite in Rhode Island, and the anthracite seams associated with strata of gneiss and talcose schists, formerly considered as primitive, at L'Oisans, in Dauphiny, and the Alps. M. A. Brongniart has declared that the coal vegetation of this formation is identi- cal with that of the true coal measures. M. S. Gras confirms this view, and suites further that these were sedimentary rocks, modified by subterranean emanations. In the Alps there are many proofs of the transformation of sedimentary into crystalline rocks, as high up u the coal measures.

146 United States Of America.

Jlke old Portsmouth Mines, towards the close of 1841, had been re-opened, and several new shafts had been commenced in their vicinity. As regards facilities of transportation, no position can be more convenient ; for sloops and schooners can approach within one or two hundred yards of the mine. The quality of the coal is excellent ; the demand for it increases every year, and it can readily be sold, as fast as it is possible to mine it In 1842, the price for the large coal was 95.00 per ton, and half that sum for the finest or pea coal : terms which can be commanded nowhere else at the pit's mouth, in the United States. As a proof of the value even the smallest had acquired, the owners were screening over the refuse heaps, abandoned 20 years before ; and were selling the coarsest at $2 to $3 per ton ; the next size at $1.25, and mere dust 75 to 50 cts. The quality of the coal improves as the depth increases. As may be inferred from the geological condition of this region, the great drawback on the prospective value of coal undertakings any where within its limits, and on the confidence so essential to such operations, arises from the irregularity of the ground ; making the thickness and the con- tinuity of any one coal seam, a matter of extreme uncertainty, even for the of a few feet The roof of the main worked bed is tolerably regular, and consists of a good hard slate ; but the floor undulates considerably, and of course affects the thickness of coal to a corresponding extent At one point here there were only eighteen inches of coal, between roof and floor ; yet on advancing but a short distance we observed a thickness of fifteen or sixteen feet Under these circumstances, it is diflicult to assume an average. Dr. Jackson's estimate of three feet workable coal to each seam, through the entire basin, may be a safe one, but we would not like to be the purchasers on the basis of that calculation. In 1842, the slope or inclined plane of the main gangway down the crop of the vein, was three hundred feet Lateral drifts, following the coal seam, showed about three yards thickness; but we subsequently learned that it had again contracted.

The seam lying above this had been commenced by other owners, as a colliery, in 1841. Its thickness was then six feet; both roof and floor were good and promising, being of clay slate, dark, tough, and regular. Many coal plants occur in the roof.

The plumbaginous character of the carbonaceous deposits throughout the entire range from Mansfield in Massachusetts to Newport in Rhode Island,* is not devoid of interest, either to the miner or the mineralogist At Wren- tham in Massachusetts are several seams of highly plumbaginous coal.t At Mansfield also, Dr. Jackson mentions a bed of coal which " was found to have been altered and was like graphite or plumbago,* In Rhode Island the presence of graphite is not adverted to by the state geologist, further than to remark in his analysis. No. 2, of the Portsmouth coal, that it was not plumbaginous. At some new trial openings in the latter neighbourhood, on more than one outcrop, we observed that the mineral appeared to consist almost wholly of graphite. It is remarkably light, spongy, or cellular — and is collected and forms an article of sale at a good price, under the name of " British Lustre," for the usual purposes of plumbago or black lead. Asbestos occurs abundantly, running through the slates which adjoin the coal or graphite bed. Like those of Massachusetts, they are also traversed, and even the coal itself, occasionally, by numerous veins of quartz. All these circumstances combine to satisfy the most skeptical, of the modified or meta- morphic character of the coal field of Rhode Island.

Geological of Mattacboiettt , p. 163, 1833. i Uitelicoek'i Gtologj of MuMcboietUy p. 46.

Rhode Island. 147

Viewing it in this light, there seems to be no assignable reason why this formation, in which we trace the fossil flora of the regular coal measures, should be considered any older than the secondary anthracites and bitumi- nous coals of Pennsylvania ; and we are sustained in this opinion by the declaration of Dr. MacuUoch, that/' the coal of secondary origin, containing vegetable remains, is converted into plumbago by the influence of trap, as coal is, daily, in the iron furnaces."*

It is well known, that, until within a comparatively recent period, the beds in which numerous seams of antliracite occur, in Ireland, were confldently termed by distinguished geologists, transition clay slate, intermixed with considerable beds of quartz." Yet it is now universally admitted that the entire coal field is of no older date than the regular bituminous coal fields elsewhere.

Even the western part of the South Wales coal basin, was at one time called the " Grauwackc series."

Since the foregoing notes were collected, we have been favoured by Dr. Emmons with his volume on the so-called Taconic system, as exemplified in the northern states of the Union; including the Rhode Island coal-fields. The Taconic system, according to the views of the author, and in opposi- tion to those of many eminent geologists, embraces a series of rocks which are supposed to be older than the New York lowest series, and are charac- terized by a separate class of organic remains. It rests unconformably upon primary schists.

We believe that the author does not comprise within this system the coal formations of Rhode Island, although they repose upon it, and have many lithological characters in common, on account of the proximity of the schis- tose Taconic rocks which have furnished the greater part of the materials ; and consequently they appear to possess a character of much greater an- tiquity than the coal and subjacent rocks usually exhibit elsewhere.

" That it is possible for a sedimentary rock to retain or assume the cha- racters of the parent rock, is rendered highly probable by the characters of tlie rocks or slates connected with the Rhode Island coal beds. Here, in connection with the conglomerate, probably of the old red sandstone, there is much material which is a talcose slate, diflering but slightly from the talcose slate of the Taconic system. The beds of conglomerate with which these slate beds are in connection, do not appear to be meta- morphic; and the whole seems to be merely indurated or hardened slate, the original particles being talc and mica, with some fine quartz. The rock, when complete, is merely an ordinary talcose slate."

Dr. Emmons is somewhat indisposed to admit the metamorphic charac- ter of the Rhode Island coal, inasmuch as the slates and conglomerate bear no marks of the action of heat; the fossils are similar in texture to those of other coal-fields, and arc free from all traces of fusion ; and because if suffi- cient heat had been applied to volatilize the bitumen of the coal, then ought the slate also to exhibit marks of having been burnt. These reasons, how- ever, do not appear sufiiciently conclusive, nor do they apply to the anthra- cites of Pennsylvania, which exhibit no traces effusion, neither in the coal, the slates, nor the organic remains. 1 believe the word **bakc(P' has been fiequently applied to this process, and with apparent propriety. Dr. Em- mons admits that this coal of Rhode Island is traversed by veins of quartz, which might have been deposited from hot water or aqueous vapour holding

SyitCD of Geology, Vol. 11. p. 297.

148 United States Of America.

silex in solution. The changing of the coal into graphite still remains to be accounted for.

As relates to the economical value of this anthracite. — On the whole, we see no reason for dissenting from the prediction of Mr. Hitchcock, that, ere long, the anthracite of Rhode Island, and eren that of Worcester, will be considered by posterity, if not by the present generation, as a treasure of great value."

It is objected to this coal, that it will not succeed in an open grate, and that the cold air chills the fire in that position ; but that it answers well when consumed in cylinder stoves. The only objection urged in that case, is, that it occasionally forms too much clinker. If we look at the nnmerous analyses of this coal, and see the small amount of foreign matter which it contains, besides pure carbon, we certainly should not expect such a result

Quantity of Pennsylvania anthracite imported into Providence :

1844, . - - 51348 tons.

1845, 67,638 "

An annually increasing quantity of Nova Scotia coal is also brought into Providence.

Anthracite Near Pawtuxet.

An announcement was made, in 1846, of a new locality of anthracite in this state, near the Valley Falls. Subsequently, a mining company has been carrying on some operations here, and report speaks favourably, thus far, of the success of the undertaking, and of the quality of the coal, except in regard to hardness. A depth of one hundred and twenty feet has been sunk, and about five hundred tons of the anthracite were raised in the sum- mer of 1847. The mine is about six miles south of Providence, two from Pawtuxet, and not more than two miles from tide water.

Peat.

Block Island. — The most southern appendage to this state, and included in Dr. Jackson's geological and agricultural survey, in 1840— from whence we obtain the substance of the following details.

" Hiere are no trees upon Block Island, and since wood fuel is too ex- pensive for genera] use, it most fortunately happens that nature has amply provided the inhabitants with a great and almost inexliaustible supply of peat, or tug, as it is there called. Thus, almost every family owns a peat bog, which is their depository of fuel, front which they draw an ample allow- ance, yearly.

" Attached to every dwelling we find a 'tug-house,' in which is stored up the winter's fuel ; and each family burns from twenty-five to tliirty-five cords of peat per annum. The mode of preparing it is — in case it b a first cut- ting— to split out cakes of it, about six inches square, which are laid upon the bank to dry in i)art; after which it is turned ; and subsequently it is piled up, in open suicks, through which the air circulates and completes the process.

" In case an old bog is dug over the second time, the peat is made by the haiuis into balls, as large as a twelve-pound cannon shot ; and these are laid on the ground partially dried, and then stacked, like piles of cannon-balls, lliey become firm, and burn very well; giving out a large and clear flame, and making a good coal. The fire-places are all arranged with peat grates.

Rhode Island. |49

or frames made of bar-iron, large enough to fill a kitchen fire-place. On this they lay the peat, and it proves to be an excellent fuel ; giving a good clear fire, suitable for all kinds of cooking, and for the warming of apartments.

" I think that most persons would give up their prejudices against peat, if they should spend a few weeks amons the people of this island."

The opinion prevails that when tug'Sogs have been entirely cut out, by throwing back the loose turf, the peat grows again in forty years, so as to fill the bogs.

Every little valley on Block Island contains a few acres of turf boff; and its depth varies from four to ten feet. There is evidently enough left, even if it does not grow, to supply the inhabitants with fuel for ages.

At a great number of points in this atate, peat bogs prevail. Besides u fuel, it is used as a valuable ingredient in composts or manures. By analyais, it was found to yield 88 per cent of vegetable matter, and 12 per cent of ashes.

Some peat from another part of the state gave 88.6 vegetable matter, 9.6 of silex, and 1.9 of various substances.

Another contained 95.5 per cent of vegetable matter. To these are added, in the appendix, the analysis of twenty specimens of peat from va- rious parts of the state.

This substance is held in high estimation in New England. In the Farm Reports of Rhode Island, Mr. Phinney, addressing the State Geologist, says, " I know of no way in which you could render a more essential service to the public, more especially to fanners, than by enabling them to convert their unproductive and unsightly bogs into sources of wealth. I consider my peat grounds by far the most valuable part of my farm; more vabtab!e than my wood lots for fuel, and more than double the value of an equal number of acres of my uplands, for the purposes of cultivation. In the first place, they are valuable as fuel. I have for twenty years resorted to my peat meadows for fuel. It gives a summer-like atmosphere, and lights a room better than a wood fire. The smoke from peat has no irritating effect upon the eyes ; it does not, in the least degree, obstruct respiration, like the smoke of wood ; and it has none of that drying, unpleasant efiect of a coal fire. Peat, taken from land which has been many years drained, when dried, is nearly as heavy as oak wood, and hears about the same priu in the market."*

Rhode Island Report, p. 247.

150 UmTEDSTATES OF AMERICA.

Massachusetts.

Mansfield Anthracite Mines, Fifteen Miles North-East Of Providence.

Dr. Jackson examined this coal for the sake of comparing it with that of Portsmouth. The result of an analysis of a fair sample, was

Carbon, 87.40

Water, and volatile matter, 6.20 Ashes, 6.40

It appears on this authority, that a small seam of anthracite was aceideot- ally discovered in Mansfield, in J 835, in the procesA of sinking a well. In consequence of this, numerous persons obtained leases with the right of mining, on farms in this vicinity. The first vein was only eighteen mches thick, and was not worked, on account of being so small. Subsequently, the researches conducted under the direction of Dr. Jackson, determined the existence of five beds of anthracite, the maximum thickness being five feet ; and their apparent linear extent was not less than one mile.

These beds abounded in coal plants, of which many species were collected by the geologist

Several analyses were made to determine the character of this anthracite, which seems to differ from that of Portsmouth, chiefly in having a greater amount of carbon, viz., 87, 90, 92, 9G, and 98 per cent, with a reduced quantity of ashes.

From want of experience in mining, the adventurers failed to derive an adequate benefit, and the mines were abandoned in 1838.

They were re-examined, in 1839, by Dr. Jackson. One seam was proved to be seven feet thick, and its quality was good, — yielding but six per cent of ashes.

At another mine, where a shaft had been sunk to the depth of one hundred feet, a bed of coal was encountered, but thought to be inferior.

The nature of these seams seems to correspond, as regards irregularity, with most of those known in Rhode Island. Some days the miners raised ten tons of coal, while on others they obtained but little; — yet the geologist considers that the Mansfield coal mines are still capable of being worked to good profit, if pursued with skill and judgment.*

The usual coal plants occur imbedded in the shale and slate of the Mans- field district : but, Mr. Lyell observes, no traces of shells or corals have been discovered.

In like manner, we find an absence of all fossils, except vegetable remains, in the anthracite coal district of Pennsylvania, and no fossils of any kind in the subjacent conglomerates and red sand8tones."f In the bitumi- nous coal shaled of Pennsylvania, we, however, find several genera and species

Dr. Jackion, on the Mansfield Cotl Mines, in hia Rhod lalaod Report, in 1840. i Qnarterlj Joomal Geol. Soc., London, No. 1, p. SOI.

BfASSACHUSETTS.

of fossil shells, and the remains of fishes and shells in the sandstone beneath. At Blossburg, numerous ells occur an the coal imd iron shales.*

Plumbago, In all the cases which we have cited, respecting the anthra* cites of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, it would appear, in accordance with the views of Professor Hitchcock, that there exists, in these regions, a gradual passage from anthracite to plumbago, or graphite. Whether this approach to graphite arises, according to the view of the learned professor, from the age of the enclosing rocks, or whether it be not rather the result of the obvious modifying influence of igneous operations, as we have sug- gested, we will not now discuss.

Impart of Pennsyhania anthracite, and of American and Foreign hOwmnaus coals, reduced to the common denomination of tons, from chaldrons, tons, and bushels, into the port of Boston, Note — there are considerable varich tions in the published statements of coal imported and consumed in Boston, which cannot be readily accounted for.

AmertemaCot Is,

Joilf B Impoitfld BIlnmliMi*

C —

Pi lit

15 £

ill?!

11=

M

Jim

.'Z a.

76,180

75,732

67,186

80,557

71,364

90,485

73,847

110,938

00,276

117,451

139,566

165,122

168,0Iu

258,093

4,504

7,575 7,165 3,903 3,813 5,100 3,299 4,430 4,350 5,354 6,103 10,160 6,179 4,554

4,387

9,146

11,873

10,344

5,880

12,410

14,245

12,718

9,098

15,)95

13,188

1 17,650 30,453 37,114 33,26-3 47,482 37,587 37,536 27,374 25,230 25,417 42,035 36,851

25,513 21,937 39,599 48,987 43,606 53,362 49,997 61,781 40,092 32,092 34,515 57,230 40,039 65,203

106,197 105,234 U3,$50 138,447 128,813 149,907 127,143 167,149 134,718 154,897 180,184 232,812 214,219

The retail chaldron of Boston is from 2500 lbs. to 2700 lbs. weight Virginia coal is sold in Boston, chiefly for glass-houses ; and, otherwise,

the quantity does not affect the retail trade. This coal was purchased, in

184o-8, for from $7.50 to $10.50 per chaldron.

Annual Importation of Virginia Coal into Boston.

I Buabela. !' Yeara.

Buabela.

212,105 1 1839 200,635 1' 1841 109,275 1843 107.625 1846

144,475 124,041 149,996 6,584 tons.

Alao abundant ibelli in the coal ahale at the Portage Railroad. Peno. p. 255.

See Trani. Geol. Soc.

Unitkd States Of America.

Statement of the quantities and valne of American and foreign eoal eon- ramed in mannfiictaring, in the Sute of Maaaachuaetts, during the year

ending, April, 1845.

ToBt. Valve.

Anthracite, - - 79,749 $453,411

39,578 131,275

190,405 791,733

Anerage retail prices ofantkradie and bituminous Coal into Boston.

AsMrtcan Anlbrulte. pT tarn of flOOO Ibi,

Farfi[gn

BitmnlnoQi Coalv, pr cU14r9.

SeJmy'IL

M .

in.

Is

m

zl

P

1 z

DaUin.

Dot

Rot.

DoUatv.

DoUtra,

DolUrt.

Dotlftj-J.

DQllin.

\%n

t*J5

ti7i

9,21

It. #9

10

0.S3

fits

Ims

7.31)

10 Ta

9S

tS41

Ij3

6

3Jj

T.Oft

ItM

B.M

Sm

lt

Im

(I.V

to 10.50

e.75

7.aS

tSKI

e 00 to 10.00

7,50 ta 9.00 ,S0 to 9,9l

\Mt

I.Ta

a.

fl.TS

7,no

TOO to 10 00

tl.flO tattoo

lo.oo

iJHfi

e,75

7.00 A'* tc> 700I

J 1.00 la ll.SOi

7a5to7;7ft[7.7i

TF/-eit<JUim Coal expUnrationsfive miles from Mansfield.

These were visited by Dr. Jackson in 1839 and 1840. Although some seams of anthracite existed here, they were adjudged to be too thin to warrant the expenditure attending their mining.

They are also noticed by Mr. Hitchcock, who states that the coal bears a resemblance to the anthracite of Rhode Island.

From the carbonaceous and pyritiferous slates of this impure coal, Mr. LyeU collected numerous impressions of the most common coal plants. Like those of Rhode Island, the slates and micaceous sandstones forming the roof of this anthracite, contain layers and veins of quartz.

WoruUer.

Plumbaginous anthracite, according to the state geologist, occurs in an imperfect mica slatr; or transition mica slate. This coal bed is seven fiset thick, dipping moderately to the north-east ; but the works were suspended in 1833.

In this coal, he observes, the metallic aspect is even much more distinct than in the Rhode Island coal ; and the quantity of the plumbago is much greater. Several tons of this substance have been ground, and sold for plumbago.*

The Rhode Island coal is heavier than the purest Pennsylvania anthracite, and that of Worcester is heavier than the former, as approaching nearer to graphite.

We subjoin the specific gravities of these, determined by well known authorities; remarking, however, that its great weight seems mainly to be

HitclMook'a Gtologj oflfAnaelMMettf, p. 179.

ito molt of a-fapinbiindiiioo of maAj mattflr, m ihoiirB bjr Dr Pon/t ntl]rris.

PtaresI anthracite of Lehigh, broad Moontain, ) . ka &c, (Bache, Johoaon and othera,} J

Haaaachnsetta. Manafidd plombaginoda an-? i yiA

thracitc, (Dr. Jackaon,) S

IdrtamoQthy R. I. Pliimi>aginoiia anthracite, mmf . toguk (Dr. Jackaon,) i.# #u lo j jmi

Worceater. nambaginoua anthracite, (Boll,) 3.1M hot doobtfid

OrapUte. (Dr. Ure and Beodant,) 2.060 to 8.450

Thia plambaginooa anthracite haa htdy been aobmitted to the eummation of Dr. John Percy, of Birmingham, Enjiand. The following reaolt ia pnl liabed in the proceedinga of the Geological Sodety of Londra**

Carbon, 38.350

Hydrogen, 0.926

Oxygen, ijjgg

Nitrogen, S

Aahea, 68.509

Mr. Lyell ia of opinion that the atratified rocka, containing the |dambagi- nona anthracite of Worceater, conaiated originally of aedimentary atrata, which have been so altered by heat and other plotonic cauaea, aa to aaaume a cryatalline and metamorphic textore, by which the grita and ahalea of the coal have been turned into quartzite, day-alate, and mica-achiat; and the anthracite into that state of carbon which ia called plumbago or graphite.!

Hie ooantity of anthracite annually produced in Maaaachuaetta ia but tmall. We see by a late report, that the value of the mineral coal and inn ore obuined in 1845, waa together, but of the value of 921,6694

Dr. C. U. Shepard remarka, that the diacoveiy of anthracite at Woroealer, in thia atate, unattended with any aecondaiy or reccmipoaed rocka and vege- table repiaina, ia an apparent exception to the general rule that, Good workable coal haa never been found either in the ddeat cryatalline rocka, or m the neweat formations of the aecondary." We think thia anomaly ia explainable on the ground of the great change in atructure and appeaianoe of the regular coal series, and the local effect of mtenae heat, and oonaeqneni modification of character to which the maaa haa evidently been aubjected.

It may even be questioned, however, he adda, whether thia aeam of plooH baginoua mica alate, deaerves the name of coal alate.

Production, 1844-5, mineral cod and iron ore mined, 21,669 tooa 78 handa employed.

Bituminous Coal in new red s€mdstone*

The State geologist observed " thin veins and irregdar noduW of ooel io the new red sandstone of the Connecticut valley ; but aa it ia acknowled that in almost every instance it appears to be the readt of the carbonisation of a aingle plant, whoae form can be distinctly traced," we have amall

QMrteriy Joorna] of the Go1. Soe. No. 2, p. 906,

t L711 OB MamehaMtts Aathraeite, Ibid. p. 199, Ifay 1845.

t SutMUca of ICMnebiuettt, by John G. PuApey, SMratarv of tha CoauarawMlth, IMi.

$ Hoat> Mercbtati* Mm§um; Vol. XIY. p. 186.

United States Of Abceuca.

expectation that workable beds of coal will e?er be net with here, any mo than in other parts of the globe, in the same geological formation. It also to be noted that in some parts of the range, these coal traces ha?e be< deprived of their bitumen, and ha?e the character of anthracites. This explained by the author, by the accidental presence or vicinity of trap rocki RaiiroaaSf completed in 1846, six principal roads— 381 miles.

Connecticut.

Coal has not been found in this State in sufficient abundance to ranked with its valuable mineral productions. Dr. C. U. Shepard, repo ins on the Geological Survey of Ck>nnecticut, announces this fact Soi erort had been made to obtain coal in a highly glazed, plumbaginous mi slate at Sandy Hook near Newtown ; but the result was unsuccessful a the geologist recommended the abandonment of the enterprise, withe delay.t

The State geologist of Massachusetts mentions some thin veins of bii minous coal in the new red sandstone of the Connecticut va]|ey.| i late as November 1847, it was announced that a bed of coal had been d covered in the town of Ridgefield, and that measures were in progress I working it.

Geology of MatiacbaMUa, 1833, p. S30.

t Geological Survey of Connecticat, Report 1S37.

X Geol. Report of Matsacbuaettf.

New Hampshire.— Maine. 165

New Hampshire.

No traces of coal rewarded the researchefl of the State geologist in 1840 and 1841, and it appears, from his report, that there is litUe probability of any being found.

He points out the peculiar applicability of the science of modeUing, to this interesting and picturesque area.*

Peat. — This useful substance is beginning to be understood and appre- ciated in New Hampshire; a recent notice, [1844,1 informs us, that in the ficinity of Piscataguog village, a piece of swampy land, which was thought of but little value, was purchased for a small consideration.

The proprietor afterwards discovered that it was covered with Peat, to the depth of from three to six feet, and contained one thousand cords to the acre, which are valued at about two dollars per cord.t

The analysis of New Hampshire Peat, by Messrs. Whitney and Williams, is as follows :

Locality. Vegetable Silica, alumina, matter. Iron and Lime.

Meredith, 94.90 5.10

Canterbury, 93.80 6.20

Franconia, 73.70 26.30

Peat is employed as an important ingredient in forming a compost for agricultural purposes, in New Hampshire.

Maine.

Anthracite and Bituminous Coal. — Although in his " Report on the Ge- ology of the Public Lands" in this state, Dr. Jackson, we believe, did not obtain actual evidence of beds of coal, yet he announces the presence, at various places, of the formation in which coal is usually found, elsewhere, and we have good reason to hope that, when explorations for that object can be more leisurely undertaken, we shall be enabled to add Maine to the other coal producing States of America.

All along the south side of the Aroostook, and stretching southward of Mars Hill, over an area of 120 to 150 square miles ; and north of the Aroos- took, over an undefined area as far as Temiscouata Lake, are seen, accord- ing to the geologist, " all the marked characteristics of the regular anthracite coal formation."! The rocks certainly belong to that formation, and are

Geological Report of New Hampshire, bj C. T. Jackion, 1841, p. 54, 161. t Mancheiter Memoriil, Aaguit, 1844. X Geolog/ of Maine.

156 United States Of America.

frequently glazed with carbon, but no bed of coal was discoTerable. Thii 18 not by any means a decisife or even discouraging circumstance; when it is remembered how unfavourable to such discoveries is the position of the surreyor whilst [Missing, amidst numberless privations and difficulties, through an almost impracticable and uninhabited wilderness. Accident will probably bring to light, much that must inevitably escape the scrutiny of the most practii observer.

As the " regular coal series" is mentioned, in conjunction with the old red sandstone, resting upon the grauwacke," we should infer that the coal, if any, belongs precisely to the same age as the great central coal-fields of the United States, whether bituminous or modified in the form of lo- thracite.

Shales, containing vegetable impressions such as usually characterize the coal measures, have been observed at Waterville and certain points in this state ; but the geologist hesitates to vouch for the absolute existence of coaL* These supposed impressions, indicative of the coal measures, have been decided by Prof Hubbard and admitted by Dr. Jackson, to be not veffetables, but true annellides, such as characterize the slates which Mur- chison has included in the Cambrian series.t

Peai. — Dr. Jackson, than whom there can be no better authority on agri- cultural geology, directed his attention to the numerous valuable deposits or rather accumulations of peat, in this state. At the localities which he de- signates, this substitute may be most advantageously wrought for fuel: it is applicable to the burning of lime, and various domestic uses, as well as convertible into a powerful manure, admirably adapted for loosening and enriching clayey soils.

By an extract from a report ascribed to this author, and quoted in Silli- man's Journal, we learn that in Maine, peat is found at the depth of three feet from the surface, amid the remains of rotten logs and beaver sticks; showing that it belongs to the recent epoch. The peat is twenty feet deep (thick) and rests upon white siliceous sand. This recent coal was found while digging a ditch to drain a portion of the bog.

On examination I found that it was formed from the bark of some tree allied to the American Fir, the structure of which may be readily discovered by polishing sections of the coal, so that they may be examined by the microscope."

Dr. Jackson's analysis, shows that it contains, in 100 grains. Bitumen, 72

Carbon, 21

Oxide of Iron, 4 Silica, 1

Ox. Manganese, 2

" This substance is, therefore, a true bituminous coal, remarkable indeed for containing more bitumen than is found in any other coal known. I suppose it to have been formed by the chemical changes, supervening upon fir balsam, during its long immersion in the humid peat." This is a very interesting discovery ; and the same substance appears to exist in other peat bogs of the State.| See notices on Peat in other paru of this volume.

Firtt Raport on Uie Geology of Maine, p. 106.

t Proceedings of Amoc. of American GeologiiU 1841.

X 8iUiiDin*t AmeiicAB Joaroal of Science.

MICHIGAir. 1S7

Id his Report on the Geology of Maine," in 1837, the author last quo- ted notices the accumulation of Peat at Quoddy Head, near the south-east angle of the State. This mass is 15 feet thick, and it is suggested to deprive it of its water, by means of pressure, when it will form a raluable fuel. When it is remembered that, according to the analysis of Sir Hum- phry Davy, peat contains 60 per cent of carbon, its use should by no means be discarded. It is a valuable fuel for domestic purposes and for many manufactories.

The above remarks will apply to many other localities in Maine, and the time will arrive when, wood becoming scarce, our neglected peat bogs will be in requisition.* In Germany, peat is dried in kilns, heated with the small fragments and the refuse parts of the same substance.

See under the head of Peat and Turf, in various parts of this work. We have in our introductory portion of this work, explained the mode of work- ing the turbaries or peat bogs of France.

Michigan.

Bituminous Central Coal Basin, Between Lakes Huron And

Michigan.

To the series of reports made annually by Dr* Douglas Houghton and his assistants, we are indebted for the earliest notice of this coal-field.

This able geologist was appointed to commence the survey of the State in 1837, and, in the execution of duties unusually arduous and fatiguing, exhibited much zeal and perseverance.t His reports, however, up to the present time, have not received the elucidation they so much need, from geological maps of the State.

In a region which almost every where is thickly covered with beds of diluvium, sand and tertiary clay, which for by far the greater part remains even now in its original state of primeval forest, and which, except as relates to the superficial value of the soil and timber, continues uninvestigated, it would be unreasonable to expect from the geologist much exactness of detail, as regards this important coal-field. We are yet in uncertainty as to its limits, for no part of it, strictly speaking, can be said to be satisfactorily defined. The few coal strata which exist have so little inclination, and are 80 completely buried beneath the more recent deposits referred to, that posi- tions where outcrops can be observed are of rare occurrence, and these are only found along the beds of the rivers, with which this beautiful country is thickly intersected. The northern termination of the formation, of which the coal seams form an important member, is lefl entirely conjectural, but

Pint Report on the Geology of the Slate ofMaine, bj Dr. C. T. Jackaon, p. 32.

t SiDce penning the abore paaiage, the oDfortuoate death of thia talented man haa come to oar knowledge. He waa drowned during a ludden anew atorm, on Lake Superior, while engaged in hit profeaiional duty.

158 United States Of America.

is supposed to reach the head waters of the Tittabawassee and Maskego. rWers. This part of the State was, at the time of the surrey, entirely an uninhabited region.

Dr. Houghton came to the conclusion that the coal-bearing sandstones, or, strictly speaking, the coal basin, occupies an extent of surface nearly oval in form, whose centre very nearly corresponds with the true cenUe of the jpeninsula.

Hq estimated this area at 150 miles in length, from south to north, and upwards of 100 in extreme breadth — covering an area of about 11,000 square miles. The general outline, as sketched by this geologist, is proba- bly approximately accurate : fully as much so as the nature of the country permitted in 1840.

How much of this area may be considered an actual coal-field, is matter of conjecture, of course. From a consideration of the map of the State, and from a partial reconnoissance of the district, by the present writer, in 1S47, we think it a safe calculation to estimate the productive coal-bearing area at 100 miles in length, by an average breadth of 50 miles. This may be computed at 3,000,000 acres, or somewhat less than 5000 square miles.

The coal seams are thin and few in number. What are usaally denomi- nated the coal measures are comprised within a very limited thickness. The entire coal-field is evidently a shallow one, having suffered little from disturbance.

Dr. Houghton's section exhibits the coal series, as consisting of two beds of coal and bituminous shale, separated by a bed of undetermined, but incon- siderable, thickness of sandstone ; the whole group resting upon a grey fbs- siliferous limestone, which does not anywhere exceed 14 feet in thickness.

Upper Coal Formation.

Maximum thickness 30 feet, — of comparatively small area, in the central part of the coal basin. The coal is comprised in several layers, not exceed- ing in thickness from one to two feet each, accompanied by thin beds of argillaceous iron ore. In point of quality it appears to be inferior to the lower coal.

Lower Coal Formation.

But two continuous beds of workable coal arc ascertained to exist in the State of Michigan. The lowest of these lies at a small distance only above the limestone stratum, and is associated with a bed of shale, which is also sufficiently bituminous to answer the purpose of an inferior coal. The State geologist estimates the maximum thickness of this lower series at twenty feet At Corunna, the county seat of Shiawassee county, on the border of the river of that name, is the best development of the lower coal bed thai at present has been observed. It is the only locality in the State where coal has been raised for economical use, and even here the work is upon a small scale. It consists of a few shallow open pits sunk on the margin of the river and down to the level of its waters. This close proximity to the water renders the situation selected very unfavorable for mining. The coal bed is to 4 feet thick. In structure it is finely laminated, like the Ohio coal : the laminic appear as if cemented together with bitumen. In quality it is excellent, highly bituminous, and brightly blazing; it is said to produce a very hot fire, and to be well adapted to the purposes of the blackamith.

The coal is here covered by some thin beds of black bituminous laminated slate, by a course of nodules of argillaceous iron ore and by seams of black shale and clay. Then occurs a drab-coloured gypseous clay, and over that are the grey and yellow sandstones with impressions of coal plants ; from some portions of this series grindstones have been made. The fossiliferous limestone, underlying the coal, crops out in the vicinity.

However excellent this coal appears at tliese small openings, its quality, and even its thickness, can scarcely be said to be now fairly tested ; for, as at this precise spot there is no rock covering, it can only be considered as surface or crop coal.

We have been more minute in this notice because it is one of the very few localities which have been explored for the purpose of actually mining the coal over an area of several thousand square miles.

We have, during the year 1847, examined the outcrop of coal at several other points on the Shiawassee river, but the attempts at its development are, as yet, of a very feeble nature. The coal at all these positions was accompanied by overlying courses of excellent argillaceous carbonate of iron, and by beds of gypsiferous shales.

Dr. Houghton closes his annual report for 1841, by recording his belief that bituminous coal will be found in abundance, for all the wants of the State, and that it may be fairly inferred from the facts already determined, as to the range of the coal-bearing rocks, that coal will be found at numer- ous other points than those now ascertained, and also in several counties where it is not now positively known to exist, and where no attempts have even been made to pursue its traces.

Whenever these developments are completed, or even when they are but very partially extended, and when the area, quality and amount of produc- tive coal beds in the situations favorable for transportation are determined satisfactorily, the geographical importance of such a vast district of bitu- minous coal must be apparent. The influence which it will exercise over the future prosperity of this new State can scarcely now be appreciated. — Centrally situated, accessible to all the upper lakes and rivers, around whose borders not a trace of a coal formation exists, the Michigan coal-field could have no rival. Should coal operations be conducted here on an adequate scale, and the means of transportation to the lakes be facilitated, the present price of mineral fuel will be greatly reduced. Anthracite in September 1847 obtained from 813.00 to $15.00 per ton at Detroit

That we are not alone in our estimation of a coal-field so favourably cir- cumstanced, in this portion of the American continent, we might quote a passage in the report to his Excellency, the Govemor-Gencr.il of British North America, on the geological survey of Canada, by W. E. Logan, Esq., 1st May, 1847.

" The great expense attendant upon the transport of copper ore to a dis- tant smelting locality, naturally turns the attention of those whose minds are <lirected to the subject of mining it, to the aid to be derived, in its reduction, from such coal dc|)osits as are most nearly situated to the region in which it exists. The geological structure of Canada appears to promise little in regard to this useful mineral ; but in the states of the neighbouring Union, there are two localities on the great chain of lakes to which the mineral region of Lake Superior belongs; one at Cleveland, on Lake Erie, the other at Chicago, on Lake Michigan; within forty and sixty miles of which, re- spectively, coal might probably be made available. But in the heart of the southern peninsula of Michigan, which is still nearer the metalliferous

100 Unttsd States Of Abierica.

region, a third great coal-field is spread out; and in this instance the waters of Lake Huron appear to make a deep incision into the deposit in [near!] Saginaw Bay.

Saginaw Bay, therefore, appears to be the position naturally destined for the redaction of such copper ores as may result from tlie mineral region of Lake Superior. These ores, combined with the sulphurets reported to hate been discovered on Lake Huron, seem to be sufficiently raried to give a ftToarable smelting mixture. The coal is of the bituminous descriptioD, and beds of fire-clay will be found supportins the seams. Unless some pretLi change should be effected in the system of smelting copper ores, there 18 little doubt the produce of the Michigan mines will ultimately centre in thb locality ; and it can only be the operation of fiscal laws that will prevent the Canadian ores from finally reaching the same destination."

Peat.

The geologist dwells, with much earnestness, on the abundance and value of the peat deposits of Michigan. This substance, he states, is of consider- able importance, not only as a combustible, but as a manure. These peat beds are, like the coal seams, comparatively shallow, seldom exceeding four feet in thickness. It is of the fibrous kind, and by no means so compact as to form a good fuel. It most commonly overlies beds of calcareous marl, which has accumulated in the innumerable low meadows, beaver swamps, and wet prairies of the country. Michigan has been aptly designated by the Indians as " the land of lakes," and the State geologist has reported on the existence of not less than three thousand lakes witlun the limits of the peninsula. Lignites have not been met with in this country.

Indiana. 10]

Central Bituminous Coaifield

PLAIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI, USUALLT STYLED THE ILLINOIS COAIrPIELD.

We ba?e separated this vast area into four di?ision8, corrending with the respectiTe States into which thej extend, as follows :—

I. Indiana division. III. Kentucky division.

II. Illinois division. IV. Iowa division.

In making this classification, we have included no portion of the coal area of Missouri, from which there is, however, no other separation from that of Illinois than the Valley of the Mississippi. The Missouri region will be best treated on, separately, in the present instance.

I. Indiana Division.

To Dr. D. D. Owen's Geological reconnoissance of this state in 1S37-8, we are chiefly indebted for what we are able to communicate respecting thb imperfectly known region.

He states that the entire western portion of Indiana proves to be rich in coal, and although wood is extensively employed, as the cheapest or most convenient fuel at present, the axe is busily at work in the primitive forests, and the rapid increase of steam power, calling incessantly for fuel, is thinning them out from year to year.*

The reporter was unable, from the result of the reconnoissance of a single season, ( 1837,) to form any exact estimate of the area of this coal-field. He simply records the results of local examinations, while traversing the various counties. Limited, therefore, as is the information obtained in an area which covers several thousand square miles, we receive this contribution to American geology, with all the confidence which the known intelligence of the reporter deserves at our hands.

Bituminous coal, of the ordinary kind, abounds here, as well as cannel coal. On White river, the seams are upwards of six feet thick. Others are four and three feet thick, near Terre-haute.

If we were to reason from geological, or rather from mineralogical condi- tions, on tlie future position of Indiana, we should say that her western counties are destined to become, one day, the chief centre of manufacturing industry in that parallel.

Near the mouth of Coal creek, on the Wabash, in Fountain county, no less than six beds of coal are exposed, interstratified with arg'dlaceous iron

Oweni Pint Report oft Geological Recoiuioittince of Indianti in 1837.

102 United 8Tatb8 Of America.

ore and carbonate of iron. These coal seams ?ary from one foot six inches to four feet six inches thick, each.

At the Sugar creek foundry, in Parke county, is a three feet bed of can- nel coal ; or a coal nearly approaching to that ?ariety.

An eight feet seam of good coal occurs in one locality; another in Clay county, four or five feet thick. On Honey creek, Vigo county, a four feet coal ?ein; as also on Lick Fork of Busseron creek. On the Patoka, in Pike county, is a bed said to contain nine feet of coal.*

The reporter is unable to state any facts to establish the identity and con- tinuity of these coal seams, or how far they may be repetitions of the same series. He has, however, made analyses of many of these, which will be found in our tables at the end of this work. We conceive, that they are all approximate results merely; inasmuch as they are derived from outcrops, rather than from perfect coal of the mines, which, at the time of the survey, were not in existence.

Dr. Owen concludes his second report of Indiana with a summary of its geology. We have only now to do with that part which refers to the coal formation. This area is a part of a great coal-field, which includes nearly the whole of Lower Illinois, and eight or ten counties in the south-western part of Kentucky.

In Indiana, Uiis bituminous coal formation occupies an area of about 7,700 square miles.

The coal exhibits its vegetable origin very distinctly. Layers of charcoal, from which the woody fibre can be readily detached, are firequent in the superior coal beds. The dip of the beds is westward, and they are of the same geological age as those of the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee.

Ptat occurs in this state.t

The following diagram shows a transverse section of the lower part of the Illinois coal-field, from the large section of Mr. Hall.:(

Fig. 17. TVotuMTM Stetion qf tkt UlinoiM and Inditma CoalFiM,

" - -

c Old RU 8Andst0n§Portag$ €ud CUmnng Oruw—Wmvtrltii SndsUwB. dMbntUmBUU-0rgMHu.

The coal area of Indiana is only a portion of an immense western region, which a writer has asserted to be fifteen hundred miles long by six nun- dred miles broad, and would cover half Europe."

We hesitate before adopting his statistics, notwithstanding that we are, on the whole, disposed to agree with those who admit the possibility of a period when one single coal formation covered that part of the continent of North America, which extends from the Lehigh to the Missouri. But as we have only to do with the existing — not the theoretical, or antddiluvian areas of these coal formations — we are compelled to state that the present maximum length of the great Illinois coal region is about three hundred and thirty

Owi>t Second Report oft Goolofical Sonrej, nade in 1838. t Ibid. p. €7.

t TimsB. Amoc. Aner. God. Vol. 1. p. 267.

I Aaoricaa QaarUrij Ro? iew, Mareb, 1839. Alto Viw of tiM U. 8.

Indiana. 153

miles, and the greatest breadth is two hundred miles. The actual area, con- taining coal, in the entire space, which comprehends portions of Indiana, Kentucky, and Illinois, is 56,200 square miles.

In Dr. D. D. Owen's paper read to the Geological Society of London, in November, 1842, but not published, tn extenso, until NoTember, 1846, we observe that the dimensions assigned by that gentleman differ ?ery little from the preceding, except in the total area, which, he states, equals the entire island of Great Britain." This is no doubt an accidental OTersight, because that area is 83,828 square miles, or 88,052 including the Scottish Isles.

We may repeat here, that the other great bituminous coal-field, which is usually named the Alleghany coal region, is in the extreme length along its centre, seven hundred and fifty miles, and in average breadth eighty-five miles, containing 65,300 square miles.

The Illinois coal-field contain? the caking variety, some splint, and some cannel c6a].

A canal was opened in 1839, at Evansville, one hundred and eighty-eight miles above the mouth of the Ohio, which communicates with the extensive coal region in the interior of this state.

Length of Wabash and Erie Canal in 1847, three hundred and seventy- four miles; cost, 95,585,000; receipts, 9500,000.

Bituminous Coal Of Cannelton.

We have been furnished with details from several parties, in reference to the cannel coal of this locality. It is situated in that part of the coal-field which is intersected by the Ohio river, at about 120 miles below Louisville by water, but scarcely more than half that distance in a straight line. The seam varies from three to four feet in thickness, and occasionally expands nearly to he feet.* It is entered, for the purpose of mining, by means of an adit-level, a quarter of a mile from the Ohio, at an elevation of seventy feet above the bank of that river. In regard to geographical position, tliere- fore, the site is unusually advantageous, and the cc can be furnished at a corresponding low price.

The coal, lor an inch or two of the upper part of the seam, contains less bitumen than the rest, bearing a slight resemblance to cannel coal, and decrepitating when burning. Two or three inches of the lower part consist of a highly bituminous shale. The remainder of the mass is of the finest quality, coming out in large blocks of a foot or eighteen inches in diameter, exhibiting vegetable traces. It burns freely, yields a pleasant flame, and affords a light sufficiently strong to enable a person to read by it.t

This coal was experimented upon by Prof. W. R.Johnson, and the results are detailed in his invafuable report to the Navy Department of the United States in 1844. He observes that the fracture is offen conchoidal, and the lustre dull, like that of Scotch cannel coal. The surfiices are frequently covered with films of sulphuret of iron. Specific gravity was 1.247 and 1.297, the mean of which gives 79i lbs. per cubic foot. The mean result of two specimens gave the following proportions :

Of fixed carbon, - - - - 59.40) Moisture and other volatile matter, - 34.90 100 Earthy matter, (3.49 to 8.16) - - 5.70 )

LUer to Prof. Silliman, by B. Lawrence, LoaiiTille, Not. SOth, 1817. t Letter of Pror. Frederick Hall, publiihod in the Nitionil Intelliaenoor of Wathington, Julj 1843.

164 United States Of America.

Samples of the coal ha?e contained a much smaller amoant of earthy mat- ter— in one case not much exceeding 2 per cent

The obserTHtions of Prof. Johnson agree with our own experience : — From its flaky texture it speedily disintegrates into flat masses, burning with little intumescence, and scarcely any tendency to agglutination. This property Idlows a free passage to the air, fa? ors rapid combustion, and causes the exhibition of an exceedingly brilliant light. Its prompt and rapid action appears to adapt it, in a remarkable manner, to the purposes of western steamboats. It seems to bear transportation better than any other sample of bituminous coal which came under notice. It was the only really avail- able sample forwarded for trial from the great coal-lields of the west"*

It is submitted to us, by the proprietors of this coal, that the specimens sent to Washington were intended to represent a perfect cross section of the seam of coal, includinff the inferior portions. Had the combustible expori- mented upon consisted solely of the better and main portion of the vein, they conceive that the result of the investigation would have probably been yet more favorable.

We may be permitted here to remark that we have, in the progress towards the completion of this work, received numberless conmiunications firom companies and individual proprietors of coal mines, in all parts of the Union. We have endeavoured to do strict justice to all, so far as our means and space permitted us to act discriminately, and without subjecting ourselves to the imputation of advocating particular interests. Whilst wishing success to ally we have never knowingly permitted the suggestions of interested parties to divert us from that course.

Prices of the Indiana cannel coal in 1847-8. — We are informed by & proprietor that from 2000 to SIOOO bushels of this fuel are now sold daily, at the mine, to steamboats at 7 cents per bushel, 91.96 per ton. He adds that it can be afforded to manufactories near the mine at 4 cents the bushel, 91.12 per ton, and that it is, considering the quality the cheapest coal in the world, at a position convenient for extensive manufactories.t

This field occurs, like most others, in the basin form : the bed of cannel coal at this place being the lowest in the series, which consists of two work- able beds only, as we learn from a pamphlet recently published4 The lowest coal, as we have stated, occurs at Cannelton and at Trade Water in Kentucky ; the upper seam is worked at Bon Harbour, and at various other places. At different points each of these seams varies from three to ten feet in thickness. The same bed of cannel appears also in Kentucky lUinob and Missouri.

We observe in the pamphlet alluded to, that a ton of this coal is equivi- lent only to 26 bushels on the Ohio. The terminates with the emphatic statement, in relation to this coal position, that, having the cheapest power, the cheapest materials, and the cheapest food, it possesses the means of manufacturing the cheapest goods in the United States.

The bituminous coalofCarr's Run, 160 miles below Wheeling, is pntoQ board the steamboats for cents per busliel, or 91.75 per ton. It is a lighter and drier coal than that of Wheeling, and less bituminous, hot is considered to be better adapted for the steamboats of the Ohio.

Report to the NtTj Departmeot of the United Sutei, bjr W. R. Johntoa, 1844.

t Hamilton Smith, Esq., Januarj 1848.

f The relative coat of aieam and water power, the Illinoii coal-field, and lb advaa- tagea offered bj the weat, particolarij on the lower Ohio, for manu&ctvriof Loai Tille, 1848.

ItLINOIS. 105.

Ii. Illinois Division.

So much of the coal formation as is comprised within the State is, at the utmost, 44,000 square miles ; but if due deductions are made for unproduo> tive portions, for large spaces divided or removed by rivers and valleys, the real productive area would not, probably, be found to exceed thirty thousand square miles.

There is no coal on the Ohio river nearer to its junction with the Missis- sippi than Saline, near Shawneetown, 1 16 miles above the mouth of the firsi named river. On the Mississippi it is rather a shorter distance, being sixty miles to Muddy creek, and thence twenty-five miles up that creek to the first coal-bed there, or twelve miles by land. Some coal operations cook menced here some few years ago, having in view the supply of the towns along the Mississippi, as far even as New Orleans. The present supplies of coal to the lower country are obtained from a vast distance up the Cumber- land and Tennessee rivers, but especially from Wheeling, Pittsburg, and the intermediate points, 900 miles further from the market than the Illinois coal of Muddy creek. The estimated expense of delivering this coal at New Orleans, by arks, is about $2.25 per ton : while the minimum price of coal there is 25 cents a bushel, or $7.50 per ton. In winter time from 50 to 62 J cents per bushel, or $12 to $15 per ton, have been occasionally the retail price there. This Muddy creek coal seam is a horizontal bed 6 or 7 feel thick, above which is another vein, not heretofore worked. Coal can be thrown from the mouth of the drill into a boat. Its quality is most exceU lent, igniting readily, and caking together perfectly, without making much clinker. It has been used for 50 years by the old French settlers, to make edge tools, which have borne a high reputation.

What is termed St. Louis coal, supplied to the steamers, bums with a good flame, and cements like that of Pittsburg ; ashes dark grey, in small quantity, and consumes with little waste. It is oAen mixed with yellow sul- pburet of iron in flakes, occurring on each face of the sectional fracture ; and consequently is not, we understand, in so good repute for the purposes of iron manufacturing.

At the present day, it is impossible to state precisely how much of Illinois and the contiguous States is occupied by productive beds of coal. The true coal producing area is probably but a fraction of the space compre- hended within the geological limits of the carboniferous formations in those countries. This remark especially applies to Missouri and Illinois; in the former State, the coal prevails rather in detached patches, than continuously spread over the entire space. When persons speak of the vast area occu- pied by the coal formations in the western country, we must understand them as referring to the external limits of these areas, for we have no detailed surveys to show the extent occupied by the workable coal beds. We believe, in saying thus much, we but express the sentiments of every local observer in that quarter.

Towards the north-west boundary of this district, several coal seams are seen in the tongue of land which lies between the Mississippi and Rock

166 UmTED STATES OF AMERICA.

riTen. One of these beds is from five to six feet thick : its quality is fiur, and e? idently improves as the workings proceed.

To the south of Rock ri?er are several good coal seams which are capable of supplying almost any required quantity of this fuel. Their local position and advantages render them of very great value to the country lying north of this.*

An article on the geology of Upper Illinois, appeared some time since, [1836] from the pen of Dr. G. U. Shepard,t in which are notices of the coal in that quarter. The outcrc of a six feet vein is described as occurring in the valley of the Illinois river. The same bed exists at Termillionvilie, and 18 the most important of any in the district In quality, it is a fat, bituminous coal, having equal proportions of carbon and of volatile matter.

The exact boundary of the coal<4ield has not been traced here on account of the great thickness of alluvial or drifted matter, which, as in Michigan, sometimes covers the coal meisures to the depth of more than a hundred feet

Dr. D. D. Owen's valuable paper was published in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, in 1846. He has ascertained that, with the exception of some slight shades of specific difference, there is a striking analogy between the fossil flora of the American fields and that of the equivalent strata in Europe. Among many others, he mentions that Pahu are not uncommon, and some remains of Conifere (?) have been found. He also obtained remarkable specimens of the stumps of fossil trees (apparently palms) found standing erect with the roots attached, imbedded in slaty day ; and slender leaves have been found, in great abundance, in the near vidnity of the stumps, imbedded in the clay.t

The author adds, that valuable beds of argillaceous iron ore exist in this eoal>field, but that hitherto few furnaces have been in operation. He con- ceives that this ore must ultimately become an important source of income to the state, or rather to the proprietors residing in it.

Stated production of coal in Illinois, in 1839, 13,427 tons.||

in 1840, 15,417 "

Employing, according to the return to congress, 154 workmen, and 9120,076 oapital ; probably much underrated.

Canals.

This State, besides the vast extent of its navigable streams, possesses 374 miles of finished canals, which cost 95,585,000 and yidded in 1845 a revenue of 9500,000.

Owen*! Report to Congrett on the Mineral Landi. Doc. No. 239, p. 44.

t Americmn Jonraal of Science, Vol. XXXIV.

t Model! of these etenit, illuttratinf their appearance in their orif inal aite, wers exhibited hj Dr. Owen, at a meetinf of the Society or American Geologitto and Nataraliats.

i Proceeding! of the Geol. Soc. Vol. IV. Alio Quarterl? Journal of the same society. Vol. II. p. 433.

H Uant's Merchaais* Magatine, Vol. V. p. 434, and snbseqaently.

Kentuckt. |07

Hi. Kentucky Division.

The south-easteni eztremitj of this Tast coal regioD, stretches across the Ohio river into Kentucky, and occupies eight or ten counties in the north- western part of this state,* probably about 4500 square miles.

At Hawsville on the left bank of the Ohio, 120 miles below Louisville, is a coal bed four feet thick. The upper eighteen inches of this bed consists of Cannel coal ; the renuunder is common bituminous coal, two and a half feet

Its analysis by Dr. Jackson, is Carbon, 48.40

Bitumen, dee. 48.80 Ashes, 2.80

The price of this coal at New Orleans, was sixty-two and half cents to one dollar per barrel, of two and a half bushels. It is in request there for the use of the tow-boat companies.f

Hawsville is about 258 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. The coal seam is nearly horizontal — appearing on both sides the river, in a posi- tion remarkably favourable for loading into vessels lying in the Ohio. It is a compact, largely conchoidal, coal , producing a bright flame ; does not cement or adhere together in burning, but on the contrary falls into a pro- fuse white ash, much larger in amount, practically, than the foregoing ana- lysis exhibits.

Although 700 miles in advance of Pittsburg, it has been hitherto, we are told, unable to compete with that coal, which is floated down the Ohio in arks, and, it is said, can be mined cheaper. The boats and arks, in which the coals are conveyed down the stream, can also be built cheaper above ; and moreover, the Pittsburg and Wheeling coal is estimated better for black- smiths' use, d6c. Still the Hawsville Cannel is especially liked for steam engines. For domestic use we think it is objectionable, on account of the great quantity of very white ashes which are left after combustion, filling up the grates, iU. to an unusual degree ; at least such was the case in the sup- plies furnished on three or four occasions when we passed up and down the Ohio in steamboats. Altogether, it is greatly inferior to Lancashire Cannel coal.

It is specifically lighter than common bituminous coal, yet] heavier than Cannel coal of Lancashire and Yorkshire.

Kentucky or Hawsville Cannel, spec. grav. - - 1.250

What is called the Cannel coal of Jackson county, Ohio, 1.410

Lancashire Cannel, 1.199

Ingolton Cannel coal in Yorkshire, - - . 1.195

Caseyville Cannel coal, similar to that of Cannelton in Indiana, reported on by Professor W. Johnson.|

Owen's Report oflndimna, p. 39.

t Uaurd'B Register.

X Coal Report to the Secretary of the Navj, 1844.

§S United 8T1Tb8 Of America.

Spec, gra? 1.39. The result of his analysis ga?e of Volatile matter, 31.80 Fixed carbon, 44.50

Earthy matter, 23.70

It will be obsenred that the proportion of earthy matter is unosaally large* amoanting almost to one-fourth, and agreeing with the practical remans made by ourselves and others, on board the Ohio steamboats, on seTeiai occasions.

JPelrofeiaii.— Springs of this substance occur at several points.

An account is given in Silliman's Journal of a Petrokum Oil wdl near BurksviUe, Kentucky. This was discovered some years ago, whilst boring for salt water, and after penetrating solid rock for two hundred feel, a fountain of pure oil was struck, which was thrown up more than twelve feet above the surface of the earth. Since that time it does not appear that the supply is sufficiently regular to furnish an important amount of this oil.*

Professor Mather reports that many hundred, perhaps many thousand, barrels, might be annually collected at the different petroleum sprinn in Kentucky ; and that it commands a high price in the eastern mariLet8.T

Oa$ Springs evolving carburetted hydrogen, are not uncommon. They bum With a white flame, and are capable of useful applications, such as lighting and warming houses, boiliog salt, &c.

A similar occurrence takes place at the Albion Mines, Nova Scotia ; and we shall describe them, on a magnificent scale, in China.

Iv. Iowa Division.

This great bituminous coal-field has its north-western termination in Iowa Territory ; occupying some ten or twelve townships, or about four hundred square miles, which we have included in our estimate of the Illinois field.

Not much was known as to the details of the coal seams here, at the period of Mr. Owen's survey, in 1840. Only one seam is adverted to, as croppiog out west of the Mississippi, the coal of which was said to be of indifferent quality. Its analysis sppears in our tables. There are several good coal seams on the eastern borders of the river in the Illinois portion.}

According to official returns to congress, in 1840, there were 10,000 bushels, or 321 tons of coal raised in Iowa.

Sillimao** Joarnal of Science.

t Matlier*t Reconnoitunce of KentoekT ia 1R38, p. 28.

t Owen*B Report oa the Mioeral Laadt of Iowa aad Wieconno, 1810, p. 44. AIm la Revtwd edition of 1844, p. 63.

WI80(Hf8Ilf. 109

Wisconsin.

Biiuminous SkaU and Limestone. — In the lead bearing magneaian lime- stone of Wisconsin, are occasionally observed thin seams or lamina of a baff cdoored shale, which, on being placed on a fire, bums for a while with t moderate flame, after which the residue presents a preponderance of earth ashes. This asphaltic shale is calcareous, and frequently fossiliferous. It has been, in the absence of other fuel economically employed in lime burn- ing, as it contains inflammable matter in sufficient quantity to calcine the limestone without additional combustibles.

Feai is very abundant throughout the valleys of the Mineral Region ; and in a district where vegetable and mineral fuel is so scarce, seems highly probable, that it will at some future day be resorted to as an extremely raluable substitute for coal and wood The valleys, of which we speak present a very peculiar character, in one respect : which is in the singularly level planes which are maintained, in their oitire breadth. They appear as if they had once been filled to a uniform level, in the manner of a dam, from bank to bank, or like artificial reservoirs from which the waters have escaped. These level bottoms consist of Peat beds, to an unknown depth ; and small streams meander through them, having muddy bottoms, and fre- quently expanding in swamps. It would seem that these Wisconsin valleys have acquired this peculiar uniformity of plane surfaces from the deposition of earthy matter in the first instance, succeeded by the growth and decay of that class of coarse aquatic vegetables which prevails under such circum- stances.

In using the term " level" we apply it only in relation to the breadth of the valleys, and not to their length ; for their inclination is often considerable, that is to say, from fifty to a hundred feet per mile.

Missouri State.

We are in possession, comparatively speaking, of but scanty geological information respecting this extremely important mineral state. We possess, as yet, no geological map of this vast region, and we have no authentic data whereby to fix the area of its coal formation. In the absence of these we have made an approximate estimate, whereby we think it very probable that at least one eighth of all Missouri is overlaid by coal measures. Every year however, as cultivation advances, and the country becomes settled new

170 United States Of America.

localities of bituminous coal are determined. We conceive that we make no exaggerated estimate in assigning 6000 square miles as the amount of coal land in Missouri ; being one tenUi of its entire area.

Among the earliest notices of the existence of fine seams of coal, far up the Osage river, are those of Captain Pike, in 1806. More recently, other localities of excdlent coal have been discovered nearer to the mouth of the same river, and it seems not improbable but the entire valley of the Osage river is a continuation of the same general Missouri coal-field. For the analysis .of the Osage coal, see the tables at the end of this volume.

The St. Louis limestone and the coal formation reposing upon it, have been described by Dr. G. Engelraann, in the American Journal of Science and Arts, January 1847.

The thickness of this upper carboniferous or mountain limestone ia tween 200 and 300 feet

The coal-bearing strata overlie it; below, directly upon the limeatone, ia a sandy, and above, an unctuous clay or shale ; the whole about forty feet thick. On this ahale rests a coal of three to five feet— 4he tmly work- able one in this neighbourhood— covered by a thin stratum of clay, wbick itself is overlaid by 10 or 15 feet of a blue or brown limestone the uppcv- moit paleozoic stratum in the region.

Beneath the St Louis Limestone is a sandstone, 50 to 100 feet thick, and this b succeeded by the lower carboniferous or pentremital limestoney which is probably 1000 feet in thickness.

Dr. H. King, who has seen this formation at the south-west parts of Mia- sottri, thinks that on the Osage river, this k>wer limestone dwindles Terj mochy but that the sandstone and the coal stratum above it, are much more de veloped; and that the fine coal mines worked there, sometimes not fiirabotei and distinct from the lead-bearing magnesian strata, are in this same lowert coal-bed.

Bituminous coal, approaching to the quality of the European cannel coaly forms an important, but at present, not well defined bed in this state.

A very fiiir cannel coal is found at several points in Callaway ooonty, north of the Missouri river, and also on each side of that river, 120 mika above St Louis. Extraordinary statements hare been put forth in relation to the immense thickness of the Callaway county bed of cannel coal ; at one point 24 feet and at another 46 feet, thickness. In Coal county, a few miles from Cot&sany-dessein, it is afiirmed that a shaft has been sunk 92 feet into the coal, without getting through the stratum; [?] probably an oblique sec- tion of the seam.

Cannel coal has also been discovered, in 1848, within eight miles of St Louis, forming a bed of remarkable thickness.

In regard to the Callaway or Cote-sany-dissein cannel coal, before spoken of, we have seen testimonials as to its qualities from several well known scientific persons, and the results are in some measure to be inferred fron their analysis. There is no doubt but the coal from this remarkable deposi- tory, is well adapted for steam purposes and for making gas, and by iroD- masters it is considered to be well suited for the manufacture of iron. It cakes very readily, without much changing its form ; producing a point cake amounting to 50.05 per cent, of the coal. It has but a very 4gkt trace of sulphur in its composition ; a circumstance of some importanee in relation to iron works, as many of the Missouri and some of the lUinois

Abo Mr. J6*w Coal report to CoDgrett ; p. 539.

AftXAlflAi. m

eotis eontain too mocb solphiir tx tlioea poipoiv. It is Kglitflr Atn oidi* nanr bitaminons coal.*

The great varialionf ia the thickness of this mass of cann eoa] at diflei ent points— for we presume that it ia in tmi, but a sinie bed— 4iaf e led to the sapposition bjr some that the general Brain|pDient is tlial of enormous lenticular masaes, rather than diqxwed in a continuous flat seam. We are as yet without sufficient evidence of such a &cty as it seems scarcely consiak tent with the uniformity of stratification prevailing in this part of the oountiy.

Should such a disposition really exist, we might find several paraDd

in other parts of the world. For instance, the remarkable eoal seam in the basin of the Basse-Loire, in France, which is distributed inlentieolar spaoes instead of in sheets, tf le avenge of which masses are stated to be Ibrty-Bine Eoiriisb feet in thickness.

also is the character of the anthracite of the departments of Ibf- enne and Sarthe, which combustible o6curs in irregular masses of various nees, but which are never much proloDged. The same ftatmm in oonneo> tion with the conformation of the bituminous eoal, are observable in the beam of Haute Dordogne, or Champagnac, in IVanoe* Here also the coal is in lenticular masses, sometimes one hundred and twenty fiset knf and thirteen feet thick; but commonly the coal oocurs in rognons, balls or heies, firom sixteen to thirty-three feet in diameter.

Production. — We can entertain but vae ideas as to the annual quantity of bituminous coal at present raised in this state. According to a congres- sional report, the amount which was mined in 1840 was only 240,302 bush- els, or 8,903 tons. From much later returns, made at St Louis, we are informed that the quantity of coals weighed at the city scale, in the year 1846, was about 1,700,000 bushels, and the estimated amount, in 1847, was 2,000,000 bushels, or 71,428 tons for that city alone. To these are added the Pittsburg coals and some anthracite, making the aggregate, in 1847, about 100,000 tons. A large portion of this advance is ascribed to the great increase in the number and business of the foundries and factcwies of St Louis.

Arkansas.

Announcements of discoveries of bituminous coal have, firom time to time, been made in this State, particularly in the vicinity of the Arkansas valley. At Spaldries* Bluff, in Johnson county, on the north bank of the Aricansas river, above Little Rock, coal was worked a few years ago, and we presume is continued at the present time.

NotieM bj MeMTfl. Boodi, Boj, JokBaoe, Cbfltoa, tad odMn, soetaiasd is a iipsit of tke CalUwmy miaiag tad mtnQfretariag Co. N '

!ftwTerk,lS47.

172 United States Of America.

At the request of the writer, Mr. J. F. Frazer kindly fiimished him with the following result of his examinatioQ of this coal :

Carbon, 02.60

Volatile matter, including sulphor, 20.90

Hygrometric water, ... 2.00

Ashes, 8.50

Specific gravity, 1.996

Coal traces have been mentioned by Mr. Nuttall, as occurring near the western boundary of the State, towards Fort Smith, and extending many miles westward, at least as far as the Falls of the Canadian river, in the Indian territory, and southward to the borders of the Red river, in the country of the Choctaws.* Northward, in the Cherokee country, [Nebras- ka,] the coal formation has been determined as far as Grand and Verdigris rivers ; and 120 miles still further north, in the Osage country, coal abounds on the Little Osage river ,t and is evidently an extension of the great Illinois coal-field, which stretches from thence almost uninterruptedly for 450 miles across the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and thence beyond the Illinois, Wabash, and Ohio rivers, into the north-western angle of Kentucky

The quantity of bituminous coal returned to Congress in 1840, was (mly 200 tons, evidently an incomplete account

Southern Missouri.

Portion Adjoining Texas, Proposed To Be Called Nebraska Territory.

About one hundred and fifty miles west from the confluence of the Arkansas and the Canadian rivers, in W. long. 97, is the western limit of the great limestone and coal formation. The coal beds in this rion are of great thickness, and are apparently extensive and numerous. This for- mation," says the narrator of Major Long's first expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 1820, appears to be unconnected with the mat [tertiary] coal formation along the base of the Rocky Mountains, and the sandstones of the two districts are remarkably dissimilai\"||

The same coal formation, also traced in this direction by Capt Pike m

Nattall*! Travelf in Arkanni in 1819. Long*! oarratiTe in 1819, 18S0. tPike*a NarrmUve, in 1S05-6-7. Bradburj'i Traveli is 1809, 1810, 1811. 8ait7*t Joaroal, 1817.

t Owen*i Isdiaaa Reports and Mather Kentacky Rtpoit. I Long'i ftrat EipcdiUon, Vol. U. p. 408.

Southern Missouri. 173

1806, and by Mr. Nuttall in 1819, is the evident prolongation of the great coal region which traverses Illinois, Missouri, and part of Arkansas, in the direction of Texas. Beyond it, to the westward, is the great plain composed of red saliferous sandstones with gypsam ; and beyond that, towards Taps and Santa Fe, the mountainous range contains a bituminous coal reffion.

The geological constitution of the Prairies is exceedingly diversified. Along the eastern border, especially towards the north, there is an abundance of limestone, interspersed with sandstone, slate, and many extensive beds of bituminous coal. The coal is particularly abundant in some of the regions bordering the Neosho river, where there are also said to be a few singular bituminous or ' tar springs,' as they are sometimes called by the hunters. There are also many other mineral, and particularly sulphur springs, to be met with."

Further westward, the sandstone prevails, but some of the table plains are based upon strata of a sort of friable calcareous rock, which has been deno- minated ' rotten limestone ;' yet along the borders of the mountains the base of the plains seems generally to be of trap and greenstone.* But much of the middle portion of this enormous prairie region exhibits no rocky traces whatever, so much so that we sometimes travel for days in succession with- out seeing even as much as a pebble."t

Towards the head of the Osage river coal strata prevail, and with various other localities form detached or outlying areas, evidently portions of the coal-fields of Missouri, Illinois and Indiana. The same series are seen on the Arkansas river near Fort Smith, and at the Canadian Fork. We have also learned the interesting fact of the existence of large beds of coal at the head of the Canadian river, and in the Raton Mountains between Santa Fe and the Arkansas river.

To the northward, according to Mr. Nicollet, alternate areas of the cliff limestone and coal measures present themselves, on either side of the Mis- souri river, from its mouth to the junction of the Platte river, in 4P N. lat. To what extent the coal formation stretches to the east and west of the Mis- souri river within the parallel, we have no certain information, further than that the limestone ceases to appear on the surface beyond about the 97th degree of west longitude, and is there covered by sand, gravel, and erratic deposits.

Wood Coal And Brown Coal.

In a communication to the Association of American Geologists, in 1845, Lieut. Johnston describes an examination made by him of a " BlufT' at Mount Waneus, on Red river. This bluff presents an escarpment of fifty feet high, in which are various seams of wood and wood-K:oal or lignite, inter- mingled with iron pyrites, and on the surface of the bluff alum crystallizes in considerable quantities. Permanent springs flow from the base, and taste strongly of alum. This formation, a sand passing into stone, was traced five miles back from the river, at the same general elevation. The seams of wood and sand alternate, and the author described them as of recent or post- diluvian origin ; but it is near one hundred feet above the present low-water

The calcareous strata in the vicinity of Fort Washita contain decided cretaceous fossils.

Greg'i Commerce of the Prairiet, Vol. II. p. 185, 1846. t Ibid.

t Proceedinn of the AfliociiUon of Americaii GeologiiU lod Nitorftliit*, April 1846, p. 74,76..

174 Unixid States Of America.

Bitumen And Petroleum.

On the False Washita mer, towards the Wishetaw Moantains, Lieut. Johnston met with a dark sandstone with a vertical dip ; oat of which, throoghout its coarse, a great quantity of bitumen has flowed. A specimen of the liquid bitumen has the consistence and appearance of common tar. It occurs as minerd oil on the surface of a spring near that place. We have no information as to the age of the rock, which is in the vicinity of granite.

Missouri Territory.

Brown Coal Or Lignite Formation Of The Upper Bhssouri Valley.

Limiting our description in this place to that portion of this enormoas area of brown coal, which lies within the United States territory, soath of 49 of north latitude, and east of the Rocky Mountains, we will place before our readers such information respecting this extraordinary region as we have been able to acquire.

From the mouth of the Missouri river upwards to the Platte river, the carboniferous and cliff limestone of the American geologists, with occa- sional shallow basins of the true coal formation occur, and the carboniferous limestones extend still further to the mouth of the Sioux river, lat. 42 30'. Here commences the interesting formation first described by Mr. Nicollet, belonging to the cretaceous group, with calcareous marls containing micro- scopic multilocular shells, resembling those discovered by Ehrenberg in the chalk, and other beautiful fossils of larger size corresponding with those in the chalk, the gault, and the green sand formations of Europe. Mr. Nicollet traced this group up the Missouri river for four hundred miles, but it is known to extend as far as beyond the Mandan village, to a point between Beaver river and Grand river, at about N. lat. 47 30'; thus occupying, in that direction, 5 degrees of latitude.

At this point, and overlying the cretaceous series, commences the vast tertiary area, composed of horizontal strata of variously coloured sand, clay, shale, sandstone and coal, irregularly alternating ; extending at least twenty degrees to the south-west and south, and northward, apparently, to the arctic ocean.

The first notice that we have met with of this formation is in the narra- tive of Lewis and Clarke's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, in 1804. The coal or lignite was first observed at twenty miles above the Maodan villages. The bluffs on each side of the Missouri are upwards of one hon* dred feet high, composed of sand and clay, with many horizontal strata of carbonated wood, resembling pit-coal, from one to five feet each in thick- ness, and occurring at various elevations above the river.

MMOCrU TBlinOET. ITS

At Mtf wakm above the viUageg Mmiltr coal aeamt were noted; botheie were obeenred to be on fire emilliDg qntntiiiee of amoke and a atroog aidpihiiroiMi ameU. This point waa 1662 milea above the MiaaeeppL . Pov- ther on the aame aolphuioai ooal eontbued for eighty milea moie; atatn coal, freqnentlj in a atate of €oniboaiion appearing in all the eipoaed 6eea of the UoA. The qoantilj of thia oou improved aa the party advanoed near the mouth of the White Earth river, eightf-five mileaiirther, aflbiding a hot and laating fire hot emitting very Uttle amoke or flame. Thenee forty-aeven milea to the Tdkmatone river, and at a Uo milea up that atream, were aeen aeveral atiata of ooal.

The narrator obaervea, that for fifty milea above thia junction, there were greater appearaneea of coal than had yet been aeen, theaeamabeinfinaome placet aix feet thiok ; and there were alao atrata of burnt earth, were alwaya on the mme level with thoae of coal.

Tlie esplorera had tfaua fiur traced thia coal formation akmg the banka of the Miaaouri, for a diatanoe of three hundred and thirty mSea. The hori sontal formationa of clay, loam and aand, with ftagmenta of coal in the drift of the river, extended three hundred milea more, to Mo8ole43heU river, or aix hundred and twenty mUea fiom the M andan villagea. Even above thia

E'nt, waahed coal continually appeared on the ahorea of the river; and at : Rapida eight hundred milea from Fort Mandan, the high bordering UoCi were atill compoeed of horizontal beda of clay, brown and white aand, oft, ydlowiffh white sandstone, harder dark-brown freestone, and large round, or kidney-shaped nodules of clay iron ore. Coal, or carbonated wood, similar to that previously observed, was also seen, and was accompa- nied with burnt earth— probably the result of the spontaneoua combustion of the ooal, as was noticed for hundreds of miles below. Precisdy the same phenomena were recorded, at a subsequent period, by Captaina Back and Franklin, and by Dr. Richardson and others, and by Hearne in 1709, and Mackensie in 1789 — extending, apparently continuoualy, and in the same parallel, full eighteen hundred miles, northward.

Returning to the narrative of Lewis and Clarke.

After reaching the grand forks of the Missouri, and ascending two or three days journey up Maria's river, northward, it was remarked that pre- cisely the same geological character and coal strata prevailed, for more than sixty miles. So fer, therefore, the exploring party had been travelling through or over a ligneous deposit, of singularly uniform character, for no less than nine hundred and eighty milea, following the windings of the river. Pur- soing the south fork, towards the great tails of the Missouri, coal was still observed, in blufls of dark and yellow clay, at a distance of 2454 miles up this mighty river, and it was not until near the base of the Rocky Moun- tains, and after one thousand miles of travelling across it, that this great region of coal beds and lignites was passed.

On his return. Captain Clarke descended the Yellowstone, irom about North latitude 45 to its mouth in latitude 48'' 20', and every where found the same series of coal and variously coloured clays, sands, and soft sand- stones, as was traversed in ascending the Missouri.

The fossil bones of a supposed fish, probably a saurian, were also observed bove the Big Horn river. Large quantities of brown coal were aeen in the diflSi below the junction of this river, and all the highlands adjacent aopeared to be composed of earthy beds of different colours, abounding in coat or car- bonated wood, of an impure quality. Below the Big Horn is a large atream falling in from the aouth, whose Indian name implies the coal creek,** from

176 Untteo States Of America.

the mat quantity of that mineral upon its margin. The same coal series continued to the confluence of the Missouri, exhibiting uninterruptedly, for seten hundred miles, in addition to the thousand previously trarersed, the vast persistence of this formation. The enormous area of similar strata is further shown by the discoloration of all the tributaries that enter the Missouri, both from the south and the north, from the forty-second to the forty-ninth degrees of north latitude.

On the authority of M. Sublette, these lignite beds prevail alonff the whole of the country watered by the Padouca [Powder] river, in beds of from three to nine feet thick ; and also on the Batsoah or Cherry river, and the south fork of the Platte river ; thus bringing the formation southward to latitude 40.

It appears probable, from Capt Fremont's narrative, July, 1843, that the sandy and clay beds which he crossed at the head waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers, are southern continuations of the same formation to latitude 39 and 38 where the underlying yellowish and grey limestone, containing cretaceous fossils, first made its appearance in that direction, and is traceable eastward down the Smoky Hill tork, nearly to its junction with the Repub> lican fork of the Kansas river. Colonel Long, in 1820, descended the Canadian or South fork of the Arkansas river, in which the prevailing rock is red sandstone, with salt and gypsum. It would seem, therefore, iStt our tertiary lignite formation ceases before reaching the latitude of 35. But coal of some kind has been noticed by Col. Emory in latitude 36 30*9 at the head of the Canadian river.

Seams of lignite and wood coal are, however, observed on supposed ter- tiary strata on the borders of the Red river, and limestones of the cretaceous penod likewise occur in the same country, in the vicinity of Fort Washita.

It was announced, in 1841, that bituminous coal, probably brown coal, had been discovered on the Sl Peter's river, in the Missouri territory.

Upper Missouri.

Proposed Nebraska Territory.

In 1843, Messrs. Audubon and Harris ascended the Missouri to (he mouth of the Yellowstone river. The latter gentleman has furnished some account of this tertiary lignite region.* The whole series of strata, for many hundred miles prior to reaching this formation, is described as per- fectly horizontal ; the upper part of each bed or rock being successively intersected by the angle of descent of the river. The tertiary group is indi* cated by the remarkable strata which form the picturesque huls noticed by travellers, and called the Mauvaises Terres by the trappers and voyagera. Mr. Harris counted, in one place, eight seams of coal, between the river

ProceediDgt of tht Aetdtmy of Nit. Sciencei, Philtdclpbii, May, 1845.

Upper Bussoubi. 177.

iMink and the top of the bluflf; Tarying from six inches to foar feet in thick- ness. This coal, he obserres, is very light, and ignites with difficahy, emit- ting a very unpleasant odour while burning. Fossilized wood is very abundant; occasionally much flattened by the pressure of overlying strata. Mr. Bell was the only one of the party who had an opportunity of witnessing the burning of the cliffs, about thirty miles above the Yellowstone, on the northern bank of the Missouri ; and all agree in attributing this burning to the spontaneous combustion of the coal. We observe, that Mr. Harris states that the coal seams commence in the upper part of Nicollet's great cretaceous clay bed ; and further, that there occurred in the same formation, a substance like petroleum in colour and consistence, but without odour."* To the foregoing brief abstract we may add, that, from the specimens brought home by the last named traveller from the vicinity of Fort Union, near the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers, we derive in- contestible proofs of a fresh-water formation. Among other strata exposed in a cliff near the fort, are thin beds of clay and argillaceous rock, both con- taining three or four species of fresh-water univalve shells. There is, besides, a rock, twenty or thirty feet thick, which also contains proofs of fresh-water origin, in bivalve shells, leaves of deciduous trees, and bones, apparently, of a mammiferous animal.

The Upper Missouri Valley has yet to receive examination from the scientific geologist, and there can be no doubt but highly interesting results would follow from investigations in a field so rich and extensive. The committee, to whom Mr. Harris's paper was referred, close their report with the remark, that " the proofs thus afforded of a probably widely diffused fresh-water formation in the region of the Upper Missouri, reposing upon the cretaceous strata, and imbedding remains of a manifestly tertiary age, are, just at this time, invested with considerable interest, from their accord- ing with the discoveries recently made by Captain Fremont, of the presence of other and probably extensive fresh-water tertiary strata in the Oregon territory."

We have, in that portion of this volume which is appropriated to British America, supplied many additional facts respecting the central and northern parts of the great tertiary range, whose southern area we have been consi- dering, above. From the united testimony of highly competent observers, there now remains very little doubt, that a continuous tertiary coal formation stretches from the Missouri and the Yellowstone, and even from near the sources of the Platte, and some branches of the Arkansas, and the borders of New Mexico, to the far distant shores of the Arctic ocean.

Iron Manufacture And Trade Of The United States.

Tons of Fig Jrom. In 1831, there were 939 iron furnaces, forges, &c. which produced 191,536

In 1640, 804 furnaces and 795 bloomeries, forges, &c. 286,903

The crcUccous fossils brought by Mr. Nicollet from hence, were described bj Dr. S. G. Morton, in the Proceedings of the Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Phila., October 1841. He had preTiously identified the fossils brought by Lewis and Clarke from the same localitiea ; and, subsequently, others by Mr. NatUll, as belonging to the cretaceous groap, in Sillimaa** Journal, 1830. Also in his Synopsis of the organio remaini of the cretaceoni group, I834.

98.487,329

$716,333

e845,017

17B United States Of America.

A writer in the Merchant's Magazine/' March, 1845, gives the follow- ing estimate of the production of iron in the United States at that period:

Tons.

540 blast furnaces, averaging 900 tons each, per annum, 486,000

rbloomeries, forges, rolling and slitting mills, yield-

OSO-J ing of bar, hoops, &c. 291 ,600

and of blooms, castings, machinery, stove-plates, &c. 15 1 00 The market value of these, in 1845, was (33,940,500 Quantity of b?r, hammered, pig, scrap, and sheet-iron,

and steel imported, 92,077 Value of the same, $7,794,110

From a sketch of the American iron trade and production by Mr. Feuchlwanger, in November, 1847, it appears that the quantity of pig iroa produced in the United States in 1810, was 53,908 tons. In 1847, above 500,000 tons.

The value of manufactured iron and steel imparted into the United States, during the year ending June 30tb, 1846, paying duties ad valorem, 94,023,590

Paying specific duties, 4,463,739

ToUl,

Value of American iron and manufactured iron exported.

Wire Cables for Mines and Inclined Planes , for Tiller Ropes /jc.See much practical data collected under this head in article Prussia.*

Prepared Fuel. — See various details collected under tlie heads of South Wales, Holland, China, &c.

Casualties of 3finirs, — Provident Institutions, " Caisses de Seeours,** Relief Funds, d&c see details under this head, in a preliminary chapter.

As regards the relief and support of aged or disabled miners in the United States, particularly in Pennsylvania, it is but justice to the editor of the Miner's Journal, of Pottsville, to state, that he has sought on several occa- sions to attract attention to this very desirable object. The casualties to which tliis class of useful operatives is continually exposed, calls for some provision for the aged, the infirm, and the injured ; and for occasional relief in distressing cases, to their bereaved families. All mining countries have perceived the necessity of adopting measures which shall effect tliese benevo- lent objects, in behalf of a population whose employments peculiarly and perpetually expose them to the most distressing calamities.

'ftic countenance of the slate government would not, of course, be vrith- held from The Miners' Provident Institution," but it is obvious, and has been decided in every well regulated mining region, that the burden and the management of such institutions as are here suggested, must be jointly borne by, and emanate from, the two most interested parties — that is to say, the proprietors of the minerals and the workmen themselves.

The community, as experience has shown, will not consent to be taxed for the relief of one class of operatives, however strong their claims. All

For 1 claasiGcation of the reipectiTe rates of duty on chain cablet and wire ropM im- ported into France fVom the United Sutea, %ide IXocumena aur le Commerce £ilerier Ootobre, 1844." Tbej are rated| for the Boet put, it thirty per cent, oa their valve.

RAItROADS, CANALS, FfC.

Other classes of persons pursuing hazardous occupations, would ?iew such a measure as an act of injustice to themselves. Above all, should be avoided the conversion of benevolent institutions, however well conceived or model- led, to any thing like local or political influence.

In England, the operative miners have held back from such institutions, under the impression that the amount of their subscriptions would be so much deducted from the poor-rates, and, consequently, that their contribu- tions would in reality prove a bonus to their employers, rather than a benefit to themselves. In the coal regions of the American states, no such objec- tion can be urged, as the rates for the support of the poor are extremely trivial : and it seems most just and fitting that the operatives should as in France and Belgium, have a share through their representatives, in the man- agement and appropriation of the funds to which they have contributed their portion.

At the commencement of this work, we devoted some space to a con- sideration of this subject, and we conclude by referring the reader to that article, which abounds in facts of extreme interest

Railroads in the United Jaies.

In 1845-6, there were in activity 113 public and private railroads, whose aggre- MiUs. Cost.

gate length was 4870 *127,417,758

Average cost per mile, 926,932 =i:5,564.

In 1846-7, completed lines, 133, 5703.12

In 1847, by " Doggelt's Railroad Guide," Capital.

there were completed, 5740.00 $122325,937

Canals of the United States,

Miles. Cost.

Cost of 57 canals, up to 1845, length, 4102 9113,934,163

Lines of Magnetic Telegraph.

Lines. 3Iiles. At the end of 1847, finished, 18 231 1 in operation.

7 2586 under construction, nearly finished. 10 3815 U) be completed in 1848.

Total, 35 8712

1768 projected.

Total Telegraphic conductors, 10,480

Summary.

Aggregate of the 57 canals of the United States, in 1845, 4102 miles, of Railroads finished in 1847, 5740 "

" of Lines of Magnetic Telegraph, 8712 "

18,554

VrnTKO STATES OF AMUICA.

7\nmage owrud in tkeprmeipal mariime Stoics.

1845. 1846.

Torn. Tons.

New York, - - 625,875 665,605

Massachasetts, - - 524,094 541,520

Maine, - - 320,050 358,123

PennaylTania, - 147,812 148,058

Louisiana, - - 17025 181,258

CawforaHve view of the registered enroUed, and Ucensed commercial Ton- nagt of the United States, ezdusioe of those engaged in the Fisheries.

1815. 1820. 1S30. 1840. 1S45. 1846.

1,368.127 1,280,166 1,191,776 2,180,764 2,417,002 2,562,084

ToUs received on State works — Canals and Railroads.

1845. 1846.

New York, - - 2,620,532 $2,764,121

PennsjUania, - - 1,196,979 1,295,494

Ohio, - - . 495,313 630,770

Indiana, - - - 46,279 53,930

Steam vessels.

Number of steamboats, plying from Philadelphia to different points on the Ddaware and its triboraries, and to New York. 1844 — 35 boats, con- suming 45,000 tons of anthracite.

In New York and its waters. 1844— consuming 100,000 tons of anthracite.

Steamboats on the western waters. 1846—1500 boats, whose tonnage was 145,311 tons.

Steamboats on the Lakes. 1846 — 80 boats, whose tonnage was 64,486

War steamers. 1846— 11 boats.

Foreign Commerce of the United States in 1847.

aered for foralfn ports.

ArrtTtli.

Valaeof BiporuaB4 lBiportt,iBcli4lBff

SpMiO.

Veneli.

Tom.

Crewt.

VesMli.

Tom.

Crewt.

PonlfnTesMli,

S.101

3.101,350

Inporu, #l46,54fl,t30 Eiporta. lftMMtt

14,370

S,378,906!lOft,70S

14,330

3,331,703

103.800 #30M9U3o|

Value of Imports in 1827, 979,484,068.

British America.

Area and Popvlatum an the

of the British Ameriam Provinces, and Territoriis North American Continent, in 1846.

ProTlncef.

sr

Population.

Rough esti- mau of area

of coal land, square mllea.

Bevarkf.

Lower Canadtif Upper Canada, - Neir Bmnawick,

NoTi Scotia and Cape) Breton, - - J

Prince Edward'! Iiland, Newfonndland,

British Territory, up to W N. laUtude and 140* W. longitude, deducting lakei and bays, ... J

British Honduras,

Total British posses-) sions in N. America, j

194,815 147,000 27,700

17,500

2,134 35,913

693,649 506,055 130,000

199,870

34,666 81,517

8,000 r 2,500 J 250

( 180 Not defined.

K

5,000 Not defined.

None aacertained.

it

Dr. Getner'a report

Nova Scotia.

I. C. Breton, Sydney distr.

I. of Boularderie, Cape B.

II. 8. coal-field,

Chiefly a coal formation at least.

Magdelene Islands, ooal,

as the mininum.

425,062 2,574,938

1,646,757 Unknown.

3,958

Say 16,000

3,000,000 62,740

3,062,740

Money, — Canada Currency.

1 English shilling \s. Id,, Halifax currency. 1 shilling currency 10 pence, English. 20 shillings one pound I6s, 8a. £i sterling 8 per cent premium.

The American and Spanish dollar is 5 shillings, Canada currency. 1 Pistareen 1 shilling, Halifax currency. 1 French five franc piece 4s. 8d,, Halifax currency. To change Halifax currency [4 dollars s £1 currency] into British ster- ling, deduct one tenth. To change British sterling into Halifax currency, add one ninth.

Importation.

By act of the Colonial Legislature, dated July 5th, 1843, til coals are allowed to enter the British American Colonies, free of duty.

183 British America.

Importation of Caal and Culm from Great Britain into British North America from tnt Parliamentary Returns,

Yean.

Ton*.

1831, 1832, 1837,

31,134 47,506 44,302 49,754

Tamra.

Todi.

1841, 1844, 1845,

62,175 65,177

58,928 79,359

Importation of Iron from Great Britain to the British North American

Colonies, Btr. Pig.

1844, 11,029 tons 2991 tons

INLAND COAL TRADE.— UfPORTATlONS FROM THE UNITED STATES.

From Ohio. — Bitwmnous Coal Imported from Cleveland. Yari. Tom. Yean. Toot.

1837, 6,605 1842, 2,020

1838, 2,639 1844, 1,240 1841, 19

Of the coal exported into Canada from the Port of Erie we possess no details.

American coal received at Toronto in 1846, 1143 tons. Importation of American coal is diminishing annually.

There is very little reciprocity in the trade between Ohio and Canada as may be seen by the following official statement for the year 1844

VaJoe. No. of TosBtge.

ExporU from the port of Cleveland to Canada, 6618,837 210 21,544 Imports from Canada to Cleveland, 10,738 101 12|534

We possess no recent British returns of the amount of American bitu- minous coal which passed through the Welland canal ; but it is understood that three-fourths of the property which passes this canal is conveyed in American vessels on American accountt

Tonnage, of aU descriptions, on the Welland Canal.

Tear*.

ToDI.

Toll*.

No. or

No. of

1834,

37,917

1837,

80,697

1838,

95,397

1840,

202,282

;ffl8.037

1841,

247,911

;ei8,533

Rates of toll in 1845, on American coal on the Welland canal, for pass- ing through the whole line, 25. per ton. Between Sl Catherine's and Port Dalusie, 4J. per ton. Sea coal free of toll.

Report ofUio Secretarr oftht Treatarr of the United Sutee, Jiaaarr 1845. t Re|>on oTLiMit. Col. Keeney, U. 8. T. E.

mLAND COAL TRADE.

Through the Welland canal the naTigation of the lakes is aniQterrupted for the distance of 844 miles, from east to west, and the extreme distance from south to north is 347 miles.

The British trade on the upper lakes, in 1845, was only about one-tenth the ?alue of the American lake trade, as appears from the following stat ment:*

American trade, valued at $1,517,132, employing 550 sailing vessels, and 49 steamers.

British trade on upper lakes, 9150,000.

By a report, furnished in 1847, of the Secretary of the Treasury of the United Sutes, it appears that in 184G there were 30,000 tons of British shipping employed in transporting American goods on the lakes generally* The bona fide value of the American Lake trade, in the same year, is returned at 961,914,910.t

Colonel Abert, of the United States Topographical Engineers, reported in 1847, that the existing tonnage on the upper lakes, in a military point of view, IS sufficient for 100,000 men. The British tonnage is small on the upper lakes, only 4,500 tons ; propellers 2,500 tons.

On Lake Ontario the British have the advantage in the number of steam- ers, description of vessels, and number of mariners.

Lake Champlain is exclusively American,

American tonnage, 1846, 106,836 tons

British tonnage, 40,575 tons

Eiportations of Coal to the United States from the British Colonies of North America [Nova Scotia and Cape Breton :] from the U. S, official Returns,

Years.

Tona.

Value. DoIIari.

American TariiT.

Per heaped bashel.

Per Ton.

183*2

1845$

41,934 51,777 78,212 71,908 85,951 73,114 64,186 57,211

95,330 195,452

Duly, 5 cents, from 7th June, 1794. j

6 cents, from May 2, 1824, per bushel, j

From August 30, 7 1842, per ton. 3

From Dec. 1, 1846.

$1.40 $1.68

$1.75

; 30 per cent.

ad valorem duty.

There are no duties, either of exportation or importation of coals, from or to British America. A drawback is allowed by the United States on foreign coal re-exported, as in the instance of the depots of Pictou coal for the use of the British steamers. The law passed in January, 1840.

Hunt's Merchants* Maffasine, 1843.

t See further deUils of the American Lake Comintrce.

t Boston alone, in 1845, 42,035 tona.

184 British America.

Provinces Of Canada.

The area of East and West Canada is 341,815 square miles. Population in 1846, 1,199.704.

The result of the geological survey of Canada, as reported on by Mr. Logan,* sets at rest the question as to the existence of workable beds of coal within these provinces. None such have been traced ; although there is, at Gaspe, a set of rocks overlying a series which corresponds wiUa the old red sandstone, and the Chemung and Portage groups of New York, which rocks undoubtedly belong to the carboniferous series, though the part resting in Canada appears to be too low down to be associated with the profitable seams of coal.

Mr. Logan, in tracing the condomerates and sandstones of this series round the Chaleur Bay in Canada East, to Bathurst in New Brunswick, has determined their relation to the nearest coal seams of the latter province with a considerable degree of certainty. The general dip of the Canadian part of the carboniferous deposit accords with this relation. Its slope towards the Chaleur Bay would carry it beneath the coal-bearing strata observable on the south or New Brunswick side ; while no rock of a similar quality is there seen to overlie the coal measures.

The reporter concludes with the observation that the conglomerate rocks with which fossilized coal plants (rarely sufficiently abundant to constitute even a very thin coal seam) are associated, within the limits of his survey, appear to be the very base of the coal series, in so far as Gaspe is concerned, and their distribution in Canada is just sufficient to show that a very narrow margin, on the north shore of the Bay Chaleur, may be considered the limit, in that direction, of the great eastern coal-field of North America.!

Black bituminous shales in the Gaspe District. — In the lowest of these were observed nodules occasionally resembling septariaB, in which the divi- sions or veins hold a mineral undistinguishable, in its general appearance and combustible nature, from good sea coal.

The whole group was determined by Mr. Logan to be about 1 140 feet thick, and is apparently the equivalent of a part of the Hudson river group of the New York geologists. Its position is, therefore, a very considerable distance below that of the true workable coal-bearing measures, and we are not warranted in expecting coal seams to exist in it

Here, and in the vicinity of Quebec, as in New York, erroneous expecta- tions have been formed, and consequent disappointments have ensued, that these black bituminous shales indicate the proximity of workable coal.

Some of them hold a sufficient quantity of bitumen to yield a bright flame when subjected to a strong heat.

The progress of the geological survey is marked by a preliminary report, dated Dec. 6th, 1842, by Mr. W.£. Logan. A report by the same geologist, dated April 28th, 1844. A report from Mr. A. Murray, assistant geologist, March 14th, 1844. Report from Mr. Logan, May 1st, 1845; and from Mr. Murray, April 20th, 1845.

f Geological Report of Progress, Montreal, May Ist, 1845.

Canada. 18S

Carbonaceous shale and coaH plants in the Gaspi sandstones, — Tbis group, which Mr. Logan's detailed section shows to be 7036 feet thick, appears to comprise what in the New York succession is termed the Chemung and Ithaca groups, with perhaps a portion of the old red sandstone or Devonian series. Towards the lower part are beds containing abundance of fucoid- like plants; while near the base is a small seam of coal and carbonaceous shale, together measuring three inches, which appears to hold a regular course, having a bed of clay beneath it. The middle portion of the group contains seams of argillaceous shale and sandstone, in which are balls or nodules of argillaceous ironstone.

Lower Canada.

Petroleum Springs. — According to the report of the provincial Geologist, there are two petroleum springs in the neighbourhood of Gasp Bay.

The first is situated on the south side of the St. John's river, about a mile and a half above Douglastown. The bituminous liquid oozes from the mud and shingle of the beach, at intervals for about three-quarters of a mile.

The position of the other petroleum spring is on a small fork of the Silver brook, a tributary of the south-west arm. The liquid collects on the surface of the water, in the form of a thick dark green scum, which can be taken up with a spoon. The odour could be distinguished for one hundred yards around.

Bituminous Trap Di/ke, Gaspe Bay. — In some parts of the Dyke, the petroleum druces are so numerous, that there is scarcely a fragment the size of the hand that does not contain several of them, and the tar-like smell of the mineral is perceived in walking by the Dyke, at the distance of fifty yards. In some of tlie cavities the liquid is hardened into a resinous pitch- like condition."

Upper Canada— Western District.

Naphtha and Petroleum in the corniferous limestone— cliff limestone of Ohio. This rock, which is the highest in the geological series described by Mr. Logan as existing in West Canada, and a member of the Onondaga limestone group, contains, in the township of Cayuga, north of Lake Erie, much bitumen. When struck with the hammer, this rock gives out a pecu- liar odour, denoting the presence of naphtha. This substance is frequently seen occupying small cells, from which a sufficient quantity can be collected to determine its character. Near London, the naphtha or petroleum is found floating on the surface otthe etangs, or stagnant waters of the Thames, and which is frequently collected by means of a piece ofcloth.t

Peat. — In the vicinity of Port Daniel, in the Gasp£ district, peat is exten sively spread.

The Eastern Provinces of British America have for some years had the benefit of examination by several resident gentlemen, as well as travellers, highly advanced in science. We shall frequently have occasion to quote from the reports of these writers, details of a very interesting character in relation to the carboniferous formations that occupy so large a portion of the area of those countries.

Re|>ort or Progress of the Geolosical Survey of Canada, fbr the year 1844, p. 41.

t Rapports sar une Exploration Geologique de la ProTince de Canada, S7 Jan. 1845, p. 98.

I9Q Britub America.

Province Of New Brunswick.

The area of this province is 27,7(K) square mines.

Bituminous Coid-JieJd. — Tbe eDtire area of coal measures within the prof ince, is locally subdivided into several districts, of which the following are the principal.

I. The great northern coal-field.

II. The Westmoreland, or south-eastern.

III. The Sunbury and Queen's county, or south-western.

The aggregate area of these was estimated, in 1840, at five thoasmd square miles. Dr. A. Gesner, in a communication to the Geological Society of London, in 1843, stated that the area of the coal-field in New Brunswick had been recently determined to be seven thousand five hundred square miles; or ten thousand square miles, including Nova Scotia, but exclusive of Cape Breton.* These coal measures are described as usually lying ia long parallel troughs, or in oval basins. Since the first report of Dr. Gesner. he has explored the whole of this vast region. The result of this geological survey is, that the coal formation is found to occupy, in New Brunswick, no less than eight thousand square miles. Here the most productive coal beds prevail in the interior, while those of Nova Scotia occur on the shores of her bays and rivers, where they ofier every advantage for mining opera- tions. The coal-fields of the two provinces are united at the boundary line, and belong to one carboniferous period.f The developments of almost every season illustrate more clearly the magnitude of these coal areas, which extend from Newfoundland, by Cape Breton, Prince Edward's Island, and Nova Scotia, and across a large portion of New Brunswick, into the state of Maine.

Sir I. E. Alexander officially reported, January 5th, 1846, that the great field of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia covers a surface of upwards of nine thousand square miles; but Dr. Gesner, the provincial geologist, much exceeds that estimate, as we have seen above.

I. The great Northern Coal-field. Mr. Ilenwood, a geologist of high stand- ing, observes, that " the beauty and extent of these coal measures it is impossible to describe. In fact, we pass over nothing else, from Frederick- ton, on the St John's river, to Miramichi, and thence to Bathur8t,a distance of at least a hundred and fifly miles. They consist of various beds of sand- stone, shale, and conglomerate, with numerous thin seams of coal, lew of which are more than a foot or two in thickness. The whole of this district is particularly rich in fossil flora."| The coal measures, whose lowest members arc the conglomerate beds, are perfectly horizontal in the banks of the Ncpisiguit, near Bathurst, and these repose upon granite.

An interesting geological phenomenon has been observed here. In one of the thick beds of blue shale overlying the granite, and containing ferns and other fossil plants, occur lignites, which are impregnated in their

Proceedioift Geo). Society, Vol. IV. p. 1S2; reprinted in Joarntl Franklin iMtitnli of Philadelphit, June, 1844. t Minertl Wealth of Nova Scotia, — Getner. Alto Mining Journal, 19th Jolj, 1846. $ Traatactiooa of the Eojal Geological Societjr of Cornwall, 1840.

New Brunswick. 187

lamins, as well as in their cross fracture, by rich, vitreous capper are, and coated with green carbonate of copper. Other lignites, also containing vitreoas copper ore, occar in Nova Scotia, in the neighbourhood of Pictou, in considerable quantities, under precisely similar circumstances, within the coal formation.*

Something like this is of not uncommon occurrence in the United States, in the cupreous lignites of the red and blue shales at the base of the old red sandstone, or Devonian system. We have observed them at numerous points in Pennsylvania.

These lignites occur as casts of reeds, canes or flags ; generally obscure, and the impressions of leaves seem in some degree to resemble those of the coal series above. The copper is in form of rich grey sulphuret, the sur- faces of the lignites being coated with green carbonates. In more than one or two instances a good deal of expense has been incurred in exploring this ore, but we have never seen it in sufficient quantity to repay the cost Cop- per seems invariably to accompany this bed of lignite ; at least it is seldom unaccompanied by lignites. The latter are sometimes bitumenized. Pro- fessor Del Rio has mentioned a similar occurrence. Mr. Murchison also states that in the great copper district, which flanks the west side of the Oural mountains, the copper is wholly in the form of vegetable casts.

Near the Victoria coal mines, which are situated on the left bank of the Nepisiguit, previously spoken of, the vegetable remains occur, partly con- verted into coal, and partly replaced by grey sulphuret of copper. The same state of things occurs in the rocks at the Joggins, on the Bay of Fundy, within the Nova Scotia coal basin. Mr. Logan states that on the Nepisiguit an attempt was made by the Gloucester mining company, to work the de- posit as a copper mine ; but the irregular distribution of the organic remains rendered their operations uncertain, and induced the abandonment of them. The bed averages about two feet thick, but in one direction it appears to thin ofi*, from four feet to nothing.t

Coal is mentioned by Captain Bayfield, as occurring at Perc, near the entrance of Chaleur Bay.f

In Mr. Logan's very detailed section of the coal measures which are dis- played in the cliffs of the New Brunswick coast, on the south side of the Bay of Chaleur, it is noted that on many of the coal plants, a very minute convoluted shell is seen, and in the shale is a small bivalve. Stigmaria ficoides occurs in abundance and of large size.

II. — Westmoreland or South-eastern Coalfield, — Dr. Gesner's second report, in 1840, shows that this coal area is seventy miles in its longest diameter, and that it averages seventeen miles in breadth. " It is by no means certain that coal is contained in every part of the area ; but as the outcropping of the bituminous strata has been discovered in a number of situations, it is evident that it embraces vast quantities of coal, and is of the highest importance to the province."

The Westmoreland coal measures, we are told, rest directly upon granite.

III. — South-western Coal-field of Sunburt/ and Queen*s Counties, — By Dr. Gesner's first report of his geological survey, we learn that the coal measures repose upon the mountain limestone, and cross to the west of the river St. John.

Mr. Dawton, on the Geology of Nova Scotia, Febnianr, 1845— proceedinat, p. 35.

t Geological Report of Canada, Ist May, 1845, p. 63, 79.

t Capuin Bayfield, in Trani. Geol. 8oc. of London, vol. 5, p. 87.

|gg BUTI8H AMERICA.

On the shores of GraDd Lake in Queen's coonty, a companj has beeo incorporated more than 35 years, with a capital of £dOflQO, to work the coal beds which here lie horizontally a few feet aboTc the level of the water.

An excellent coal mine has been opened on the banks of the Salmon river, which coal is said to be superior to that of the Grand Lake.

The quantity exported is very small, compared with the enormous magni- tude of the coal area, as may be seen by the following Uble.*

In the year 1828, 66 chaldrons; 1830, 70 chald.; 1833, 138 chald.; 1834. 667 chald.; 1835, 3,537 chald.; 1839, 2,143 chald.

No later returns have reached us.

Province Of Nova Scotia.

General Mining Association," as tenants of the Crown and of his late Royal Highness the Duke of York, are lessees of all the mmes and minerals, of every description, in the province of Nova Scotia proper, and in the island and county of Cape Breton."

These coal mines are leased for sixty years, from 1827, at the fixed rent of ;,000 sterling, 1 14,500, per annum. This fixed rent of £3,000 ster- ling or £3,333 currency, per annum, conditions for a maximum annual raising of 20,000 Newcastle chaldrons, and fixes a royahy of two shillings currency, for every chaldron beyond that quantity .f

By an arrangement made with the association in 1845, they were allowed to take out 26,000 Newcastle, or 52 London chaldrons, or 65,000 tons, instead of the twenty thousand chaldrons, stipulated for ; the fixed rent re- maining the same.

The company is generally known under the title of ''The Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Mining Company."

The operations of the company commenced in 1827, and have hitherto been confined to the working of coal mines and the discovery of iron ore* The collieries now open and at work are four in number, viz : the Pictou and Albion in Nova Scotia, and the Sydney and Bridgeport mines m Cape Breton.

The capital of the'' General Mining Association" is jf 400,0009 1 ,936,- 000 ; and they possess fourteen thousand acres of land ; besides the right to all minerals and mines within the province of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.}

Sutisticfl of the Colonies of the British Empire, p. 244.

t This extra rent charge of two shillings per chaldron, hat Trequentlj bM aiifUkw bj AoMncan writera for a urifT; or as a writer styled it, in 1846, excite diitj of SO ctali per ton, for the support of the local gOTemmenL'* — U. S. Gaxette.

t Blatistica of the CoIobim of the British Empire, Martin, p. S30.

-Votakoiia. Ibb

la reciting than detaili we, ae well our redden, cumot omit to die jiyurioaa magnitude of sooh gigtntie mooopolies as the one befim m, la thu case it coren an extent of more than iwdoc wnBiom of aen$, or three timea the aise of Walea. It ia aoarcdj neeeaaaiy to aay that ita ten- den<qf ia to impormah the people; to deatroy all energy in eoltifatmg the abondant natural reaoorcea of a fiiM eoontiy ; to prevent all fiur and whole- aome competition, to nairow the acope of active and prodnctive inAiatijiv and to diaoounge all ihdividoal and general enterpriae. On- the contuii* ance of aoch a deplorable ayatem, the rival coal proprieton of the United Statea, may well foond their calcolationa of a remonerative inlenial .trade ib coal, at home, with even greater aafety and certainty than on the infloenee of tariflb and the reatnctiona of international regnlationa.

In 1834, another large company waa incorporated, under the name ''The New Brunawick and Nova Scotia Land Companj," having pnrchaaed of the Crown five hundred thouaand acrea of hndi lying in tl centre of the province of New Brunawick, at the price of 2s. 6dL ateriing-— fO.60 oanta an acre. Tlie company are, by act of Parliament, to have the privilege of pnrchaaing landa in New Brunawick, Nova Bcotia,Cape Breton, and Prince Edward'a laland. They are thereby authorized to mme and work, copper, tin, lead, iron, and all other minerals, exc gold and ailv, and ae cool oodeukm; the two latter being already granted by leaae to the general aiining anociatioii,* in all the above mentioned placea except New Brunawick.

Oiohgy. — A small geological map of Nova Scotia waa published in 1841, by Measn. Jackson and Alger. In 1642 Dr. Geaner'a firat geological map of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton waa completed, and issued the same year. In 1845 another map to illustrate the geological papera of Messrs. Gesner, Dawson and Brown, appeared in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.

On comparing the first named of this series of illustrations with the sub- sequent ones, an unusual discrepancy ia apparent between them. According to the former, the coal of Nova Scotia is restricted to a couple of apota, embracing an area so minute, aa scarcely to be discernible upon the map. Estimating these coal areas by the scale of the plan, they only cover an aggregate area of thirty-three or thirty-four aquare milea; whereaa Dr. Oesner's statement exhibits an area of carboniferous formationa of two thouaand five hundred square milea ; while Measra. Dawaon, Logan and Brown greatly exceed even that area. Howevor, since the provincialaurveys have been completed, there can be no longer a doubt on this point, and all original errors arising from early and defective investigations are now fully adjusted.

Dr. Geaner, the first in date, atates that firom Pictou Harbour, in North- umberland Strait, tLceniral beU of coal meaaures, about aix milea broad, runa in a westerly direction, across the isthmus, and passes between the southern flank of the Cobequid mountaina and the aouthem coast of the isthmus along the Basin of mines ; and thence further weatward to Advocate Har- bour. The length of this central belt is about one hundred miles, and the coal ia supposed to rest unconformably on old red aandatone.

Tbeae carboniferous beds Up round the eastern extremity and paaa akmff the northern flank of the before mentioned Cobequid mountain range and the Annan Hills, whence they again paas nearly due west to Chignecto Bay, in the Bay of Fundy. All the isthmus north of the line thus deaig*

Appettdix to Sutitiei of tbo Colonies of tbt Britidi Brnpita, No. IIL p. 7a.

100 British America.

nated, consists of carboniferous strata, forming the northern or Cumberland coal-field. The Nova Scotia coast of Chignecto Bay, runs nearly at rit angles to the direction of the coal strata, and presents an admirable section of them, nearly thirty-fi?e miles in length. In making a careful examina- tion of this thirly-five miles of coast, only one unimportant fault was observed. By measuring the horizontal distances between the strata, and making allowance for their inclination, at a number of places. Dr. Gesner estimated the total thickness of the coal measures along this sectional line, at not less than three miles, [between four and five, Lyell ; — 2f miles and 50 feet, Logan.] This is a remarkable fact; unlike, for its magnitude, any other group of coal strata on the North American continent

The carboniferous series is, thus far, exhibited in the cliffs called the South Joggins ; and Dr. Gesner mentions the existence here of nineteen small coal seams, within the horizontal distance of three quarters of a mile. They occur in an aggregate thickness of 1800 feet of strata, and vary in dimensions from six inches to four feet

Mr. J. W. Dawson, himself a resident of the Pictou coal mines, states that the coast section on the north-eastern side of Nova Scotia, cuts at an acute angle, across two great coal troughs ; the one beginning at Pictou on the east coast, and thence stretching to the west along the northern shore of the Basin of mines, [Bay of Fundy ;] the other beginning at Antigonish [St George's Bay,] and thence extending westward to the Shubenacadie river and the southern shore of the Basin of mines, [Bay of Fundy.] These two troughs are separated by a hilly range, composed of igneous rocks, and of disturbed lower carboniferous and silurian or palaeozoic strata.*

We ascertain, therefore, firom the foregoing outlines, that the coal forma- tion of Nova Scotia occupies three distinct areas, viz. : I. The Northern or Cumberland Region ; II. The Pictou or Central Basin ; III. The Antigonish or Southern Basin. Dr. A. Gesner adds a fourth district, which probably is an extension of the third. He states that on the south border of the Basin of mines there is an area, near Falmouth and Windsor, of seventy square miles, in which, though coal has not yet been discovered, the ferns, stigma- rie, and other fossil coal plants, which the sandstones and shales of that area contain, sufficiently establish the point that it belongs to the coal measQres.t

Large as is the amount of these united areas, comprising between two and three thousand square miles, it nevertheless forms but a fraction of that immense coal formation which occupies large portions of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's Island.

I. Northern or Cumberland County Coal Feffion.-Thia embraces the triangular area, which extends from the Cobequid mountain range and the Annan Hills, to the extreme northern boundary of the Nova Scotia penin- sula ; having the Northumberland Strait to the east, and Chignecto Bay to the west

In 1845, in a geological report to the provincial government of Canada, Mr. W. E. Logan published a section of the carboniferous strata, within this region, as developed at the Joggins, a continuous cliff, eighty to one hundred feet high, on the south shore of the Bay of Chignecto, Bay of Fundy.

This section is one of the most remarkable ever accomplished, and may be quoted a.s a model of close investigation, and extraordinary accuracy in developing an enormous series of beds. It comprises the vast group of coal

Qotrtcrly Jour. Geol. Soc. London, Febnitiy 1, 1845, J. W. Dawvoo, p. M. t Trantactiooi of the Geological Society, London, IS43. Proceedlogt of Uie Goloficil Societf , London, 1843, Vol. IV. p. 178—190.

aOVA 800TUL 19t

I which are dUplijed along the olifit, locally named the Joggiiia; of (he aea ahore, at Chignecto Bay. fhta locality, aaaingnlarly favouraUe ht Uiking the strict admeasurement, and conatmcting ma exact- section, of the vertical thickness of the coal fomuaion, has been frequently alluded to by ffeolcjsists and travellers. It remained for Mr. Logan to demonatrate by a hborioijs survey, the true thickness of the whole group, in Northern Nova Scotia.* His section is subdivided into eight principal anlMections or parts and these again are further divided into Uie respective members which compose the mass, separately measured in feet and inches. The extent of the labour may be inferred from the fact, that the whole aeries consists of no less than fifteen hundred and seventy beds or subdivisions, all minalely deacribed, and making up the aggregate thickness of 1470 feet 11 inches; eqnivaloit to miles, 50 feet 1 1 inches ; an amount which fiur exceeds any tlun|[ seen in the coal formation in the other parts <ii the North American cootment, to the southward.

One of the most remarkable circumstances which are brought into nolico by the aection of Mr. Logan, is the extreme thinness of the coal seams in this portion of the Nova Scotia basio. We collect from an examination of the report, the foUowing stratigraphical summary :

Agfragata tbiekMi. Faet. Inch. Coal beds, f mu lacht Subdivision No. 3, consisting of 2134 I of straU 22 5 6

7913 11 76 44

The average or mean thickness of each of these 76 oal seams, is a fra tion less than seven inches. The maximum thickness is shown in No. 7 bed of the fourth sub-section, where there are 3 feet 8 inches of coal in a bed 4 feet 6 inches thick ; and in Uie next thickest, vre have Na 29, which has 3 feet 5 inches of coal out of a bed 4 feet thick. At the same time, it may be observed, that the greatest thickness of pure coal in any one seam, is only two feet, and it may be questioned whether any one out of the seventy-six coal beds, in miles of strata, will ever be considered as workable.

Thicker coal beds appear to exist to the eastward of the Joggins. On the Macon river, which falls into Cumberland bay, one seam occurs of ten feet in thickness ; and the same, if not another, is seen at river Philip.

Several geologists have noticed the presence of erect trunks of trees in the coal strata of the Joggins, particularly in a bed of sandstone, twelve feet thick. The first notice, probably, being that of Mr. Brown, in Haliburton's "Nova SQOtia,'' in 1829. In 1842, Mr. Lyell saw similar upright trees at more than ten different levels here ; all placed at right angles to the planes of stratification. Lithologically, the strata resemble the English coal mea- sures, and those with which the coal and erect trees are associated are more than 2500 feet thick. The grits and shales containing coal plants above these are of prodigious thickness, as we see in Mr. Logan's section just adverted to. Mr. Lyell saw seventeen vertical stumps, varying in height from six to twenty feet, and from fourteen inches to four feet and a half in diameter. The trunks of these trees, which are all broken off abruptly at the top, extend through different strata, but are never seen to penetrate a seam of coal, however thin. They all end, downwards, either in beds of coal or shale; no instance occurring of their termination in sandstone. The

lUnnortf tar iin explontion jIogiqoa la provhMe Caaada. Jta. 1846.

192 British America.

exterior coating of these trunks is in the state of coal, while the solid interior usually consists of sandstone or fire-clay.

The exact position of all these beds which contain vertical stems of SSgillaria,undeT these circumstances, are exhibited in Mr. Logan's section, which is illustrated by figures of some of these trunks in the po,sition in which they appear on the cliff.

In the vicinity of the highest coal seams, in the series, viz., between seam Na 43 and 44, a twelve feet stratum of arenaceous schist is penetrated bj several erect calamitcs, in one instance one of the plants three inches in diameter, extends its roots, and twenty-one others are visible along the face of the cliff, within the space of twenty yards. Their diameters vary from half an inch to four inches. In this sub-section of 2539 feet thick, Mr. Logan enumerates, among the visible organic remains, fifteen sigUUurts ffrowing erect, and fifly-six calamites, standing apparently in their native beds.* Mr. Lyell states that immediately above the uppermost coal seuni and vertical trees, are two strata, probably of fresh-water origin, of black calcareo-bituminous shale; chiefly made up of two species of modioia and two kinds of cypres A

The Lower Carbimiferous Rocks of Nova Scotia, are described by J. W. Dawson, Esq., a resident of the Pictou coal mines, in the Quarterly Journal Geological Society, liondon, Feb. 1, 1845.

II. The Pictou, or Central Coal Basin, — As we have previously ex- plained, this belt of carboniferoas stiata, stretches from near Cape St. George on the east coast, to Advocate Harbour at the Bay of Fundy, on the west, and follows the north shore of the Basin of Mines. The area embraces the cofl mines of Pictou and Albion, and Dr. A. Gesner states that two seams of coal have been discovered in the forest, ten miles north of Truro, and tliat outcrops of coal appear in the same belt at Jolly river, at Herbert and Economy rivers, and at Parr's borough.| Strictly speaking, this district is not wholly separated from the Cumberland region, but is connected for a brief space opposite the east end of the Annan hills, in the vicinity of Pictou. It is, however, most convenient as regards topographical arrangement to treat them as separate districts.

The Pictou region appears to be the richest in coal, yet worked in this province, and it contains the two principal mining establishments of the province.

Mr. Logan's section of this region, made in 1841, is interesting; bdow are the results of his admeasurements of the carboniferous series ; the detaHs we are compelled to omit. Section commencing at the base of the series.

1. Red and drab coloured sandstones, a few coal seams towards

the base, the thickness is not stated.

2. Shales and sandstones with workable beds of coal and iron- Feet.

stone, 5000

3. Limestone with marine fossils, 10

4. Coal measures, probably unprod active, ' - . 1900

5. Limestone, with carbonized vegetable remains, - - 10

6. Red and green shales, and red sandstones, - - 050

7. Limestone, -- 20

ToUl in this part of the coal area of Nova Scotia, 7590$

Logan'i firtt Geological Report of Canada. Montreal, 1845. t Lyell, in Proceedings Geol. Soc., 1843. Vol. IV. p. 178—190. I Gdlnbergh Cabinet Library, No. XXVI. Vol. II. Britiih America. % Traas. Geol. Soc Loadoa, 1842.

No. 1, of thisfleelioD, we pfCflitroeto be tint ftrieswhieli Mr. J. W. DiWMli lifti flince mvestigated and desoribed, under tlie name of the Limtt dm hmdfhimf rocks, or Oypsiper&us Fitmaiimi of Nora Seotiai."* This aeilce oierlies the Silurian strata, and eonaiata of ]imeaiene% gypaan. and eoA' flandatonea ; above which are hard reddirii aandalonea and alidea, with lime alone; and lastly, red and grey aandatone, ahalea and eonglonieraie With carbooiferons plants. Probfy these beds paaa into the prodoetiTe DOal' meaaorea-No. 2, of Mr. Logan'a sab-section abofe.

Mr. Dawson has not been able to aacertain the exact aggreffata thiokneaa of the lowest carboniferoas rocka; he remarks, however, that m the vicinilf of Meriffoniah, and east of Pictoo,the band of carboniferoaaroeka amouoti to 10,000 or 12,000 feet in thickneaa, all dipping to the north-weat at kin aarie of twenty degrees.

This gentleman discovered a bed of erect calamitea in the PicHm ooal Add one mile and a quarter west of Pictoo, in a bed of aandstone abootten feet thick. They all terminate, downwards, at the aame level where th# sandstone rests on subjacent limestone, bat their topa are broken off at dM ferent heights.t This is a repetition of the aame phenomena obaerved, at the distance of one hnndred miles, on the shores of Ghignecto bay.

Pietou Mine, — At this mine, situated on the West river, there is but one seam, but several miles to the southward, Mr. Lo|[an, in 1841, ascertained the existence of more than twelve coal beds, which are thought lo corre- q)ond with those in the coal-iield of Cape Breton Island.

From notes, made in 1833, we were informed that the main coal aeam of Pietou was twenty-nine feet thick : but, at that time, only ten feet of the best quality of coal were worked. It has one seam of alate, five inchea thick. The ahafts were from sixty to two hundred and forty foet deep, of which two hundred and twenty were below the level of the aea. This is a hard, open burning coal, and is worked with powder ;( it does not command ao hiffh a price in the market as that of Cape Breton. Sydney and Bridgeport.] The Pietou coal communicates northward from its excellent harbour, with the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; while the Cumberiand coal passes down the Bay of Fundy, to the southward.

In 1833, the coal was conveyed from the shafts of the Pietou mines, on a railroad of one mile, to a landing place, and from thence about aix milea to the shipping. In 1840, a new railroad of six miles, for carrying the coal at. once from the pits to the wharfs, was put in operation.

This coal is stated to possess properties which render it well suited to the various branches of the iron manufacture. It is peculiar, according to Mil Alger, on account of the abundance of mineral charcoal that it containa; and, for domestic purposes, this is thought to give it an advantage over the Sydney and most other bituminous coals, by preventing it from cementing; together while consuming.

Albion Mines, — Situated on the banks of the East river, in the district of Pietou, and disUnt about eight and a half miles from the town of that name a port of safe and easy access from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A lighthouae was erected on the coast, near the town of Pietou, a few years ap>.

The East river is only navigable for the larger craft to withm six milea

QaarterW Joornal of the Geological Societv, Feb. 1845, p. SO. t Proceedinfft of the Geo. Soc., Vol. IV. p. 178.

I Journal ortbe Senate ofPennaflvania, 1833, p. 670.

% Mining Joarnal of London, Vol. X. p. 46, and Vol. Xlh p. 183.

II Alger'a edition ofPhUlipa* Mioeralogy, p. 691.

British America.

of the Albion mines ; so that vessels arriving for coal, forroerlj, received their cargoes from barges which loaded at the mines, and were towed down to the deep water by the steamers belonging to the association. In 1840, a railroad was completed, and obviated this inconvenience, as well tm the breakage which previously took place by the transhipment.

At the Albion mine is a great collection of coal seams all dipping to the north. The number is stat by Judge Haliburton to be ten, and the aggre- gate thickness to be sixty feet. The only seam worked a few years ago contained twenty-four feet of clean coal, of which about two hundred and forty tons were raised daily. In 1830, the quantity of col raised per month, was from five thousand to six thousand tons. Above three hundred vessels, of various descriptions, were loaded here during that season.

There are several shafts at the Albion mine, for raising the coal : one of the engine shaAs is four hundred and fifly feet deep.

Quality and Properties, — The Pictou coal is in favourable repute for the use of steamboats. In 1833, the steamer Royal William, of one hundred and eighty horse power and one thousand tons burthen, performed the voyage from Pictou to Cowes with the employment of Albion coal ; the trial proving entirely satisfactory. In 1838, the coals for the voyage of the Great Western steamship were supplied from the Nova Scotia mines. They were stated to answer beyond expectation, the quantity consumed being leas than the necessary supply of English coal, while the price was lower. The Conard line of steamers is now supplied with Sydney coal from the depot at Boston.

We have heard less favourable opinions from some persons, yet it has been preferred to the Virginia bituminous coal, which contains more sul- phur, and is consequently liable to occasional spontaneous combustion.

The relative value of the Nova Scotia and the Cape Breton coals may be inferred from Mr. Johnson's analyses and experiments.*

Ctrbon.

Not. Scotia Pictou Coal. 5 Canard's sample, 100 parts. |Th.;oUti.. ' associon, 56.98 " nearly 27 per

CapeBreton.Sydneycoal, mean of two spec's, 67.57 " J cent.

We select the following results from the " Report on American Coals," 1844, whereby the practical characters of the British American coals will be seen, and compared with those of other bituminous coals.

laaki nfcmli, wcttallnw. In the se viral practical

Nova oiia or riclon.

5&

Is

A r ran cement in the onii?f of Tbatr rcslaiiTc wflagW, - - , " cumplctriieat of combtitlioiif . - -, e*aporati¥ power under ejiial weifhli - e v4por all ve tindrr equal bulla, e*iponiiTe power of the combuflUblc ma tier, " frpedoai fratn wiN; in burning i " freedom from temlency to fofm din Iter, roiimum erapAratite power tinder gien

e

so

3k

S3

3.'i

36 ,

£8

u

to m u

m

S

u

334 !

S39

S46

Itti

tS3

tm

Report to the Nitj DeMrtnent of the United States, on Americta Coale, bj W. R. JohoMoo, 1844. ' '

ROVA iOOTIA. IW

OatofihefOTtj-twoTurieCieB of ootl which hafe been eiperimented upon, tUr-fif e lie iioni the United States, and ee? en from Britiih Ameriea and Great Britain. The nambera in the table repieaent the order in which thej take their appropriate rank, from one to fortywo. From the care which - we know baa been bestowed to obtain these resoita, we cannot heiitata to receife them, in perfect reliance cm their acconcjr. By taking the fimr tables of resolts of eTaporatiTC power, the respective coals in the foregOug synopsis, range themselves in the following order of value:

1. Pennsylvania coab of Queen's Run. 4. Pictoo— Oonard'ri.

2. Virginia coals. 5. Sydney.

3. Pictou Mining Association. - 6. Liverpool.

On an average, 80,000 chaldrons of coal and 50,000 cords of wood are shipped annually from Nova Scotia to the United States, which return large quantities of manu&ctured iron.

At present, the iron imported into Nova Scotia and New Bmoswiek amounts, in value, to ;139,000 per annum, while, at the same time, there is not a smelting furnace in any of the British Nordi American provinces. Canada only excepted. This state of things will probably remain until the resources of British America are better known in the mother country; where alone there is capital to improve them. This deficiency of iron works is hf no means ascribable to the want of iron ore, which, by the geological state- ments of Dr. Gesner, is very abundant. There are many varieties of iron ores distributed over this country.

The coal-fields of the Pictou district, and Cumberland county, contain workable strata of the argillaceous oxide and carbonate of iron, known aa " clay iron stone/' At those places, the ore, the coal for fuel, and the lime- stone necessary for the flux, are placed side by side. This admirable arrangement, made by Providence, whereby all the materials necessary ibr the production of iron, are deposited together, is still overiooked in this province, whose metals are imported from foreign countries. All the iron employed for railroads and mining operations, is imported from Great Britain; and having been transported three thousand miles, it is finally thrown into castings, at the very site where thick beds of Nova Scotia ore are seen protruding from the earth; and |there a single stratum of coal, thirty-six feet in thickness, is ready to supply the fuel for its smelting and manufacture

We may add to the foregoing notice of the prevalence of iron ore, that an enormous deposit of the specular oxide of iron has recently [1847] been discovered at Londonderry Mountain, in Nova Scotia. Dr. Gesner baa reported favourably of the ore, and its local position. It is estimated to yield about seventy per cent, of cast metal.

Exportation. — In the year 1836 the quantity of coal exported from Nova Scotia to all parts, was 42,587 tons, the value of whichwa8 jf38,928 or 8185,507, being I85. or 94 48 per ton. In 1839 the quantity exported was 67,632 tons.

The General Mining Association now ships from the Albion Mines to the United States from 40,000 to 50,000 chaldrons of coal annually. Tea seams of coal have been penetrated by the workings at the Albion Mines ; the united thickness of these coal beds is upwards of 75 feet. The main coal band is no less than 36 feet in thickness — of this, the company only work 12 feet, leaving 12 feet of good coal, and 12 feet fit for fumacei and forges.

Geology of Novt Seotit, by Dr. A. Gasnar, Alto lOaiaf JoaraaI| A|ril| Mb*

|g6 BRITISH AlfEKICA.

In 1839, six steamngines, 100 horses, and 500 men was employed at thoM mines, and upwards of 46,000 tons of coal were exported to the United States, and to different ports along the coast.

The Province contains about 15,000 square miles. Of that area, there are 2000 to 2500 square miles of coal-field.

On the coast of Chignecto Bay, the tide rises upwards of fifty feet ; and at low water the beds of coal are uncovered by the sea. Upon these beds ▼easels from New Brunswick and the United States lie aground, and from them receive their cargoes; and as the shore can hardly be said to be inhabited, no notice is taken of such depredations."

"The steamboats that run into Chignecto Bay are propelled by coal imparted from Great Britain ; their keels often pass within a few feet of the coal strata already mentioned, and from which they might be cheaply supplied ; but the Mining Association possesses an entire monopoly, whi has prevented every kind of mining enterprise in the province; the inhabi* tanta of Nova Scotia have not been permitted to open the earth beyond the depth of the soil, and up to the present hour they are compelled to pay the price fixed by a single company for all the coals they consume. By with- holding the coal from the inhabitants of any civilized country, where that mineral is abundantly found, the manufacture of iron and other metals is prevented; manufactories cannot exist; trade will languish, and general industry be greatly retarded. The truth of these remarks is fully proved by the present state of the province — a colony that will never thrive until her resources are liberated from the fetters of unyielding monopolists."* Let these men look at Pennsylvania.

It appears from a memorial or report of a committee of the House of Assembly, in 1846, that twenty of the sixty years of the lease to the associa- tion had then expired ; and that yet no effort had been made to work a single bed of coal, or other mineral, with the exception of the coal-beds at Pictou and Sydney !

The General Mining Association, in 1S47, determined to open a new coal mine in Cumberland county. This establishment will supply New Brunswick and the Nova Scotia ports in the Bayof Fundy,and will ahorten the distance for the coal vessels from the United States.

Newer Coal formation on the eastern part of Nova Scotia, in the district of Pictou.

Mr. J. \V. Dawson has described in Nova Scotia, a newer coal formation than the usual old coal formation upon which it rests. In a palaeontological point of view it possesses considerable interest, as its fossils show the con tinuanceof the coal flora during the deposition of a series of red sandstones of more recent origin ; and also of the co-existence of that flora with terres- trial vertebrated animals.

The older coal measures of the Albion Mines on the banks of the East River of Pictou Ire, according to Mr. Logan, 5000 feet in thickness ; and are succeeded in ascending order by a great bed of coarse conglomerate, which, as it marks a violent interruption of the processes which had accu- mulated the great beds of coal, shale, and iron-stone beneath, and, aa it is succeeded by rocks of a character very different from that of these older coal measures, forms a well-marked boundary, which Mr. Dawson considers as the commencement of the newer coal formation.

The conglomerate is followed by sof\ reddish sandstone, above which is a bed of grey limestone, supporting a small bed of coal and a few inches of

Misenl wetldi of Nova Scotia, bj Dr. A. Getoer, 19th Jolj, 1845, Mining Joanal.

Nova Scotia. 197

under claj; and ofer these are at least 2000 feet thick of reddish and grey sandstones and shales, in which is another seam of coal, deven inches thick, with an under clay. In the grey sandstones are coniferous lignites, fossilized by carbonate of lime, and calamites, endogemies, and UpuMaur drons. Near Pictou, in addition to these, are fossil ferns, siermbergia [ArtisiaTj and carbonized fragments of wood, impregnated with iron pyrites mod with sulphuret and carbonate of copper. In this series also, and near the town of Pictou, is the bed of sandstone containing erect calamiies, noticed by Mr. Lyell, in his papers on the fossil trees of the Joggins. In the coast section, westward of the entrance of Pictou Harbour, much red sandstone appears, and also a bed of limestone, and a small seam of coal. Some grey sandstones also appear, in which are numerous fragments of carbonized wood, containing sulphuret and carbonate of copper. Proceeding coast- wise to Cape John, at the extremity of the Cape is a bed of white granular gypsum, about three feet thick.

Beyond Cape John this newer coal formation skirts the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to Wallace Harbour.

In the red sandstones, near Tatmagouche, Mr. Dawson had found on a previous examination, a few foot-marks of an unknown animal. They were mere scratches made by the points of the toes or claws, and their arrange- ment appeared to indicate that the animal was a biped ; their form being quite analogous to that of the marks left by our common sandpiper, when running over a firm sandy shore. On a subsequent inspection, a series of foot-marks of another animal was found. In a specimen forwarded to the Geological Society, the tracks were somewhat injured by the rain-marks, which cover the slab. Many other beds in the neighbourhood were ob- served to be rippled, rain-marked, or covered with worm-tracks ; and as such indications of a littoral origin are not unfrequent in other parts of the newer coal formation, it may be anticipated that many interesting relics of terres- trial animals will in future be discovered. Among other fossil remains in the red sandstones of Tatmagouche, Mr. Dawson noticed a fossil plant covered with shells of a species of spirorbis, and few small scales of ganoid fidhes.

The sections described by the author of tlie memoir are included in a dis- trict extending about fii\y miles along the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The greater part of the rocks composing the newer coal formation of Pictou, were formerly confounded under the name of new red sandstone. It is conjectured that in other parts of Nova Scotia, this formation will be found to be a well marked carboniferous group. It is not valuable, how- ever, as a depository of coal; but the existence of such a distinct formation, mure than tivc thousand feet thick, in this country, is as interesting as it was unexpected.* The detection of animal tracks on the coal measures is the first instance we have had of the probable existence of air-breathing animals at any period earlier than the new red sandstone.t

Cupriftrous Lignites. — In Mr. Logan's published section of the carbon- iferous strata of the Joggins, lowest sub-section, or No. 8, are noted several beds of mineralized vegetable remains, belonging to the true coal series, which are replaced by grey sulphuret of copper, covered by a thin pellicle of green carbonate of copper. Four seams of these cupriferous lignites occur in this section — within an area or depth of two hundred and six feet| Their aggregate thickness is twenty-one feet Mr. Dawson describes simi-

Proceedings of the GeologictI Society of London, Vol. I. p. 332.

t Sillimtn'f American Joarnal, July, 1S46.

X Rapport! lur nne £xplontion Gologique de U ProTiDce de Ctnida, p, ias

198 British Am£Rica.

lar instances in what he denominates the newer coal formation, along the gulf of St. Lawrence, or west coast of Northumberland strait

At the mouth of French river he observed grey sandstones and shales, containing a few endogenites, calamites, and pieces of lignite, impregnated with oopper 6re. Beneath these are other sandstones and shales, contain- ing, in a few places, nodules of copper glance. These sandstones are often tippled, and contain branching fucoidal marks. On one of the rippled shales Mr. Dawson found foot prints of animals.

Traces of Animals, — In the ripple marked sandstones of Horton Bluff, Mr. Logan discovered footsteps, which appeared to Mr. Owen to belong to some unknown species of reptile; constituting the first indications of the reptilean class known in the carboniferous rocks.

Island And County Of Cape Breton.

Topographically the coal area of this island is distinctly separated into three fields or basins, which we shall arrange in the following order, accord- ing to the glogical map of Dr. Gessner :

I. The Sydney coal-field. II. The Southern coal-field.

III. The Western coal-fields.

I. 7c Sydney coai-Jidd occupies the north-east portion of the Island of Cape Breton. It extends along the coast, and is exhibited in the cliffs, firom the north of Sydney harbour to Miray bay; and thence inland to the great entrance of the Bras d'or. This portion is generally estimated to contain 250 miles square of workable coal.

The coal of Cape Breton appears to have been known to the early French settlers prior to the discovery of that mineral in Nova Scotia and Newfound- land. The Abbe Raynal is among the first writers in describing the Cape Breton coal, which he says was worked in horizontal beds in the open cliffs. And he adds that one of these coal seams had been set on fire, and burned with great fury.*

The Sydney coal, as a domestic fuf 1, is by some asserted to be equal to the Newcastle, and is used by the steamerssuccessfully ; but the latter com- mands twodollars a chaldron more in New York and Boston. The repu- tation of this coal has so much increased its demand of late years, that the town of Sydney has grown into some importance.

The principal coal seam at Cape Breton is about six feet thick, but the roof not being good, the workmen arc obliged to leave a part of the coal— at least this was the case a few years ago, and even then they worked out five feet five inches.

The coal is taken up by shafts, 250 feet deep, by steam power. In 1833 it was hauled one and a half to two miles to the landing, and thence con- veyed by lighters to North Sydney, five or six miles up the bay. In quality, this coal may be classed among the soft, close burning, bituminous kinds.

Mr. Richard Brown states that " this coal formation is probably the most recent stratified group in the island ; and it is certainly the most important, as it furnishes Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and the United States, with an abundant supply of coal, equal in quality to the best of that found in the Newcastle district." The coal-field of Sydney, he continues, situated on the N. E. coast of the island, is the only one thai has

Uklorj of the SetUemrat and Commerce of Um Weft Indies, by the Abbe RayaaL

MOTAflOQTU. IQB

been saflhuendy explored to determine ito limiti. It eitendfl fioiii Mimy bqr to Cipe Dauphin, avenging about sef en milee in width, and oecapjuig area of 350 square miles. As the general dip of the strata is nortlMstv or seaward, this great area of coal measures is probably tbe segment only of an immense basin extending towards the coast of Newfivondland.

Mr. Brown estimates the perpendicular thickness of tbe exposed ooal measures, at more than 5400 feet. In this thickness are contained ftor seams of workable coal, ranging from four to seven feet ench, and sovcral seams of less than two feet.

They contain similar vegetable remains to those of the English coal-fieldi. in great abundance ; and occasionally trunks of trees, from 1 to 2 feet in diameter. There hare also been discovered, recently, fishes soles, with teeth, fins, bones, and coprolites, in Itttuminous shale and in a thin seam of impure cannel coal.*

A previous memoir from the same gentleman contained a section of the general sequence of the coal measures and gypsiferous formatiooa on the north-western end of the Sydney coal-fidd.t

We have, besidei, in the same publication, November 1846, a description of a ffroup of fossil trees in the Sydney coal-field, of Cape Breton, also Mr. Brown. One of the most interesting sections of the coal measores, is that afforded by the cVifb on tbe north-west shore of Sydney harbour, which runs directly at right-angles to the strike of the strata ; exposing almost every individual bed, from the old red sandstone, through the overlying car- boniferous limestone, millstone grit, and coal measures.

The author states that the total thickness of the coal-measures, calculated from the highest bed of the millstone grit to their abrupt termination on the sea coast, is 1843 feet. These dimensions appear irreconcilable with those previously given, of the same district

T%e Sydney coal mines are situated on the north-west entrance of Spanish river, or Sydney harbour, which is equal, if not superior, to any in British America, and is accessible in all winds. It is here that the most extensive operations of the company are carried on. The coal is well suited for domestic use, and for steam purposes, being highly bituminous, igniting readily, and leaving but little ash. A railroad which cost forty thousand pounds, conveys the coal, by means of several locomotives, from the pits to a point injthe harbour where]vessels of any burden can load with ease, and are well sheltered from the prevailing winds. There are fourteen cpal seams, above three feet thick each. One of these is eleven feet and another nine feet

Like the Pictou coal-field, this is interrupted by intrusive masses of trap, but it contains a sufficiency of coal to supply the world for ages.

The Sydney mines are included in the lease by the crown, in 1827, to the general mining association.

Production in 1832, 39,651 tons

1837, 70,000 tons

1844, 50,000 tons

About half of this went to the United States ; the remainder for home consumption. The value of this mine, under active management, has always been held to be considerable. The association, it is said, were offered, pre> viously to 1828, <£7000 per annum, which is a smaller sum than they could

Quarterly Jouroal of the Geological Society of London, May I845| p.tlO, Vol. L t Ibid, February 1st, 1845, p. 35. X Ibid, Vol. II. p. 393.

300 British America.

now obuin, if pot unfettered in the market The coal was first opened above sixty years ago, and has continued from that period to be wrought

Bridgeport JtRnes are fifteen miles from Sydney. The coal seam worked here is nine feet thick, of which, formerly, but five feet nine inches were worked, the remainder being left for roofing. This coal, which resembles that of Sydney, is conveyed by a railroad near two miles to the shipping place, from whence small schooners convey it to the larger vessels, which approach within a mile ; or the schooners take it on, at once, to Sydney. The mines are situated on the south side of Indian bay, If mile from the harbour.

Cost of mining cocl—Pictoti. — In 1833, this coal was mined at the cost of l5.9(/. the cubic yard; and filling \s. 5d,; toUl, 35. 2d. The miner finding powder and the company finding tools.*

Sydnei/.ln 1833, price of mining, Is. 9d, per chaldron of 50 boshela; with 10 a week for rations. Transportation to the landing, mile, li.per load, or about 1 cent per bushel.

Table of the production of the Nova Scotia and Cape Breton coal mines, and the quantity sent to the United Sutes, in chaldrons of one and a half tons each, but weighing in genera], according to the custom of the trade, 3750 Ibs.t Royalty paid in currency j3333.

ISr. 1 1833. 1 1835.

ISIQ. j 1844.

PmiA J Sydney, 8,776,15,302 Cape Breton. gridgeport, 1,325, 9305 Nova Scotia, Pictou, or Albion, 4,000, 18,698

14,673

8,265

16,185

35,154 I 13,121 3 36,697

38,199 50,000

29,433

1 14,101 143,805

39,123

84,972 167,639

Island of Bovdarderie. — This island, which lies to the north of the port of Sydney, is four miles wide and twenty-six miles long, or one hundred and four square miles, and is wholly composed of the carboniferous forma- tion. It was examined in 1843 by Mr. R. Brown, who invariably found beds of gypsum in the lower part of the coal series, between the coal and the conglomerate. It does not appear that any of the coal seams which are exhibited in the natural sections on every side of this island, have ever been worked.

Geologically speaking, this area is commonly included within the limits of the Sydney coal-field.

II. Southern coalfield of Cape Breton. — This coal district occupies the area between the Grand Lake, the Gut of Canso, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the southern part of the Cape Breton. It appears to be about thirty miles in length and about six in breadth.

III. Western coal-field of Cape Breton. — On Dr. Gesner*s map this region occupies about fifty or sixty miles in length, on the south-west coast of the main island, from St. George's bay to Salmon river.

Coal Trade Between British America And The United States.

During the discussion of the United States UrifT bill of 1846, moeb anxiety was felt and expressed in the United States, but especially in Penn*

Senate Joernal ofPennsylTanit, Vol. II. 1833, p. 570.

t MarUn's Sutittict of the Britith colonial potactaiooa, p. SSO.

MOTASOOTXA. Ml

SflTinifty tB to the eflbet which the remiMicm of so large an amoont of the Qtythen iropoeed on the intioductioQ of fOTeign coaJsi might have upon her hoBie trade.

It was shown, and may he confirmed by ifispeetion of oar own tables diat, while with the 1842 tariff dnty of 9h7S per ton, the inertase of bitonunoas eoal fiom the colonies into Boston, its principal market, was, m 1846,aiit ife per cent, over the supply of 1844, — the increase of Pennsylvania anthracite in the same market, and at the same time, was only eighteen and a half per cent It might, wit!) good reason, therefore, be inihned that, on redocing the duly ip about one-third of the sum heretofore paid, the conse- quence would be a diminished demand for anthracite, and the almost total ezclosion of American bituminous ooal from the eastern states.

This has not proved to be the result ; — for, while the foreign coal trade of Boston, for instance, has remained nearly stationary under a low tsrifl the home trade in anthracite has trebled.

It seems to us that there is one riew, in relation to a reciprocal trade in eoal, which has heretofore been orerlooked. Thus, Canada, although just now not a ? ery important customer, is a purchaser of American cml to e certain extent Thus, again, while the provinces of Nova Scotia and Neir Brunswick obtain a limited number of customers from one or two AmericsB ports in their vicinity, the coal proprietors of Pennsylvania, of Ohio, and ' ultimately of Michigan, will, in their turn, supply the adjacent {Hx>vince8 of Canada with the fuel of which they are in need. The Colonial government ioiposes no tariff on this importation, although the American duty is thirty per cent on what is received in the United States; a tax equivalent to sixty- fire cents per ton. As there exists no coal formation in all Canada, along a frontier of more than a thousand miles ; as the wants of the people increase; as manufactories occasion new demands with an increasing population ; as the recent requirements for smelting within the mining regions call for an adequate supply of mineral fuel, it does appear to us that the Canadian provinces are destined to become extensi?e recipients of American coal ; and to an amount, ultimately, that will immeasurably exceed the amount of Nova Scotia coal which may reach the American Atlantic ports.

In consequence of the reduced doty on coal imported into the United States, an additional impulse was given, towards the close of 1846, to the trade mcoal from the British colonies. Several barques of fiom three hundred to four hundred tons burden each, were, on the passing of the act of Congress of July, 1846, at once chartered in London for this trade. The deep wstera of the north-eastern coast allow the largest class of vessels to take in and deliver cargoes of No?a Scotia and Sydney coal, and hence they could bring it at a lower rate than the small vessels which convey the Pennsylvania and Virginia coals ; independently of avoiding the heavy charges on the American coal, by railroads and inland navigation.

For four years the admission of Nova Scotia coal had been increasing in the eastern ports, for the iron and other manufectures, for the supply of the Cunard steamers, and for various uses, in the fiice of a protective duty of 92.25 per chaldron. With a diminished duty, therefore, it is probaUe a considerable demand for this description of coal will take place in those porta.

1848. The expectation suggested in the last paragraph, haa not been euctly realized. That there has been no larger demand for the provincial coal, we ascribe only to the simple fact, that no bituminous coal will here- after be able to supplant the use of anthracite for general purpoaeey and especially for domestic use.

902 British America.

Coal Trade Of British North America.

The principal exportation of bituminous coal from No?a Scotia and pe Breton, is to the ports of Boston and New York.

This coal is sold to the American merchants by the nominal chaldron of one ton and a half, weighing tliree thousand three hundred and sixty pounds, or forty-two bushels ; but it is understood that the large measurement brings ap the chaldron to forty-eight bushels ; even measure, three thousand seven hundred and fifty pounds. By the tariff of 1842, the duty was levied on the cha!5l£on_9f thir-six bushels of eighty pounds, which is, generally, two thousand eight hundred and fifty-two pounds weight The reuiler at Boston sells a chaldron of two thousand five hundred pounds, and sometimes two thousand seven hundred pounds, the nominal price being influenced by the weight. The Nova Scotia ton is considered equivalent to thirty-six buahela, even measure.

The agitation of the tariff subject on foreign imported coal in the United States, brought forward a great many facts in relation to the trade with the British colonies, some of which details it may be useful to preserve ; as the prevailing customs of the trade were but little understood out of the imme- diate market.

Cape Breton, or Sydney and Bridgeport coals, command a higher price, at all times, than the Nova Scotia or Pictou coals.

Price of Sydney coals in 1846, $3.20 to $3.30 per chaldron, delivered on board the vessel. If five hundred chaldrons be taken by one person, and paid for, forty cents on the chaldron, mine measure, is refunded to the purchaser. Sydney coals overrun the Boston measure about eighteen to twenty per cent. No other allowance is made.

Nova Scotia or Pictou coal, in 1846, cost from $3.00 to $3.20 per chal- dron. If one thousand chaldrons be purchased and paid for by one person, thirty cents on the chaldron, mine measure, is deducted. The above prices are for ninety days credit The Pictou coal overruns the measurement abouV twenty-five per cent

A large portion of the Sydney and Pictou coals are carried to the United States in British vessels. The American vessels in this trade are generally chartered to proceed to Sydney and Pictou, and back to Boston or New York. In such case, they generally go in ballast Some vessels are occa- aonally loaded with American produce, which goes to Newfoundland and St Peters, and then these vessels come back to the mines and load with coal for Boston, 6lc. Corn and flour are sometimes carried to Sydney and Pictoo for sale, in small quantities, say one hundred barrels of flour and five hun- dred bushels of corn ; though in general the American vessels carry nothing.

The Cape Breton [Sydney and Bridgeport] coal mines are about two miles from the shipping places, by railroad. There is no extra charge ibr putting coals on board. The Pictou coal [Nova Scotia] is conveyed from the mines by a railroad of about six miles, to the shipping place.

American Tart f on foreign imported coals, by act of Congress, passed in August, 1342 $2.25 per chaldron of 36 bushels of 80 lbs. each, $1.75 per ton of 28 bushels of 80 lbs. each, or 2240 lbs.

Briiuh Tariffs commencing July 5, 1843, by the colonial legislature. Coals— ;/rf, both import and export

Rate of Toiif in 1846, for American mineral coal, passing the Welhnd canal, 2f. 6d. per ton, for the whole distance. Sea coal — free.

Pop't Joomal of Trade, 1S44, p. 4S1.

MCfFA flOOnA.

fiom the mines to Boston. Boston measore ;— boot I2.75 per chaldron ; in 1847, 92 per chaidrao.

a? erase, in 18409 To Fiofidence

>c.

BOSTON COiLL TRADE WITH 8TDNBT AND FICTOU.

imports of BreioM or Pieiou, and Nova Scotia or Sfdkeg Bridgeport coal into Boitm, U. S., in the foOmoing years. The ekat$ are made in Pidouhy the large ckaldronofli tons iwi the etutom- house returns are on the chaldron of Utons or 2800 Os. [96 hushels.] [48 busheb, even measure.']

Chaldrons

ofUtoMor

Tons of

Tom.

awMrou

Tmuot

SSOOIbi.

moibi.

OflltOM.

movm.

17,650

37,536

30,453

91,899

97,874

39,691

37,114

90,184

95,930

S6,610

33,769

90,334

95,417

37,986

47,489

33,698

49,035

The foQowing statement exhibits the conaratioe cost of Pictou or Sydney ' coal, delivered at Boston, by the chaldron of 36 6M5Aeb, [9812 lbs.] and the ton 0/2240 /&5., under the American tariff duties of 1842 and 1846, respectively.

DeUilf.

Under the UritfoflSM, (4c. per bash.

Under the Uriifof 1840, 30e.perbsli.

&

hi

Mema price of coal per chaldron of 48 baihels, weighing 3750

Ibe., [nominally U torn,] from $3.00 to 3J20, nj 13.10, - Freight to Boston, per chaldron of 36 basheli, $2.75,

2M

Cost, eiclosive of any discount or allowances, Retail prices in Boston, in 1846, fVom $8 to $9, per chaldr. Cost or a ton of Pennsylvania anthracite, in Boston, Cnrrent reuil prices, in 1847-8,

$5.79

to to

Cost of Pennsylvania anthracite, in Boston, as compared with Nofa Scotia coal, in 1846. Price on shipboard at Philadelphia, $4.00 per ton, to 4.37i, red ash. Freight to Boston, $1.50 to 1.75 " 1.62, "

Anthracite, 95.75 96.00

The cargo prices of coals of all descriptions are generally aboat 91 per ton below the retail prices.

To these charges may be added, as the case may be, insurance 2 per cent, and commission per cent. A preference will always be given in the eastern ports, where bitaminoiM y coal is required, in favour of the Nova Scotia cod, ofer that of Ridbmond, in Virginia, on account of the large amoant of ralphnr in the latter.

904 British America.

Per too. Colonial 2240 Ibf. correncj. New York. — Average cost of Sydney coal, exclusive

of duty in 1836, at Sydney and Pictou, - - $3.60 IBs. Oif. In 1837, " " . . 2.90 Us. M.

In 1846, " - . 3.02 I5s. OdL

In 1844 — By the statement of a New York coal importer

it appears that the mean price of Sydney coal im- ported by him, in that city, from the spring of 1842 to at the fall of 1844, was, per New York chaldron of 36 N.York.,

bushels, $3.88 or 3.01

Add the duty of 1842, 2.25 1.75

Average cost in the New York market, 96.13 4.76

Wholesale price same time, from $6.00 to $7.00, say $6.50

Comparative price of Pennsylvania anthracite, during the same time, in New York, per ton.

Cost at Pottsville, - - - 2.00

Freight and toll to N. Y. - - 2.60

Wholesale price, from $5.00 to $6.00, - - - $6.00

1846-— Cost of Nova Scotia coal, with an ad valorem

of30 per cent. 2.69

Freight to New York, 2.00

$6.50

Per chaldroo.

Price of Pictou and Sydney coal, in N. Y. 1832, $9.50 7.39

1833, 8.50 6.70

By the cargo, I 1842 to 1844, 8.75 aOO

$6.50+2.25 duty 8.75 J 1846, 8.75 6.90

Current retail price of anthracite, 1847-8, 6.00

" Pictou and Sydney, 1847-8, 6.50

Providence, — The following statement is the result of an actual purchase and sale of a cargo of Pictou coal received in this port, 8tb August, 1846.

Cost on board at Pictou, $3.30, from which a discount of 30 cents is allowed, making the cost price of $3.00 per Pictou chaldron.

Quantity, 162 Pictou chaldrons, measuring at the Custom house 7776 bushels 48 bushels to tlie chaldron, or 216 chaldrons of 36 bushels each.

Weight of the same, 271 tons, 18 cwt 2 qrs. 8 lbs. 607,500 lbs.

Therefore the actual weight of the Pictou chaldron of 48 bushels, was 3750 lbs.

That of the Boston chaldron of 36 bushels, 2812 lbs.

The proportionate weight of 28 bushels is 2191 lbs., therefore there are 28.7 bushels to 2240 lbs.

Cost of the cargo of 162 Pictou chaldrons at $3.00 $4.86

Freight to Providence, $2.87 J, on 216 chaldrons of 36 bushels, 6Sl\

$iija7

Amount of duty under the Uriff of 1842, $4.75 AmoQDtofdutyunder the tariff of 1846, 1.46

JIOTir MonA. . . 9lt

Fr CImL of Fitr Tm tf SSltlbi. SMOlba.

Co0t price of the eoal at ProTidence, under the old tariS; 97.28 &8S under the new tiff, 4.60

UfafUlpfa'a.— Aggregate of nine yeara importation of Ihreign eoala into Philadelphia, fiz., from 1833 to 1841.

Touff8

Nova Scotia coal, 1,204,782 English coal, 188,582

1,893,264 48,026 Annual average, 154,607 4,780

1841 — Importation of Nova Scotia and Cape Bre- ton coal into Philadelphia.

Nova Scotia, Pictou, 45,221

English bituminous coal, ... 81,158 1,118

244,5881- 8,735

1841 — Price of Pictou coal on board, in the Schuylkill,

25 cents per bushel, $7.00

Richmond coal, Virginia, 28j cents, - 8.04

Alleghany coal, 28 cents, - - 7.80

with the Tliriff WHhUMTurir oflSttptrtoB. oflSlflptrlM.

1846~Estimated cost at Philadelphia,

Price charged on board the vessel, at the place of

export, 93.37 per chaldron of 4S bush, or ton. 2.25 2.25

Fair average freight from Pictou to Philadelphia, 2.50 2.50

Duty, 1.75 .67

86.50 5.42

1847 — Wholesale or cargo price of bituminous Alleghany coal

at Philadelphia, from 18 cents to 20 cents per bushel tm 5.60

$5.00 to 5.60 per ton. . . - . j

1848 — Alleghany bituminous coal, Jan. 1st, 25 cents per bushel, 7.00

Virginia or Richmond, coal do. 22 do. 6.16

1848Wholesale cargo price current of anthracite, Jan. Ist, in 1 in

Philadelphia, p*""

Magdalene Islands, — These, according to the Report of Sir J. E. Alex- ander, Jan. 5th, 1846, are parts of a great coal formation.

Prince Edward's lslana,formerfy St. John's, — In respect of its geology, this island is, apparently, a continuation of the great Nova Scotia and New Brunswick coal-field, but no mines have been worked here.

According to an official report of Sir J. E. Alexander, dated Montreal, Jan. 5, 1846, Prince Edward's Island is, in fact, one continuous coal-field.

Gypsum, €hrindstones, ite, expariedfrom Nota Seatia. — The Nova Scolla and rew Brunswick blue grindstone M, which crops out from beneath the

206 British America.

coal, 18 forty-four feet thick, and is probably similar to the millstone grit of EDgiand. Eighteen hundred tons of grindstones were annually exported from hence to the United States, some years ago, and probably more of late. The price in the United States is from fourteen to eighteen dollars a ton.

Number of grindstones exported in 1832, 19,240 valued at 30 b. each je28360 $139,682.

Of Gypsum one hundred thousand tons were exported annually from hence to the United Sutes, the value in 1830 being $1 19,234.

By returns to a circular, addressed by the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, in 1845, it appears that there are at this time about 200,600 tons of foreign plaster annually imported into the United States.

This plaster is admitted free of duty, but the amount is exaggerated, for the returns for 1832 give quantity of gypsum exported from Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, as 46,136 tons, valued at IO5. per ton, or ;23,270, 5i.ik 81 12,627. In 1844-5, the official value was reduced to $77,990,*

Newfoundland.

The entire western side of this great bland, along a space of three hundred and fifty miles, and from forty to sixty miles in breadth, is occupied, according to Mr. Jukes and Sir R. H. Bonnycastle, by secondary and car- boniferous rocks. This country has been very imperfectly explor, and the interior is almost entirely unknown. Of the extent or absolute area of coal in the carboniferous region, we are very imperfectly informed. That which is best known is the south-west part of the island ; and it has been traced, at intervals, along a space of a hundred and fiAy to two hundred miles to the north-east. Some of the points, where coal seams are intersected by the rivers, are known only through the reports of the Red Indians.

The southern part of the coal basin, best known to Mr. Jukes, he states to be about twenty-five miles wide, by ten in length.

Hitherto it docs not appear that coal has formed any part of the exports of Newfoundland.!

In regard to the area which is occupied by coal formations we have no information. It is probably not less than five thousand square miles, nor more than 10,000.

Peat. — Large quantities of this fuel exist on the island. Vast tracts of peat-bog were noticed by Mr. Cormack, in 1823, who states also that beneath its surface occur the trunks and roots of trees, much larger than any which are now growing on the island.

Emigration from Great Britain to British America and the Umited States. — Before closing our statistics of North America, it may not be wholly out of place to insert a statement of the annual number of persons

Official United Sutes Report, Dec. 3, 1845. t M artia*s Sutistics Brit. £inp., p. 2S9.

Newfoundland.

who have emigrated hither during a few years past, from the seyeral ports of the United Kingdom.

Deilination.

Deitioation.

British America.: United Statei. Penoni. Penoni.

United Stalei. Peraoni.

28,808 40,060 16,673 32,293 38,164

29,109 33,074 26,720 40,642 45,169

64,123 23,618 22,923 36,617 100,000

64,216 28,351 43,661

Emigration from Great Britain during the twenty years from 1825 to 1844| inclusive.

To British American colonies, ... 551,386 persons.

To the United States, via the colonies, - - 569,633 "

1846 — The number of emigrants who landed at Quebec and Montreal in 1846, was 32,753; of these, there were Irish, 21,000. Emigrants arriving in West Canada, through tlie United States, 2,864. Emigrants and pas- sengers arriving in New York from Europe in 1846, being upwards of 300 per day, 115,230. Total emigrants to the United States, arrived in 1846, 158,648.

1847 — Of the 100.000 persons that emigrated to Canada in tliis year, full 25,000 died of the " Ship Fever," either on the voyage, or immediately after their arrival. — " Report of the Montreal Immigrant Committee for 1847."

The following is a statement of the arrivals, tonnage, and passengers, at the port of Quebec from 1841 to 1840, inclusive:

Years.

Vessels.

Tons.

446,642 307,687 458,981 573,208

Tonnage cleared at Quebec and Montreal in 1846, Cleared for the Lower Provinces,

1841,

124G

1842,

1844,

1840,

Passengers chiefly emigrants.

28,086 43,81 1 19,698 32,903

592,577 tons. 6,558 tons.

Total, 599,135

Arrivals and Tonnage at Quebec to 1st of Decefnber in each vear: — In 1846, 1439 vessels, 573,104 tons. In 1847, 1178 vessels, 404,485 tons.

Kingston Upper Canada. — The number of steamers and propellers belonging to this port in 1846, was 115.

206 British America

Hudson'S Bay Territory.

Originally Styled Ruperts Land.

Royal Charter and Poiturs of the Hudson* s Bay Ctnnpany — granted by Charles the 11, , 2rf of May, 2f2d year of his reign, A. V. 1670.— The extraordinary magnitude of the powers, privileges, and resources of this company being but little known or understood, we have made an abatmct of the Royal Charter, for the purpose of exhibiting them.

The title of the company is, — Governor and Company of Adven- turers of England, trading into Hudson's Bay."

The grant comprises the sale, trade and commerce of all the seas, bijs, straits, lakes, rivers, creeks and sounds, in whatsoever latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of Hudson's straits ; and all the lands and terri- tories upon the countries, coasts and confines of the same set?, boys, dtc., that were not already in possession of, or granted to, our other subjects, or the subjects of any other Christian Prince or State; together with rights of fishing therein ; and the Royalty of the sea upon the coasts within the limits aforesaid ; and all mines royal, of gold, silver, gems and precious stones, within the same limits. "The said land shall henceforth be reckoned and reputed as one of our plantations or colonies in America, called Ruperfi Land — Prince Rupert being the first Governor thereof: to be held as of our Royal Manor of Greenwich, in the county of Kent, in free and common socage ; yielding and paying yearly to us, our heirs and successors, for the same, Tipo Elks and tiro Black Beavers, whensoever and as often as we, our heirs, and successors, shall happen to enter into the said countries, ter- ritories, and regions hereby granted."

It shall be lawful for the Governor and company to make and ordain such reasonable laws, constitutions, orders, and ordinances, as shall appear neces- sary, and at their pleasure to revoke and alter the same; and they may law- fully impose and ordain such pains, penalties and punishment, u|X)n all offenders against such laws and ordinances, as the Governor and company shall deem necessarv or convenient ; and the same fines and amerciaments shall and may be ma'de to the use of the said company, without any account, to us, our heirs or successors. They shall have not only the entire and only trade to and from the territories specified, but also the whole and entire trade to and from all havens, bays, creeks, rivers, lakes and seas, into which they shall find entrance by water f)r land, outof the territories aforesaid, and with all the natives and people inhabiting the same, and with all nations adja- cent.

No part of the said territories, nor the islands, havens, , cities, towns, or places thereof shall be frequented or haunted by any other of our subjects, contrary to the true meaning of this rant; and all such persons are prohib- ited from visiting:* trading or trafficking in the said territories, upon penalty of the forfeiture and loss of the goods and other things which shall be seized, as als4> the ships wherein such goods shall be found ; and such offenders, for their said contempt, shall become bound unto the said Governor in the sum

Hudson'S Bay Territory, Etc. 909

of one thousand pounds at the least, at no time thereafter to trade into any of the said places or territories.

And we farther grant that all lands, islands, territories, plantations, forts, fortifications, factories or colonies, within the scope of this grant, shall be firom henceforth under the power and command of the said Governor and eompanj, saving the faith and allegiance due to the Crown; and they shall have power to judge all persons, in all causes, civil and criminal, according to the laws of England, and to execute justice accordingly. And free liberty and license is granted to the said Governor and company to send ships of war, men, and ammunition, unto any of their plantations, forts or factories, for the security and defence of the same, and to grant commissions to the commanders and officers, and to give them power and authority to make peace or war with any Prince or people whatsoever, that are not Christians, m any place where the company shall have factories, forts or plantations, or adjacent thereto. And it shall be lawful for the company to build such castles, forts, fortifications, garrisons, colonies or plantations, towns or vil- lages, in any places within the limits granted, and to send out from Eng- land all kinds of clothing, ammunition and implements, necessary for such purpose; and to transport over such number of men, being willing there- unto, as they shall think fit, and also to govern them in such legal and rea- sonable manner, as the company shall think best ; and to inflict punishment for misdemeanors, fines or breach of orders.

They shall have power to seize upon all English which shall sail into Hudson's bay, or shall inhabit any of the countries hereby granted to the company, without their leave and license first obtained, or that shall contemn or disobey their orders, and shall send them prisoners to England, there to receive such condign punishment as the cause shall require.

The company shall have power to examine upon oath all factors, masters, pursers, supercargoes, commanders of castles, forts, &c., touching any mat- ter not repugnant to the laws of the realm. And all admirals, vice-admi- rals, justices, mayors, sheriffs, constables, bailifis, and all other officers, min- isters, liegemen, and subjects whatsoever, are commanded to aid and assist the said uovernor and company, as well on land as on sea, whenever they shall be required.*

This Charter is still in operation.

The boundaries of this vast territory, as may be perceived, are not very satisfactorily defined by this Charter. This point was of very little conse- quence at that time ; but it aflerwards proved the cause of very serious and long-continued disputes, between the company and a rival association, called the North-west Company," which was established in 1783. The union, formed in 1821, between that company and the Hudson's bay company, has greatly enlarged its territorial limits, so that it now claims a kind of proprie- torship over the whole of British America, with the exception of the settled provinces or governments.

We have previously cited the Charters of the General Mining Associa- tion," and that of " The New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Land Com- pany."

Area of the British possessions in North America. The Provinces of the Canadas, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, &c., is 425.062 square miles.t Territories owned by Great Britain, including the

Colonial Statistics of the British Empire, Martin, Appendix III. t McCalloch's Gazetteer.

910 MtlTMH AlfERlCA.

Hadflon't Bay Company's posaessions, deducting bays, lakea, dec, 2fi74JtQ8. British Honduras in Central America, 62,740. Toul, 3,062,740.

The entire area of the United States, Texas, Oregon, and western territo- lies, 2fid5fl00. Of Russian America, 900,000.*

Arctic Ocean.

Ortadamd or Groadand — partly colonized by Denmark, but formerly considered part of North America. A regular coal formation on the east coast of this peninsula was first discovered, we beliere, by Captain Scoresby, the limits of whose survey extended from N. Lat 69 to 72° 30'. North- ward of this point, the exploration was continued by Captain Clavering to N. Lat 76

The coal formation b described by Captain Scoresby as corresponding with that which prevails around Edinburgh, and with all the coal-fields England and Scotland. The fossil vegetation appears to be analogous to that of the European coal measures. The examination of the Greenland coal beds was not carried on beyond Lat. 71°.

Captain Scoresby remarked the prevalence of masses of secondary trap intruding among the coal strata.

Hasen Island Greenland, — Brawn or Bovey coal, in which amber is interspersed, prevails here. In these lignite beds occur the mineral resin called retinasphalt Beds of peat and turf are also encumbent upon granite.

Wtsi coast of Greenland — Disco Island — In both these situations, secondary and tertiary formations prevail, although primary rocks are by no means absent. Limestone, containing fossil fishes, and beds of shale and slate, with brown coal and amber, d>ound. The island of Disco is mainly composed of trap rocks, and the tertiary formations including the lffnites referred to. Mineral charcoal is announced as occurring in the ialand.

Byam Martin's Island — Secondary or true coal series. — A portion of this island consists of rocks of the primitive class : but there are also secondary formations, among which is a coal-field. Captain Parry has reported that the greater part of the superficial area of this newly discovered island con- sists of secondary red sandstone, in close proximity to which is the coaL A carboniferous sandstone, for so it appears to be considered, not only in this island but in Melville island, and in various positions which were sub- sequently discovered further to the south and south-west, belongs to the true coal formation, as in Europe, and other parts of the world. 1 he brick red sandstone, which is described as occurring here, and also seen at many parts of the adjacent American continent by later explorers, snd horizontally disposed along the cliffii of Melville and Byam Martin's islands, probably represent the old or the new red sandstone, or portions of both ; but the relative positions of these formations do not appear to have been ascertained.

CoBBf€a tad Rasovroaf of British America, Hsat*f Bftfisine, Vol. X., 18U.

uumcociAv. lit

A tomal diootyledoiKNUi tree was iband on the thora of Martin's UnuL

MItMIe Island. — TVve eooZ/irsiafMii.— This is die most wesleriy point hitherto attained by any exploring expedition fifom the Atlantic side. It lies in N. Lat. 74'' 26', and in W. Long. U9 46'; a position where the sammer lasts bnt a few weelcs.

Here, an extensi? e coal formation prerails in secondary sandstone, ofe lying the caiboniferoos or mountain limestone. This sandstone contains rennins of arborescent ferns, and casts and impressions of the nsnal con! vegetation. In the specimens collected here that were best preserred from

theinfloenceof the atmosphere, the coal possosisd a daty stroctnre; cohwr.

bfiownirii black: after burning, leaves gniyirii. white anpleasant smell under the process. Another species of qoal was also bsoaght from Melf ille island. According to tlie Wemerian nomenelatara, this would be denominated iransUiom gbmee toai or anthiaoite, in contra- distinction from the other variety, wbich held the name of thejlnrf mr Mui 9§e9mianf todfanmatim. This so called transition coal,'' is assoeiated with a sandstone or micaceous quartz rock containing trilobites, [1] and traversed whin dykes or trap veins. We much doubt the existence of coal forms- tNBs of sqMrate ages, as is here indicated, and the narrative of the expe- dition by no means countenances such a view of the case.

The secondary coal would, of course, be deprived of its bitumen and all vohtile matters, in the vicinity of the intrurive masses of trap, as is commooly the case: it would, consequently, assume the appearance of iance coal or andiracite. This bituminous coal of Melville island belongs, according to Mr. Lyell, to the true carboniferous series.

It seems, therefore, to be fully settled, that nearly the whole of this island is composed of horizontal coal sandstone and red sandstone, except at TUile Hills, where the carboniferous limestone made its appearance. This latter rock, it has since been ascertained, is extended over a very large nace in these northern regions, occupying neatly an equal area to that of the primary rocks. According to the excellent authority of Professor Lindley, the Melrilie island coal vegetation is decidedly that of the tme coal formation, and consists of the usual sigillarie, stigmarie, calamites, ferns, du

Prince Regenfs Jn/e/.— On the west side of this inlet is the country named by Captain Parry North Somerset ; and on the east side is that called by him Prince William's Land ; both composed of a magnesian limestone, iriiich is supposed to correspond with the mountain hmestone of Europe, and with the metalliferous limestone of the United States. In association with this rock, are other formations which we are led to infer are all of a later origin ; also fibrous brown iron ore and a species of brown coal. Above the limestone reposed thick beds of gypsum and a,newer alaty limestmie. The coal spoken of is probably not so modem as the tertiary.

To the southward of the Inlet, primary rocks occupy the largest parently.

Profewor JtmMon'i Arctic Ecology.

313 British America.

North-West Territory.

Brown Coal Vormations. Super-Cretaceous Strata.

Shorts of the Arctic Sea, — Dr. Richardson, who accompanied Captain Franklin's expedition of discofery, in the capacity of naturalist, describes much bituminous shale which formed precipitous banks. In many places these cliffs were observed to be on fire ; attributable to the great admixture of sulphur in the shale.

Brown coal is more subject to spontaneous combustion than the true coals. The super-cretaceous coal beds, which extend many hundreds of miles in breadth along the upper Missouri ? alley, were obserfed by Lewis and Clarke in 1804, and by subsequent travellers ever since, to be on fire in numerous places on the borders of the great rivers. The same phenomeot prevail in Australia in coal of the like age.

Tertiary and other Coal formations east of the Rocky Mountains, — In t preceding part of thb work, we traced the southern portion of this great area of tertiary coal through the upper Missouri valley, within the United Stateis limits. Commencing at the boundary line of N. It. 49, where this formation is full four hundred miles wide, we proceed to trace it in its pro- gress northward.

It follows the genera] range of the Rocky Mountains in a zone which gradually contiacts in breadth to the north. It is intersected by all the great streams which descend eastward from the Rocky Mountains, and the coal seams thus exposed are from one to eight feet in thickness. In nume- rous places these lignite beds have, from the period of their earliest discovery, been oo fire, and in one locality it has continued on fire for more than forty years.

Near Edmonton, on the north branch of the Saskatchewan, Mr. Druroniond found beds of a beautiful bituminous coal, which Dr. Buckland, from its peeoliar fracture, considered to be tertiary. Captain Franklin saw beds of lignite and tertiary pitch-coal at Garry's island, off the mouth of the Mackenzie river. There occurs an extensive deposit of it near the Babbage river, on the coast of the Arctic sea, opposite to the termination of the Richardson chain of the Rocky Mountains. There were also seen beds of tertiary pitch-coal opposite Herschel island.

On the west side o£ Great Bear lake, Dr. Richardson discovered strati of brown coal, earthy coal, and bituminous shale and clay, overlying a vast region of magnesian limestone and dolomite, [Iowa and Wisconsin lime- 8tone.3 He also describes the lignite formation on Mackenzie's river, as lying in horizontal strata, in four seams. It is bituminous, and, when recently detached, is pretty compact, but soon splits into rhomboidal pieces. It bums with a fetid smell, and was found by the blacksmith to be unfitted for welding iron when used alone, but it answered when mixed with charcoal, although the stench it created was a great annoyance. Different beds, and even different parts of the same seam, presented specimens of the fibrous brown coal, earth coal, conchoidal brown coal, and the trapezoidal brown

North-West Territory. 213

coal of Jameson. These beds in some places were on fire in 1789 when yisited by Mackenzie, and were still burning in 1827.

Beds of lignite were seen by Captain Franklin at the junction of the Great Bear ri?er and the Mackenzie.

Not ftr from the base of the Rocky Mountains, tnd ranging parallel between them and the western boundary of the great limestone formation of the north, the scientific explorers traced, at numerous points, coal deposits which varied much in quality, from the brown wood-eoal to an excellent pitch-coal, the fractured surface of which is marked with fery peculiar con- centric semicircular depressions. It is interesting to know that this coal, which would be excellent fuel for a steam f essel, occurs on the coast of the Pdar sea, near the Mackenzie, in considerable quantity. It was also traced from the 49th to the 69th degree of north latitude.*

We believe that we have collected and examined all the published details which throw any light upon the coal formations of the extreme north, more especially those which establish the continuity of the immense deposits of the tertiary age. But it would seem probable that coal deposits older than these tertiary lignites, do also appear in these northern regions. Without adverting to the true coal-field of Melville island and the accompanying sandstones which extend from thence to the south-west as far in that direc- tion as Great Bear lake, it appears, on the authority of Dr. Richardson and Captain Franklin, that a formation of the oolitic period exists in one part of the Mackenzie valley, near the junction of Great Bear lake with the Mackenzie; the sandstone strata contain ammonites. These ammonites were referred by Mr. Sowerby to a part of the oolite series, near the Oxford day. With these fossils occur, likewise, carbonized impressions of ferns and coal plants, lepidodendrons, &c. The splitting or separation of the li£nite into series of rhomboids as mentioned by Dr. Richardson, we have otien observed in the semi-bituminized wood of the Oxford clay, in Europe.

It deserves inquiry, therefore, whether at this place we may not have the equivalent of the carboniferous strata, which form a conspicuous portion of the oolite series in Yorkshire and at Brora in Scotland.

Again, the fossils collected at the point called the Ramparts, on Mackenzie river, were all referred by Mr. Sowerby to the combrash, another member of the oolite group. At Great Bear lake, certain strata were observed which had a remarkable resemblance to the numerous thin beds of lias or alum shale of Whitby. On the border of the Arctic ocean, east of the Mackenzie towards Cape Bathurst, the cliffs offered a singular resemblance to those of the alum shale in Yorkshire, upon which the inferior oolite rests. Thus, there seems some probability that a part of the oolite series really exists in these latitudes, and that some of the coal seen may be as old as that of Yorkshire ; thus forming an intermediate deposit, between the true coal of Melville island, on the one side, and the tertiary coal range on the other.

In the vicinity of the Hudson's Bay Company's Fort called Edmonton, in about north latitude 53, and west longitude 112, a seam of coal, of about ten feet in thickness, can be traced for a very considerable distance, along both sides of the river Saskatchewan. Sir George Simpson thus describes this coal. "It resembles slate in appearance ; and though it requires a stronger draft than that of an ordinary chimney, yet it is found to answer tolerably well for the blacksmith's forge. Fossil remains are also found here in

Captain Franklin*! Narrative.

214 BBinSH ABCEEICA.

abundance ; and at the fort there waa a pure atone, which had once been a log of wood, of about aix feet in leugth, and four or life in girth."*

Ptd JRiver, JRai River , and northern termination of ike ItviiyMmm' tains. — This important stream [Peel river J falls into the Mackenzie iroin the aouth-west, in north latitude 67 42'. The geology of its Ticinity and of that of the Rat ri? er, has been sketched by Mr. Isbister. There ia little difference in these districts.

Peel river. — Below the alluvium are thick beds of aluminous shale, alter- nating with which are seen thin strata of brown coal ; a formation which seems to be extensively distributed over all the country north of Slave lake. A loose red sandstone prevails in the district west of the Peel river, and ia apparently the general underlying rock to these carboniferous deposita. To this red sandstone, succeeds below, a limestone formation, which is not particularized by the author, but b doubdess the same as exists throughoot a vast extent of the northern part of America, and perhaps an extension of that in Illinois and Michigan.

The ranges of the Rocky Mountains opposite the newly established poat of Fort McPherson, north latitude 67°, are here dwindled down to a comparatively insignificant elevation : few of the peaks rise above six or aeven hundred feet in height. Viewed from the west, they present soft un- dalating outlines, rising in a series of terraces. The inferior or weatem ridges consist, generally, of sandstone, while tl)a higher are capped by lime- atone. As we trace these mountains towards the south, the tranaition and primitive rocks appear, and they increase in ruggedness and altitude. Thefe are, at one part of the chain, ten of these parallel ranges, which occupy a breadth of from fifty to ninety miles.

North of Rat river, and opposite the mouth of Peel river, the continuity of the main range dies away, and exhibits only irregular ridges and aolitarj peaks, stretching towards the Arctic Sea. It is observable here, that the aaccessbn of formations, rising from the secondary to primary, is from the west to the east ; the eastern aspect being the most abrupt and precipitoo8.t

Extent of the Tertiary Lignite Formation. — Beds of brown coal have been observed to the east and west of the mouth of the Mackenzie, along the borders of the Arctic sea. Whether it be continuous with that observed on each side of Icy Cape and as far as Behring's strait, we have no direct or conclusive evidence. But there seems now no doubt but there is a con- tinuous belt of this formation from the Frozen sea, to near the aources of the Platte, the Arkansas and the Canadian rivers in the United Statea terri- tory ; nearly as low down as north latitude 35, which, following the obhque direction of the range, from point to point, is little short of 2500 milea. How fiir to the southward this tertiary formation extends is still doubtful : but there b a formation of coal, of some kind, as low as Sierra Verde ia New Mexico, in about latitude 32, and M. Humboldt states that lignite occurs in many parts of New Spain.

The breadth of this belt is but ill defined at the present day. For several hundred miles it probably averages one hundred miles wide, increasing towards the south ; but subsequenUy diminished in that direction ; and at the boundary between the British and American territories, is four hundred miles broad. A vast breadth of country between the Upper Missouri and the Platte rivers is overspread by this formation which partially covers the cretaceous beds of Nicollet

Overland Jonraey roand Um World, by Sir George SimptoB, 1847, p. 69. t Journal of Um Royal Geograph. Soc., Vol. XV., 1S46.

North-West Territory. 215

It is impossible to arrive at any certainty in relation to the superficial area, but we cannot estimate it at less than 250,000 square miles.

Until the final settlement of this matter be eflfected by more geological evidence'than we at present possess, we fear we must leave the question undetermined. Unfortunately, the position is too remote, and the difficul- ties in the way of investigation are of such a formidable character, that it may be long before this interesting and important question in geology is satisfactorily decided.

Even far to the southward, on ground much more frequently trod, the gedogy is very partially and obscurely developed. Colonel Long states, that the sandstone which flanks the east side of the Rocky Mountains ao- quires considerable height and breadth, near the sources of the Missoori, the Platte, and the Arkansas ; forming a belt from two to many miles in width, and containing fossils. Dr. James says, that this sandstone " con* tains organic remains similar to those in the sandstones of the coal forma- tions." This rock is described as rising above the plain, abruptly, like t vast rampart; oflen highly inclined or vertical ; while the strata of the plains [containing the tertiary coal] are horizontal.

Thus, at various and remote points, along the range east of the Rockj Mountains, we have references, more or less obscure, and frequent, of aa older coal formation than the mere lignite range which stretches along the plains. Whatever doubt may attach to the presence of the former, there can DC little or none as relates to the prodigious extent of the tertiary coal dqxMit.

Western Territory, beyond the Rocky Mountains, — In the neighbourhood of Fort McLaughlin, in Millbank Sound, lat 52 10' north, coal has been found " of excellent quality, running in extensive fields, and even in dumpy mounds; and most easily worked, ail along that part of the country."*

Vancouver's Island. — According to the narrative of Captain Wilkes, United States Navy, coal of good quality is found here, and specimens were collected by the exploring expedition. He remarks, that the Hudson's Bay Company had made trial of it; but owing to its being taken from near the surface, its quality was not very highly thought of.t

Queen Charlotte's Island. — Coal is also found here, according to Captain Wilkes.

Dunn's History of the Oreson Territory, 1844. t Report to the Secretary of the Nt?y, by Lieut

Lieutenant Wilkes,

Russian America.

North of Behring's Stnit, Gape Beaufort, is dencribed by Captain Beecby composed of carboniferous sandstone containing petrified wood and regetaUe impressions, and traversed by narrow seams of coal, ranging in an east north-east direction. This coal deposit is doubtless continuous to the northward, as the same navigator traced it at Icj Cape ; and lumps of coal were also dredged up, off the coast

Beyond the Icy Cape, and Point Barrow, an abundance of coal was ob- erved upon the beach. Still further north, at Point Franklin, the surface of the beach was covered with a fine sand ; but by digging a few inches down, it was found to be mixed with coal.

The trade of the Russian American colonies appears to be, in great measure, absorbed by China, who gives her teas in exchange for the Ameri* can peltries, besides other things, to the amount of more than a million of inncs, annually forwarded to Moscow. Measures have been lately taken by the Russian American Company, to facilitate the communications be* tween the coasts of Siberia and the Russian colonies of North America. The government proposes to make examinations in the Bay of Aiane, upon theshores of the sea of Okhostk, in the hope of finding a more safe port and of more easy access, than that of Okhostk, for centralizing her com> mercial operations.*

Respecting the area of the country claimed by Russia on the North American continent, we have seen no estimate.

The extent of the colony of Russian America was estimated by Hassd at 24,000 square miles. M. Kceppen, of the Academy of Sciences of Peters- burg, calculates it at 17,500 square miles only. This appears to embrace only what was considered as belonging to the settled part of the territory ; but if we take the boundary assigned to the entire Russian claim, that is, all above 54 40' of north latitude, and west of 140 west longitude, extend- ing to the Arctic ocean, the actual area belonging to Russia is about 900,- 000 square miles. Between lat. 54° 40' and 60°, the Russian American Company possesses on the mainland only a strip, which no where exceeds thirty miles in depth. The rights of hunting and trading over the greater part of this last mentioned area have been lately leased to the Hudson's Bay Company.t

Compto rendu da Commerce Ruate, en 1843. t Sir George Simpfon*f Overland Journey, p. 124.

Oregon Terbitoey.

U. 8. TfiRRTTORT SOUTH OF NOETH LATITUDE FOETT-HIIIE DE6EEB8.

Cascades qf Columbia iboer.— TVnjory — Al about 12Sr waift longitude and i"" north latitudoi Captain Frmnont, qear the feoi of Urn oaaeadea, discofered in a blaff on the riferi ''a atratum of ml and fbvaal tree% imbedded between straU of altered clay contwing the reniauif of ▼egetablea, the leavea of which indicate that the planta were dicolf ledonoiMi Among these the atems of the ferns are not roineraliied, but metd? eharre4 setaining still their Tegetable structure and anbetance; and in tbia oondi- tion a portion also of the trees remain. The indurated appearance and eompactness of the strata, as well, perhaps, as the mineralized condition of Ibe coal, are probably due to igneous action. Some portions of the ooal precisely resemble in aspect the cannel coal of Enipand, and, with the accompanying fossils, have been refened to the tertiary period."*

These strata appear to rest upon a mass of conglomerate rock. The TtaUe fossils collected here were submitted to the examination of Mr. James Hall, who refers them to the tertiary series, and eren to a fery modem q)och of that depositt

In the cabinet of specimens collected by the United States Exploring Expedition, at Washington, are some specimens of lignite or bitumiaoos wood, from Oregon, Jso of ooal Tegetation, apparenUy of the oolite age, or perhaps yet more recent Among thesQ planta are leaves of dicotyle- dons, resembling the birch or beech, and with thse ooeur some species of ferns.

Coal has been discovered and worked in Wallamette or WiUaroette Talley, nearly a hundred miles above Oregon City.

Another locality of an imperfect coal ia at twenty or thirQf miles up tbe Cowlitz river, a uibutary to the Columbia river, on tbe northern aide. We have been assured that this was the true anthracite, but Captain Wilkep only regarded it as tertiary lignite. Sir George Simpson observed large quantities of this coal on the surface, bordering this river.|

FossU Copal, or Highgate /iit— Has been found at the ftlla of tbe Wallamette or Wilhamet, a tributary of the Columbia river, Oregon; and on the shores of the Pacific, north of the mouth of tbe Columbia river.

Ctpuin Fremont'i Eeport of Uie exploring expedition to the Roekj oMmntaine, p. 182,

t Ibkl.— PUte m. Bg. 14, 16.

I Overland Jonroey roond Uie World bj Sir Siapeoi-Wb., ia47 p. 107.

i Algeri Phillip*! Bfineralogy.

Upper California.

In The Occupation Of The United States Army, In 1848.

North Fork of the Platte River.— Coal /ieW.— North latitude nd west longitude lOTi"".— In the precipitous bluib bordering this river. Captain Fremont obserfed a series of strata containing fossil vegetaUe remains and several beds of coal. The position of this coal formation is in the centre of the Rocky Mountain chain, and its elevation is six thousand eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea. In some of the coal seams the coal did not appear to be perfectly mineralized, and in others it was compact and remarkably lustrous. The rock above the third bed of coal, hi the lower hill, is a siliceous clay slate, having a saline taste, and there were also noticed thin layers of very fine white salts, in powder.*

There being no specimens brought home from this place, it does not appear what is the actual character of the formation, but it probably belong either to the tertiary or the oolite period. The number of beds, their thickness, and apparent extent are not mentioned : but the circumstances under which these original observations were made ; the impossibility of giving more than a casual and hasty glance at the geology of the country through which the expedition passed, whilst in a state of continual danger and privation, rendered more exact details almost impracticable. This basin or deposit appears to be surrounded by granite.

Green River. — Blacks Fork, Muddy Fork, and other tributaries, — North latitude 4W, extending from 110'' to HP west longitude.

The strata near Green river were observed by Captain Fremont to con- tain handsome and very distinct vegetable fossils, overlying an impure or argillaceous limestone. Further westward, conglomerate rocks were seen ; and, near them at Muddy Fork, occurred strata of fossil iferous rock, having an oolitic structure, and characterized by fossils apparently of that formation or age. Advancing up the stream, alternating strata of coal and clay, with distinct and beautiful vegetable remains were discovered. Coal also appeared occasionally in the hills as the party advanced, and was dis- played in rabbit burrows, in a gap through which they passed over some nigh hills. A portion of the region thus traversed was seven to eight thousand feet above the sea.

Thejsection of coal strata remarked by Captain Fremont consisted of two beds of coal of fifleen inches each, and three others which are separated by an equal number of clay beds. There is an intermediate bed twenty feet thick, which consists of indurated clay, resembling fire clay, with vegetable remains, chiefly of fossil ferns. Mr. Hall has described and figured these

Captain Fremont't Report, p. 126 and 296—1843-4.

Upper Cauforru. 219

in the appendix to tbe Report. HaTing pre? iooaly comnred tbeie ibanl ferns with t large collection from the meaiures of PennsjrliiniA Mid Ohio, it became quite evident that this f<mation could not be of the same u[e. Several q>ecimens were referred to the oolitic coal TCgetation of England, and the general character of the other species, and the absence of the large stems so common in the coal period, led to the conclusion that they also belonged to the oolitic period, although the evidence is not entirely positive. For ourselves, we think that the shells would indicate a later origin. One thing appears certain, that the coal plants most be regarded as mostly of new species; and, in this respect, they forai a very important addition to the flora of the more modem geological periods.*

Nearly in the same parallel of longitude, but at the distance of ono hundred and fifteen miles to the south, strata of bituminous limestone, huy fossiliferous, were discovered by Captain Fremont on the return oi hui exploring party. The genera of foasils, Mr. Hall thinks, may possiUy bdong to rocks of the age of those in the vicinity of the coal aibove dmmi- tiooed, but the species are all new. No coal wu remariied here, in the hui lied passage of the travellers, and the intermediate ground was not visited.'

All the circumstances which have so fer been brought to lightt ere of ai exceedingly interesting character, and lead us to desire a furtberand iiara elaborate investigation.

CmH— It is said that another coal-field has lately been discovered, wbiek, if true, will greatly faciliute the introduction of steam navigation in the Pacific, and be the means of making California one of the most important commercial positions on the west coast of America ; particularly, ii ever a communication should be opened by means of a canal across the Isthmoi of Panama.t

In the spring of 1847, a new coal mine was discovered near San Lois Obisco, north latitude 35.— There are now three mines within thres hoiK dred miles of Monterey; yet coal was s(dd, in 1846, firom an Ameriean whaler, at five dollars a bushel.

AsphaUum and PetroUvm, occur abundantly in western California.

Appendii to Fremont, p. SS7.

t Life in Californiti bj an AjaericaBi IMe, p. fU.

Territory Of New Mexico.

Arba About Two Hundred Thousand Square Miles.

Coal is said to occur in the Sierra Yerde. Perhaps it is a continaation of the great zone of lignite which stretches parallel with the Rooky Moon- tains, even to the borders of the Arctic Ocean, and the roost northern limits of the American Continent

Or it nay be a continaation of the carboniferous formation which has been noticed by Col. Long and others towards the head of the principal rif ers bordering the plains.

Don Manuel Alvarez, in a letter dated 4th May, 1847, at Santa F, and

EUished in a St Louis newspaper, whilst describing the minerals of New Nuco, says, — Coal is found in abundance and of good quality, between the Placers, in the Ratons mountains, and in many other places."

Since then, we have received the narrative of the military exploration, from the Pacic to the Missouri, by Lieut Col. Emory. He describes the occurrence of coal, between Bent's Fort on the Arkansas river, and Santa Fe, to the north and south of the Raton pass. That seen to the northward, at Capt Summer's camp, is described as an immense field, the seam which cropped out being thirty feet thick. That noticed by Col. Emory was on the banks, and near the head waters of the Canadian river, at about north lat 36 50', on the 7th August, 1847. At present we have no knowledge whether this be true coal or only brown coal, but are inclined to think it must be the true coal formation. If so, it is an extremely interesting geological fact

J

United States Of Mexico.

AREA, EXCLUSIVE OF TEXAS, 1,550,000 SQUARE BflLES.

Official estimate of the population in 1842, 7,015,509 persons; of which only one million are whites.

We have met with no detailed geological description of coal on the Mex- ican Isthmus, nor on the main land ; yet there is abundant reason to bdiere that brown coal, at least, prevails On the east flank of the central moontain range, as well as true c<ni], near the .eastern frontier.

M. Humboldt affirms that coal, and also fossil wood or lignite, are fre- quently found in different parts of New Spain.t

We know that a bituminous coal region crosses the Rio Grande, abore Dolores, into Mexico, aAer traversing the greater part of Texas, and pursu- ing the same general range, of south-west and north-east, as the central coal- fields of the United States.

Brown coal traverses entirely the whole breadth of the Isthmus of Panama in a north and south direction, in to 10 of north latitude.

On the 30th April, 1842, and 5th October, 1843, decrees of the Presi- dent of the Mexican Republic were issued fixing the tariff of maritime and frontier customs. These decrees fix the value in the currency of tlie Re* public, of foreign money, as follows

Mexican Correocy. Piaatrea. C.

French Carrency. Franca. C.

The Pound Sterling, (20 shil. of 12 pence each,) 1 Franc, (20 sous or 100 centimea,) 1 Marc banco, (16 shil. of 12 pfenningt each,} 1 Real de Teillon, (34 maraoddia,)

One Piaatre,

Centieme, . - - - -

5 00

35 00 1 00 1 8S 0 25 5 00 62

Bituminous Coal on Saltido River, — An extensive bed of excellent coal exists at Guerrera or Reveilla, a Mexican town of 4,000 inhabitants, situated on the ]ef\ bank of the Salado river, one hundred and twenty-five miles above Camargo. It is now (1648) worked by an American company, and promises to be of vast importance, as it removes the principal obstacle to steamboat navigation, the want of fuel, on the Rio Grande into which the

Mexico, bj Drantz Mayer, Secretary United Statea Legation, 1844.

t The precioua metala were at all timea the principal aource of attraction in Mexico. At the period of M. Humboldt'a reaidence here, there were three thouaand (3,000) minea in operation, raising annually twenty-one milliona of dollara ($21,000,000) in ailver, and two milliona ($2,000,0Q0) in gold. Of copper, there waa coined at the Mint, from 1833 to 1837, $4,712,000.

t Document aur le commerce exterieur, Mezique, Ligialatioii commerciUe, Jac'y, 1844.

223 UNITED STATES OF IfEXICO.

Salado empties its waters, at the distance of twelve miles from Guerrera, and eight miles by land. Both these rivers are navigable for steamboals drawing six feet of water. The existence of this bed of coal was made known to Lieut. Tilden, in a recent expedition to Loredo, and a few tons were placed on board the steamboat. It is described as a hard bitumin- ous coal, of first rate quality," imbedded in sandstone. Silver and other minerals occur in the vicinity.

A coal formation fifty miles in breadth, probably a continuation or con- temporary of that of the Rio Salado, crosses the Rio Grande from Texaa, into Mexico at Loredo.

A very short distance above Loredo, on the Mexican shore, and within two himdred yards of the Rio Grande, a remarkably fine coal vein, eight feet thick, occurs. It is affirmed to be good in quality, and free from iml- pbur ; burning readily, and applicable to smiths' uses.

In a country where fuel is so very costly, these coal mines mast eventu- ally be invaluable. All these mines will, probably, be worked by American industry.

Lieut Tilden states that at twenty-five miles below Loredo, in a reddish blufl one hundred feet high, are numerous "petrifactions of roots;" from whence we might infer that it was a lignite depont, except for the circum- stance of their being within the limits of the coal formation, above describe

He speaks, also, of a great abundance of a substance commonly called red chalk or keel, in the vicinity of the eight-feet coal vein, oppoeile Loredo.

Whatever the geological age of the coal deposits to the southward, it seems at least now fully settled that good bituminous coal prevails as low ai S?"" north latitude.

Proninee rf Oqjuea or Oaxaea, — Peninsula south of the Gulf of Mexico. Coal is stated to be very abundant in this province, which is celebrated for its mineral wealth. We are not informed as to the geological age of this coal. It has oAen been proposed to form a ship canal or railroad across the lathmos of Tehuantepec, by which means the minerals of the country will be rendered accessible. The unsettled condition of Mexican affairs will prevent, for some time perhaps, the accomplishment of so important an undertaking.

Provimee of San Luis Poiosi. — In the intermediate neighbourhood of Tampioo, abundance of coal was announced, in 1847.

Prooinct of Vera Cruz — District of Acayuceam, — Here are several coa beds, it is reported, but none of them have been worked. They are, no doubt, continuations of those in the adjoining province of Oajuca.*

In the villages of Sayultepec and Moloacan, are fountains of petroleum.

Aspkalium or Cheqapott. — In the interior of Mexico, according to a late traveller, are Lakes of fresh water, where the Chapapote is found, bubbling up to the surface. When washed upon the borders, it is gathered and used as a varnish for the bottoms of canoes. It has a pungent smell, like that of liquid asphaltum, and possesses, I think, some of its qualities.t

Mining Joonml, 14th Febraary, 1849.

t Hant*f Merchant*! Magatine, Aogott, 1846, p. 164.

Texas.

Now admitted into the North American Union. Superficia] extent daimed, 397,319 aqaare miles; but as defined by statute of first Texan Congress, 324,013 square miles. The boundary is not yet settled, next Mexico.*

Pitch Lake. — An announcement has been made of the existence, in Texas, within 100 miles from Houston,! of a small lake that closely resem- bles the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. It is filled with bitumen or asphaltQmi and is about a quarter of a mile in circumference. During the cool months of winter its surface is hard, and is capable of sustaining a person. From November to March it is generally co? ered with water, which is acid to the taste; from which cause it has been commonly called the " Sour Pond." In the summer months a spring occurs, near the centre of the lake, from which an oily liquid, (probably petroleum,) continually boils up, from the bottom. This liquid gradually hardens, on exposure to the air, and forms a black pitchy substance, similar to that which forms the sides of the lake. It is said to resemble, precisely, the bitumen of Trinidad ; and the Texana conceive that, at some future day, it will be valuable for the production of gas for their cities. It bums with a very clear bright light, but gives out a pungent odour.

Coal is now well known to exist abundantly in Texas, although the coun- try has not been geologically examined. There is no doubt but coal pre- vails at intervals entirely across the country, in a north-east and south-west direction. Its general position is about two hundred miles from the coast.

On the Trinity river, two hundred miles above Galveston, the coal region there was investigated in 1846, and found to be more extensive than was anticipated. A company, under the title of the " Trinity Coal and Mining Company,'' was incorporated by an act of the Texan Congress in 1840. Both anthracite and semi-bituminous coal, somewhat like the cannel, in appearance, occur here.J

Mineral coal, in great abundance, prevails not far from the Mustang Prairie. It is also found, accompanied with excellent iron ore, in the vicinity of Nacogdoches. According to report, this coal is abundant, rich, and of a fine appearanfee.$

Mr. Kennedy, who has taken pains to collect information relative to the

Map of Texas, pablished br the United Sutea War Department, 1844. t Near the Pond, between Libertjr and Beamont, and about twenty milea from tlM latter Tillage. Hoaaton Telegraph. X New Orleana Picayone. % Notea aar le Teio. Docamena lur le Comiiierce eitftrienr. Jaillet, 1841.

3Si4 Texas.

resoarces of Texas, although not an original investigator, says, in a work pablished in 1844, that in addition to iron, the utilitarian sovereign of meuls, Texas possesses coal — the grand auxiliary of the arts which tend to enrich and civilize the world. Coal, both anthracite and bituminouSy abounds from the Trinity river to the Rio Grande. The coal on the latter river above Dolores, has been represented, by the agents of the " Texas and New Ireland Land Company*' [an association broken up by the revolution in 1836,] as of excellent bituminous quality.*

Formations of secondary limestone, with others of carboniferous sand- stones, shales, argillaceous iron ore, and bituminous coal beds, are said to occupy a large portion of the interior of Texas. Westward of these occur the inferior and Silurian strata, trilobite limestones, and transition slates. Beyond all, basaltic and primary rocks of the Rocky Mountains arise; while northward is the sreat salt lake of the Brazos, and the vast red sali- ferous region traversed by the exploring expeditions of Captain Pike and Biajor Long, and since made more famUiar to us by Mr. Gregg and other travellers.

A bed of coal extends across the Brazos river towards the Little Brazof and the San Andres, down which stream it may without difficulty be trans- ported at high water.

Near the city of Austin, on the eastern border of the Colorado, is a peak, called Mount Bonnell, overlooking Austin, and having a fall of seven hun- dred feet perpendicular to the bed of the Colorado. This and other hills, although not scientifically examined, are known to contain beds of anthra- cite coal.

On the Rio Grande, south-west of Bexar, is a great abundance of bitu- minous coal. The navigation of this river is reported to be free for eight months in the year.t

In many parts of the rolling prairie region, coal, of fair quality, and iron ore have been found ; and it is supposed that beds of these valuable minerals extend over a great part of the country

We have received some recent information of the character of the country bordering upon the Rio Grande, as far up as the Presidio de Rio Grande, from the notes of Lieutenant B. P. Tilden.

On approaching Loredo, within forty or fifty miles, by the course of the river, and extending north of that town, a coal formation is traversed during that distance. Beds of coal are frequently to be seen, as are deposits of nitre and sulphur, and also thick beds of good fire-clay, at the bases of the bluff. These strata, and the accompanying sandstone rocks, are supposed to be a prolongation of similar strata at Guerrara, on the Rio Salado, tb the south-west ; as they agree in their range and dip. The writer, who appa- rently is not very familiar with geological phenomena, does not furnish any further details.

Teiu, its geofraphT, natoral history, fcc., by W. Kennedy, 1844.

t Report in 1834, to the Rio Grnnde Land Company."

X McCoIloch, art. Texas ; and Iken*8 Texas.

% Notes on the Upper Rio Grande, by Lieutenant B. P. Tilden. Philadelphia, 1847.

South America;

C0Mpri8Ik0

1. Republic Of New Granada.

2. Republic Of Escuador.

3. Republic Of Venezuela.

4. Republic Of Peru.

5. Republic Of Chili.

6. Patagonia,

7. Republic Of La Plata.

8. Empire Of Brazil.

9. British Guiana.

10. Falkland Islands.

South America.

Carboniferous Formations.

So far as we have any knowledge, the South American continent, eren more than that of Africa, is singularly deficient in coal of the carboniferous age. It was long doubted whether, on either of these southern continents, any coal formation existed of an earlier date than the tertiary epoch. In Africa, however, it is now ascertained that true coal exists in more than one position.

In South America, if any exist there, it is probably within the empire of Brazil. Brown coal, of the tertiary age, has been traced through a vast space on both sides of the Andes, but especially next to the Pacific, at inter- vals, from Patagonia up to Panama. There is reason to conceive that this great chain of tertiary coal deposits, is of the same geological age as that which we have described as existing along a range of between two and three thousand miles of the North American continent The interval between the tenth and thirty-fi(\h degrees of north latitude remains almost unexplored; and, with the exception of two or three known points within that interval where tertiary coal appears, we remain without any data wherewith to fill up the vacant space, in reference to coal.

In relation to South American geology, more especially on the Pacific border, we have perhaps received more information from M. DOrbigny* than from any other naturalist. There are extensive exhibitions of the nlurian, devonian, and even of the carboniferous rocks. Carboniferous limestone occurs at Lake Titaca, in Peru. The base of the Moro of Arica is stated to be of the same rock, and the same formation acquires an elevation of thirteen thousand feet to the east and west of the great Bolivian system. In the Chiquitian system, it forms summits five thousand feet high. But in none of these, nor at a number of other points where similar formations occur, has this author ascertained the presence of regular coal beds of the ancient series.

Mr. Darwin, who devoted four years, from 1632 to 1835 inclusive, to the investigation of the natural history and geology of South America, judg* ing from the position of the tertiary deposits which exist on both sides of the southern Andes, entertained the opinion that the primary chain must have had a great elevation anterior to the tertiary period. In Chili, the Cordilleras are divided into two chains. That on the west consists of strati- fied sedimentary rocks, resting upon granite. The eastern chain is com- posed of sandstones and conglomerates, which are more recent than the rocks of the western chain, being partly made up of their debris. Mr. Darwin conceives that these eastern formations are of the same age as the

M. D'Orbigny on Sooth American Geologj. JamMoa*i Edinburgh Jonnwl, 1843-4.

228 South Abierica.

tertiary deposits of Pataffonia, Cbiloe, and Conception, and that like them they contain brown coal, or lignite and fossil wood. He noticed at one escarpment of the Andes, a wood of petrified trees, in a vertical position. Some of these were perfectly silicified and were dicotyledonous ; in others, the wood was replaced by carbonate of lime. Close to this dump of silici- fied trees, a gold mine has been worked. The latter details are exemplified in a transverse geological section from Valparaiso to Mendoza, and Mr. Darwin expresses his conviction that the granite [now rising into central peaks, fourteen thousand feet in elevation, must have been in a fluid state since the tertiary group was deposited.*

Republic Of New Granada.

Prommct of Veragua — West of the province of Panama, coal beds have been discovered, but of their nature and extent little is known; We lie assored that this mineral, which appears to be brown coal, is here in great abnndance, and in ample quantity for the supply of a large extent of country around. The existence, also, of further deposits in the mountains of the two provinces of Panama and Veraffua, is spoken of with some confideiiee.t

IMmMS of Panama, Island of Muerto, Sfc.- Brown Coal Jbnuflfii.— This region was explored in 1841, by Mr. Wheelwright, for the purpose of searching for coal, for the use of the steamers in the service of the Paoifio Steam Navigation Company. After giving a cursory examinatioa to the island of Boca Brava, in which there was obrved abundant evideoee of the existence of coal, a more specific and practical exploration was enteied upon in the island of Mnerto, [Death] and some outcrops of coal beds were die- covered upon the beach, dipping due west, at the foot of a small clifl tweotf feet high. The place selected for mining operations oflfered the greelcfll ftcilities, as the steamers could approach within a hundred yards of the shaft. The further presence of coal, in other parts of the province of Panama was, at the same time, ascertained, while this investigation was proceeding.

Muerto is one of the extensive Archipelago of islands which border this coast, and is situated in north latitude 8° 20, and in 82° 8' west from Gieeo- wich. It is without inhabitants and is covered with a dense forest No other works were undertaken here beyond the ascertainment of the ooaL Respecting that which was experimented on, in the steamer, bj Caplatn Peacock, he reported thai it burned freely, leaving a white residuuoa. He considered its practical value, as compared with English coal, in the piopoff* tion of thirteen to eighteen, and stat that it bore a strong resemblance to the Talcuhuano coal, in Chili, and probably might, when mined bom a greater depth than that penetrated by this trial, he sufficiently available for steam purposes.

The town of St. David de Cherokee is distant fifteen miles flrom the

Martin*! Sutittict of the British Colooiet, p. 144. Alto Proceedings of the Otsloficil Society, London, Vol. II. p. 367, SIS.

t On the union of the Atlsntic tod Ptcific ocetot, it or netr the Uthmoi ofPiaa— . J. A.BrjrMi, 1S46.

opening of which we speak, and is aboiit fiurty miles due south ftom the fine iMirbottr of Boea del Toro, in the Atlantic At the latter place coal of pn ciaelj similar character to that of Muerto was known, prior to these explo- rations. At St. David de Cherokee, and at ?arious intermediate points, this coal also prerails. Thus, from the best information attamable, Mr. Wheel- wright was led to the conTiclion that a coal aree, of ondeCermined dimen- sions, stretches entirely across the Isthmus of Panama, in this parallel at least, and intersects it in the 82d degree of longitude.* It is generally admitted that this coal, like that of Taleahuano, n not older than the tertiary period, but the parties immediately concerned in these investigatioBs did not pretend to any geological skill. If Mr. Wheelwright's views are eoneet that a desirable route might be found ton a canal, or even for sood ready from Boca del Tore, on the Atlantic, to Cherokee on the Pacific, the dis- tance being only forty miles, and the harbours at either end being excdlent, it would present, among other singular features, the remarkable circumstance of passing from ocean to ocean, through a continuous coal formation.

Island of Santa Clara. — In a correspondence of the governor of Guaya- quil it is announced that coal of good quality can be obtained.

8ania Fi de Bogota, — Coal occurs abundantly on the south side of the city, and even within the limits of the city itself. This fuel is reputed to burn extremely well, and to give out a great heat. We have received this information from a resident of Bogota, familiar with the use of this com- bustible. A specimen of this coal has been presented to the cabinet of tlie Geological Society of London. From the character of the fossils which accompany the formation in which the coal is imbedded, it evidently belongs to the cretaceous period, and probably is of the affe of the Gault of Enffland. These fossils have been figured and described by Professor Forbes ;f and at an earlier period, similar fossils from the same locality, by Von Bych. They appear to have a strong agreement with the cretaceous fossils first brought by I<ewis and Clarke ; subsequently by Mr. Nuttall,:]: and yet more recently by Mr. Nicollet, from the cretaceous beds of the Upper Missouri Yalle. It seems therefore, not improbable that the formation of Bogota, contammg wood coal, is about the same geological age as the formation, containing cretaceous fossils, with thin sesms of cod, and petroleum in Upper Missouri.ll

Province of Choco, — Near the shores of the Pacific, fossil wood abounds, mixed with rolled fragments of basalt and greenstone. This deposit is celebrated for containing gold and platina.Y[

The bitumen of Murindo, near Choco, is of a brownish black colour : soft; and has an earthy fracture. It has an acrid taste ; burns freely with a of vanilla, and is said to contain a large quantity of benzoic acid. This arises, apparently from the decomposition of trees which contained benzoin.**

In this province, coal, so called, is found at an elevation of seven thousand, six hundred and eighty feet, which is about the same level as the coal of New Mexico, of Upper California, and of eastern Oregon, in the northern continent.

Wbeelwrighrt Report on the Coal Mines on the Itthmai orPanamt.

t Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc. of London, May 1, 1844, p. 174.

X Recognised and dcacribed by Dr. S. G. Morton in 1829, and in Silliman'a Jonraal, 18M.

% Described by Dr. Morton in Proceedinga Acad. Nat. Science, October, 1841.

II Harria, in Proceedinga of the Academy, May, 1845.

t Hamboldt'a Personal Narrative.

Dr. Ure'aDietionaiy of Arts, Miiiisff Ike.

South America.

Republic Of Escuador.

Iq the environs of the city of Guayaquil a considerable deposit is said to occur of a new species of resinous mineral, which Mr. Johnson, to whom the specimens were submitted, ffavethe name of Guayaquillite. Two vari- eties ha?e been examined, and they have been declared to be of organic origin.*

Republic Of Venezuela.

Island of Margarita, — A vast abundance of mineral pitch flows oat at various points.

Gtdfof Cariaco, — At the Punta d'Araya, at Cape Cirial, and near Cape de la Brea, M. de Humboldt observed a stream of Naphtha, issuing from mica slate, containing garnets and cyanite. A continuation of the same phenomena is repeat in all the large West India Islands, from Trinidad to Cuba, where the bitumen appears chiefly to exude from magnesian and modified rocks. M. de Humboldt considered it a singular circumstance that this spring, the produce of which covers the sea to a great extent, should issue from mica slate : as all others, he observes, belong to the secondary class.!

Porto CabtUo, — About fourteen miles south of this place and seventy miles from Caracas, a body of what was termed excellent coal was disoover ed a few years ago. Whether this be a deposit of brown coal, or a bed of solid bitumen or asphaltum, like the chapapote of Cuba, we have no informa* tion. We should rather infer the latter, reasoning from the vast aroonnt of bituminous matter that prevails along the northern border of the Sooth American continent, and the great abundance of the same substance in nearly all the West India Islands.

Maracayho, — Compact mineral pitch, like that of Cuba, and copious streams of petroleum, occur opposite the city and on the borders of the lake. The petroleum is employed here, as at Havana, for paying the sides and bottoms of vessels. Towards the north-east margin of this lake, which is two hundred and fifty miles in circumference, is a remarkable mine of asphaltum, [piz montana,]<*the bituminous vapors of which are so inflamma*

Philoflophieal Magasioe, Not. 1837.

t Travelt and Retrarches of Alennder Yon Hsmboldt, 179t.

UETOBuc or nm. an

Ue that, daring the night, phosphoric fires m continotUy seen ; which in their eAd, resemble hghtniog. They ere more freqiMmt doring timet of met best than in cod weather, and bj the local nameof'the Lanteni of Maracaybo, because thej senr e both for lighthouse and compass to the Spaniards and Indians, who, without the assistance of either, narigate the

Mifdtdena Xtocr.— According to M. Bonsiogoalt, bitomen prewaib along the margin of this ralley.

Tliis nataralist, who has published a dissertation on bitnmen, shown that the immense reserroirs of mineral pitch, which exist on the northern shores of New Granada, on the banks of the rifer Msgdalena, at Pftyti in Colom- bia, and upon the shores of Peru and Venexnela, hate a geological pcsitioB precisely similar to that in which we find bituminous impregnated sands in £orope: that is to say, in formations which we must rem to the m taceous group.f

Republic Of Peru.

Cerro Pasco. — The Director general of the mines bekmffing to the Re* public of Peru, has drawn up a memoir on the coal-fields of bis district.

Near to Cerro, he informs us, from four to ten leagues, there are numer- ous beds of fossil charcoal, of which the chief deposits, near Raucas, are of very good quality, and are several leagues in extent He has found in these coal-fields a considerable quantity of yellow amber, but could not discover any impressions of the remains of plants or animals. This coal is used in beating steam engines, &c.{ VS'e infer from this concise yet decisive statement that the deposit is of tertiary sge.

In the immediate vicinity of the celebrated silver mines of Cerro Pasco, at an elevation of 14,278 feet above the ses, coal, "of all descriptions," is found in abundance. This convenient supply of fuel b of particular im- portance to the extensive population of the city. There are here, also, numerous beds of fossil charcoal, of a quslity that may be used for heating steam engines, and for the like purposes.

Of the geologicsl circumstances which attend the position and character- ixe the sge of the coal alludecf to, we are uninformed. It does not appear to have been examined by the scientific gentlemen who were attached to the United States Exploring Expedition. From the private narrative of Dr. Pickering, with the perusal of which he has kindly favored us, we per- ceive that the plateau of the Cordilleras, including the silver mines and the

McCaUoch— Oeographical Gasetteer.

t Pbil(Mophicl Mftgisioe, 1837.

t Annalet dei ScieoeM Nat, ISSS.

% and Lowe'i Namti? of thair Joaiaaj flrosi LisM to Para, ICSi.

aOUTH AMERICA.

highest peaks, consist of sedimentary rocks. He describes these as oonsisl- ing of the series which ascend from the lias up to the cretaceous period, indasive ; and he properl j suggests whether the coal be not a lignite, rather than a true carboniferous formation t In this respect he is no doubt corraet We ha?e ourselr es seen casts of what appeared to be tertiary fossils, from hence, and indeed from the height of 14,000 feet above the ocean.

There are a few specimens among the collection of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, in the Washington collection, of slaty coal slate, and some thin flakes of impure coal, from Peru ; but the locality is not stated.

On the western slope of the Andes, opposite to Truxillo, Lieut Maw obeenred what he considered a seam of coal. This might perhaps be a continuation of the Cerro beds.*

Coal is said to be prevalent in various parts of the country, at the distance of from two to seven leagues around Pasco. The price is one real ibr an araba, which might be much reduced if the business were properly attended to.f

Asphaitum, of Coxitambo in Peru. This substance, which may be con- sidered the type of the species, has been carefully submitted to analysis by M. Bousingauh. It has a fracture which is eminently conchoidal, and possesses a high degree of lustre. Specific gravity, 1.080. Carbon, 75.0. Hydrogen, 9.5— Oxygen, 15.5, percent. The residuum, after burning be- fore the blow pipe, was found to be 0.16 only.

REPUBLIC OF CHILI, OR CHILti.

Eegulaiions, made in 1842, (u to numty weights, and measures in diS, and their corresponding values and denominations in French and English standards.

DeBomlnationa. 1

Cbillaa.

French.

EnfUaa.

XoMr. . .

UoBtar meuare, SuperflcUl metMire, LIqaM measure, .

Meaearet of weight.

r 1 Piastre s S rials s 100 ets.

SllTer rial, 1S| cents, (.Cent,

NaUonal Tare,

Square vara,

CArrobasOfalloBS,

BotUe -ordinary,

(.1 Gallon, LOihof anarrobe,

1 1 Quintal s 4 arrobes,

) I Arrobe.

1 1 Pound 9 narci,

( 1 Ton N)0 lbs.

5IV.40c€nta, 0 S7.4 0 05.4

0 metre. 8M

0 metre, sq. S,gS7

34 lit. 0 05

40 Kiloframmes, 1 1 KUogrammes, 0 K. 400 MO KUoframmes,

. fTard, 0 014 ' Poot, 0 a04 (.Ineb, 0 W j8q.inch,0 OSOI tSq. Iboc, 0 eSSS

100 Iha. 85 lbs. 16 oa. 1000 lbs.

Lieut Maw. Descent of the Amasoa river.

t Macfragorl Progreta of America, Vol. Lp. 951.

Rbpubuc Of Chill

Tariff of ISU. the official values of imported articles in Clifi. &oiu coal is chargeable as follows.

Valoee.

According to Talae.

Bpeciflcdotiaa.

CbilUa Ualtiei, pr tbe Quintal,

Uaitlet, per 100 KUograBBwe, Bngllib Unities, per Ton, .

Tianrm. Genu. 0 40

4 fir. TOeenta. £S 0 Os

Mper%

Ihitiea ad Talorem.

SOpereeat.

90 per cent.

Fiaitrw.

0 aScanta.

apeeiflc dodea.

eft. M casta.

iCO 8 0

An exploration of the coal-beds that exist so abundantly in Chili, and the other republics of South America, has been made bj some of the most scientific engineers, miners, and geologists of that continent The account so fo given by them, is most satisfactory. It appears certain that these countries will be enabled to supply themselves with fuel of a superior quae lity to the wood fuel. Arrangements are making for working some of these mines, and for constructing a railroad from the great commercial port of Valparaiiio to the capital of Santiago, a distance of about 135 miles. We await the reports of these scientific investigators.

Tertiary or J'Food Coal Formation of the Chilian Coast. — Takahwmo, Arauca, Chibe, Sc, — In making arrangements for the introduction of the South Pacific steam navigation, it was a primary — indeed, the most essen- <al — point, to ascertain the existence on the west coast of South America, of a combustible suited for the purposes of steam. That a certain descrip- tion of coal prevailed in Talcahuano, 36J° south latitude had been ascer- taned several years previously, although its properties and amount remained uniivestigated.

Ii \SM, Mr. Wheelwright, subsequently superintendent of the company's afiai-s, in that quarter, made a voyage to the port of Talcahuano and obtain- ed samples of the coal, which, on experiment, seemed adequate to the object requi-ed.

In January 1841, the coast between Valparaiso and Talcahuano was hastil} examined, and satisfactory evidence was at once obtained as to the presence of a vast continuous strata of this coal. Previously to this, Mr. Wheelvright had been furnished with samples of a description of anthracite, from the Cordillera of the Andes ; probably from the metamorphic second- ary stratt there ; but it was in too remote a position to be made available. He also leceived, as coal, a mineral pitch or asphaltum, from the province of Piura.

On landing at Talcahuano, Captain Peacock and Mr. W. proceeded to the Moro, i range of hills in the vicinity of the town, and found seams of coal, visible in the broken clifis. Heretofore this fuel had been simply taken from the suriace, and no subterraneous mining had been attempted. This work was now commenced. On examining the eastern and northern sides of the bay, extensive coal strata appeared ; not differing, it was judged, from that which had been experimented upon. The result of these researches appeared to demonstrate the prevalence of continuous coal beds along that entire section of Chilian coast About forty labourers were set to work, and forty tons of the coal were sent to Valparaiso on trial. In order to ascertain the most favourable positions for a mining establish-

Docomons fur le comnierce exterieur, Dec. 1844, Paria. Cliili ia anppotad to be tha only American state, fornierly aabject to Spaio, whoae commerce haa increaied, eiDce the leparation from the mother country.

284 South America.

meot, it was determined to explore the coast of Arauca, and to proceed as hr south as the island of Chiloe, which extends to south latitude 48 58'.

Coal mines had for some time been opened near Conception, and had already become a considerable article of trade and consumption at Yal- paraiBo.

Captain Fitzroy, R. N., found it in ereat abundance at the mouth of the Laraquita, where it was also subsequendy exsmined by Mr. W. Its appear- ance was similar to that of Talcahuano ; the formation being decidedly the same. Seams of similar coal were traceable, even from the vessel, in the clifis of the coast along which the steamer passed, on the voyage f and no doubt remained of the continuity of these deposits, to a very great extent. Arauca, the party proceeded on to Valdivia, and up the river, about eighteen miles, to the town. Here were obtained samples of the same kind of coal ; but the place was considered too distant to suit the required pur- poses. On arriving at Chiloe, researches were commenced. No seam of coal was, at first, observed in situ; although large pieces were picked op; iodi* eating its existence in the neighbourhood of San Carlos.

An experiment made on this fuel, during this exploring excursion of the steamer Pern, showed a comparative consumption of thirteen tons of English coal to sixteen tons of the South American ; a result which was considered fully satisfactory. It was further determined, that the influence of the latter upon the fire bars and boilers was favourable : that it made no clinkers, and that the residuum lay lightly upon the bars, without adherinf in the slightest degree. On her second voyage, the Peru steamed fifieea hundred miles with this fuel ; which fact seems calculated to set at rest ill doubts and fears, as to its practical purposes. The seam from whence tUs supply was derived, has a floor, composed as usual, of shale or indurated day— fire clay — and a roof of carboniferous sandstone. About five tboo- sand tons were mined, at an expense of about fifteen shillingssf 3,65 per ton : a cost which, as may readily be supposed, would be materially dimiii- ished during subsequent operations, and by later improvements and experi- ence in the manner of working.

Already this Talcahuano coal has been worked to the depth of more than a himdred feet, and, at the last report, a shaft was being sunk to reach t lower aeam which was thought to be of a more firm and compact quality. Machi- nery, shops, railroad, mole, and breakwater have been constructed, and the ahips of the company were employed in transporting the coal. Although thMe explorers made no pretension to geological knowledge, they express a passing opinion of " the evidently modern formation" of this coal*

In 1825, Captain Beechy, R. N., made some trial of this fuel, or rather of that which was supplied to Conception ; and, as we were prepared to learn, pronounced it to be of inferior quality, and fit only for the forge. He states that the beds occur in a red sandstone formation, and that the coal, at that time, sold for nine dollars a ton.f The correspondent of a Boston paper, evidently of very slender scientific attainments, describes the Talcahuano coal as much resembling the English cannel. Recently its cost, including the putting it on board the steamers, has been only 82.50 per ton ; a great saving over the piice of English bituminous coal, which used to be brought out to these ports at 1 10.00 per ton. At Penco, near Valparaiso, an inex- haustible supply of similar coal is now attainable.|

Report 00 Um Minet and Coal orChil, bj W. Wheolvriflit, 184S. t Vojage to Uie PaciSc, ISSft. X Boatoo paper, 1841.

Republic Of Chili. 335

In a cofflmanication in Silliman's Joiumtl from Mr. Wheelwright, [nrior to the report to which we have adverted above, he merely adds that the coti of which he had mined several thousand tons, was of excellent quality-a phrase of universal application — and that, " in fact the whole southern country is nothing but a mine of coal."*

Volume I. of the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, contains a description of a specimen of the Arauca co, by W. R. Johnson. He observes that in external appearance it is nearly related to many of the richest bituminous coals of America and Europe." His analysis appears to confirm this view; for we know of no lignite which con- tains such an amount of carbon as this ; being no less than 67.62 per cent. The greater part of the mass is represented as of a dull or pitchy black colour. Its locality is said to be in the province of Arauca, thirty miles south of the Rio Bio river."f

In some statements made in 1845 by practical operators at Valparaiso, we observe that they complain that the coal of this country is not adapted for copper smelting, in as much as it contains too much sulphur and iron f% and coal for that purpose has been brought out from England, at enormoas expense. The tertiary deposits at Chiloe and Conception Wfere exambed by Mr. Darwin, and are described as composed of beds of sandstone and carbonaceous shale without shells, but containing many silicified trunks of dicotyledonous trees, and alternating with beds of lava. In 1844 there were upwards of twenty coal mines open in the neighborhood of Concep- tion. In 1845 a railroad was projected from Valparaiso to Santiago. The plan is recommended on account of the scarcity and extreme deamess of carbonic fueK arising from the insufficient inducements to work the extensive coal beds of the interior.

The reports, in 1846, of the progress of Talcahuano coal mining, are not equal to the anticipated results ; but we are at the same time informed thai the South Pacific Mining Company, having exhausted their first mines, have struck another richer seam, which promises to produce more coal than the steamers can require. It is destined, perhaps, to similar results.

Importation of English Coals into CMli. — In the year 1845, 15,149 tons: in 1846, 8,864 tons.

The indigenous coal in the vicinity of Conception, still continues an object of research. From information which has reached us from Valparaiso, towards the close of 1847, it appears that new mines are occasionally opened in that country. At Tulcahuano, a new seam of four and a half feet was proved. In the tide-way of Penco they are working a bed, at some two hundred yards from the beach, and have cut, in vertical depth, ten feet, without passing through the coal. A third seam has been opened at Perales, on the road to Conception. Altogether, they speak of live new mines, and commend the quality, of course, in the usual manner.

Sillimtnf Joarnal, Jaly, 1843.

t Proceedings Acad. Ntt. Soionce, PhiU., May 18th, 1841.

t Memorial of Copper Sroeltera, 1845.

i Proceedings Geol. Soc. London, Vol.11, p. 211, 1835.

II Niles'i Regiiter, 1S45.

Mining Journal, Nov. 1845.

Jhq Sooth America.

Patagonia.

A great soothern tertiary formation has been described by Mr. C. Darwin, fiMrming extensire groups on both sides of the chain of the Andes. These appear to be the prolongation of the series which is so largdy displayed in Chili. Mr. Darwin thinks that the tertiary deposits of Patagonia may be separated into distinct periods, as they have already been done in Europe, and subsequently in North America. In S. Lat 50, and elsewhere, he found fossil shells of this period, with bones of the mastodon, the megath rium, and five or six other quadrupeds. Little is said by the author respect- ing beds of lignite, which are so abundant in higher latitudes.* We are not informed whether the coal range on the eastern flank of the Andes conespouds in geological age with that on the western side.

Tertiary ikignUe range of Sovih America. — From the evidence, inoom* plete as it is, which has been adduced in the foregoing pages, it will be seen that a vast belt of tertiary deposits, which contain brown coal and lignites, oocupies the larger portion of the countries bordering upon the racific Ocean, from N. Lat. lO"" to at least as low down as S. Lat. 50". The inter* ?al8 to which our information does not extend, or remain as matters of infer- enoe, are the south-western portion of Colombia, the southern part of Peru, and the northern part of Chili ; but if the tertiary strata which are described as flanking the Cordilleras are coextensive with those regions, as is generally supposed, the whole length of the tertiary range is scarcely short of that of the entire continent. At any rate, we think we do not exceed probabili in suggesting two thousand Ave hundred miles as the aggregate length of the tertiary formation, in the greater part of which, we are informed, lignites abound. Looking to the northern continent, where a similar zone has been traced for nearly the same distance, and following the same range* we cannot but be struck with the contemplation of this extraordinary devdof ment of a single member of the geological series.

Republic Of La Plata, Or Argentine Republic.

Until of late years the existence of mineral coal in La Plata had not been suspected, nor can we, even now, speak with certainty as to that fact. Along the Cordillera, bituminous shale and indications of coal are aflirmed to be abundant ; and it is also said that there are extensive beds of coal in the

Proctcdiagfl Geo!. 8oc. ofLoodoa, Vol. II. 311.

extreme soath-west angle of the coantry Theee are probabTy not Adet tban the tertiary period, and form part of the great zone of that formatkm which we have already indicated. Mr. Darwin made some geological examination of this part of the Andes, and along the Rio Negro, between the years 1832 and 1835. He also crossed from the Rio Negro to Baenoe Ayres, br Sierra de la VenUna, a chain almost unknown to tratdlera. llio tertiary formation occopiea a wide area in the aouth-westem part of the Goontrf.t

Empire Of Brazil.

It 18 Still doabtfbl as to the presence of coal here. Specimens of ood wereT exhibited in 1845, which were the production of the Isle of Santa Catherina, S. Lat 27°, and of the continental part of the proTince of that name. The examination to which these coals have been submitted, appears to leave for Brazil, at least for the present, email hope of drawing from her own soil the essential combustibles for her steam navigation and industrial porpoees.| Much, however, remains to be effected ere we can arrive at a knowledge of the vast regions in the interior of this country* Thia may yet be accomplished in the course of a few more years. An Englbh company has been formed to establish steam navigation up the Amazon river and its tributaries, to form settlements and to commence mining operations. The Amazon river alone can be navigated over two thousand miles; and it is proposed to effect a junction between this river navigation and a railroad to Arica, in Peru. This object is patronized by the govemmenta of Brazil, Bolivia, Escuador, and Peru.

M. Karsten has furnished two analyses of coals, said to be the production of Brazil. We give the results, and think that they, or one of them, may have been derived from the extreme western limits of the empire, and may probably belong to the brown coal series.

Specimen 1.

Speoimen t.

Carbon,

Carbon, 38.10

Volatile matter.

Volatile matter, 33.50

Ashes,

Ashes, 28.40

100.00 100.00

Specific gravity, 1.289 Specific gravity, 1.483

M*CuIloch, Geogriphicti Dictiontnr. t Proc. Geol. Soc. orLoodoo, Vol. II. 911,367. t Documenf fur le Commerco eiterieur, 1844-5. i Mioiog Joornal of London, Ang. Sd, 1846.

lOUTH AMERICA.

A quantity of Coal is annaally imported into this country from Eng- knd, 18 thowo id the following Ubie : the increase of late years is derible.

TMVt.

Tobi.

V9tUtU

Csrrent frlecs pr ton

Ptr Tmla of jCl ttor- ling io Loodoo, 7 mil- reit, 117 reis of Rio Janeiro.

188S 18a

1,863

90,601 30,038

£ 9,718 X17,ftKI £ 9.507 jei7.7S

Teara.

rnneh.

BBfUsb.

fr. cU.

£ 8. d.

1 1 0 0 17 6

Value of coal imported from £anx>e into Brazil, and entered for sumption in the financial year 1842-3, paying an import duty of five per cent

From Great Britian, 706,722 rials : France, 5,037 : Portugal, 804 : HanM- atic towns, 134,653 : United Sutes, 6,881. Total, 856,097 rials.

Ugmte. In the neighbourhood of Crato, a town about three hundred miles due west from Pernambuco, within the limits of the cretaceous tbrma- tioo, a bed of lignite about two feet thick has been described by Mr. Gardner. An eoormous area of rocks of the chalk period, according to this traveller, esiala in this country. Between the cretaceous series and the primary stratified rocks, there are no traces either of the carboniferous or cf the ooKte formations ; nor in any part of Brazil through which I afterwards travelled, did I meet with any signs of them.'* In a note to the foregoing paragraph, the author observes, " Dr. Parigot appears to have found coal abundantly in the island of Santa Catherina, in the south part of Brazil."*

This latter gentleman was employed by the government to make geological surveys in the province of Santa Catherina, with eq[>ecial reference to coaL In a report which he published in 1841, he mentions a bed of coal of about three feet in thickness, and of considerable superficial extent Dr. Parigot, also, has reported upon the existence of a carboniferous stratum, which is from twenty to thirty miles in breadth, and about three hundred miles in length ; running from uth to north through the province. The best vein of eoal which he opened he designated as **half Iniwmnous it occurs between thick strata of the hydrous oxide of iron and bituminous schisLt

The coal which Spix and Martins informs us exists near Bahia, Dr. Parigot found to consist of beds of lignite, and Mr. Gardner thinks they may be equivalent to those which he found at Crato.

Gardner*! TriTela in the Interior ofBraiil, London, 1846, p. 208. t Macffroggor>e Progreat of Anerice, 1847 ; Vol. I., p. 14&5.

BEITIBH GUUNA.r-l'ALKLAin) ISLANM.

British Guiana.

PasUerHaty ligmia. — Aq allovial bdt, thirty or forty miles wide, borden the coast and ocouines the deltas of the principal riTers. In a diick masi df Tanoosly coloured clays beneath the dilof ium, are two deposits of frDeo trees, decayed wood, and other ?egetable matter, in a semi-cuboniied stale. The first is at twelr e feet below the sor&ce, the second is fifty feet below the sorfiice, and is twelve feet thick. This day has been penetrated lo the depth of one hundred and forty-fite feet The trees arc'recogniiad to be of the same species as sre now growii in the vicinity, and called cooridas, and indicate two or three distinct epochs and leads of sorfiwe oo which they have grown.*

Coal has not, we bdiere, been discovered in this vast, but little eiploved country ; yet it seems not altogether improbaUe that the cod formation may yet be found in the interior. Sir R. Scbomburgh states that Maravacea, near the Orinoco, rises to deven thousand feet ; and Roraima, the culminat- ing point of the Pacaraima mountains, b eight thousand feet above the sea. They are composed of the older red sandstone, and exhibit murd difi one thousand and sixteen hundred feet high.t

Falkland Islands.

S. Lat 5r to 5P 30'. Peat. These islands, destitute of coal or timber, are in some degree compensated by their extensive fidds of peat, which vary in depth from two to four feet. In the absence of dl other descriptions of fud, this species of combustible may, at some future period, be of great service to the inhabitants. In fact, even now, we are told that the want of wood is abundantly supplied by the peat, which is found i& every part of this group of islands, and is collected with very little labour.

The geologicd features of these idands have been described by Mr.

Bytm Mutin't SUtittica of the Colonies of ihs BritUh Entire, p. ISO. t Report or the Britiib AitoeiatioB, for 1846. t Uaot't MerchanU' Magtiine, Febratrjr, lS4t. i Martin's SUtiitict of the Britiih Colonies, p. 144. n Proceedings Geol. Soc. London, Ifarch S6, 1S4S.

West India Islands,

GOMPRIBOfa

1. Cuba.

2. Jamaica.

3. Porto Rico.

4. Barbadoes. 6. Guadaloupe.

6. Antigua.

7. Trinidad.

8. Grenada.

9. St. Lucie. 10. Madeira.

The West Indies.

ISLAND OP CUBA.— [Belongino to Spain.]

Vieinihf of Haoana. — Bituminomi sAsianu eetted Ckapapoiet AspUUmm mr SoHd Biiumen. — Of this inflammable mineral mibetance there are inuij wieties, to which we shall refer in the progress of this book They difibr in consistency, from a thin fluid to a solid compact mass, with conchoidal fracture, externally resembling coal, and in the West Indies, not unfrequently mistaken for that combustible.

Oerman, Judenpech, Dutch, Jodenljin,

' ( Bitumen Judaicum, Italian, Asfalto,

jg. . ( Asftlto,

Spamsk, Chapapote, 1

Partugwu, Asphalto, Russian, Asfalt,

Frtnek, Bitume.

These comprehend the sereral species named aAer their respectire quali- ' ties, Naphtha; Petroleum; Maltha, or Sea wax; Elastic Bitumen, or Mineral Caoutchouc; Compact Bitumen, or Ahaltum; Mineral Pitch; Bitumen Candidum ; Mineral Oil, the Seneca or Gennesee Oil of the United States.

The chapapote of Cuba, commonly called coal, is worked or mined much in the same manner as the latter mineral, and appears in several positions in the vicinity of Havana and Matanzas. We are enaUed to speak of this substance from personal acquaintance with the localities. In the Transac- tions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. VI. p. 191, and in the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine of March, 1837, are notices of a vein of so called " bituminous coal," near Havana, by Richard C. Taylor. We refer to our original notes on which those communications were based.

Casualidad Iline. — Situated six miles from the city of Guanabacoa, three leagues from Havana, and two miles from the sea or place of embarkation* In a region of metamorphic and magnesian rocks, of which the most prerap lent are serpentines, diorites, and euphotides, accompanied by veins of quartz, of chalcedony, and oAen of copper, occurs the substance denominated chapapote. Instead of a coal seam in the formation appropriate to that mineral, which we had been invited to inspect, we saw in the midst of theae stratified rocks, true wedge-formed veins there, where they appear at the surface, but enlarging downwards to the breadth or thickness of several &et The strike of the Casualidad vein is nearly north and south, conforming to the local range of stratification, although the general range is nearly east and west, following the direction of the island. At the point excavated by the negro workmen, the vein was laid bare, to the width and depth of near totij

244 The West Indies.

feet, each way ; its character being, for that space, fully developed, or suf- ficiently so to enable a plan and section to be constructed. At the oatcrop the vein is scarcely a foot thick, but at the depth of thirty feet it is enlarged to nine feet descending nearly vertically. Thus, at the rate at vrhich it continued to increase, in the short depth proved, it was anticipated the masi beneath must acquire enormous magnitude. Several lateral branches pass upwards from the main vein, both in its vertical and longitudinal direction, all apparently ramifying from a voluminous mass below. Strictly speaking, the solid bitumen was in no case enclosed between walls, but seemed rather to occupy fissures in the ancient rocks, and cavities larger than we c6uid venture to speculate upon. The outcrop was easily traced about two hundred to three hundred yards, but beyond this no effort had been made to prove the vein. Miserably inadequate as was the system adopted lor the extras tion of this coal, we could not but infer that an enormous amount of this substance might very cheaply be obtained. Under the management then going on, all the water, as well as the materials, was hoisted up bj hand, in small vessels, and conveyed to a distance by a gang of negroes ; economy in labour being in no respect consulted, and no kind of machinery, not even a windlass or wheelbarrow, was employed in the so called mine. %

In regard to the arrangement of the matter of the vein itself, we noted, that the asphaltum was disposed in horizontal laminae, whatever might be the inclination of the veins or branches ; thus essentially differing from the usual character of coal seams, whose lamination is always parallel to the direction of the strata.

An analysis was made by Mr. T. G. Clemson; the result is as ibUows:

Carbon, - 34.97 Volatile matter, 63.00 Ashes or cinder, 2.03

Specific gravity, in three different specimens, 1.1421.189 — 1.197. Streak — dark, bistre brown.

Externally it is of a deep jet-black ; having the horizontal surfaces of the lamins covered with curious conchoidal markings, like the impress of a seal upon black wax. These impressions are marked with concentric, or rather with exccntric rings, not unlike the lines of growth on the flat ralvei or upper shells of some bivalves. They vary greatly, in diameter, from only half an inch, to a foot.

A considerable quantity of this coal or asphalte we found excavated and stored; some of which had been employed by the smiths and workers of iron in Hai-ana. From various causes, we understand that the mine has been prosecuted very feebly, and latterly has not been in operation ; nor do the proprietors appear to have a ready market for the material.

Near Havana, — We see it announced that a combustible similar to that we have described, has been tried by the Spanish steam-frigates, and had been pronounced on very favourably. The analysis is as follows :

Carbon, 71.84

Oxygen and hydrogen, 14.06 Ashes and cinder, 13.50

cuiiA. MS

. From the ffrett amoaot of knpiirities in this ipeciiiieD, we pmame thil it was deriTed from some other source than that of Casaalidad mine.

Six leagues from the mine of Casualidad, towards Matanzas, a bodj of chapapote exists, from whence a few Ions have been forwarded to Philaidd- phia, Liverpool, and London. The geology of the vicinity is of a oorre*

riding character to that we have described.* The chapapote is however, more compact and solid than that of the Casaalidad vein. It emilB when rubbed, an agreeable Odour, resembling that of amber. It ia very pore, free 'from all extraneous matter ; its specific gravity is greater than that near Havana, and the mineral is more resinous and less friable.

There can be no doubt but this is an admirable combustible, where much flame is a desideratum, for such purposes as evaporation, and for beating surfiioes; and in this respect it must be superior to many descriptions of fuel whose proportion of volatile matter is less. For the generation of steam, for boiling or concentrating the juice of the sugar cane, or for the manufacture of gas, this flaming coal appears to be singularly well adapted* In other respects it cannot, of course, compete with the intense, enduring, and concentmted heat of anthracite.

As it contains no sulphuret of iron, the gas would be wholly free ffon any deleterious admixture. The chapapote might also be profitably em- ployed in the manufacturing of lamp-black. For domestic purposes it gives out fiu- too much smoke, in burning, to form a desirable fuel.

Chapapote mar Havana. — Other positions, in the neighbourhood of the principal mine of this substance, show its prevalence in the country. We have ourselves examined and reported upon some excavations, at two leagues from Havana ; but they were not of so promising a character as at the Casual idad mine.t

Mint Prosper dad, — Partido de San MigueL-Asphidtmiu-S'ix miles firom Havana, on the road to Taposte.

An article of M. Castales, in the Diaria de la Hahana of 1842, has ap- peared in the scientific journals of the United States, accompanied by the analysis last quoted, but which we derived from another source.

The substance here denominated bituminous coal, is of the two varieties to which we have alluded, and is developed to a surprising extent Two shafts have been sunk here, forty-five yards apart. In the principal one of these, the coal or chapapote was reached at the depth of seven yards, and contained therein to tlie depth of forty yards — the bottom of the shaft. From the four sides of this shaft four straight exploratory galleries have been conducted, in opposite directions, thirty yards in length; in all which space the mass of bitumen continues horizontally, and without any interrup- tion. At the bottom of the shaft, or of the forty yards above mentioned, instead of sinking further in the chapapote, the miners proceeded to bore perpendicularly down, about fifteen yards more ;alwa3rs in coal. One of the galleries communicates with the other shaft, forty-five yards distant, still continuing entirely in coal. At four hundred yards from the principal shaft, a third pit has been sunk, which reaches the coal at the depth of four- teen yards.

The results of the explorations are these. In the small space indicated, a body of coal, asphaltum, or solid bitumen, is thus far proved to be forty- eight yards [one hundred and forty-four feet] perpedicular, and more than

Sil1iinan*f American Joarnal of Science, 1842.

i Philoaophieal Magtiioe, R. C. T., March, ISa?, asd Tnnnetioat Amarican Pldloso- phlcal Society.

846 The West Indies.

one hundred and eighty feet in surface or horizontal extent : that ia to aiy, and it is to be understood, so far only as had been bored without reaching the bottom. The mass is spoken of as almost horizontal ; but its true ibrm cannot satisfiictorily be ascertained from the foregoing data, and, moreover, the position of the stratified rocks is stated to be almost vertical.

According to the r>ort of an English engineer, this is one of the most extraordinary mines in the world. By his account, which however ia not particularly intelligible, the upper part was highly charged witli bitumen, and was convertible into good coke. The lower portion consisted of an improved quality, being, as he thinks, less bituminous and much more compact. A railroad, we understand, has, of late, been constructed from the mine to the port.*

Punta Icacas.'The existence of solid bitumen in rocks, near the north coast of Cuba, not far from Matanzas, was known to the celebrated Von Humboldt. This mass, he observes, reminds us of the asphaltum of Valorbe, in the Jura Limestone.t

Something of the same kind also occurs at Puy de la Lege in France.

Asphaltum, in various degrees of density, occurs among the serpentine and qiagnesian rocks at other points on the Island of Cuba than those we have indicated. From the direct observations that we have been enabled to make, it seems very probable that all the bituminous matters, whether known under the names of Chapapote ; Asphalte ; Mineral Pitch ; Petro- leum ; mastic bitumen ; liquid or fixed bitumen, and other terms, — simple varieties of the same mineral substance, appear at the surface, at the points of firacture in the disturbed and metamorphic regions. In other words, in the centres of dislocation of the beds."|

Petroleum. — Springs are abundant near Havana, rising from fissures in the serpentine rocks at Guanabacoa, and have been known for two cen- turies at least. In fact, the whole country is impregnated with bituminous matter, to a surprising degree. Even the solid quartz, the serpentine rocks, and the veins of Chalcedony, have cells and cavities filled with liquid pitch; and the air is scented with it, when these rocks are broken by the blows of a hammer. In this respect it resembles the mineral pitch found filling the cavities of Chalcedony and calc-spar, in Russia.

Even in the bay of Havana, the shore, at low water, abounds with asphalte and bituminious shales, in sufficient quantity for the paying of vessels, as a substitute for tar. It is stated that, in buccaneering times, signals used to be made, by firing masses of this chapapote, whose dense columns of smoke could be recognized at great distances, and served as signals to vessels at sea.

It is matter of history that Havana was originally named, by the early visitors and settlers, Carine ; — " for there we careened our ships, and we pitched them with Uie natural tar which we found lying in abundance upon the shores of this beautiful bay.''||

Petroleum leaks out in some, indeed in numberless, places, in this delighw ful island, from amidst the fissures of the serpentine, and perhaps has deeply seated sources. We are acquainted with abundant springs of petro- leum between Holquin and Mayari, in the eastern part of the island, and also possess notices of others in the direction of Santiago de Cuba.j

Mining Review, October, 1S40, p. 76. Alto, Silliman*a Journal ofSaence for 1S4S. t Eatai Politique aor risle d

de Cuba. Office de Publictte

, Manual of Minimi

f Eani

% Allan'a Manual ofMineralogj, p. 291. II Earlj bittorj of Cuba.

' Politique far Male de Cuba.

Cuba. 347

In fact, the entire chain of the West India and Windward islands present similar phenomena of petroleum springs, beds or ?eins of asphaltura, and accaroulations of mineral pitch, and traces of metamorphic and volcanic rocks, in great abundance.

M. Bousingault, in a dissertation on the bitumens of France, remarks that the only contradictory fact opposed to his conclusion that the geological position of mineral pitch is in formations referable to the supercretaceous group, is that given by M. de Humboldt, who saw at Punta d'Araya, on the coast of Carracas, petroleum issuing from mica slate. To these excep- tions might be added many more ; for we have seen in the greater part of the larger islands of the West India chain, that petroleum, mineral pitch, and asphaltum, in various degrees of solidity, appear between the fissures of ancient rocks, particularly of the magnesian class, serpentine, euphotide, &C., and in regions where no supercretaceous rocks occur, in their neigh- bourhood. So also, in Europe, bitumen occurs in older formations, from the coal measures down to granite.

The chemical results of these inquiries, however, are these : — That glu- tinous bitumens are mixtures of two substances, which we can isolate. One of these principles is solid and fixed, and in its nature approaches to asphalt The other is liquid, oily and volatile, and resembles petroleum in some of its properties.*

Vegetable remains in Tufa, — The recent calcareous tufa deposits, so common in the north-eastern portions of Cuba, contain vast quantities of vegetable casts, impressions of stems and leaves, and seeds of plants, such as abound in the vicinity at the present time.t Wc have collected abundant specimens of these, nt the base of the metamorphic limestone range of mountains on each side of Gibara.

Shipments Of Coal From Great Britain To The West Indies.

Tlie trade in coals from Great Britain to the West Indies is limited. They are partly required for furnaces, but the principal quantity consists of a particular description of coal for steam purposes, under contract with the British government, and is a trade of comparatively recent origin.

The government stations are Jamaica, Antigua, and Barbadoes, and some coals go to St. Thomas's. The average price of the coals there is about 45s. to 475. per ton, [=$10.90 to $1 1.40,] according to the demand. They have been freighted from London, costing 205. per ton there. The freight from Newcastle to the West Indies is 275. 6d. to 305.f

English bituminous coal imported into the British IVest Indies, — In 1831, 48,536 tons; 1832, 43,980; 1840, 82,564; 1841, 71,311; 1844, 77,338; 1845, 102,339.

British coals imported into the Foreign West /mftes.— In 1844, 26,592 tons; 1845, 22,154.

In the West Indies the price of coal varies from 455. to 475. per ton, for government contracts ; it has been occasionally much higher.

The importations of copper ore from Santiago and other ports of Cuba, constitute a very considerable portion of the trade of Swansea. The ships employed in this trade arc from 300 to 500 tons burden. The chief back

PhiloBophicnl Magazine, 1837.

t Trans. Amcr. Phil. Society, Vol. IX. p. 210.

t Evidence on the coal trade of London in 1838, p. 104.

Official Tablet ofReTeoue, Commerce tod Populttioo.

948 ™e west indies.

freight for these ships is Welsh coal. It was feared by the shippers of this Welsh coal that the discovery of a supposed bituminous coal, of high ▼aluey at more than one point within a few miles of a shipping port of the island of Cuba itself, would materially diminish, if not entirely cut ofi the market ibr the supply of the free-burning coals of South Wales.* Owing, however, to other circumstances, rather than to any deficiency in the unity of the Cuba asphaltum, there has not, at present, been experienced any change in the importation of foreign coals ; but the demand in a tropical climate i never, we think, for obvious reasons, be very extensive.

IL JAMAICA.— [Great Britain.]

Three or four thin seams of true coal, embedded in shale, were desciibed in 1825, by Sir Henry De la Beche, near the north-eastern extremity of the island.t None of these beds were in sufficient thickness to constitute a profitable or workable coal stratum. It appears, also, that bituminous coal exists on the other, or south side of the island, within ten miles of Kingston. It burns with a clear, bright flame, and is said to be good ; but the thick- ness of the seam there is not mentioned.

Island Tariff. — On coals, [except those for the Royal Mail Company,] 6d, per ton ; duties under the British act, 1842, 4 per cent.

III. PORTO RICO.— [Spain.]

In the returns of exports from this Spanish island, coals are mentioned. We possess no further information.

RemonBtrative to Sir Robert Peel, March, 1842.

t Trans. Geol. Society of London, Vol.11, aecoad series, p. 143.

t Mining Journal, London, April, 1S37.

Bjlrbad0E8. M0

IV. BARBADOES.— [Great Britain.]

GMpoef bitumen or asphalte abounds here, as in sereral oOiO' West India Islands. In this, it sappiies, in a great measure, the place of coaL Wilkins has published some " observations on the green mineral napiika of Barbadoes."

The calcareous rocks here are frequently impregnated with bitumen. Tliere is a petroleum or burning spring, at St. Andrew's pariah. It goes by the name of green tar, and often supplies the want of pitch and lamp

Tariff on coals,\ — Colonial duty on coal imported, 25. per ton. Crown foreign duty, 20 per cent

May, 1845. — It is announced that some " very superior coal " has been discovered on Grove Plantation estate, '' and various parts of the island, which, for plantation purposes, is considered fully equal to the imported English coal." This substance may, perhaps, be the sdid bitumen or aiq>halte above alluded to.

We have recently seen an analysis of this bituminous coal by Mr. Hera- path, as follows. We place by its side in another column, the analysis of the Cuba chapapote, whereby the analogy of the two is satisfactorily eliown :

Btrbadoef.

Cab..

Bitumen, resolvable by heat into tar and gas.

Coke, or Carbon,

Aflbes, (no sulphur,)

Total, 100.00 100.00

Mr. H. observes, that " the large proportion of bitumen, in proportion to the carbon, will prevent this coal from being used as a common fuel, unless it be mixed witli some substance more fixed in the fire. Hard charcoal, more refractory coal, and even perhaps earthy substances, would be bene- ficial. It could be employed in the production of gas, of which it would furnish a large quantity, and of a very rich quality, even exceeding that of cannel coal — the best for that purpose hitherto known."

The Chairman of the Barbadoes Railway has announced that the geolo- gical formation of the Scotland district of the island, which he had opportu- nities to inspect, leaves little doubt that it contains coal measures to a great extent.

The Barbadoes Standard confirms the above, and states that the result of a scientific examination of the parishes of St Andrew and St. Joseph, leads to tlie confident belief of the existence of useful coal. This combustible, it is stated, is different from that bituminous substance so long in use in Barbadoes, of which the analysis by Mr. Herapath is furnished in a preced ing paragraph.}

Dr. Skej in Geo]. Trtni. Vol. III. 1S16. t Mining Jonrnal, 24th Janntry, 1846. t Mining Joamtl 14th Fahnitry, 1846.

HO THE WKtT IHDIEB.

GUADALOUPE.— [FaANCB.]

Contiins a Tdcino, mbg five tbonnnd five bundred feet aboire the Mi. It haino regular oraterpbat amoke iaauea oat of tlureeor finir diflhront mla. Not 6r fiom tbe shore, aouth-west of the TolcanOy is a place in the aei mioli aends up boiling hot water.

ANTIGUA.-[Gebat Britain.]

Although aomewhat celebrated for the abundance of petrified leitiBiy wood tiiat it Gontainay q>ecimen8 of whichy when poliahed, are exceediiigiy IwuitifBlp it doea not appear that coal has jet been discovered witUn tlN Umita of the island.*

The monocotyledonous stracture of the stems of palms is beaatifiiify preserved in these lignites, and no examples surpass them in beutj and interestt

Four distinct species of fossil palm occur in the pliocene tertiary of the island of Antigua.]:

TRINIDAD.— [New Granada.]

The pitch lake, lagoon, basin, or plain, [for it has been called bj all these epithets,] is sufficiently remarkable to require notice in our list of depoaiu or accumulations of bituminous substances. It is described as three miles in circumference; but its depth is unknown, being incapable of admeasure- ment This substance is used for paying the bottoms of ships, and probably differs little, except in density, from the chapapote of Cuba. We may not greatly err, if we ascribe them to a common origin.

Dr. Nugent t Mantell'i Medali of CretUon, Vol. I. p. 70.

I ProftMor Uagtr. % AUmn'i Bianml of Bfineralogy, art. Bt

Obenada Ssi

The pitch lake of Trinidad is, peihtps, the most remarktUe locality of asphaltam in the world. It occupies the highest land in the island, and emits a strong smell, sensible at ten miles distance. Its first appearance is that of a lake of water ; but when viewed more nearly, it seems to be a sar- ftce of glass. In hot weather, its surface liquefies to the depth of an inch, and it cannot then be walked upon. The geological data in the Ticinitj exhibit traces of fokanic agency: and not only in the lake itself, but in the neighbourhood, are seen holes and fissures, sometimes containing liquid bitumen.* Fissures of great length, firom four to six feet wide, traverse the snrfiice of this lake, in every direction, and are generally filled with water. The consistence and general appearance of the asphalte is that of |Mt-eoal ; only the colour is raUier grayer. It is very brittle, and breaks into small cellular, glassy firagments. Some of the more elevated parts of th sorfiioe are covered with thin brittle scoria.

We know not if any practical employment of a mineral substance, here so astonishingly abundant, has yet been suggested or undertaken, on an ex- tensive scale. It surely was not placed there in vain. Beside the purpose above mentioned, that of paying ships, and thereby protecting them nom that pest of the West India seas, the teredo or borer, it is capable of being used as an ordinary varnish, and in a variety of minor matters.!

It has been attempted to apply the asphaltum, brought from this lagoon, to the same objects as pitch and tar ; but it is found to require so large an admixture of oil that it becomes too expensive. If it could be economically applied, Trinidad might furnish abundant supplies for the whole'world.|

Petroleum, — South of Cape de la Brea is a submarine volcano, which occasionally boils up, and discharges a quantity of petroleum. Another occurs on the east side of the island, which throws up on the shore masses of bitumen, black and brilliant as jet.

CW.— Schistose plumbago has been discovered in Trinidad, and near it is a mine of coal, about five miles from the sea-shore.§ We have seen no details.

Lignite, — M. Link has made microscopical observations on some lignites from Trinidad, and has recognized therein the structure of the wood of the palm.ll

GRENADA.— [Great Britain.]

We have not heard of the discovery of coal beds, but it is reported by Dr. Simpson that the red secondary sandstone of this island contains vege- table fossils ; such as the leaves and stalks of plants.tj

Dr. Ure'9 Dictionary of Arts, &c.

t Etaay on Bitumen ; ita uses in remote ages, tnd iti refiTil in modem timei, and appli - cabilitj to Tarioui purposes, 1839.

X Trinidad Almanac for 1840. App. c. 4.

i Martin's Sutistics of the British Colonies, p. 85.

It Annales des Mines, Tome XVII. p. 676.

f Martin's Sutistics of the British Coloniee, p. 48.

952 The West Indies.

ST. LUCIE.— [Great Britain.]

In corroboration of the geological evidence, so frequently, and we rotj eren say so universally presented, that the entire group or range of the Antilles, from Trinidad to Cuba, has been, from time to time, subjected to volcanic influence, which is occasionally felt even at the present day, we add here, that this island yet contains an active volcano. Its summit is more than four thousand feet above the sea level, and within its crater are several deep depressions, filled with boiling water and mud. From one of these rises, at intervals, a column of smoke. The last eruption of this vol- canoy of which we have any information, took place in 1812.*

ISLAND OF MADEIRA.— [Portugal.]

Brown coal or lignite occurs on the north side of the island, on the banks of one of the tributaries of the St. George. Professor Johnstone connden it to be the dried react of an ancient peat bog, and that its lustre, com- pactness, and rhomboidal fracture, are due to the action of the basalt which overlies it. An analysis gave

Carbon, 60.70

Hydrogen, . - . . . 5.82

Oxygen and nitrogen, - - - 33.48

and 20.05 of ash. Tliis is the organic constitution of true peat; but no peat exists at present in Madeira, nor has been noticed so near the equator. It is suggested, therefore, that this deposit may indicate a former colder cli- mate in that latitude.

Geography of America and the West Indies, p. 36.

Europe,

coHpmniirp

U GREAT BRITAIN— I. Eholahd. II. Scotulhd. IIL North Walu. IV. South Walu. v. Imelaxid.

ft. FRANCE.

3. Belgium.

4. ZOLLYEREIN AND PRUSSIA— Twomr-xwo Statb. 6. SPAIN.

6. Portugal.

7. I. NORTHERN ITALY. II. SOUTHERN ITALY— Sicily, CALABmiA, Ravui,

TUSCAWY, THE PAPAL StATES.

8. Ionian Islands— Zante.

9. GREECE — BcEOTiA, Samos Grecian Aechipelaoo.

10. EUROPEAN TURKEY— Ottomah Empiee.

11. Switzerland.

18. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE— Saedinia, Sayot, Piedmont, Tteol, Austria, TRAHfTt- YAiriA, Moeavia, Silesia, Ceoatia, Dalmatia, Carutthia, Carniola, Iitria, Illteia, Stteia, Galicia, Hvif oaey, Bohemia.

18. Hanover.

14. Hanse Towns.

16. Poland.

16. Holland.

17. Norway.

18. Sweden.

19. DENMARK — BoEirnoiiM, Feeoe Iilands, Sudeeob Island.

80. RUSSIAN EMPIRE— Southern, Northeen, Central, EAfTXRN.

81. POLAR SEAS— Chcrie Island, Spitzbeeokn, Iceland.

Gbeat Bbitain.

Entire area of England, Wales, Scotland, the Scottish Idands, Ireland and the Channel Islands. Square miles, 120,290 ; acres, 76,965,382.

Pcptdaiian,

In England 1831, 13,091,005; Wales, 806,182; ScoUand, 2,365,114; Ireland, 7,767,401 ; British Isles, 103,710; Army and Navy &c. 277,017. Total, 24,410,429. In England and Wales, in 1845, 16,684,600 ; in 1846, 17,000,000, and over. Total amount, 27,020,000.

The whole area of the British Empire is now computed to be, 6,890,000 square miles, or 4,712,700,000 acres.

Estimate of the annual value of the mineral produce of Great Britain, by Mr. Tennant, in 1846 :—

Coals, i:9,100,000; Iron, i:8,400,000 ; Copper, jf 1,200,000; Lead, ;£920,000 ; other metals and salt, i:5,380,000. Total annual value of pro- ducuons, i:25,000,000.

Money y Weights Measures.

Gold, — The standard gold sovereign containing l-12th alloy, weighs 123.274 grains.

1 lb. troy of this standard gold, computed at 17. 10 per oz., is coined into 46.74 sovereigns c£46. 14. 6. No duty is charged on its coinage.

Value of the sovereigns in the United States currency $4. 83c 8m.

Sihcr, — The standard silver contains 18-240ths alloy.

1 lb. of this silver is coined into 66 shillings, of which 4 are taken as seignoragc, or mint duty ; nearly 6 per cent. Value per lb. standard £3. 6. 0. Each shilling contains 87.27 grains standard.

1 lb. troy of the same silver is coined into 32 Company's Rupees, of which 2 per cent, are taken as mint duty.

Copper is valued at £'22\ per ton 24 pence to the pound avoirdupois.

Comparitivc Currencies,

English. French. United Sutet.

5. d, franc ct, dollar c,

Spanish Piastre, 4 5 43 1.05

Prussian Rix dollar, 3 0 0.72

United States dollar, 4s. IGdcc, 4 li 5 18 1.00

Hindostan, Sicca Rupee, 2 0 0.48

French, Franc, 0 9 69 I 00 0.19.3

English, Shilling, 1 1 16 OSU

256 Great Britain.

Weights.

I lb. avoirdupois, s 453.544 Grammes of France 0.97 lb. of Berlin.

112 lbs. 1 cwt of which 20 cwt. makes 1 ion 2240 lbs. English ss 1 quintal Engl.

I English ton 10.1465 metrical quintals, or 1,015 Kilogrammes of France.

1 Kilogramme usuel of France is 2lb, 3oz. Adwt. avoirdupois.

1 metrical quintal of France is 220 /65. English 100 Kilogrammes.

Weight of 1 Newcastle chaldron of coals 2,675 Fr. Kilog 2 tons and 13 cwt. Engl.

Weight of 1 Last about tons, 99.54 cubic feet.

26 cwt. was the legal weight, by act of Parlt. 1831, of 1 London chal- dron of coals.

53 cwt. 1 Newcastle chaldron.

1 barrel of meat 200 lbs, I tierce of do. 304 lbs.

1 sack of flour 280 lbs.

Measures of CapaJtity and Solidity.

I English Winchester bushel contains 2150.42 inches 35.236 Fraich Litres.

1 English Imperial bushel contains 2218 inches weighing 80 lbs. of water.

2.84 English Winchester bushels ss cubic feet s 22 imperial gallons 1 hectolitre.

English bushels to 1 ton, when dry.

1 English bushel weighs 84 or 85 lbs.

1 ton SB 252 imperial gallons.

On the old system of selling coals by measure.

1 sack of coals - - bushels.

1 vat - - sacks.

r 1 1 sacks. 1 heaped London chaldron - 36 bushels.

( 4 vats. 21 chaldrons - - si score.

1 Imperial bushel even, - 2218 cubic inches.

1 Imperial bushel heaped, - 2815 do.

1 Boll 36 Winchester gallons, 9675 do.

IFoiher, - . . =77,414 do.

1 Last, [now used in the Ilansc Towns.] 99,540 cubic feet 71 bolls, . - - 1 cubic yard of coal.

6 bolls, - - - chaldron.

In Ireland, 1 barrel or kish represents cwt. or about 3 barrels to 1 ton. In Scotland, 36 cubic yards of coal are equivalent to 32 tons weight In England, 1 cord of wood is 4 feet high, 8 A. long and 4 ft. deep 128 cubic feet.

Measures of Length and Area,

1 French metre is 3/?. 3i>i. 37dec, 3/>. 2Sdec. 39iii. 37l(f€C.

r 1 1 r 0.4046 Ilectars of France.

4840 8q. yards. Joch of AusUia.

OUAT BBTTAm. 9Bf

The imperial aerey Englithi b to tha Scotch acre as 1 to liMl. do. &. Irish acre av 1 to 1.6St

1 Irish acre contains 1 acre 3 roods, 19 poles Enish. 80| Irish acres are equal to 49 imperial acres.

The English commereial and financial year closet on the 5th of Janoaij, aonualiy.

Ths Coal-Fields Of Great Britain— Thsir Influence On Her Prosperity.

In the following pages although expressly appropriated to British coal statistics, the English reader will probably discern little of novelty or origi- nality. Onr office, according to Uie plan of the present work, is, in a great measare, the arrangement and concentration of details which, in tarioos shapes and through various channels, have been, firom time to time, made public. On entering upon so important a section, we mit com]ttenceL.by expatiating, with others, on the mcalculable value to Great Britab of her deposits of mineral combustibles and ores ; on their surprising influence on her power at home and abroad, and on the share they have had in nismg her to her present lofty position among the nations of the earth. The data thus brought together, and the condusions to which we are oonducted, naturally suggest the tracing of the progress towards such a magnificent result. At the same time, it must be admitted, from the eridence which

Sese pages contain, that this island, so fortunately circumstanced, is not estined to remain a solitary instance of rapid advancement in productive and industrial prosperity, through the agency of coal and iron. Other, and distant countries, following so successful an example, are applying themselves with energy to the development of similar resources. However rapid the progress made by England, we are able to show that France, Bd- gium, Prussia, and the United States of America, are, in our day, scarcdy less active in relation to mining and manufacturing industry. The extraor- dinary advantages which have elevated Great Britain to her present eminence are, in great measure, of local origin. They are mainly ascribable to that bounteous supply of mineral wealth which nature has assigned to her; to the enterprising character of her people who have turned them to such good account, and to her insular position.

To her peculiar geology, also; to the disposition or distribution, within her rock formations, of the mineral substances Uiat are pre-eminently the roost serviceable to mankind ; to their extraordinary accessibility, and to the abundant facilities for transportation, from within and from without, this country is especially indebted. " From the Grampians to Sussex, and from the German Ocean to the Irish Sea, the predominating geological feature of the British island is the carboniferous series, with the most magnificent coal deposits, accessible in every direction. These have been aonrce of Britain's internal riches, and the great cause of the development of the mechanic arts, which distinguish her above all other countries. Had the

franite of the Grampians, it has been said, and said justly, extended into ussex, or the chalk of Sussex to the Grampians, the whole course of British history would have been changed. Nineteen of onr most important mano- iactttring cities, which lie upon the new red ssjidstone; drawing, bom beaenth

S58 Orkat Britain.

it, the coal, iron, and lime— the soarces of their manufacturing prosperity , — in either case, it is probable, would never have existed."*

It is due to the unrivalled accessibility, by sea, to the best coal basins of Enand, Scotland and Wales, from so many points around the circumference of the island, — where coals of many varieties and admirable qualities, can be shipped at the very sites where they are mined, — that Great Britain has hitherto been able to furnish such enormous and cheap supplies, not only to the home consumers, but nearly to every maritime country in Europe. In this respect, she is far more favourably circumstanced than her rival conti- nental producers, France, Belgium, Prussia, and Austria, whose coal-fields lie remote from the seaboard.

From Dunkirk to Bayonne, an extent of three hundred leagues of coast, there are but two coal-fields, and those are at some distance from the sea. In regard, also, to the quality of the coal, France is less fortunate than Eng> land ; for, with the exception of Uie basins of Anzin, Saint Etienne, and a few others, the collieries of the interior yield an inferior species of carbons- ceous fuel.t Both these circumstances combine to render France, to a cer- tain extent, dependent upon Great Britain for the better sorts of coal. Hence, the French government annually make large and increasing con- tracts for the delivery of English coals, at their various depots, for the use of their steam' marine, on service.

The incapability of Belgium — with her own increasing domestic con- sumption, and in view of her diminished powers of production, and the remoteness of her coal-fields from the sea-ports, — to supply the steam navy of France with any material portion of its requisite fuel, is perfectly well understood. The diminished supply to France from Belgium, in 1846 and 1847, and the corresponding increase from Great Britain, will be seen from our statistical tables. As to Spain, when the immense newly opened coal- field of Asturias, lying adjacent to the Bay of Biscay, shall be adequately developed, and its qualities more fully ascertained, it will be seen how far she can, independent of her own increasing demands, meet the growing wants of France and of Southern Europe. In the mean while, shonld it continue the policy of England to diminish her own indigenous resources, by furnishing so largely and so freely to the other European nations, there seems, at present, no reason to doubt her ability to do so, for a long time to come, even at an accelerated ratio.

During the discussion of the railway system in England, an interesting (act was pointed out .by a writer from whom we have already quoted, that the various coal-fields of England and Scotland, will, from each adjoining Md, meet the next adjacent coal-field nearly on a radius of thirty miles ; thus forming a chain of deposits from Scotland to South Wales. The whole interior country, therefore, from north to south, it is estimated, will be supplied with coals through the agency of the railroad system, nearly within that circumference, from their several central points.

The east and west coasts, to their very verge, do not exceed fifty miles at any point, from the nearest coal district. The south-east and south-west of England; the north of Scotland, and the north-west of Ireland, form the most distant points; yet those do not exceed 150 miles. The object of the author, from whom we quote, is hence to show, that if London, not more than 100 miles from the nearest mines, can be supplied with railm-ay-carried

Ptmpliltt Under Um tiU of Sbipc and Railrotdf in 1846. Alio, MiBiaff JsvfMl, ICay 30th7l84S.

t BfiniDf Jonrntl, Sept. 80lk| 184.

CUUUT BRITAIir.

colby it is eridenl thai tha inleiior of the oountiy, at no point fifty Bii6i and in general leas than thirty milesy from the ooal mmea, widi f oiocplions, will he more certainly and eztensif ely sopplied by similar i than through the sea-ports, and that a oenseqoent dinunotion of the-oc tilde most ensoe.* It is therefore inlerredi and we think with apod i tliat the Engli railroads seem destined, at no distant lime, to dimiush the shipmeolB by ses, for home consumptioD, exoepi from the coal distriets oa the seaboard, and also for loog dislanoes; as they hafe already alniost saper- seded canals in the interior.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF GOAL IN 6RBAT BSITAQr.

As there is no system of supervision adopted in the mining regioos heie as in all the other countries of Europe, it is imposaUe to arrive at any enot account of the quantity of coal which is annually nised in the mines; and, although the shipments from the sea-ports are registered with regularity, no returns are made, or are obtainable, of the consumption in lbs interior. Consequently, we have but an imperfect knowledge of the actual annual yield of the mines, and all the published statements are but crude appnninn- tions. Sir H. T. De la Beche, in a chapter on Economic Geology, ahowed by tabular documents, in 1840, that the average vabte of the annini prodnce of the British islands, amounts to the sum of twenty millions sterling; of which about eight millions arise from iron, and nine millions from omI, at the pit's mouth.

A more recent estimate, by Mr. Tennant, probably derived from the same source, places the annual value of the iron produced, at ;roOO,000, and of the coal at ;ro,100,000.

Annual amount produced. — In 1839, Mr. McCulloch published the flow- ing estimate of the total produce in Great Briuin, which statement was generally considered, at the time, to be more accurate than any other, but still under the mark.

Tom.

Domestic consumption and small manufactures, - 18,000/MO

Employed in iron making, and general manu&ctures, raft- 1 1 a eye am ways, steamboats, dtc. I

Exports to Ireland, - - - - - - 1,000,000

.Exports to colonies and foreign parts, ... 1,449,417

In 1839, 31,034,417

A later estimate brings up the aggregate production to 34,000,000, and we have even heard of estimates as high as 36,000,000, and the consump- tion in the interior is calculated at 23,500,000 tons.

The latter calculations are, from the reasons given, somewhat doubtfuL Assuming them to be approximstely correct, the production of the year 1845

may be thus stated.

Tom.

Shipped coastwise, as per official returns, 8,73368

Shipped to the colonies and foreign countries, - 3,6814MB

Interior consumption, of which 13,000,000 tons were ) 28jBOOjOOO

estimated to be consumed in the iron works, - f

In 184S, 84,76,7M

Qbbat Britain.

That the quantity assigned for the consamption of the interior, in 1645, is not overrated, we may form some idea from the fiict stated, in 1816, by a committee of the coal-owners of Durham and Northumberland, that 10;908,046 tons of coal were annually transported by the land carriage and Qanala of the interior, while the whole amount shipped, both for foreign and domestic consumption, was only 4,000,000 tons. At the same time, it was understood that the demand for coal for the iron and other manufactories of Sooth Wales, was not less than 5,060,000 tons.

The increased demand for domestic use for iron works, potteries, glass- works, factories, steam engines, 6lc. in the interior, and the improved faci- lities for transportation, during the interval of thirty years, has immensely enlarged the internal " movement" of coal.

In 1644, it was ascertained that the number of persons employed in the mining of coal and iron ore in Great Britain, Belgium, and France were respectively as follows.

In Prussia, 5,000 In G. Britain.

In Pennsylvania, ( In coal mines, 11833 15,000 ( In iron mines, 10,949

In France. In Belgium. 29,920 persons. 38,490 1,963 " 2,608

GENERAL SHIPBfENTS FROM THE PLACES OF PRODUCTION.

The following table shows the aggregate quantities of all coals, coke and culm, shipped, both for foreign exportation and for home eonsttmpiumj coastwise, from British ports, in the following years.

Yetn.

Tom.

Yean.

Tonf.

Yean.

Tone.

4,365,040

5,603,807 1

9,498,193

4,803,497

7,389,279

9,648,973

4,788,839

8,204,901

9,313,995

6,979,199

8,504,149

9,076,343

6,856,547

8,679,430

) 1845

11,954,750

Coastwise Shipments And Colonial Trade.

Statement of the quantity of Coal shipped at the several ports of Elngland, Scotland, and Ireland, coastwise, to other parts of the United Kingdom.

Ooaetwiae Sbipnenu.

Tone.

1 Yean.

TOBi.

1 Yean.

Tone.

; 1836

i 1839

6,479,404 7,090,691 7,993,913

7,649,899 7,651,593

7,447,084

7,377,869 8,793,468

GREAT fiRITAIN.

91

Table of the quantity of Coal shipped from British ports to the Colonies tod Channel Islands.

Shipmnti to the CoIodIm.

To the Channel lalanda.

Yean.

Tom.

Years.

Tom.

Toni.

71,497 111,823 114,264 138,093 177,721

J849

344,739 333,000 307,000 378,943 375,303

65,900

55,588

Statement of the quantity of coals and culm brought coastwise, [and by inland communications,] into the port of London, in tons weight: from various parliamentary returns : including also the number of vessels or cargoes, the prices paid in the north, and amount of duties recei? ed thereon in London.

Note, — Occasionally discrepancies are observable between the returns adopted here, and found in other sources, considered to be official. In some of the latter cases they include the coal brought by sea only, omitting the small amount of inland coals. In others, they represent the quantities entered annually for payment of duties : while other tables, derived from the chamberlain's office, show the quantities imported, as computed from the arrivals, in the same periods. 10c/. per chaldron, for weighing and mea- suring coal.

Yean.

Enterei