The prospector's field-book and guide in the search for and the easy determination of ores and other useful minerals
xxii, 274 p. 19 cm
Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: archive.org.
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Library Of Congress
Copyright No.
United States Of America
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The Prospector’S Field-Book And Guide.
By Yhk Samb Author:
A Practical Manual
Of
Minerals, Mines And Mining.
Illustrated by 17 1 Engravings, Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 393 Pages, 8vo, Price $4.50.
The Prospector’S
Field-Book And Guide
In The
SEARCH FOR AND THE EASY DETERMINATION OF ORES AND OTHER USEFUL MINERALS.
/y
Pkof. H. S. OSBORN, LL.I).,
AUTHOR OF “ THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL,” “ A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF MINERALS, MINES, AND MINING.”
0 "-‘-Ustrated By Fifty-Eight Engravings.
Third Edition, Revised And Enlarged.
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Philadelphia;
Henry Carey Baird & Co.,
Industrial Publishers, Booksellers And Importers,
810 Walnut Street.
Copyright by
Henry Carey Baird & Co.
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Printed by the
WICKERSHAM PRINTING COMPANA 53 and 55 North Queen Street, Lancaster, Pa., U. S. A.
Preface To The Third Edition.
The rapid sale of the second edition of The Prospector’s Field-Book and Guide, unmistak ably indicating its growing acceptability and popu larity among prospectors, has rendered necessary the preparation of this, the third edition. In doing this the book has been carefully revised throughout, and where it was considered desirable it has been enlarged — especially as regards Gold, Gems and Precious Stones, and the more common Useful Minerals, and in the Glossary ; these revisions and amplifications, as it is believed, adding greatly to the value and usefulness of the book.
The work of revision has been committed to the same competent hands that so satisfactorily edited the second edition. As now presented to the pub lic, it is believed to be a complete and thoroughly reliable guide and companion to the intelligent and enterprising searcher after ores and other use ful minerals, including gems and gem-stones. The
(V)
Y1
Preface To The Third Edition.
Publishers therefore confidently look for even a more rapid sale of this edition than of those which have preceded it.
Philadelphia, July 1, 1897.
It. C. B.
Publisher’S Preface To The Second Edition.
The death of Dr. Osborn, two jears ago, renders it necessary that the Publisher should prepare the preface to this revised edition of The Peospector’s Field-Book and Guide.
The fact of a second edition of this book having been called for so soon after the publication of the large first edition, justifies the belief that it has supplied a public requirement. The task of revis ing the work has devolved upon thoroughly com petent hands ; and whilst it has been aimed, by the insertion of further information regarding the sub jects treated in the original edition, to make it still more acceptable to those for whom it was prepared, a new chapter has also been added on Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt and Peat, together with a Glos sary of Terms used in prospecting, mining, miner- alogy, geology, etc.
While the work of revision has been done with conscientious care, under the supervision of the Publisher, it can hardly be hoped that it has been so well done as if Dr. Osborn, with his profound knowledge of the subject treated, had been alive to direct it for himself, and in his own manner.
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viii publisher’s preface to second edition.
Henry Stafford Osborn was born in Philadelphia, August 17, 1823, and died in New York City, Feb ruary 2, 1894. He was graduated at the Univer sity of Pennsylvania in 1841 ; went abroad in 1843 or 1844 ; studied at Bonn, Germany, and at the Polytechnic Institution of London. Before the civil war he held the chair of Natural Science at Roanoke College, Va., and in 1866 accepted a pro fessorship at Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Leav ing Lafayette in 1870, he became, in 1871, Professor in Miami University at Oxford, Ohio. In 1865 he received from Lafayette College the degree of LL.D.
In 1869 he published “ The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel in 1888, “ A Practical Manual of Min erals, Mines and Mining in 1892, the first edition of The Prospector’s Field-Book and Guide, the success of all of which books has been pronounced.
Personally, Dr. Osborn was charming, full of information on a wide range of subjects, which he had studied thoroughly ; enthusiastic, amiable and just; and the relations of his publisher with him during a quarter of a century, will ever be among the brightest and best recollections of that pub lisher’s long career in business.
Henry Carey Baird.
Philadelphia, January 15, 1896.
Preface To The First Edition.
In the following pages we have attempted to present such a view of the whole subject of pro specting for the useful minerals that any liberally educated reader may fully comprehend our mean ing. We have therefore explained special terms where we have thought it convenient to use them, and where the technically educated student would not need an explanation.
It must be understood that the subjects of chem istry, mineralogy, and metallurgy are introduced only for their practical bearing upon the ores in hand, or those sought for, and not for theory, or the philosophy . of the operation, much as such theory or philosophy would please and instruct. The prospector must, therefore, refer to larger works if he desire to be instructed in the principles gov erning the sciences, the teachings of which we have frequently made use of
We would suggest to any one intending to use this volume for practical work, to become ac quainted with the whole book before attempting to use any special part alone. The object and con struction have made it necessary to treat some (ix)
Preface To The First Edition.
special topics without repeating principles and methods already given in some part of the work, but which bear some relation to the topic under immediate consideration.
The Table of Contents and Index have both been carefully prepared, and being very full, will make reference to any subject in the volume easy and satisfactory.
Oxford, Ohio, Jan. 5, 1892.
Contents.
Chapter I.
Preparatory Instruction.
Page
Technical mineralogy, the first of the jirospector ; Guises of minerals ; Colors and forms under which
native metals may appear . 1
Advantage of cultivating a knowledge of minerals by
sight ; Importance of cleavage and fracture . 2
Definitions of various kinds of fracture; Importance of
color, streak and hardness . .S
Scale of hardness; Manner of trying the hardness of a
mineral . 4
What may be learned from the test of hardness; Lustre of minerals; Definitions of the various kinds of lustre. 5 Weight and form of minerals; Example of the j)ractical importance of a knowledge of technical mineralogy . 6
Definition of technical mineralogy; Importance of a knowledge of the characteristics of the rocks associ ated with minerals . 7
Desirability of a general knowledge of the manner in which’ the geologic rocks are laid down; Signs by which the name of the sedimentary rock may be de termined; Horizons of the rocks . 8
Movements of the earth’s crust illustrated by a section showing contorted strata due to lateral pressure; Prac tical geology . 9
Horizons sterile in ores; Horizons in the United States which abound in the useful minerals; Classification of
rocks; Definition of rocks . 10
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Consents.
Page
Reasons for differences in the geologic horizons; Table showing the relations of certain rocks one to another. 11
Igneous rocks . 12
Metamorphic rocks; The aqueous rocks . 13
Sandstone, illustrated and described; Shale, illustrated
and described; Granite . 14
Granite with black mica and feldspar crystals with quartz as chief base, illustrated and described 15
Definitions of lodes, beds and layers, irregular deposits
and surface deposits . 16
Hints in looking for deposits where superficial deposits
are known to occur . 17
Mode of occurrence of gold in Australia and in Califor nia; Mode of occurrence of other minerals; Points to be observed in examining a lode; Table showing the
association of ore in metalliferous veins . 18
The blow-pipe; Requirements for blow-pipe practice . . 19
Manner of preparing dry carbonate of soda; Borax and
other supplies; Mode of using the blow-pipe . 20
Colors of a candle flame, described and illustrated; Oxi dizing and reducing flames and their management;
Definition of the assay . 22
Roasting; Illustration and practice in showing the char acteristic power of the oxidizing and reducing flames. 23 How to make a blow-pipe; Principal means of chem ically testing minerals before the blow-pipe; Blow pipe experiments; Recognition of the presence of
metals by the color imparted to fused borax . 25
Table of color indications; Mode of testing with car bonate of soda on charcoal . 27
Observations and inferences from the above test 28
Test for sulphur and arsenic, and other substances ... 29
Chapter Ii.
Crystallography.
The composition of minerals indicated by their forms; Systems of crystalline forms; The isometric system;
The cube illustrated and described . 30
Contents.
Page
Variations of the cube . 31
The octahedron and dodecaliedron illustrated and de scribed; The tetragonal system; The prism illustrated
and described . 32
The zircon illustrated and described; The hexagonal
system illustrated and described . 33
Forms of the hexagonal system; Calcite hexagonal crystals — three-sided terminations, illustrated ; The
orthorhombic system illustrated . 34
The monoclinic system, illustrated . 35
The triclinic or thrice-inclined system; Illustrations of
the different systems of crystallization . 36
Distinctions between the turquois, lazulite, and lapis
lazuli . 37
The topaz and its crystallization; Meteoric iron 38
Ruby and sapphire; Serious mistake of a Paris firm of
jewelers . 39
Locality of gems . 40
Chapter Iii.
Surveying.
To measure heights which are inaccessible, illustrated . 41
To measure areas, illustrated by examples . 43
To measure an inaccessible line, illustrated by examples. 45 The prism compass and its use . 48
Chapter Iv.
Analyses Of Ores— Wet Method.
Preliminary examinations; Detection of sulphur, arsenic and silenium; Determination of native gold or silver;
Indication of copper . 50
Detection of antimony and tin; Determination of man ganese, alumina, magnesia, lime, zinc, cobalt and
nickel, and uranium . 51
Determination of titanium and mercury; Detection of carbonates; Examination of sandstones . 52
Contents.
Page
Qualitative analysis of ores; The dry method of analysis;
Directions for the wet method of analysis . 53
Indications of silver, lead or mercmy, in the assay ... 55
Apparatus for making hydrogen sulphide, illustrated and described; Manner of cutting off the bottom of a
bottle . 56
The filtrate ; What the precipitate may contain 58
Treatment of the precipitate; Precipitation of chromium oxide; Blow-pipe test for chromium; Precipitation of
alumina ; Definition of excess . 59
Precipitation of manganese, cobalt and nickel . 61
Establishment of the presence of mercury oxide and
lead sulphate . 62
Indications of bismuth and cadmium ; Indications of copper, sulphur and gold; Detection of platinum and
arsenic . 63
Indications of antimony and tin . 64
Dry assay of ores; Crucibles; Scorifiers; The cupel; The muffle; An assay furnace, illustrated and described . . 65
Brasquing; Method of obtaining the amount of iron in
an ore . 66
Scales, weighing, etc.; Pulverization for the dry method. 67
Testing gold and silver ores; Cupellation . 68
Separation of the gold and silv'er by the wet process;
Flux for melting the ore in a crucible . 69
Testing of lead ore, galena; Testing of cop})er ore, tin ore, mercury ore, and antimony ore . 70
Chapter V.
Special Mtneralogv— Gold.
Importance of studying minerals from actual specimens;
Distribution of gold . 72
Occurrence of gold in sea water; Where the chief sup plies of gold are at the present time obtained from; Principal mode of occurrence of gold; Composition of
native gold . . 73
Mexican rhodium gold; Black gold; Bismuth-gold; To detect a content of native gold in pyrites; Crystalliza-
Contents.
Page
tion of gold; Gold crystals illustrated; Gold dust, il lustrated; Large lump of gold found at Forest Creek,
Victoria, Australia, illustrated . 74
Physical properties of gold; Variations in the color of
gold . 75
Action of gold under the blow-pipe and towards acids . 76
The batea illustrated and described ; The cradle or
rocker, illustrated and described . 77
The long tom, illustrated and described . 79
Sluices and their construction; Hydraulic mining, de scribed and illustrated . 80
Lode prospecting . 82
Directions for making an amalgamating assay . 83
Construction of a retort . 84
Calculating the amount of gold per ton which an ordi nary battery might be expected to save; Extraction of
gold by means of cyanide of potassium . 85
Other forms and conditions of gold; Placer gold 86
Gold amalgam ; Discovery and extraction of gold ;
Where is gold found ? Original position of gold ... 87
Gold in granitic regions illustrated by section showing the two conditions under which gold is usually found in rock and drift ; Significance of an iron-stone
“blowout’’ . 88
Peculiar and seemingly irregular deposits of gold ... 89
Origin of metamorphic rocks . 90
Igneous rocks and their composition; Composition of metamorphic granite; Where the most paying gold is
to be found . 91
Gold in combination ; To separate gold in metallic
sulphides, for instance, iron pyrites . 92
Mode of making fuming nitric acid . 93
Another method of detecting and separating the
gold . 94
What constitutes profitable gold working . 96
Method of separating gold which gives very accurate
results . 97
In review with additional remarks . 98
Wliere the prospector may expect to find gold . 99
Contents.
Page
Phillips’ rule for ascertaining the amount of gold in a lump of auriferous quartz . 100
Chapter Vi.
Platinum, Etc.— Silver.
Occurrence and properties of platinum; Platinum in the United States; Chief source of supply of platinum . . 102 Consumption of platinum in the United States; Deriva tion of the word platinum; Sperrylite and its occur rence . 103
How to distinguish platinum; Chemical test for plati num; Separation of platinum from gold and other
metals . 104
Preparation of stannous chloride; Iridium; Osmium . . 105 Palladium; Silver, its occurrence and properties; Mis- pickel ; Distinguishing of native silver before the
blow -pipe; Chemical test of silver . 106
Derivation of most of the silver of commerce . 107
Other forms in which silver is found; Silver sulphides, silver glance or argentite; Horn silver or cerargyrite . 108
Brittle silver, or stephanite . 109
Red silver ore, or ruby silver; Pyrargyrite; Bromic silver or bromyrite; Geology of silver ores illustrated by sections across the Comstock Lode and surround ing strata, east and west, and north and south, and
showing the mines and the surface . 110
Xon-metallic substances of the Comstock Lode . Ill
Extent and value of the Comstock Lode . ? . . 113
Occurrence of silver ores at the Eureka Mines; Peculi arity of the limestone overlying the Eureka Mines . . 115 Geology of the Ruby Hill Mines; The Emma Mine; Geologic conditions in which silver ores are found . . 116
Chapter Vii.
Copper, And How Measured In Ores.
Copper, its occurrence and properties; Manner of testing minerals containing copper . 118
Contents.
Page
Red copper ore, ruby copper or cuprite; Copper glance,
vitreous copper or chalcocite . 119
Gray copper or tetrahedite; Copper pyrites or chalco-
pyrite . 120
Silicate of copper or chrysocolla; Black oxide of copper; Malachite or green carbonate of copper; Blue carbon ate of copper or azurite . 121
Variegated copper pyrites, bornite, or erubiscite 122 Geology of copper illustrated by section of the copper bed at the Dolly Hide Mine, Maryland, section of strata in Lake Superior copper region, and section of
the Eagle vein. Lake Superior . 123
Facts for the detection of copper . 124
To obtain the per cent, of copper in an ore . 125
Precautions to be observed in the assay of copper 127
Chapter Viii.
Lead And Tin.
Lead, its occurrence and properties; Order of strata in the lead district of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa; Test
for silver in galena . 129
Geology and form of lodes of the galena ores illustrated by lead lode in micaceous shale in mine near Middle- town, Conn.; Galena and its associated minerals; Car bonate of lead or cerussite, illustrated by section of
strata in California Gulch, Colorado . 130
Sulphate of lead or anglesite; Phosphate of lead or pyro-
morphite; Chromate of lead or crocoite . 132
Lead ochre, or massicot; Geology of lead, illustrated by section of galena limestone; Galena limestones . . . . 133
Circulation of water in lead veins . 134
Deposit of lead in a Assure in the limestone, illustrated
by a section . 135
Tin; Detection of tin in a tin-bearing mineral; Assay of tin ore; Tin veins; Usual ore of tin; Oxide of tin ... 136 Cassiterite; Wood tin; Toad’s eye tin; Stream tin; Dis covery of tin in Banca and Billiton . 137
Associations in Wyoming and Dakota tin mines; Tin
Contents.
Page
pyrites (sulphide of tin); Bell metal; Form in which
the tin ores of South Dakota are found . 138
Hearney Peak Mines ; Gold in tin veins ; Presence of tin in the granites ; Phosphate minerals in the Etta
Mine . 19
Geological position of tin ores; Wolframite, its proper ties and detection . 140
Brown garnet of the Hearney Mines; Home of the tin
deposits; Form of granite in Dakota . 141
Cassiterite of the Black Hills ; Discovery of tin ore on the western slope of the Blue Ridge . 142
Chapter Ix.
Zinc— Ikon.
Zinc and its chief ores; Zinc carbonate or Smithsonite;
Zinc silicate or calamine . 143
Red oxide of zinc, or zincite; Sulphide of zinc, sphaler ite, or blende; Geology of zinc, illustrated by section
of strata near Sparta, N. .1., zinc mines . 144
Deposits of sulphide of zinc in Colorado and Montana; Report by Mr. E. H. Saltiel on a group of zinc mines
in Colorado . 145
Blow-pipe tests for zinc; Iron ; Native iron ; Magnetite. 146
Franklinite; Specular ore or red hematite . 147
Geologic horizons around the iron ores of Lake Superior, illustrated; Brown iron ore, or brown hematite, or
limonite . 148
Spathic iron ore, or siderite . 149
Black band ore ; Chromic iron ore or chromite ; Iron ores not used for the making of iron and steel ; Iron
pyrites . 150
Arsenical pyrites or mispickel; Geology of iron ores . . 151
Section of Pilot Knob, Missouri . 152
The use of the magnetic needle in prospecting for iron;
Mr. W. H. Scranton’s summary of the indications from the magnetic needle in searching for ore 153 Method of using the compass in searching for ore . . . 155
Contents.
Page
Chapter X.
Meecury, Bismuth, Nickeb, Cobalt And Cadmium.
Mercury or quicksilver ; Native mercury ; Cinnabar or
sulphide of mercury; Native amalgam . 157
Occurrence of cinnabar in California; Bismuth, its oc currence and geology . 158
Nickel and its manipulation under the blow-pipe; Smaltite; Nickel arsenide, copper nickel, or nicolite. 159
Emerald nickel; Millerite . IGO
Nickel in Sudbury, Canada; Foleyrite; Whartonite . . 161 Jack’s tin or blueite; Analysis of ores for nickel and co balt; Preparation of the assay; Separation of lead . . 162
To separate the copper . 163
Ajiparatus for reducing the oxides to the metallic condi tion by ignition under a stream of hydrogen 166
Separation of nickel and cobalt . 168
Analysis of ores for pyrrhotite; Discoveries of nickel ore in NeM Caledonia; Garnierite; Mines at the Gap, Lan caster C/O., Penna . 170
Cobalt; Smaltite; Cobaltite . 171
Erythrite; Linnaeite; Earthy cobalt or cobalt wad . . 172 Tin-white cobalt; Cadmium; Greenockite . 173
Chapter Xi.
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, And Other Iminerals.
Aluminium; The most valuable kaolins; Corundum . . 174 Emery; Sapphire; Oriental rubj; Oriental topaz; Ori ental emerald ; Oriental amethyst; Asterias; Cryolite. 175
Bauxite . 176
Deposits of bauxite in Alabama, Georgia and Arkansas;
Clays at Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass . 177
Antimony; Stibnite, its properties and geology; Manga nese; Classes of manganese ores; Wad . 178
Pyrolusite; Psilomelane . 179
Manganese carbonate or rhodochrosite ; Geological posi tion of manganese . 180
Contents.
Page
Other useful minerals ; Alum ; Apatite, phosphate of
lime . 181
Arsenic; Native arsenic; Realgar; Orpiment . 182
Asbestos; Barytes or barium sulphate, or heavy spar . . 183 Borax; Coal (mineral); Anthracite (glance coal, stone
coal) . 184
Bituminous coal; Cannel coal; Brown coal (lignite);
Jet; Dolomite; Feldspar, orthoclase . 185
Fluorspar, fluorite; Graphite, plumbago, black lead . . 186
Mode of testing the purity of graphite . 187
Gypsum ; Alabaster ; Selenite ; Satin spar ; Plaster of
Paris ; Lithographic limestone . 188
Mica ; Molybdenum . 189
Nitre or saltpetre ; Rock salt . 190
Slate; Sulphur; Talc or soapstone; Steatite . 191
Chapter Xii.
Petroleum, Ozocerite, A.Sphalt, Peat.
Occurrence of crude petroleum ; Outfit and time for
prospecting . 192
Examination of the iridescent film on the surface of
water; Indications of an outcrop of oil . 193
Tracing the source of the oil ; The water test ; Fresh fracture of oil-bearing sandstone ; Determination of
the nature of oil-bearing sandstone . 194
Color of traces of oil upon the surface of water in cooler weather ; Iridescent fllnis in swampy puddles 195 Salses (mud volcanoes) and exhalations of natural gas as an indication of petroleum ; Occurrence of oil in
deflnite geological horizons . 196
Occurrence of oil in beds or in veins; Tracing a thick seam or stratum of oil-bearing sandstone ; Outcrops in
a large mass of sandstone . 197
Data to be marked in the sketch map when promising
outcrops of oil have been found, illustrated . 198
Vein-like occurrence of oil, illustrated and described . . 199 Occurrence of oil in a maze of smaller and larger fissures. 200 Quality of the oil; Ozocerite and its occurrence; Ozo cerite deposit in East Galicia, illustrated and described. 201
Contents.
Page
Mineral resins allied to ozocerite ; Retinite . 202
Elaterite or elastic bitumen ; Pyropissite ; Properties of
ozocerite ; Native asphalt or bitumen . 203
Most remarkable deposits of asphalt ; Asphalt in Cali fornia and other portions of the United States 204 Peat . 205
Chapter Xiii.
Gems And Precious Stones.
Occurrence of gems and precious stones in the United States ; General unfamiliarity with the appearance of gem stones in their native state; Diamonds; Occur rence of diamonds in India . 206
Occurrence of diamonds in Borneo, Brazil and South
Africa . 207
The diamond-bearing ground at the Kimberley Mine, South Africa ; Occurrence of diamonds in the Ural, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States . . . 208 Localities where diamonds have been found in the United States; Natural surface of the diamond;
Color of the diamond ; Black diamond . 209
Specific gravity and power of refraction of the dia mond; Points on which the value of the diamond is dependent ; Larger diamonds, illustrated ; The Koh- i-noor ; The Orloff ; The Grand Duke of Tuscany or
Florentine ; The Pitt or Regent . 210
Sapphires and Rubies ; Oriental Topaz ; Oriental emer ald ; Oriental amethyst . 211
Asterias ; Corundum ; Emery; Principal localities of
sapphires in the United States ; Spinel . 212
Balas ruby; Chlorospinel; Rubicelle; Almandine ruby;
Pleonast; Topaz . 213
Beryl or emerald ; Phenacite; Zircon . 214
Garnet . 215
Garnets found in New Mexico and Southern Colorado;
Tourmaline . 216
Epidote; Opal; Precious opal; Fire opal; Harlequin opal; Milk opal . 217
Contents.
Page
Resin opal or wax opal; Jasper opal; Wood opal; Tur-
quois; Agate . 218
Eye agates; Moss agate; Chalcedony; Carnelian and
Sard; Jasper . 219
Bloodstone ; Rock crystal ; Lake George diamonds ; Amethyst; Onyx or Sardonyx; List of gem-stones compiled by Mr. George F. Kimz . . . 220
List of gem-stones known to occur in the United States. 221 List of species and varieties found in the United States, but not met with in gem form ; List of species and varieties not yet identified in any form in the United States ; List of gem-stones occurring only in the
United States . 222
Table of characteristics of gems . 223
Appendix.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, BORING, CHEMICAL ELEMENTS, GLOSSARY, ETC.
Basis of British weights and measures; English length. 227 Particular measures of length; Surface measure; Surface
measure in feet; Solid measure: Weight; Trojv eight. 228 Avoirdupois weight; AVeights by specific gravit3 . . . 229 Specific gravity, how to find; Special AA'eights, etc. . . 231
French measures — length; Surface . 232
Solid measure; Weight; Specific gravity of metals, ores, rocks, etc. ; Ores associated with gold and silver . . . 233
Other ores; Minerals of common occurrence . 234
Average in cubic feet of a ton weight of various mater ials; Power for mills . . . 235
Boring; Diamond drill . 236
The chemical elements, their symbols, equivalents and
specific gravities . 237
To find the proportional parts by weight of the elements of anj substance, whose chemical formula is known;
Common names of chemical substances . 239
Prosiiectors’ pointers . 241
Glossary of terms used in connection prospecting,
mining, mineralog.y, geology, etc . 243
Index . 263
thp:
Prospector’S Field-Book And Guide.
Chapter T.
Preparatory Instruction.
In preparation for skillful work, the prospector should become thoroughly acquainted with the forms under which useful minerals and metals ap pear.
This should be his very first study. It may he called the study of technical mineralogy.
He should be able to detect all the guises, as they may be called, which usually present themselves.
Some metals are found native and in some degree of purity, as in the cases of gold, silver, copper, mercury, and platinum, and when so found are readily determined at once by any one who is at all acquainted with those metals as they occur in gen eral use. But frequently native metals appear under such colors, and even forms, that the dis coverer must possess more knowledge than any one usually possesses who has seen the metal in the arts only. Gold, as an illustration, is frequently found (1)
prospector’s field-book and guide.
ill various shades of yellow, in accordance with the amount of silver or copper it may contain, and yet to the practiced eye of a true mineralogist it never loses the true gold hue.
Iron pyrites, which is composed of sulphur and iron, and called ‘‘pyrite,” mineralogically, lias a color somewhat similar to that of gold, and so also has a mineral called chalcopyrite,” or copper pyrites, which contains copper, iron and sulphur. These, with others, vary in the yellow shade and degrees of color, hut by the jiracticed eye are in stantly detected. Of course the brittleness of these minerals is unlike the softness of native gold, and this would instantly reveal the fact that they were not gold ; but we are now speaking of the practiced eye alone, and therefore of the benefit of cultivating a knowledge by sight of minerals. The mode in which a mineral breaks when smartly struck with a hammer, or pressed with the ])oint of a knife, is a chaTacter of importance. Many minerals can only he broken in certain directions, for instance, a crystal of calc spar can only he split parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron ; many crystals break more leadily in one direction than in others. Whenever a mineral breaks with a smooth, flat, even surface, it is said to exhibit cleavage. Cleavage always depends upon the crystalline form. But minerals often break in irregular directions, having no con nection whatever with the crystalline form, and this kind of breaking is called fracture. The nature of the surface given by fracture is often a character of
Prepakatoky Instruction.
importance, especially in distinguishing the varieties of a mineral species. Thus quartz and many min eral species show a shell-like fracture-surface which is called conchoidal, or if less distinct, small-con- choidal or sub-con choidal. More commonly the fracture is simply said to be uneven, when the sur face is rough and irregular. Occasionally it is hackly, like a piece of fractured iron. Earthy and splintery are other terms sometimes used and readily understood.
The color and appearance of the line or furrow on the surface of a mineral, when scratched or rubbed, is called the streak, which is best obtained by means of a hard-tempered knife or a file. The color of a mineral and its streak may correspond, or the min eral and its streak may possess different colors, or the mineral may be colored, while its streak is colorless. For instance, cinnabar has both a red color and a red streak ; specular iron has a black color, but a red streak ; sapphire has a blue color, but a white colorless streak. The streak of most minerals is dull and pulverulent, but a few exhibit a shining streak like that formed on scratching a piece of lead or copper. This kind of streak is dis tinguished by the name of metallic. In judging the streak of a mineral, much weathered pieces should be rejected.
Hardness is another character of great importance in distinguishing minerals ; it is the quality of re sisting abrasion. The diamond is the hardest sub stance known, as it will scratch all others. Talc is
rROSPECTOR’s FIELD-BOOK AND GUIDE.
one of the softest minerals. Otlier minerals possess intermediate degrees of hardness. To express how hard any mineral is, it becomes necessary to com pare it witli some known standard. Ten standards of different degrees have been chosen, and are given in order in the following scale :
1. Talc, easily scratched by the finger-nail.
2. Gypsum, does not easily yield to the finger nail, nor will it scratch a copper coin.
3. Calcite, scratches a copper coin, but is also scratched by a copper coin.
4. Fluorite, is not scratched by a copper coin, and does not scratch glass.
5. Apatite, scratches glass with difficulty ; is readily scratched by a knife.
6. Feldspar, scratches glass with ease ; is difficult to scratch by a knife.
7. Quartz, cannot be scratched by a knife, and readily scratches glass.
8. Topaz, ]
r. 7 y harder than flint or quartz.
9. Corundum , j
10. Diamond, scratches any substance.
If on drawing a knife across a mineral it is im pressed as easily as calcite, its hardness is said to be 3. If a mineral scratches quartz, but is itself scratched by topaz, its hardness is between 7 and 8.
In trying the hardness of a mineral, a sound por tion of the mineral should be chosen and a sharp angle used in trying to scratch. A streak of dust on scratching one mineral with another may come from the waste of either, and it cannot be deter-
I’K Ep A K Atop T Instruction.
mined which is the softer until after wiping off tlie dust and examining with a lens.
By the test of hardness, clear distinctions may be drawn between minerals which resemble each other. Iron pyrites and copper pyrites, for instance, are similar in appearance; but copper pyrites can easil} be scratched with a knife, while iron pyrites is nearly as hard as quartz and the knife makes no impression upon it.
Lustre. Some minerals have a brilliant lustre like that of metals ; in others the lustre resembles that of glass, or silk, or resin or wax, while others are dull or destitute of lustre. The kinds of lustre dis tinguished are as follows :
Metallic : tlie lustre of a metallic surface as of steel, lead, tin, copper, gold, etc.
Vitreous, or glassy lustre : that of a })iece of broken glass. This is the lustre of most quartz and of a large part of n on-metallic minerals.
Adamantine. This is the lustre of the diamond. It is the brilliant, almost oily, lustre shown by some very hard minerals, as diamond, corundum, etc. When sub-metallic it is termed metallic ada mantine, as seen in some varieties of white lead ore or cerussite.
Resinous or waxy : the lustre of a })iece of rosin, as that of zinc blende, some opal, etc. Near this, but quite distinct, is the greasy lustre, shown by some specimens of milky quartz.
Pearly or the lustre of motlier-of-pearl. This is common where a mineral has very perfect cleavage. Examples, talc, native magnesia, stilbite, etc,
prospector’s field-book and guide.
Silky, like silk. This is the result of fibrous structure, as the variety of calcite (or of gypsum) called satin spar, also of most asbestus.
What has previously been said of color may also be said of weight and form. A lump of j)yrite in the hands of a skillful mineralogist would be dis tinguished from gold by its weight, since a mass of gold of the same size would weigh at least three times as much. Three crystalline pieces, the one of barite, the other two of lime carbonate and of quartz, may to the unskillful eye a])pear equally transparent; but the form of the first is tabular, that of the latter two is in six-sided crystals, but the lime carbonate crystals terminate in three sides, while the quartz always (like the sides) in six.
These distinctions may appear to be oidy scien tific abstractions, but they are sometimes of seriously great practical importance. A large amount of iron ore in Jefferson Co., New York, was condemned as being covered with (piartz from the fact that the minute crystals which appeared had six sides ; but the author by means of his pocket lens noticed that none of the terminations were six-sided, and there fore that they could not be quartz, which renders iron ore injurious to the furnace. They were crystals of lime, which is no detriment, but rather a benefit to iron ore. This simple discovery restored several thousand tons of ore to the market. At another time the author was shown a nearly trans parent specimen taken by the finder to be a piece of calcite found the same day on an island in Lake
Preparatory Instruction.
Erie ; but calcite, in crystalline shape and transpar ent, takes a rhoinboidal form, and this appeared as though several tablets had been joined together at the edges. It was tabular in form, which form is never taken by lime (calcite), then on handling the specimen its weight, together with its form, showed that it was barite, or barium sulphate. A visit to the island led to the discovery of many tons. It is now a very valuable mine.
We have presented these illustrations to show that a knowledge of technical mineralogy is of the first importance to the prospector. By technical miner alogy we mean only that amount of mineralogical knowledge which will be needed to recognize val uable minerals and metals, and to trace them to their hiding-places, and this amount of mineralogi cal skill can be most thoroughly acquired, although, of course, it forms but a small part of the whole subject of mineralogy as a science.
Besides a knowledge of the forms under which the minerals we seek present themselves, it is also neces sary to learn the characteristics of some of the rocks which are generally associated with those minerals. The object of this knowledge is to serve in directing us to those regions where we may with greater probability discover the minerals we seek. It also serves to warn us out of a region where we should not expect to find what we desire.
To illustrate, we may not expect to find iron ores of a certain kind, brown hematites for instance, in a granitic country. On the other hand we may
]rospector’s fip:ld-book and guide.
find the magnetic ores in such a region, and it is useless to ex})lore a granitic region for black band iron ore, although it may he the })ro})er region to discover red hematite.
It is, therefore, important tliat the })rospector should he able to distinguish many of the geologic rocks to help in guiding or in checking him, in his explorations.
A general knowledge, therefore, of the manner in which the geologic rocks are “ laid down,” their order, or succession, in the earth, is important, and the distinction between sedimentary and that which has l)een, and is usually called “ igneous rock,” but more properly ‘‘ azoic rock,” that is, rock which does not exhibit any remains of fossil or organic life. For often the only signs by which we can, with any degree of certainty, determine wliat is the name of the sedimentary rock is by finding the re mains of former life, that is, the kind of fossil it contains. Prof. Dana says (Tlie Amer. Journal of Science, Xov. and Dec., 1890) that it is settled that the kind of rock in itself considei*ed is not a safe criterion of geological age.
If all tlie rocks in the world had been laid down in regularly liorizontal secpience and liad always re mained in their own separate horizons,” as every rock of tlie same age is called, not only should we find them all jiarallel, one over the other, hut we might readily determine to some extent what were the exact order and distance of any one horizon, or geological age. P)ut, although there is a general
Preparatory Instruction.
order, the same in all parts of the world, there have been upheavals and sinkings, dislocations and erosions, during the ages, so that it is necessary that the prospector slionld become acquainted with the various changes probable in the order and forms of the vast rocks which carry the minerals for which he is seeking.
Kiu. 1.
Section showing contohted strata oce to lateral pressure, aa, “ anti clinal axes; v, the “synclinal axis.” The direction of the arrows, ee, ee, is that of “the .strike.” That of the arrows dd, is that of “the dip” of the strata, always measured from the horizon ; gg, are the out-crops.
Some of these movements of the earth’s crust are represented in Fig. 1.
Jkactical Geology.
We repeat that it is of considerable importance that the prospector should liave at least some general knowledge of those geological horizons with which his work is specially associated. As we have inti-
10 prospector’s field-book and guide.
mated, useful minerals do not always confine them selves to one horizon ; but there are certain ranges of rock which indicate their vicinity. There are also limits which are never overpassed by some use ful minerals, and experience has shown that some horizons are always sterile in ores, and it is there fore useless ever to expect to find them in paying (piantities, in certain rocks or beyond them in cer tain directions.
Gold often occurs where it will not pay to open and work the strata, so also with lead and copper. It is well to learn the relations of such barren regions, or horizons, as the strata are called.
In the following table we have given chief place to those horizons which have been found in our own country to abound in the useful minerals, and we advise the possession of small specimens of the j)rincipal rocks mentioned and the special examina tion of the specimens under a good lens, so as to be come thoroughly acquainted with their appearance and their minute parts of composition.
All rock may be classified as —
1. Igneous.
2. Metamorphic.
3. Aqueous.
S})eaking geologically, not only the hard consoli dated massive and stony substances are called ‘‘ rocks,” but auy natural deposits of stony material such as sand, earth, or clay, when in natural beds, are*geological rocks. Yery few of the rocks of this earth, at any rate so far as examined, are in their
Preparatory Instruction.
original and primal condition. Even the granites and volcanic rocks are composed of other and more ancient material disintegrated, ground up, or worn down, settled, buried, and compressed by ages of enormous pressure, or consolidated by cementation. Some have been “ laid down ” under water, having been disintegrated into dust carried by the winds of ages out over the oceans and seas, and settled down into the form of the present rocks, which afterward have been lifted up into mountains and plains above the seas. But by the transporting power of rivers or currents in ancient oceans, and because of unequal upheaval of some regions where subter ranean forces were greater than at distant places, very large differences in the nature of the deposit have occurred, even in limited regions. These special and limited forces will account for the fact that although, taking the geological horizons throughout the world, there is a general sameness, differences do occur, and important members of the order of succession are omitted in some regions, and exceptions to general rules occur.
We give, therefore, in the table following, those universally accepted relations of certain rocks, one to another, in the great geologic arrangement of the world, omitting some of the subsidiary limited and unimportant horizons.
prosppxtor’s field-book and guide.
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS are sucli as have been sub jected to sufficient heat to melt the ingredi ents. Of these rocks —
Volcanic rocks are those whicli have been cooled near or at the surface, as lavas, etc.
Trachyte ; a gravish rock of rough fracture ; the same specific gi’avity as quartz, but mainly constituted of grains of glassy feldspar. It is essentially a unisilicate of alumina, with 10 to 15 per cent, potash, a little soda and lime ; differs from (puirtz in tliat it fuses before the blow-pipe, while (piartz remains unfused except when soda is used.
Basalt; blackish or dark brown. T'aps, green stone, dolerite, amydolite ; these latter four are only modifications, being all unisilicates with smaller amounts of potash than in trachyte, a little more soda and lime, and some traces of iron and magnesia, varying in color and form.
Obsidian is a glass, something like bottle glass, of a dark shade, and translucent.
All these are compact in texture, except where some holes have been worn in by steam or gases. They are frequently found penetrating several strata, having been forced up in columns almost vertically, and sometimes sjireading out horizontally for many miles between the strata or on the surface, and are called volcanic dykes, or intrusive rocks, or lava. These and such-like are igneous rocks.
STRxVTIFIED ROCKS.
General Divisions.
Subdivisions.
Characteristics.
Recent,
Pleistocene,
Or Quarternary.
All its shells and bones are of existing species.
H
Pliocene.
Miocene.
Eocene.
About 50 per cent, of ex isting species of shells.
Contains 80 per cent, of extinct species.
Contains fresh water and marine strata, animals all extinct.
Tertiary rocks yield brick and other clays, gypsum, sand, phosphate of lime deposits such as are in Florida, South Carolina, and elsewhere. GOLD in the drift and alluvial, also PLATINUM (Iridium, see text), and TIN.
Coal fields (brown or lignite) of this Period, occur in India, Indian Archipelago, Japan, New Zealand, Vancouver’s Island, and in Europe; also in California, Washington, Oregon, Colorado, etc. The true coal (anthracite and bituminous) belongs to the Carboniferous only.
A very hard lignite exists at Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, in this formation.
I Cretaceous.
Upper.
Middle.
Lower.
Upper Chalk Avith flints, but the LoAverl The Avhole formation contains sea-shells, sponges. Chalk Avithout flints. J sea-orchins etc.
Contains Greensand in England and in Ncav Jersey, used as a marl and fertilizer. There is a supposed Cretaceous lignite in Alaska, Colorado, California, Utah, etc.
Whealden.
Consists of sand, clay, or marl, the sand used in glass making.
, o
“3
Jurassic.
Portland Stone. Oxford Group. Stonestield Slate.
Some English coal is found in the Oolite. Kimmeridge clay is found in upper Oolite ; the fine Bavarian lithographic stone in the middle Oolite.
Ps
W.
Lias
Limestone in horizontal strata.
Conspicuous for the number of ammonites and nautilus shells. Furnishes building and paving stone.
m
Triassic.
Keuper.
Muschelkalk.
Bunter-sandstone.
Called by the Germans TRIAS.
Connecticut river sandstone Avith footprints.
Red clays, marls, shales and sandstones. The New Red Sandstone of England.
In Europe great salt beds.
Permian.
Dark red sandstone. Magnesian limestone. Conglomerates, Breccias, Marls in all three.
Mostly sandstones and marlytes, some impure magnesian limestone and gypsum. Thin seams of coal, unworkable. With exception of BROWN HEMATITE iron ore and the metals mentioned above, all the other metals are found in the formations ))eloAV.
d
Hh
N
o
w
Carboniferous.
Seams of Anthracite and bituminous coals of vary ing thicknesses.
Millstone grit. Subcarboniferous.
The black band iron ore. Limestone from the same mines Avith the coal in Great Britain, but not so frequently in America. Anthracite, cannel, and bituminous coal in seams in limestone, sandstone, and shales, forming the “ The Coal Measures.”
Affords PETROLEUM in Pennsvlvania, Ohio, and elscAvhere, and salines in Michigan. It is the MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE of England. Largely of corals.
o
Devonian.
Catskill Period. Chemung Period. Hamilton Period. Corniferous Period.
Includes the OLD RED SANDSTONE OF ENGLAND.
Hamilton black shales produce oil ; the Hamilton beds afford excellent flagging stone. Corniferous called also Upper Helderberg group.
S
1— 1
Ph I
Upper
Silurian.
LoAver
Oriskany Sandstone. Lower Helderberg Period. Salina Period. Niagara Period.
Salina Period supplies the salt Avaters of Salina and Syracuse, N. Y.
Trenton Period. Canadian Period. Potsdam Sandstone.
The LEAD MINES of lOAva and Wisconsin are in the Magnesian Limestone of the Canadian Period.
Cambrian.
Laurentian.
Archan.
(Between pasres 12 and 13.)
.
%
Iff
A
4
‘ K
Pkepakatory Instruction.
It is not certain that granite rocks are of igneous origin, but they seem to i)elong to the metamorphic series.
2. METAMORPHIC ; these are of igneous, sub
sequently to the time when they were of aqueous origin, and have undergone a change through pressure and heat, and, perhaps, in connection with steam or water. Of this class are the following :
Gneiss, liaving a composition of small pieces of feldspar, mica, and quartz, like some granites, but laminated or foliated in form, and not equally solid, homogeneous, and continuous throughout its structure as granite is.
Mica Schist. This term is given to those laminated rocks composed of mica and quartz in small particles, easily broken up, but more easily broken into tabular or leaf-like pieces, because the mica has been deposited in planes allowing of cleavage.
3. THE AQUEOUS ROCKS are simple water
rocks — that is, rocks composed of sediments from the dust or ground-up remains of other rocks. The presence of such sediments is due to the transporting power of rivers, floods, or currents, and also of winds and storms and other agencies, carrying the dust to the ocean waters where it was arrested and became a sediment.
prospector’s fieli>p>ook and guide
Ill sandstone (Fig. 2), the grains of sand are rounded, having no sharp edges as in granite.
Fig. 2.
Sandstone.
Where the sedimentary material was exceedingly -like, it sometimes is laid down as tine mini and frequently in lamina, as in shale (Fig. 8).
Fig. 3.
Shale.
GpkANITE is a term descriptive of rocks generally comjiosed of (piartz, felds})ar and mica, in grains (lienee the name) of a crystalline form. But the granites are not all alike in the amount of either of
Preparatory Instruction.
the above-mentioned minerals, nor are they alike in color. Some granites contain no mica, as in graphic granite, only quartz and feldspar, and the quartz in the feldspar resembling written characters. Others containing hornblende as well as mica, or in the place of mica ; the hornblende being in dark or black crystalline specks, pieces, or crystals, and con sisting, essentially, of silica, magnesia, lime, and iron. This granite is called syenite granite. AVhere the feldspar is in distinct crystals in compact base.
Fig. 4.
Granite with black mica and feldspar crystals, with quartz as chief base.
and sometimes lighter than the base, which is frequently reddish, purple, or dark green, it is a porphyritic granite. The granites are sometimes whitish, grayish, or flesh-red. They are considered as metamorphic and not igneous (Dana), although some authors still consider them to be igneous. They always present a crystalline grain in varying degrees of fineness and prominence. One form is given in Fig. 4, from a specimen in the author’s ])Ossession.
This sjiecimen contains two kinds of mica, one black, hiotite, the other white, of silvery appearance,
PKOSPKCTOk’s FIPr.D-BOOK AND GUIDE.
muscovite. The biotite i)re8eiits in spots the ap pearance of hornblende, and oidy tlie pen-knife point shows tlie scaly lamination of mica under the lens. It also contains crystalline forms of potash feldspar (orfJioclase), distinguishable from the <]uartz by their side oidy, by the lamellar fracture of its edges, and its peculiar vitreous glimmer, for l)ractically the hardness ap})ears the same, although feldspar is (6.6 and quartz 7) slightly softer. It would he well for the })rospector to gather many forms of granite and examine them under the lens until he becomes thoroughly used to the variations.
The valuable minerals and inetal-liearing deposits of the earth occur as
Lodes. By a lode or vein is generally meant a fissure in the rocky crust of the earth which is filled with mineral matter. In Australia a vein is called a reef and in (-.idifornia a ledge.
Beds and layers. The most common of bedded deposits are those of coal. Many kinds of iron ore are found in beds, also some co})per ores in shale, silver and lead ore in sandstone, etc. Beds and layers are also known as strata, measures, sills, mines, bassets, delfs, girdles.
Irregular deposits, such as pockets, etc., which lie sometimes in various formations. Contact deposits, net-work of veins, and where mineral is diffused through rocks, or in small cracks.
Surface deposits. By surface deposits are under stood the beds of alluvium wdiich more or less cover the face of every country. These beds have been
Pkeparatory Instruction.
chiefly created by various mechanical agents, which, after having degraded the higher rocks, carry the material which has thus been formed down to lower levels. By this process of degradation most mineral deposits are so comminuted that by their exposure to the atmospliere they are decomposed and de stroyed. However, sulistances like cassiterite, plat inum, gold, etc., not being so readily subject to de composition, have, in consequence, been more or less |)reserved and buried among these superficial de posits. In observing de})Ositsof this kind notice has to be taken of their general situation, area, thickness and richness. Often several beds may be ranged one above the other, in which case their relative values have to he determined. In tracing any par ticular deposit, as, for exam})le, whilst ascending a valley, if the particles of ore increase in size and number, the prospector may exi)ect that he is ap- })roaching their common origin. Anotluw indica tion that he is near this point of origin will he that he shall find the mineral less worn.
In looking for deposits of this kind where super ficial deposits are known to occur, the prospector may be often guided, like the Tungusians in North ern Siberia, who search for gold by first looking at the general contour of the country, and observing those places where any obstacles, like a projecting range of hills, would he likely to prevent material from being directly washed from higher to lower ground. Holes, sudden bends, or anything which would cause a diminution in the force of a current of water,
18 prospector’s fielr-book; and guide.
are points at which it should be expected that heavy material like gold or platinum would he likely to collect. Although in Australia the most gold is generally found in pot holes and behind hard bars, it has often been found upon the shallow bends of ancient river courses. The lowest of a series of beds is generally the richest. In California the gold- bearing beds usually consist of gravels, which may be cemented to form a conglomerate, sands, hands of tuff, clay, fossil-wood, etc.
INIagnetite occurs in alluvial deposits. Bog iron and manganese ore which have accumulated by precipitation in marshy places or in lakes usually contain too much impurity to he of commercial value. Stream tin occurs in gravels in much the same way as gold.
In examining a lode the nature of the various minerals it contains and the proportions which these hold to each other should be observed. Some times it will be noticed that certain groups of min erals are often found together, the presence of one being favorable to the existence of the other. At other times the reverse will be remarked, the exist ence of one mineral being the sign of the absence of another. The practical advantages to be derived from a series of observations indicating such results are too obvious to be overlooked.
The following table, showing the association of ore in metalliferous veins, is given by Phillips and Von Cotta:
Preparatory Instruction.
Tu)o Members.
Galena, blende.
Iron pyrites, chaleopy- rites.
Gold, quartz.
Three Members.
I Galena, blende, iron pyrites (silver ores).
Cobalt and nickel ores.
Tin ore, wolfram.
Gold, tellurium.
Magnetite, chlorite.
Four or More Members.
( Galena, blende iron pyri- ! tes, quartz and spathic j iron, diallogite, brown I spar, calc spar or heavy ' spar.
( Iron pyrites, chalcopyrite, I Iron pyrites, chalcopy- j galena, blende ; and rite, quartz (copper j spathic iron, diallogite, I ores). I brown spar, calc spar ;
or heavy spar, f Gold, quartz, iron pyrites, j galena, blende ; and ) spathic iron, diallogite,
I brown .spar, calc spar; or heavy spar, j- Cobalt and nickel ores, iron pyrites; aiid galena, blende, quartz, spathic 1 iron ore, diallogite,
I brown spar; calc spar;
' or heavy spar.
/-Tin ore, wolfram, quartz, mica, tourmaline, topaz, t etc.
Gold, tellurium, tetrahe- drite, quartz; and brown spar ; or calc spar, f Cinnabar, tellurium, tetra- ! hedrite, pyrites, quartz ; and spathic iron, diallo- I gite, brown spar, calc I spar ; or heavy spar. j Magnetite, chlorite, gar- net, pyroxene, horn- I- blende, pyrites, etc.
jGold, quartz, iron py- j rites.
j Cobalt and nickel ores, and iron pyrites.
jTin ore, wolfram, quartz.
/ Gold, tellurium, tetra- hedrite (various tel- lurium ores).
(Cinnabar, tetrahedrite, pyrites (various ores of quicksilver).
J Magnetite, chlorite, 1 garnet.
The Blow-pipe.
A great deal can be learnt respecting a mineral by a few simple trials with the blow-pipe, and every prospector should learn to use it. The only re quirements are a plain brass blow-pipe about 7 to 10 inches long, a candle, a forceps or pliers, a piece of })latinum wire, dried carbonate of soda, dried
20 pkospectok’s field-book and guide.
borax and cyanide of })otas8inin. Tlie charcoal selected for these ex])eriinents should he free from cracks and openings. By dry carl)onate of soda is meant not merely dry to the touch, but quite free from water ; this may be ])repared from common washing-soda by expelling the water whicli it con tains. Put the washing-soda in a shallow, clean iron dish, and place it over a clear fire until a white dry powder is formed ; avoid too strong a heat, otherwise the diy powder might fuse. A (piarter of an ounce ]nay he kept in a well-corked bottle or tube for use. Bicarbonate of soda may lie used in stead vrithont previous heating, or if the bicarbonate be moderately heated it loses weight, and becomes carbonate of soda, quite free from Avater, like the above.
The borax is to be dried in the same way; a (jnarter of an ounce will lie enough. It is conven ient to kee}) tlie jilatinnm Avire in tlie same tube. Unless these tubes are Avell corked, these chemicals reabsorb moisture. For testing tin ore it is nsefnl to have a little cyanide of [)otassinm kept in a bottle, A\dth the cork and rim Avell covered Avith melted beesAvax ; it would otherAvise licpiefy by absorption of moisture and liecome useless. It is a most dan gerous poison, and the greatest caution must he observed in its use.
The bloAv-pipe should have a fine jet, or a})ertnre, AAude enough to admit of a hue needle. The mode of using it may he readily ac([nired by first breath ing through the nostrils Avith the lips closed, tlien
Preparatory Instruction.
puffing out the checks (as if rinsing the mouth witli water), still keeping the lips closed, and breathing as before. The hlow-})ipe may at this point be slipped between the lips, and it will he found that a current of air escapes through it without any effort on the part of the operator. Air flows through the pipe owing to the tendency of the distended cheeks to collapse ; it must never he forced from the lungs. After a little practice the strength of the current may he increased. By breathing entirely through the nostrils, keeping the lips closed, the blast may he kei)t u}) for ten minutes or longer without exhaustion or inconvenience, except a slight fatigue of the lips in holding the hlow-pipe. The beginner may practice blowing upon a piece - of charcoal. The charcoal should, for convenience sake, be cut into slices of some six inches long by three-cpiarters to an inch wide and half inch thick. Place a piece of lead, or a pin-head, or fragment of pyrite (iron pyrites), near the end of the charcoal, and learn to blow the flame of a candle to a point upon the object. However awkward the blow-pipe may feel at first, practice will soon enable the learner to be expert. At first it may be necessary to gouge a small hole or recess in the coal with the point of your pen-knife, in order to prevent the specimen from being blown away. But after many trials such a command will be had over the blast that the hole may be made sufficiently deep by simply turning the point of the flame upon the coal and burning out a cavity.
prospp:ctor’s field-book and guide.
Study the two colors of a sperm candle flame (Fig. 5). Notice that there is a yellow flame out side and nearer the top, and then within the flame there may be seen a bluish, j)robahly a true blue dame. These flames act differently on the same substance. The outer 0 F, or yellow dame, is
Fig. 5.
A, the blue or reducing Hame ; B, the oxidizing flame ; the end of blow-pipe.
By placing the end ot blow-pipe in the flame thus, the oxidizing flame, A, is
made more efficient.
called the oxidizing flame,’’ the inner the '' reducing flame,'’ 11 F or I F. By blowing properly, these two dames may be made to turn horizontally, or eyen downwtird, and then either the O dame or the Pi dame may be turned on the assay ” (as the ob ject on tlie charcoal may he called), (let a jiiece of iron ore as large as a pin-head and ])lace it in a little cayity on the charcoal, then coyer it with a
Preparatory Instruction.
quantity of soda carbonate as large as the assay. Now turn the R flame down on the soda and ore, and in a few seconds the ore will melt and be re duced to metallic iron, and your magnetized knife- blade will pick it and the soda up. In this experi ment a piece of red or brown hematite, or a piece of pyrite (iron p3U’ites), should be used, as neither will be attracted by the knife-blade before the ore is re duced to metallic iron. The reason for this action on the part of the ore is that the ore is metallic iron combined with oxygen, and the R or blue flame calls for more oxygen than it possesses, so that when it is turned upon the hot oxide of iron it takes the oxygen it calls for, from the ore and leaves the iron in a metallic state. But in the pyrite, which is iron and sulphur, the latter is partially driven off b}" either flame ; and this process, on a larger scale, is called roasting R The soda absorbs a part of the sulphur and part remajns in the iron, but not so much but that the magnetized knife-blade will at tract it. The last experiment is good for experi mental practice, but not for illustrating the two properties of the flame.
The following is an excellent illustration and practice in showing the characteristic power of either flame. Get some platinum wire of the size of a large horse-hair. Wrap it around a match, leaving an end extending an inch and a half beyond the match end, then roll the end of the wire around another match until you have bent the end of the Avire into a small loop (Fig. 6). Prepare a little
24 prospector’s field-book and guide.
powder of common borax, and then, heating the wire loop in tlie general flame, plunge it quickly into the powdered borax. It will immediately pick up a quantity of the powder, and then, by turning the flame upon the borax, you will have a clear and
Fig. 6.
A
! 11/1/ t ) i n -
Appearance and size of wire and loop, A.
perfectly transparent bead filling the little loop on the end of the wire. You are now ready for the ex periment of illustrating the special properties of the two flames, which we shall now describe.
Obtain some black oxide of manganese, from any druggist, and dropping a little upon a clean sheet of letter paper, heat your borax bead red-hot in the flame and quickly touch with the liot bead a par ticle of the black oxide — it will stick to the bead — then turn the outer or 0 flame upon the bead and blow till the particle of oxide of manganese has en tirely dissolved — it will inqiart to the bead a beauti ful amethystine-})urple. Now turn the inner flame, that is, the R flame, upon the bead, and in a few seconds (according to skill in keeping the R flame steadily on the bead) tlie color will disappear, but it will return when tlie 0 flame is used again.
These eflbrts will give practice, ending in sufti- cieiit skill to enable the learner to use the blow-pipe as directed in the future parts of this work.
Preparatory Instruction.
The various reactions of different substances are given in tlie body of this work as they are called for when the substances are described.
A glass tube of a little less than three-eighths of an inch in diameter may be made into a blow-pipe as follows : Take a piece of such a tube, ten or twelve inches long, soften the tube by red heat in an alco hol flame, and draw it out to a small diameter — cool and scratch or file it at the smallest diameter — break it off', introduce the tube into the flame again and bend the glass to a right angle, about two inches off from the point — cool gradually — and heat the mouth end, opening it a little by introduc ing a small dry pine stick, cool it, and you have a very efficient blow-})ipe when another of metal can not be had.
Note: If your platinum loop will not hold the borax bead, then it is too large. Make a smaller loop. If it is dimmed or blackened by smoke, heat it red-hot — it will clear up.
The three principal means of chemically testing minerals before the blow-pipe are (1) with borax ; (2) on charcoal, usually with the addition of car bonate of soda ; (3) by holding in the oxidizing point.
In connection with this the following experiments given by Alexander M. Thomson, D. Sc., are of in terest :
Experiment No. 1. — lany metals im})art a color to fused borax, by which their presence can be recognized. To try this experiment, a bead of
26 prospector’s fip:ld-book and guide.
fused borax must first be obtained on the platinum wire. The end of the wire is bent into a loop or ring about the twelfth part of an inch in diameter. The wire is then heated in the blow-pipe flame, and dipped whilst hot into the borax ; the portion of borax that adheres is then fused on to the wire in the blow-pipe flame, and the hot wire is again dipped ; this is repeated until the loop contains a glass-like bead of borax. If the bead has become cloud}, the soot causing this may be burnt off in the oxidizing point of the flame. Having thus ob tained a clear, colorless, transparent bead, the next step is to add to it a minute portion of the mineral which is to be tested. By touching a little of the finely pulverized mineral with the borax bead, while softened by heat, enough Avill adhere to the bead for a first trial. The bead is then kept at a white heat in the oxidizing point of the flame for a few seconds, and on removal its color is noted, both wliilst hot and when cold. If no color is imparted, a fresh trial may be made with a larger quantity of the powder ; but if the bead is opaque owing to the depth of color, as is often the case, a fresh experi ment must be made, using a still smaller quantity of the powder. The color can only fairly be judged in a perfectly transparent bead. If no color can be obtained in the oxidizing point, further experiment with the borax bead is needless ; but if a color is ob tained, it is then advisable to try the effect of the reducing flame upon the same bead. The following observations and inferences may result from this test ;
Preparatory Instruction.
Couor Of Bead In
Oxidizing. Reducing. Presence of.
Green (hot) ; Blue (cold) . Red . Copper.
Blue (hot and cold) . Blue . Cobalt.
Amethyst . Colorless . Manganese.
Green . Green . Chromium.
Red or yellow (hot). . .
Yellow or colorless (cold) .
Violet (hot) ; Red-brown
(cold) . Gray and turbid,
difficult to obtain . Nickel.
Bottle-green
Iron.
This mode of testing may often be used to prove the presence of the above-mentioned metals.
It rec[uires some practice before reliable results can be obtained in reducing. The reduced bead if brought out of the flame at a white heat, into the air, may at once oxidize ; but this may be prevented by placing it inside* the dark inner cone of an or dinary candle flame, and allowing it to cool partially there.
Experiment No. 2. — The mode of testing with car bonate of soda on charcoal, is performed as follows : A sound piece of charcoal half an inch square is chosen, and a neat cavity is scooped out on its surface, into which is placed a mixture containing the pulverized mineral to be tested, with three or four parts of carbonate of soda, the whole not ex ceeding the bulk of a pea. After lightly pressing the mixture into the cavity, the blow-pipe flame may be cautiousl} applied to it ; and afterwards when the mixture no longer shows a tendency to fly ofl‘ the charcoal may be advanced nearer to the
28 pkospectok’s fiild-book and guide.
blow-pipe, and finally be kept at as high a tempera ture as possible, in the reducing part of the flame.
In testing for tin ore, a piece of C3anide of potas sium, about the size of a pea, may be placed upon the mixture after the first application of heat, and the further application of heat may then be con tinued.
This treatment is designed to extract metals from minerals ; it favors in the highest degree the re moval of ox}gen. But like the borax test, it is limited in its application, as it can only be used to detect certain metals. The failure of the test in any case must not be looked upon as a conclusive proof of the absence of the particular metal sought ; for instance, copper can be easil} extracted from car bonate of copper by this test, but not from copper pyrites. Still the test is a most valuable and indis pensable one to the mineralogist. The test is com plete when the metal is obtained as a globule, in the cavity of the charcoal. In many cases the globule will be found surrounded by the oxide of the metal, forming an incrustation on the charcoal ; and the color of such incrustation should be carefully noted, both at the moment of removal from the flame, and after cooling. By pressing the globule between smooth and hard surfaces, it can be deteu mined wliether the metal is flattened out (or malle able), or crushed to pieces (brittle).
The following observations and inferences may result from this test :
Pk Kpar Atok Y Instruction.
Globule. luerustation. Premmse of.
Yellow, malleable . None . Gold.
White, malleable. . None . Silver.
Ked, malleable . . .None . Copper.
White, malleable. . White . Tin.
White, malleable. . Red (hot) ; Yellow (cold) . . Lead.
White, brittle . . . Red (hot) ; Yellow (cold) . . Bismuth.
None . . . Yellow (hot); White (cold) . Zinc.
White, brittle, giv ing off fumes when removed from the
flame . White . Antimony.
Experimeut JVo. 3. — In addition to these substances
there are others wliicli occur abundantly in minerals, and which may be recognized by the blow-pipe witli the greatest ease ; for instance, sulphur and arsenic. These may be discovered Viy lieating a fragment of the mineral, sup})orted on a piece of cliarcoal or held in a forceps in the oxidizing point of the Hame, and comparing the odor which is given off ; a smell of burning sulpiuir indicates that tlie mineral contains that substance, and wliite fumes liaving a garlic odor indicate the presence of arsenic.
Mercury, antimony, and other substances may escape as fumes Avhen heated in tliis manner.
Chapter Il
Crystallography.
The forms which many minerals assume always indicate their composition. It is, therefore, some times a great help to the prospector to become ac quainted with the subject of crystallography so far as to enable him to determine the system or order to which a crystal belongs.
We shall treat of the subject only so far as may be of practical application to the purposes of the prospector in the search for the useful minerals.
It is necessary to understand that nearly all mineral substances, when they appear in the crys talline condition, assume a characteristic form and do not trespass upon that of other minerals ; al though, to the unaided e3e and unskilled vision, this assertion may appear to be a mistake in some few cases ; it appears so only because the differences are exceedingly small.
All crystalline forms have been reduced to six systems. These are determined b}" the number, in clination, and length of imaginary lines called axes, around which the crystal in its perfect form is, for each system, uniformly distributed.
1. The Isometric sstem. The and simplest system is that of a perfect cube with six equal and (30)
Crystallogkapiiy.
square sides, as in Fig. 7. In this form lines drawn from the centre of each face to the face opposite, cross each other at right angles, and are of the same length.
This system is called isometric, that is, iso equal, and metric measure, because these axes or lines are oi equal length and at right angles to each other. It must, however, be remembered that the cube is modified in some minerals, but wherever these modi fications take place the original form of the cube may always be traced. Some of the changes may be very intricate, and these especially unusual or in tricate forms we shall not notice. The usual forms only are of importance, and can be treated of in so small a work as this.
The learner should take a potato arjd cut as per fect a cube as possible, and make himself acquainted with the common variations which may belong to the cube, as we shall show, with out changing the length of the axis, and always cutting so that the axis will always be the same or of equal lengths.
Fig. 7 is the cube with the three axes A A', B B', C C' . If, with your knife, you slice off one edge angle from A to C' and from A to C, manner from A to B' and from A to
Fig.
B
-
S'
The Cube.
and in like B, you will
have a four-sided pyramid, the apex of which will be at A and the four-sided base at C B' , C' B, or around' one-half the cube. Now, treat the opposite
32 pkospectok’s fjp:li)-book and guide:.
side ill the same way and you will then have the following figure, which is the octahedron (Fig. 8).
The dodecahedron (12 sides), Fig. 1), may be formed by taking ott‘ the solid angles A, B, B,' A'. In all three cases and many others, the three axes remain the same in lengtli and in their angular direction where the forms have not been distorted.
Fio. K.
A
Fio.
The ll(xlecahe(lron.
2. The tp:tragonal system is the second, and it has also three axes as in tlie isometric, and they are at right angles to each other, but the vertical axis is longer than the others, as in Fig. 10.
The term tetragonal means “four-cornered or an gled,” and is not precise, for a ciilie is tetragonal, but it is used to express this form because it is one word ; otherwise “ siuare prismatic ” would be a more correct description, since Fig. 10 is that of a jirism ; for in mineralogy any crystal having paral lelograms for sides is called a prism. Cut this jirism as in the case of the cube, and you will have the form seen in Fig. 11.
Aariations upon this form may show a prism with four-sided termination at either or both ends, as in
( R Ystallograph V.
Fig. 12. This is the form of the transparent gem called the zircon, anciently called the jacinth. The zircon has been mistaken for the diamond, which it resembles in brilliancy and somewhat in hardness. But the diamond is isometric and never tetragonal,
Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
Tetragonal Prism. Tetragonal Octahedron. The Zircon.
and hence it may be distinguished readily from the zircon.
3. The third system is the hexagonal (or six- sided), which differs from the tetragonal in that it has three etpial lateral axes instead of two ; the vertical is at right angles (as in Fig. 13) with each of the three lateral.
But it must be remembered that the hexagonal crystal always calls for hexagonal terminations ; thus Figs. 14 and 15.
Owing to various causes in nature, the hexagonal crystal may be found under various modifications of the hexagonal form, but it can always be reduced to this system. The symmetry of the crystals may be by sixes, or, very rarely, by cutting each angle it may be in twelves, or the sides may be unequal in
PilOSrECTOR’s FIELD-BOOK AND GUIDE.
area or leogtli, as in Fig. 1 4. The author once found a quartz crystal in Switzerland which was, for nearly its entire length, three-sided, but showed its hexa-
Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 15.
Hexagonal Prism. Quartz Crystals— Hexagonal.
gonal nature only at the extremity, where, having been freed from its confinement in process of forma tion, it had assumed its normal crystallization. As we have said in another place, calcite crystals some times assume an hexagonal prism precisel} as does quartz, but the latter shows always six-sided termin ations, whereas lime or calcite crystals, show three- sided terminations, as in Figs. IG and 17. There are two sections or forms of this system, the hexa gonal and the rJiomhohedral ; both belonging to the hexagonal sstem, and distinguished as we have shown.
These calcite crystals belong to the rhombohedral section of the hexagonal system, showing rhombo hedral forms at the end, as in Fig. 11.
4. The fourth system is the orthorhombic sys tem, in which the three axes are unequal and inter sect at right angles as in Fig. 18, wherein the axes A, B, C, are all unequal in length, but at right
( R Ysta Llogk Aph Y.
angles at the intersection. The terminations are
Fig. 10. Fig. 17.
Calcite hexagonal crystals— three-sided The same— end view,
termination. Side view.
flat, although frequently beveled on the surround ing edges.
5. The fifth system is the monoclinic. In this system two of the axial intersections are at right angles ; but one is oblique, and the side of the crystal is inclined, as in Fig. 19.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
Crystals of feld.spar in general which contain potash (called orthoclase or potash feldspar), are monoclinic, but the soda feldspar crystals belong to
J’Kospectok 8 Fikld-Book And Guide.
the next or sixtli system, as do also tlie lime feld spars.
6. The sixth system is the tkk'LINIc ov 'thrice inclined’ system, wherein the three axes are all in clined and unequal. The onl}' important feature in this system is that there is no right angle in any of its crystals ; but it is of little use for our pur poses, since, with the exception of the lime feldspar and soda-lime feldspars (anorthite or lime feldspar, labradorite or lime-soda feldspar, andesite, and oli- goclase, both soda-lime feldspars, and albite, a soda feldspar), all the rest are of little importance, ex cept microcline, a new potash feldspar.
As ILLUSTRATIONS OF THESE SYSTEMS tlie follow ing may be stated :
Of the isometric system, or first system, are gold, silver, platinum, amalgam, copper, the diamond, garnet, magnetite, pyrite, galena, alum, kalinite, all of which assume the cubic octahedral, or some allied form.
Of the tetragonal, or second system, are the zir con, chalco-pyrite, cassiterite (tin ore), titanic oxide, and others.
Of the hexagonal, or third system, are beryl, aquamarine, the emerald, chrysoheryl, apatite (lime- phosphate), quartz.
Of the orthorhombic, or fourth system, are, barite or sulphate of barytes, celestite, or sulphate of strontia, and carbonate of strontia, also cerussite or lead carbonate.
Of the monoclinic, or fifth system, are, borax,
C U YST A LLOdK A PH Y .
gypsum, glauber salt {mirahilite is its mineralogical name), copperas (or melanterite).
Of the SIXTH system we liave already given suffi cient illustrations.
Of the GEMS not mentioned in the above, the tur- Quois owes its blue to cop})er, and is never crystal lized, being in reniform or stalactitic conditions. It is a phospliate of alumina with water in composi tion. This mineral or gem should be carefully distinguished from lazulite, which, though blue, crystallizes in the rnonoclimc, or fifth system ; it is a softer mineral and contains considerable magnesia, lime, and iron, of wliich (exceed a very small amount of iron), the true turquois contains none. The latter is the gem, and may be beautifully polished, and keeps its color, which is due to copper. Lazulite is found in beautiful crystals at Crowder’s Mount, in Lincoln (h., N. C.; also fifty miles nortli of Augusta, at (Iraves’s Mount, in Lincoln Co., Georgia.
Both these should also be distinguished from lapis lazuli, which also crystallizes, but in the isometric or fii*st system, though commonly massive and compact. This is valuable in the arts, and when powdered forms the ultramarine, a rich and durable paint. It is a silicate of alumina, but con tains some lime and iron. It is used also for costly vases. But the artificially prepared ultramarine is largely used in the arts. The native mineral is found in syenite and in metamorphic crystalline limestone, associated with pyrite and mica.
38 prospe('tor’s field-book and guide.
The TOPAZ crystallizes in the orthorhombic sec tion of the hexagonal or fourth system. The finest are generally in prismatic form, showing a flat plane at the extreme end, even when the end of the crystal has several inclined faces. It is a silicate of alumina with fluorine. The fluorine may be de tected before the blow-pipe in the open tube by })Owdering a little of the topaz and mixing it with a little microcosmic salt (a salt of phosphorus). The heat of the blow-pipe will let free the fluorine, and its strong pungent smell, and its corrosion of the tube, will pi'ove its presence. AVith the cobalt (nitrate) solution on charcoal, it gives a fine blue color in proof of alumina. This is the best test of the topaz, as the color of the mineral is not always the same, nor is it always perfectly transparent. It is found atCJrowder’s Mount, already spoken of, and also in Thomas’s Mountains, in Utah, near lat. 39° 40' and long. I13J° AV. west of south of Salt Lake (Dana). In Trumbull, Uoiin., the crystals are abundant, but not very transparent.
Meteoric Iron has been rej)orted as found native in a partial crystal of the isometric form from North (’arolina, and several meteoric masses from Arizona have been reported at the (Geological Section at AA'ashington, I). (A, September, 1891, as containing black diamonds, small but interesting.
Meteorites are less pure than native iron, the iron in them being almost invariably associated with nickel, and they also contain traces of cobalt, cop per and other metals, In the many specimens ex-
CRYSTALUXiHAPIIY.
ainined, the iron ranges from 67 to 94 per cent., and the nickel from 6 to 24. Their masses gener ally range from a few pounds in weight to a ton or more. If cut, and tlie surface is polished, and then acted upon by nitric acid, a kind of etching action goes on, the acid acting on spaces between bands of untouched metal wliich cross the mass in two or three directions, and in tliese the nickel is more abundant than in other parts, for it is not equally diffused in the alloy.
Ruby and Sapphire. These crystallize in the rhombohedral form.
The garnet is sometimes mistaken for the East Indian ruby, which is the most precious variety, but the garnet is isometric, and even when cut and mounted may be distinguished from the oriental ruby by the superior hardness of the ruby, the latter being next to the diamond, while the garnet is only as hard as quartz, or not quite so Iiard. So that a garnet of the most precious kind if worn will, under the strong lens, show the lines of wear, especially on the edges, which are absent in the true oriental ruby. Oriental garnets are frequently confounded with rubies by jewelers in Paris as well as in America. So lately as October 3, 1891, two oriental garnets worth about $20 each were found to be set in a diamond ring as oriental rubies, for which the sum of $2,000 was })aid. The firm in Paris acknowledged the mistake, and refunded the $2,000. The oriental ruby is essentially pure alu mina, while the oriental or precious garnet is a silicate of alumina with lime and a little iron.
40 troispectok’s field-book and guide.
All these gems are found in the crystalline rocks, as granites, gneiss, dolomite, and some (topaz, ruby) associated with tourmaline, tin ores, mica, etc., and the crystalline lime-stones. The true turquois is found in Persia in the clay slates in veins running in every direction. Aery good specimens liave been found in Arizona and New Mexico ; also in (Colo rado in the Holy Cross Alining district, thirty miles from Leadville.
Chapter Iii.
Surveying.
There are a few simple measurements which are sometimes desirable, and wliich can be made with out the lal)or of carrying instruments and chains. The actual work of surveying, to he of any value to the prospector, must be so accurately performed that the work should he enteiud upon as a specialty, and he must use a theodolite or transit and make use of logaritlims. Any small work on surveying or trigonometry will give sufHcient information.
Some few measurements, however, and simple surveys with easy methods, are given here to meet cases whei*e only a general approximation is required.
To Measure Heights Which Are Inaccessible.
Any height of tower, stand-pipe, tree, etc., may lie measured approximately by knowing your own lieight and taking advantage of sunlight, thus:
Let A B, Fig. 20, he the height of the object to be measured, ddie dotted line is the .shadow cast. Walk off into the sunlight and note on the ground the point at which your own shadow terminates; measure from the iieel to that ])oint. A calcula tion in single “ rule of three” will give A B thus;
PKOSrE(’T()K’s FIELD-BOOK AND GUIDE.
a B' : B'A' : : B 0 : A B.
Heights of hills or land may be nearly enough measured by the aneroid barometer, the instructions in the use of which go with the instrument, or may be obtained with it, and approximately accurate aneroids may be had small enough to go into the side pocket, or still more accurate ones may be easily carried in a case held by a small strap around the shoulders. For hills under 2000 feet, the fol-
Fig. 20.
lowing rule will give a very close approximation, and is easily remembered, because 55°, the assumed temperature, agrees with 55°, the significant figures in the 55,000 factor, while the fractional correction contains hvo fours.
Observe the altitudes and also the temperatures on the Fahrenheit thermometer, at top and bottom res])ectively of the hill, and take the mean between them. Let B represent the mean altitude and h the
mean tem[)erature. Then 5500 x height
of the hill in feet for the temperature of 55°. Add of this result for every degree the mean temper-
St’Rveyino.
1 4o
ature exceeds 55°; or subtract as nuicli for every degree below 55°.
TO MEASrUK AREAS.
ddieoretically, it is very easy to “ step off lines,” but practically it is very difficult thus to arrive at accuracy on uneven land. P)Ut where one is ac- (puiinted with the exact average measurement of bis step on level land lie may reach some approxi mate accuracy on uneven land liy remembering that in ascending, even slightly, his average de creases, and vice versa in descending. A good strong tape measure, kept on a level in ascending and descending hills, is more convenient and more easily handled than a chain.
1. On square areas the length of the side multi plied into that of the adjacent side gives the area.
2. In the parallelogram, Avhere all angles are right angles, the same is true.
3. In any other shapes the following rules are to he observed :
IlG. 21.
First: Measure the area of a riglit-angled triangle thus:
T.et B, Fig. 21, he the right- angle ; the area of A B C is equal to tlie lengtli, B C multiplied into half the per- pendiculai’ distance, A B.
Example : B 100 ft.; therefore, if A B 00 ft., 100 x 45 4500 S(j. ft
ai*ea of A B C,
prospector’s EPEIJ)-B00K and gtjde.
Tlie same rule applies when the triangle is not a right-angled triangle ; thus, the angle at A, Fig. 22, being obtuse,
Fig. 22.
nC= 150 ft., .4 5 90 ft., multiply 150 ft. by one-half .4 i? 45 ft., and we have 0750 sq. ft., for A C 7) is composed of two right-angled triangles, A C B and A B D, as in the previous example.
Fig. 23.
Or, when the triangle has an acute angle at .4, Fig. 23, thus : Treat precisely as in Fig. 22, only letting the perpendicular fall from 1) upon A C, that is, invert the triangle.
The cases wherein the sides are more than three are treated by resolving all such areas into right- angled triangles, thus:
In Fig. 24, the area, A C D B may be resolved into two triangles, .1 C B, and C J) B, of which A
srKVEYiN(;.
B is the base of the one and (J B that of the other. In Fig. 25, the area, A C D B E K, may be re solved into the four triangles, A C D, A D B, ABE, and A E K. The perpendiculars of Fig. 24 are, E D and C E. Those of Fig. 25 are, C H, I B, E E, and K G, and the length of bases may be multiplied into half that of the perpendiculars, as in the cases already given, and the feet be re duced to acres, rods, etc., or miles.
Fig. 24.
For the number of square feet in an acre, etc., see Appendix, No. 3, and treat it thus : Suppose the area of Fig. 25 be 80,000 sq. ft., then, according to Table No. 3, it will be 1 acre, 3 rods, 13 poles, 25 yards, 7 feet, or 1.830 + acre.
To Measure An Inaccessible Line.
Suppose we desire to measure the distance across a river, as in Fig. 26.
We want to find the distance A B. Measure a
]>ko.spector’8 field-book and guide
Fig. 2o.
distance of about 100 ft. B D, at right angles to A B, and raise a pole at C, about half-way from B to
Fig. 26.
D. Proceed in measuring at right angle to B D, in the direction D E, letting E be that point at wliich the line C E, if extended, would strike A. Now
Surveying.
you have two right-angled triangles of the same angles, for, as every triangle lias two right angles according to geometry, and eacli of these triangles has one right angle, and the opposite angles at C are equal according to geometry, the remaining angles at A and E are equal, and the triangles are proportional, and the proportion is —
Cd: D K:: C B: A B;
then, if C D=iO ft., D /7=45ft., and 0 B=60, we know that 45x00=2700, divided by (CD) 40 ft.= 07 J ft.; this is for A B, or the distance across the river.
Fig. 27.
The only difficulty is in measuring your angles as true right angles, and' this may be done by measuring the perpendicular, thus —
Extend the line A B, Fig. 20, to F, Fig. 27, and likewise the line D E, Fig. 20, to C, as in Fig. 27. Now measure equal distances on the line B D, for the lines or offsets, B C and B H ; also from D C, the offsets D I and D K ; drive sticks in at (7,
prospector’s field-book and guide.
/, and K. See that the distances represented by the dotted lines are equal, and if so the lines ABF and I) (j are perpendicular to the line G K, and your work will be well done and very nearly ac curate.
It is, however, well for the prospector to use a prism compass which will read to one-quarter de gree. Such a compass may be had at very low rate, not more than three inches diameter, of light weight and of sufficient accuracy. The author has used one for many years, and traveled with it many thousands of miles in Asia and Africa, and can testify to the fact that by customary use it may be handled to a great degree of accuracy for hori zontal angles. The needle is attached to the under side of a cord with steel engraved degrees and frac tions, and read by a magnifying prism.
In almost every conceivable surveying i)roject, es pecially in running adits and sinking shafts to strike adits and galleries, only the liest instruments should be used. Everything depends upon the most ac curate measurements, and this department of en gineering is not one that can he treated ajiproxi- mately, because any error in measurement may result in very provoking and expensive mistakes.
We have })resented all that is necessary on surface measurements, excejit where it becomes necessary to make such accurate proceedings as may only be ex ecuted by use of the finest instruments, and that with considerable practice. Otherwise accurate mathematical tables are of little importance, as
Surveying.
their use is based upon tlie presence of most accurate data, and witliout tliis the best metliods and dia grams are in vain.
The subject of mining engineering does not come witliin tlie range of our work, and for all mere ex ploring as a prospector such ground-work or digging for examinaiion as is necessary will readily suggest itself to any intelligent workman.
Chapter Iv.
Analyses Of Okes - Wet Method.
Preliminary examinations may be made at first with the pocket lens and a piece of steel or a heavy-bladed pocket-knife. The first, to see if any native metals or any sulphides, etc., are present ; the second, to try the softness or silicious nature of the mineral ; if much quartz (silex) is present it will strike fire.
Pulverize a small part and use the blow-pipe to detect SULPHUR, arsenic, silenium, by the smell on charcoal or in the glass tube. Arsenic fumes have a garlic odor, silenium that of horse-radish.
Use a test tube with a little nitric acid and heat over a spirit flame. Add a few drops of water and one drop of sulphocyanide of potash — an intense deep red appears, deeper according to amount of IRON and solvency of the mineral in nitric acid.
Try another portion in the same way, but drop one drop of hydrochloric acid. A dense curdy white precipitate indicates silver.
Native gold or silver is determined by color and softness, as we have elsewhere stated {see Index).
Treat another portion in the same way with nitric acid, drop in several drops of strong ammonia water. The blue color indicates copper.
(50)
Analyses Of Ores.
Antimony and tin are detected by the blow-pipe. Place the former upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, and brilliant metallic globules are obtained, the metal fumes and volatilizes, and covers the charcoal with white incrustations, and needle-shaped crystals appear. Tin appears when the ore is mixed with carbonate of soda and cyanide of potassium on charcoal, and the inner flame turned on — ductile grains of metallic tin and no incrustations appear.
Mariga/nese gives amethystine beads of borax in the outer flame, 0 F, disappears with the inner, I F, re appears with the 0 F.
Alumina, magnesia, lime, give their characteristic colors, or in the last case, incandescent light before the blow-pipe on charcoal. Alumina heated on charcoal, and then touched by a half drop of proto nitrate of cobalt, then heated strongly in the 0 flame, gives a blue color. Magnesia so treated gives a faint red or pink, seen just as it cools.
Zinc heated on charcoal with carbonate of soda in the reducing flame becomes metallic, and when oxidized in 0 flame gives a vv’hite oxide which is yellow when hot, white when cooled, and with pro tonitrate of cobalt when heated in the 0 flame, a beautiful characteristic green color.
Cobalt and nickel give the colors we have noticed in another place under their respective names (see Index).
Uranium heated with microcosm ic salt (phosphate of soda and ammonia), on platinum wire in the 0 flame dissolves, producing a clear yellow glass.
PK()SPE(’T()K’s field-book and guide.
whicli, on cooling, becomes yellowish-green. But the analyst should remember tliat copper produces a green bead, but (mbf in the outer or oxidizing dame, and cbromnnn the same, but in both outer and inner flames.
d’he copper green becomes blue on cooling, the chromium green remains green on cooling. This will always prove tlie metal.
Titaninm in the ju’esence of peroxide of iron, as in some titanic oi*es of iron and sand, gives, with microcosm ic salt in a strong reducing blow-pipe flame, a yellow glass, on cooling red.
Merctirij may be detected in almost any of its ores by the process described (see Index), by heating in a glass tube and noting, under the lens, the sublima tion of mercury in very minute shining })articles.
linerals which are carhonafes may be detected by their eftervesconce when touched by a drop of Inalrochloric acid, as in limestone and s})athic iron ore. But the analyst must remember that some cyanides effervesce where neither lime nor carbonic acid is present, and chloride of lime where there is no carboidc acid. A\dth these latter other tests must be used, but the smell will show that carbonic acid does not exist, the latter having no smell.
Some sandstones have a small amount of lime carbonate and must be tried under the lens, as tlie bubbles are minute. Ihit, while in these examina tions great help is received, and many determina tions made, especially in sim])le minerals and ores, there are compound ores so mixed in elements that
Analyses Of Ores.
the above tests fail to give satisfaction, because the colors are mixed and the action confused. Some of the elements must be moved out of the association and a separation made. This analysis is called qualitative, and we shall take a case of very full analysis of a compound ore.
Qualitative analysis of ores where many ele ments are present :
There are many times when it becomes not only a matter of curiosity but of importance for the pros pector to know the entire composition of the ore he has before him.
With a little practice the ‘‘ wet method,” as it is called, may be used by the prospector with all the accuracy required under the circumstances.
The “ dry method ” of analysis is that in which no liquids are used, but only fluxes and heat. Although for one or two elements it is simpler than the wet method, it may so happen that sufflcient heat cannot be had. We shall, therefore, give some directions whereby the wet metliod may prove of greater service.
1. Pulverize the ore as finely as possible and sieve it, pa.ssing the entire quantity taken as an assay. Should any part be left remaining in the sieve it may be a very important part. Pass the whole througli.
2. Take a test tube and drop a little of the sifted ore into it, pom- a little nitric acid upon it, add about one-eighth part water, warm it gently over a, .spirit flame to see if it will dissolve ; if not, then add
54 prospector’s field-book and guide.
four times as much in bulk of muriatic acid (hydro chloric acid). If this will not dissolve then proceed as follows : —
3. Put the assay, after fine pulverization, into a platinum crucible. Place it in a suitably arranged platinum wire triangle so that it will hang over an alcoholic blast lamp. When all is ready add a mixture of equal parts of sodium carbonate and of potassium carbonate, amounting in all to about four times the bulk of the assay, stir gently with a glass rod or a stiff platinum wire, and then light the lamp. Watch the assay, and when it begins to swell up withdraw the lamp, but return it when the swelling subsides, so that the alkalies do not throw your assay out of the crucible, which should be only one-half full at the beginning. With care the con tents will soon subside, and under increased heat become a quiet liquid mass. Now, extinguish the fiame, cool the crucible, remove crucible contents to a beaker glass or place the crucible with its con tents within the beakei’, and pour a little water upon it, add some nitric acid, or a little hydrochloric acid, but not the two acids together, unless you have only the assay and not the platinum crucible in the beaker — nitro-muriatic acid dissolves platinum. Warm and stir till the assay is entirely dissolved, except perhaps some white grains of silex.
4. If the preceding work has been properly per formed, the assay is now dissolved and you are ready for work. Filter the contents of the beaker to separate any undissolved remainder, if any such
Analyses Of Ores.
is seen in the glass, and wash the filter-paper by passing an ounce or two of water through it, and now make preparations for the next step. It is not necessary, where extreme accuracy is not required, to wash the filter-paper perfectly free from the acids. But if it be necessary, then furnish yourself with a small strip of platinum ribbon, clean its surface to a polish. If a drop of the filtrate evaporated from this surface shows not the least trace of sediment or outline even under a lens, the filter-paper is sufficiently washed. When the filter-paper is to be burned and weighed, it must be perfectly freed from the acids by continuous washing.
5. Pour ten or fifteen drops of the filtrate into a test tube. Drop in three or four drops of hydro chloric acid. If a precipitate forms it may be of silver; if so, it will grow dark violet on exposure to daylight, or more rapidly and darker in sunlight. Or to test more quickly, add strong ammonia, 30 to 40 drops, it dissolves after a short time ; or if it does not dissolve, then it is lead ; filter and test on charcoal with the blow-pipe ; if it gives, with inner flame, a bead and yellow incrustation around, it is LEAD. Or, if none of the above results are seen, and vet there is a precipitate, tlien it is mercury. To prove this, add a solution of carbonate of potasli and digest, it turns black ; filter and place it in a glass tube, heat gently with blow-pipe ; it volatilizes and condenses on the sides, examine with strong lens, it is mercury.
b. But suppose hydrochloric acid produces no
Prospector S Field-Book And Guide.
precipitate tliougli in excess and lieated? Tlien there is neither lead, silver, nor mercury in the assay, and it is not necessary to treat the ore for either, but i)roceed to the next ste}). It will be seen why we directed nitric acid to be poured on the assay, as in No. 2. liydrocldoric acid would have prevented these tests as given, but you are now pre pared for the next metals, with three less to look for, or with a certainty as to the presence of one or more of the three.
7. The whole assay, or its solution, may now be used. If any precipitate occurred in the test tube, treat the whole assay solution with hydrochloric acid, heat to boiling, and separate the ])recipitated metal or metals in the whole, as in the test tube, by filtration. Wa.sh, set the pa})er (filter) aside under cover of paper to dry, and pass hydrogen sulphide slowly through the filtrate until the filtrate smells plainly of the gas.
8. As tins gas is frequently used, make a simple and cheap a})])aratus .so that you may have a supply at any time, thus: Cut off the bottom of a long bottle* of small diameter, say about two inches, and fit it into a fruit jar, K, as in Fig. 28.
The top A should be fitted loosely so that it may
*Cut a nick, with a large hie, in the spot where yon wish to start a crack near the bottom, then heat a rod, or poker, or .spike-nail, nearly red-hot, place it on the nick, a crack starts; draw your hot iron and the crack will follow: when nearly cracked around pull the bottom off. A glass chimney may be used, but it is rather too small to contain sufficient iron sulphide.
Analyses Of Ores.
be removed and let air pass through. The cork at B must be air-tight. Fit a small tube into the cork after bending it in a spirit-lamp flame — a quarter- inch tube with an eighth-inch aperture is suffic iently large and is easily bent. Take an inch rod of iron, let the blacksmith heat it white-hot, and press it into a small roll of brimstone, this will give you iron sulphide — you need it in pieces as large as bullets : it melts readily against the brimstone. Place some cotton in the neck of the bottle, and.
Fig. 28.
having fitted a plug of wood with holes in it for the bottom of the bottle, invert the bottle and fill it half full of iron sulphide lumps, fasten the wooden |)lug in the bottom, not very tightly, but tightly in three or four places, so that water can pass easily, and yet the plug be well fixed in. Put the bottle in its place, resting in the jar at A, and somewhat loosely fastened. But this must be after you have half filled the jar with a mixture of equal parts of conimo]! hydrochloric acid and rain-water (or, next
prospector’s field-book and guide.
best, well-water). Hydrogen suljihide will form immediately, and if you have made all connections perfectly, as in the figure, the gas will pass from this apparatus into the solution of ore in the beaker and jirecipitation will soon take place. The ad vantage of this apparatus is that if you tie two little blocks of wood against the sides of the India-rubber tubes, C C, so as to press the sides together and stop the gas from floAving, the gas forming pushes the water out of the interior glass ]), and the gas stops forming, but is ready at any moment to begin as soon as the string around the little blocks is re moved.
b. After introducing the hydrogen sulphide until the filtrate smells of the gas, filter and wash the })recipitate, mark the pa])er letter A, and put this j)recipitate aside for the present. This is the precAp- itate from the hydrogen sulphide.
10. The filtrate. If tlie strip of platinum shows that it contains some material after evapora tion of some droi)S, jiroceed by adding a solution of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), and then aqua ammonia to the filtrate, using about one-fifteenth or one-twentieth, of the bulk. Then add ammo nium sulphide so long as any precipitate is appar ent. Ijct it stand awhile. This precipitate may contain alumina, cliromium oxide, zinc, nickel, manganese, cobalt and ii-on as sulpbides. It may likewise contain phosjihates, liorate.s, oxalates, and hydrofiuates of the alkaline earths (barium, stron tium and lime). Tbe latter we may not care for,
Analyses Of Ores.
11. Filter and wash this precipitate. Add a little water to the hydrochloric acid, now to be used in treating this precipitate. Add this diluted hydro chloric acid in sufficient quantity to dissolve the precipitate, and put it aside to digest. If any part refuses to dissolve, it is because there may be present cobalt, or nickel, or both ; add nitric acid and boil, for these metals dissolve in hot nitro- hydrochloric acid. Filter. Next add to the whole solution ammonium chloride, and excess of aqua ammonia. The consequent precipitate may con tain alumina, chromium oxide, sesquioxide of iron, and the alkaline earths, as phosphates, etc. Dis solve the precipitate by digesting in caustic potash solution till all is dissolved that will dissolve. Filter. The solution may contain alumina and chromium oxide ; boil for some time, and if a precipitate is formed, it is chromium oxide ; confirm by the blow-pipe, it gives a green bead with borax, height ened by fusion with metallic tin or charcoal, which is the blow-])ipe test for (hroinium.
12. Now su])er-saturate the solution with hydro chloric acid and boil with excess of ammonia if a precipitate is formed it is alumina. Confirm with blow pipe, as we have shown. What was dissolved by digestion with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash solution) has now been treated. The precip itate may contain iron and more chromium oxide, and the phosphates, etc., of the alkaline earths.
exces.s we mean .so much that after stirring with a glass strip or rod, the liquid smells strongly of ammonia.
prospector’s field-book and guide.
13. We will now proceed with a portion of this precipitate by first dissolving it in as small a quan tity of hydrochloric acid as is possible, filter, and add to the solution (made as nearly neutral as pos sible) two or three drops of ferro-cyanide of potash (yellow prussiate of potash in solution); a blue pre cipitate is formed, proving the presence of iron sesquioxide. A\"ash another portion and fuse it in a small crucible with potassium nitrate (pure salt petre) and sodium carbonate about equal parts. When cold digest with water ; a yellow solution results, which produces a yellow precipitate with acetate of lead, showing the presence of oxide of chromium. This double finding of chromium oxide (for it was found before) is due to tlie relative quan tity of iron present as related to chromium oxide present, which will not be entirely precipitated at one time in the presence of iron under these cir cumstances.
14. We now go back to the solution filtered off' from the })recipitate treated of in paragraph 11. This solution may contain zinc, manganese, nickel and cobalt. Digest with ammonium sulphide, wash the consequent precipitate and dissolve it in nitro- hydrochloric acid (aqua regia). It may be dissolved upon the filter by dropping tlie mixed acids and filtering through into a clean beaker, just as it could have been done in ])aragraph 11. This is convenient when the precipitate adheres too tightly to the filter to allow of scraping it oh' entirely. Digest this clear solution with potassium hydroxide
Analyses Of Okes.
(or caustic potassa) precisely as in paragraph 11. This potassa may be put into the beaker in small pieces of tlie stick, in which form j)otassium hydroxide generally is sold.
(а) The solution may contain zinc oxide.
(б) The precipitate may contain manganese, co balt and nickel, as oxides. Pass hydrogen sulphide through the solution {a) until tlie precipitate (white zinc) has ceased to fall. Wash and agitate the precipitate (7>) with a solution of carbonate of am monia. The precipitate which now falls is the car bonate oi manganem — confirm this by the blow-pipe. The solution from this last treatment may contain cobalt and nickel oxides; evaporate it to dryness, re dissolve in a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and again evaporate to a moist mass and divide the mass into two i)arts. Heat one portion with borax in the blow-pipe Hame ; a blue bead proves cohalt. Dissolve the other portion in water and add solu tion of cyanide of potassium slowly, a precipitate is formed which on continued adding of the potassium cyanide begins to re-dissolve. On adding hydro chloric acid it is again precipitated. It is nichel. Confirm with the blow-j)ipe.
15. In paragraph 9, paper .1 was put aside. This ])aper contained the precipitate holding the copper of the ore if ang was present. Digest this with ammonium sulphide (or potassium sulphide). A solution and a precipitate are formed. The precipi tate may contain lead, mercury, bismuth, cadmium, besides copper, as sulphides. The solution may con-
prospector’s field-book and guide.
()2
tain gold, platinum, antimony, arsenic, and tin as sulphides.
16. Treat the precipitate first, by boiling it with nitric acid. A black or brownish residue remains undissolved. Take a hard glass tube, and having- washed and dried the black residue, introduce some of it into the tube and heat it. It may act in three ways: (a) it sublimes without change ; mercury oxide was present — test with blow-pipe ; {b) it sublimes leaving a white powder which when moistened with ammonium sulphide turns black, proving it to be lead sulphate ; (c) it sublimes, but as a mixture of mercury snlphide with minute globules of metallic mercury, showing that through some haste or lack of care, mercury as sub-oxide of mercury still remains when it should have been entirely precipitated as chloride of mercury at the first (paragraph 5).
17. We now proceed with the filtrate (obtained as stated in paragraph 16), from the black or brownish residue. Treat this with solution of carbonate of potash and wash the consequent precipitate, and then digest this precipitate in cyanide of potassium in ex cess, while it is moist. This may be done on the filter after changing tlie beaker, since this filtrate or solution must be kept. The insoluble part may con tain lead and bismuth as carbonates — the solution may contain copper and cadmium as double salts with cyanide of potassium.
18. Proceed with the insoluble part by boiling it with dilute hydrochloric acid. To one part of the resultant solution add sulphuric acid, the precipitate
Anata'Ses Of Okks.
B8
indicates lead ; to the other part, after concentration by evaporation, add a large quantity of water — a milkiness is produced indicating bismuth.
19. Into the solution, (paragraph 17), after digest ing with potassium cyanide, pass hydrogen sulphide — the precipitate, if formed, indicates cadmium — test it with the blowpipe. To the solution add hydro chloric acid — copper sulphide will be precipitated ; add a few drops nitric acid which will dissolve the copper sulphide, and then by adding ammonia in slight excess the solution has a blue color indicating copper.
20. We are now to treat the solution mentioned in paragraph 15. The insoluble part, paragraph 16, having been separated off as there stated, add to the solution acetic acid, and boil. If a precipitate be produced, collect a small portion, wash and heat it over a spirit-lamp upon a strip of platinum foil. If it burns with a bluish flame and leaves no residue ivhatever, it is sulphur and nothing more may be done — this part of the assay is exhausted. But if it leaves some residue, then several important elements may be present. Proceed, and to one part add a solution of chloride of tin (protochloride with a drop of nitric acid added), a purple color is pro duced. To another part add a solution of proto sulphate of iron — a brown precipitate is produced indicating gold in both cases.
To another part add ammonium chloride (solu tion), a yellow crystalline precipitate falls which marks platinum. Arsenic may be tested by the
f)4 prospp:ct()ks field-book and guide.
blow-pipe in the ore, but if tlie presence of sulphur, in larger (|nantity, })revents detecting a small quantity of arsenic, it maybe detected thus: Take a part of the black or brownisli preci])itate resulting from the addition of acetic acid, and mix it with three times its bulk of nitrate of j)otash (saltpetre) and carbonate of soda. Troject this mixture, a little at a time, into a llerlin crucible, in wliich a mixture of the same substances lias been ])laced and is in fusion over a lamp. At conclusioiq digest tlie fused mass witli })ure water ; lilter; add excess of nitric acid and heat; now add nitrate of silver; filter when cold, and add very dilute ammonia ; a brown precipitation or coloring marks arsenic.
Dissolve another portion of the dark precipitate or residue from acetic acid in hydrochloric acid. Place in the solution a strip) of metallic zinc — a pulverulent de})osit takes place on tlie zinc, indi cating antimony. If more jiroof be wanted remove the powder to a beaker and digest in nitric acid, when a wliite precipitate is formed. Digest it with a strong solution of tartaric acid, only a part may be dissolved, but tilter ; into the clear solution pass hydrogen suljihide and an orange-colored precipi tate is formed, i)roving antimony.
In the last paragraph it was found that a })art of the ])recii)itate was not dissolved in the tartaric acid; dry it; idace it on charcoal with a little cyanide of potassium and caiTonate of soda, and turn the inner flame of the blow-pi})e union it ; it is reduced to metallic tin.
Analyses Of Okes.
In the above analysis provision has been made for the detection of sixteen elements. Of course, if no precipitates or signs appear at any one stage of the analysis, proceed immediately to the next, for it is not probable that any mineral will ever contain even one-half the elements mentioned in the assa}", but the full number is given so as to reach any possible case.
Dry Assay Of Ores.
We have given the wet assay method, and we now give as much of the dry assay as may generally be called for.
What will be first needed in the dry assay are crucibles, scorifiers and cupels. Crucibles for general purposes are made of coarse material, and are called Hessian. They are sold in nests of five or more. The only sizes of much value are those holding about 0 to 8 ounces. Scorifiers are flat, but thick, clay saucers intended to prepare the rough ore for the finer treatment by use of the cupel and in the assay furnace. The cupel is a little saucer of bone-ash, intended to be used on the floor or bottom of a heated muffle in the assay furnace. The muffle is a clay oven of small dimensions, intended to protect the scorifier and cupel from the coals of the furnace. They can be obtained at any chemical warehouse.
An assay furnace may be made of sheet-iron some 15 inches in diameter, with a grate near the bottom, and lined with either ordinary or fire brick,
66 prospector’s field-book and guide.
We give in the accompan3hng figure the general form of one we have used for years with perfect success.
A plain sheet-iron cylinder (Fig. 29) 18 inches high and 15 inches in diameter, with draft hole at A, muffle hole at B, and pipe-hole at C, and lined, as we have said, with brick, will an swer all purposes of the best assays. The hole at C must have a collar and pipe either for a chimney, or it must enter a chimney. B must be pro vided with a flanged door, as also the draft hole A. The top may have, loosel} laid on, only a square sheet of heavy sheet-iron, and tlie whole placed upon a flat stone or some bricks. Several heavy bars of iron nicked into the bricks will answer where there is no iron foundr} at hand to cast a grating, D. Charcoal or coke may be used, or, where the draft is strong, a hard coal.
The crucible should be lined with charcoal flnel} pulverized, and made pasty by mixing with molasses or any syrup. This process is called brasquing.” Heat the crucible before using, to dry out the srup.
If the object is to obtain the amount of iron in AN ORE, pulverize the ore to about forty to the inch, weigh it, mix it with charcoal and cast the mixture from a piece of paper into the bottom of the crucible, cover it with charcoal an inch or two deej), drop in
Fio. 29.
© -
B
D
Analyses Of Ores.
two or three pieces of brick, and place the crucible in the hottest part of the fire, cover all with coal and gradually increase the heat and keep it nearly at white heat for half an hour, draw it out, jar the crucible down on a stone to settle the melted button. When cool take out the contents,- and the metallic iron will be found with its slag attached. Clean the button, weigh it, and the weight of the ore used is to the weight of the button as 100 is to the per cent, of iron in that ore ; that is, multiply the weight of the button by 100 and divide by the weight of the ore used.
Scales, weighing, etc. There is no advantage gained in using any other method of weighing than that by a pair of brass scales. A small pair of scales, sufficiently delicate, may be bought at any chemical warehouse, made to pack and carry with ease and security. A pair weighing to grain is
quite sufficient for average work. When in a fixed laboratory at home the scales weighing to 5-Vo grain, or half a milligram, will save chemicals, time and work ; but unless the analyst has an absolutely true average of the ton of ore most carefully chosen, the smaller the amount of ore used the more likely is the assay to prove deceptive when proportioned to the ton.
Pulverization for the dry method should never be more than 50 or 60 to the inch. Smaller par ticles are apt to be lost or separated in the crucible. Obtain a piece of silk ])olting cloth from a flour miller or from the source from which he gets his
68 prospector’s field-book and guide.
cloth, and select two or three grades, one for wet analysis,” which may be as fine as 80 to the inch. Have a rim made by the tinner to tie on the sieving cloth, or use a cracked beaker glass, cutting it off by the method we have already given. (See previous note, page 56
Gold and Silver Ores. These ores require pre paration in the scorifer. Powder the ore, of which take about 50 grains ; of lead shavings take from 500 to 1000 grains, according to the probable amount of silver, much if much silver is present, and of borax take about 50 grains. Mix the ore with half the lead and place it in the scorifier, spread the other half over the contents, and finally spread the borax over all. Put the scorifer in the muffle, close the door, and heat up to fusion — then the door must be partly opened, heat increased, until the oxidized lead (litharge) covers the scorfier — take it out and pour the contents into an iron cavity or mould, separate the button and hammer it up into the shape of a cube. It is now ready for cupellation, as it contains all the gold and silver.
Gupellation. This process simply separates the lead from the gold and silver. This it does both by absorbing and by oxidizing. Cupels may be made, but they may be bought so cheaply that it is seldom worth the trouble to make them.
Push a cupel into the heated muffle, place the cube of lead in the cupel with little tongs, and heat up till the lead melts, watch the lead gradually wasting away until reduced to the size of the silver
Analyses Op Ores.
it contains, when the surface will become instan taneously bright and nothing remains but the silver containing the gold. Withdraw the cupel and cool and weigh the ball. The gold and silver must be separated by the wet process, thus: Dissolve the ball in strong nitric acid with heat till the acid boils ; a dark powder precipitates ; filter off the dark powder, it is the gold, and precipitate the silver by solution of common table salt or by hydrochloric acid ; after all is precipitated drop into the white precipitate some pieces of zinc, add more hydrochloric acid — hydrogen gas is generated, which reduces the white silver chloride to powdered metallic silver. The gold and the silver may now be melted in separate crucibles, weighed and compared with the amount of ore used.
In these trials the lead should first be cupelled for its silver, and that subtracted from the silver found, as almost all leads contain some silver.
If it should be more convenient to melt the ore in a crucible rather than a scorifier, use the follow ing flux: If the ore is composed chiefly of rock, pul verize, take 100 to 500 grains of ore, red lead 500 grains, charcoal powder 20 to 25 grains, carbonate of soda and borax together 500 grains — the more rock the more carbonate of soda, the more metallic bases the more borax. Place a little borax over all and melt till all is liquid, requiring about 20 min utes ; withdraw, extract the button when cool, ham mer up to a cube and cupel. Separate the gold and silver as before, but remember that the amount of
phospkutok’s FIKLD-BOOK and (U idk.
silver must be three times that of the gold, and ii* there is reason to believe that there is not this amount, some silver must he melted with the button, since the sei)aration will not otherwise he complete.
Lkad Ore, Galena. The charge for the crucible is carbonate of soda, two or three times the weight of the ore, three or four ten])enny nails on top to absorb the sulphui*, and a covering of salt or borax heated to redness about 20 minutes. Pour the con tents into a crucible and separate the button.
CbppEK Ore. The wet assay is better than the dry, especially that by the burette, which we shall give later on.
Tin Ore. If it is mixed with iron or copper pyrites it should be powdered and roasted, and then mixed with one-quarter of its weight of charcoal and subjected to great heat in a crucible for about 20 minutes. Jar it as in an iron assay, let it cool, and pick out tlie button or buttons, or pour it out while melted.
It may be reduced otherwise by melting the pow dered ore with cyanide of potassium, 100 grains of ore to 600 grains- of cyanide. Pool, extract button.
Tins ore is very bard and may I)e powdered to 60 to the inch.
Mercury. These ores are easily reduced by simply heating and condensing the vapors in a cold bath as in using a retort and cool receiver.
Antimony. Place about 2000 grains of ore pow dered in a crucible having a hole chipped out in the bottom, and the hole sto])])ed loosely with a
Analyses Of Ores.
piece of cluircoal. Put this crucible into another half-way down. Then lute on the lid and put clay around the juncture of the two and put live coals around the U])per crucible hy ])lacing some broken bricks around the lower on the grate, to keep the coals away from the upper. The antimony will melt and leave its gangue rock in the upper crucible while the lower will receive the melted metal.
Bismuth, zinc, manganese, nickel, cobalt, and other metals should be reduced or analyzed by the “wet process ” which we have already given. (In this chapter, IV.)
Chaptek V.
Special Mineralogy - Gold.
We shall now proceed to a more definite and practical treatment of these two subjects, technical MINERALOGY and ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, SO far. Only, as they may be of service in the work before us.
The first suggestion we have to make is that the best preparation for the general study of mineralogy is to gather a collection of the chief mineral sub stances with which the student is to come in con tact. In many cases very small specimens are sufficient. As we proceed in our treatment of each substance it will occur to the reader what and how much he needs to obtain. But it should be empha sized that no amount of study on the part of the student, nor of description on the part of the in structor, can ever take the place of the actual specimen.*
Gold. — Gold is one of the most Avidely distributed metals, hut generally speaking accumulations of larger quantities of it are found only in a few local ities. Traces of it pass from various ores into arti ficial products, for instance, into litharge, minium, white lead, silver and copper and coins made there-
For list of specimens, see end of book.
(72)
Spec! A L Min Era Log Y - Go L D .
from, etc. Minute quantities of gold (about 13 grains in 1 ton) have been found even in sea water as well as in clay deposits. While in the iiortherii and the temperate zones iron ore in large masses is met with, accumulations of the nohle metals, espe cially gold, are found more frequently in the neigh borhood of the equator.
The chief supplies of gold are at the present time obtained from the United States (California, Nevada, Arizona, Montana, Utah and Colorado), from British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Mexico, Peru and Brazil, from Australia (especially Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland), Tasmania, New Zealand, and in Africa (Natal, the Transvaal, etc.). The Ural Mountains and Siberia also yield considerable gold. In Europe only Transylvania and Hungary are of any importance.
Gold occurs almost exclusively in the metallic state, either in situ, in quartz rock, especially along with quartz, pyrites and hydroferrite ; also as gold sand, in dust or grains, leaflets and rounded pieces (nuggets), in the sands of rivers or in alluvial soils, consisting chiefly of clay and quartz sand along with mica, water-worn fragments of syenite, chlorite slate, grains of chrome iron and magnetic iron, spinel, garnet, etc. In the metallic state it con tains always more or less silver as electrum. Ac* cording to recent analyses native gold contains :
Transyl- South
vania. America. Siberia. California. Australia.
Gold . 64.77 88.04 86.50 93.60 99.2 and 95.7
Silver . 35.23 11.96 13.20 10.06 0.43 “ 3.8
Iron and other metals . — — 0.30 0.34 0.28 “ 0.2
pkospkctok's field-book and guide.
Siberian, Californian and Australian gold con tains not nnfrequently osiniridiuin, palladium and platinum. Mexican rhodium-gold contains 34 to 43 per cent, rhodium. Gold amalgam is found in California and Columbia. The so-called black gold vvdiich occurs in nuggets in Arizona and at Maldon, Mctoria, in granite and quartz lodes, is crystalline and silver-like when freshly fractured, but soon turns black in the air. It is’ bismuth-gold, with 64.211 gold, 34.398 bismuth and 1.591 gangue. Gold is also often met with in native tellurium and silver telluride, sometimes in iron pyrites, copper pyrites, in blende, in arsenical pyrites and galena. To detect a content of native gold in pyrites bring a few drops of mercury into a porcelain crucible, put a perforated piece of cardboard in the crucible so that it rests a short distance above the mercury, place a small package of })yrites over the hole in the cardboard, heat the crucible for some time and watch with the pocket-lens for the appearance of white stains of gold amalgam, which on rubbing with a brush or a feather become lustrous.
Gold crystallizes in the isometric system, but crystals are seldom found. Figs. 30 and 31 repre sent gold crystals. Twin crystals are also occasion ally found. In Sonora, California, Blake found gold ill hexagonal prisms. Fig. 32 shows the finest gold-dust 700 times magnified, and Fig. 33 a re duced illustration of a lump of gold which was found at Forest Creek, Aictoria, Australia. It weighed more 30 pounds, and was 11.33
s P K c I A r. MI N K R A L O G Y - ( J ( ) L I ) .
inclies long and 5.15 inches wide. The largest nugget of gold ever found was at Ballarat, Austra lia. It weighed over IDl pounds, an<l was *20 inches long and 9 inches wide.
J he specific gravity of gold is Ifi to 19.5, accord
ing to the amount of alloy ; hardness 2.5 to 3.0. It is the only yellow, malleahle mineral found in a natural state. Its color varies from pale to deep
Fig. 81.
yellow. In some localities, such as in New South Wales, Australia, and Costa Ivica, it is often found of a very light color, but it presents the same color from whatever direction it is looked at, and to the
76 prospector’s field-book and guide.
prospector this is a guiding test. Indeed one of the most important and useful accomplishments for gold exploitation is “ an eye for color.” Native gold possesses a peculiar color which is readily recognized, although the gold may be alloyed with silver or copper, and its color will in an instant dis tinguish it in the eye of the expert from any condi tion of pyrites, whether iron or copper pyrites.
Gold grains will always flatten when struck with a hammer or between two stones, whereas other minerals similar in color will break into fragments. Or if the doubtful particle is coarse enough, take a needle and stick the point into the questionable specimen. If gold the steel point will readil}" prick it ; if pyrites or yellow mica the point will glance off or only scratch it.
Under the blow-pipe, on a piece of charcoal, gold may melt, but on cooling it always retains its color ; any other mineral will lose color, become black ened, or will be attracted to the end of your pen knife blade, if that blade has been previously magnetized, and the unknown substance contains iron.
Gold imparts no color to boiling nitric acid. It will not dissolve in nitric or hydrochloric acid separately, but it does dissolve in the two when combined, and then the acid is known as nitro- muriatic acid or aqua regia. Proportions : one nitric to four muriatic.
But it is not always a trustworthy sign that par ticles are gold because they will not dissolve in
Sppx'Ial Mineralogy - Gold.
nitric acid. Some seemingly gold-colored particles will not dissolve in nitric acid, and yet contain not a trace of gold.
The simplest instrument for the discovery of gold in fine dissemination through sand or dirt is a shallow iron pan or dish ; a frying pan free from grease will answer very well on a pinch. A very simple apparatus is shown in Fig. 34, which is es pecially used in South America, where it is called the hatea. It is a round, funnel-like vessel of wood or
Fig. 34.
sheet iron about 18 inches in diameter with a de pression in the center. Some of the sand is thrown in the pan and the latter submerged in running water, where it is revolved as rapidly as possible with the hand. All light particles, fine sand, etc., are carried away by the current of water and the centrifugal force, while the coarser material and the gold collect in the depression. The gold will be instantly recognized by “ an eye for color.” Where water can be had, a pan is the most efficient instru ment a man can travel with in his gold-seeking journeys.
A crude apparatus formerly much used in Cali fornia and Austi*alia is called tlie cradle or rocker. This, as shown in Fig. 35, is a trough of some 7
pkospectok’s field-book and guide.
feet in leiigtli and 2 broad. Across the bottom of this several bars are nailed at equal distances, and at the upper end a kind of sieve is fixed at about a foot above the bottom. This whole arrangement is mounted u})on rollers. To operate the apparatus four men ai’e required. One man digs out the earth from the hole, a second su})plies the cradle
Fig. 35.
sieve with this aniiferons earth, a third keeps up a supply of water which he ])Ours u})on the earth in the sieve, wliile a fourth keei)s the machine con- tinnally moving u})on the rollers. The lai*ge stones washed out are removed by hand from the sieve, and the water at the same time washes the smaller substance through, which is slowly carried towards the lower end of the trough by a slight inclination given to the whole. Tims the How of water tends to keep the earthy particles in suspension so as to
Special Mineralogy - Gold.
allow of their washing off, while the heavier por tions of gold are obstructed in their flow, and re tained against the cross bars fixed to the cradle bottom. These are removed from time to time and dried in the sun, when, after blowing away lighter particles, the metal only further requires to be melted.
A more efficient apparatus is the long tom., Fig. 36. This is a trough about 12 feet in length by 20
Fig. 36.
inches in width at the upper end, and widening to 30 inches at the lower end. It is about 9 inches deep and has a fall of 1 inch to a foot. An iron screen is placed at the lower end (cut off in the manner shown in the illustration) where large stones are caught, and below this screen is the riffle box, 12 feet long, 3 feet wide and having the same inclination as the upper trough. It is fitted with several riffles in which mercury is sometimes placed. Much more work can be done with this appliance than with the cradle, which it has generally super seded. Of course the gold must be coarse and water plentiful.
80 prospector's field-book and guide.
Washing the gold dirt is also effected by sluices having an inclination of about 8 feet in 12 feet. These sluices consist of a series of troughs formed by planks nailed together, the length of each being about 10 or 12 feet, the height 8 inches to 2 feet, the width 1 to 4 feet. By making one end of the bottom plank of each trough 4 inches narrower than at the other, the troughs can be telescoped into one another and so a sluice of very great length can be formed. Across the inside of the bottom-planks, small narrow strips of wood 2 inches or so thick, and 3 or more inches wide, are fixed across, or sometimes at angles of 45° to the side of the trough, at short intervals apart. liunning water washes downward the earth thrown into the sluice, which is open on the top side, and the gold dust accumu lates, sometimes assisted the aid of mercury allowed to trickle out of a vessel from riffle to riffle, in front of the bars, while the lighter matter is washed downwards.
A still more effective method is wliat is called hydraulic mining, and under favorable circum stances, such as a plentiful supply of water with good fall and extensive loose auriferous deposits, a very small amount of gold to the ton can be made to give paying returns. The water is conducted in flumes or pipes to a point near where it is required, thence in wrought-iron pipes gradually reduced in size and ending in a great nozzle somewhat like that of a fireman’s hose. Figs. 37 and 38 show the arrangement. Fig. 37 exhibits the mouth-piece
Special Mineralogy - Gold. 81
movable at 4 5 in an ascending, and at (7 i) in an inclined direction. E is si lever loaded with weights, which hicilitates the adjustment of the mouth-piece in any direction by the operator. The method of operating the arrangement will be seen from Fig. 38. A is the water-distributor, B the
Fig. 37.
nozzle, C channels for carrying off the debris de tached from the ledge, B piles of larger pieces of rock which are finally comminuted. T is a tunnel through which the water reaches the gutter, pro vided with the grating F through which the finer stuff falls into the shallow settling basin E, and is distributed by blocks G, while the principal mass of water with the coarser material passes over the grating F into the principal sluice in which the grating H retains the larger pieces which are then thrown out at J. The basins E and the principal sluice are paved with wooden blocks or stones be tween which mercury is placed. The amalgam
PKOSPECTOK s fip:ld-book and guide.
formed is freed from admixtures in a mercury bath, pressed through sail-clotli, boiled in sulphuric acid and distilled.
For lode prospecting a pestle and mortar should be carried. The handiest for traveling is a mortar made from a mercury bottle cut in half, and a not
Fig. 88.
too heavy wrought iron pestle with a hardened face. To get the stuff to regulated fineness a fine screen is required, and the best for the prospectoi', who is often on the move, is made from a piece of cheese cloth stretched over a small hoop. It is often
SrKClAJ. MINERALOGY - GOLD.
S3
desirable to lieat tlie rock liefore crushing’, as it is thus more easily triturated and will reveal all its gold. 1 Faying crushed the gangue to a fine })Owder proceed to pan it off in tlie same manner as washing out alluvial earth, excojt that in prospecting quartz one has to he mucli more ])articular, as the gold is usually finer. Take the pan in both hands and admit enough v'ater to cover the pulverized sub stance by a few inches. The whole is then swirled around and the dirty water poured otf from time to time till the residue is clean quartz sand and heavy metal. Tlien tlie ])an is gently ti})ped and a side to side motion given to it, thus causing the heavier contents to settle down in the corner. Next the water is carefully lapjied in over the side, the jian being now tilted at a greater angle until the lighter particles are all Avashed away. The })an is tlien once more riglited and very little .water is a few times passed over the iiinch of heavy mineral, when the gold Avill he revealed in a streak along the liottom. In this oiieration, as in all others, only [iractice Avill make perfect, and a few practical lessons are worth whole pages of written instruction.
.1. C. F. Johnson gives the folloAving directions for making an amalgamating assay that will prove the amount of gold which can lie got from a ton ot a lode. Take a number of samples from dilferent parts, hotli length and lireadth. The drillings from the lilasting hoi*eholes collected make the best test.
" ( ietting (jlold,” JiOiulon, 18{)7,
84 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Wlien finely triturated weigh off one or two pounds, ])hice in a black iron pan (it must not be tinned) with 4 ounces of mercury, 4 ounces common salt, 4 ounces soda, and about lialf a gallon of boiling water. Then with a stick, stir the pulp constantly, occasion ally swirling the dish as in panning off, till you feel certain that every particle of the gangue has come in contact with the mercury. Then carefully pan off into another dish so as to lose no mercury. Having got your amalgam clean, squeeze it tlirougb a piece of chamois leatlier, though a good quality of new calico previously wetted will do as well. The resulting pill of hard amalgam can then be wrapped in a piece of brown paper, placed on an
Fig. 39.
old sliovel, and the mercury driven off over a hot fire. Or a clay tobacco pipe, tlie mouth being stopped with clay, makes a good retort. To make such a retort. Fig. 39, take two new tobacco pipes similar in sliape, with the biggest howls and longest stems procurable. Break off the stem of one close to the howl and fill tlie Imle witli well-worked clay. Set the stemless pipe on end in a clay lied, and fill
Special Miner Alog Y - G O L D .
with amalgam, pass a bit of thin iron or copper wire beneath it, and bend the ends of the wire upwards. Now bt the whole i)ipe, bowl inverted, on to the under one, luting the edges well with clay. Twist the wire over the top with a pair of nippers till the two bowls are fitted closely together, and you Have a retort that will stand any heat necessary to thoroughly distil mercury. The re sidue, after the mercury has been driven off, will be retorted gold, which, on being weighed and the result multiplied by 2240 for 1 pound assay, or by 1120 for 2 pounds, will give the amount of gold per ton which an ordinary battery might be expected to save. Thus 1 grain to the pound, 2240 pounds to the ton, would show that the stuff contained 4 ounces, 13 pennyweights, 8 grains per ton.
Although not strictly within the scope of this small book, the process of extracting gold from lode stuff and tailings by means of cyanide of potassium, which is now largely used, may be thus briefly described : It is chiefly applied to tailings, that is, crushed ore that has already passed over the amal gamating and blanket tables. The tailings are placed in vats, and subjected to the action of solu tions of cyanide of potassium of varying strengths down to 0.2 per cent. These dissolve the gold, which is leached from the tailings, passed through boxes in which it is precipitated either by means of zinc shavings, electricity, or other precipitant. The solution is made up to its former strength and passed again through fresh tailings. When the
I’KOS.PECTOK’s field-book and (xUlDE.
8()
tailings contain a quantity of decomposed pyrites, partly oxidized, the acidity caused by the free sul phuric acid requires to be neutralized by an alkali, caustic soda being usually employed.
When cleaning up,” the cyanide solution in the zinc precipitating boxes is replaced by clean water. After careful washing in the box, to cause all pure gold and zinc to fall to the bottom, the zinc shav ings are taken out. The precipitates are then col lected, and after calcination in a special furnace for the purpose of oxidizing the zinc, are smelted in the usual manner.
Other forms and conditions. Beside in the condition of simple native gold, this metal is found, as previously mentioned, in intimate mixture with pyrite (iron sulphide). It does not seem to be a compound, but as we have said, a mixture or minute association. This seems evident from the fact that when the sulphur is removed from the pyrite and the iron rusts down, the gold particles appear with their own color and characteristics in cavities of various rocks, which, Avhen crushed or water- worn, release the particles or pieces to be washed down and mingled with sands and gravels of lower levels, or perhaps the beds and channels of rivers. This is ‘‘ placer gold.” Where gold has not yet been thus released it is found in association with iron, and especially with quartz in veins. In some instances the gold in quartz is disseminated in particles so exceedingly fine as to require the lens to reveal it.
Nevertheless quartz is not the only mineral
Special Mineralocy - Gold.
which contains gold, although it is the world’s great paying source of gold. Some of the other minerals contain it. It is found in yellowish-wdiite, four-sided prisms, and in small white grains as large as a pea, and easily crumbles. In this condition the gold is amalgamated with quicksilver in the proportion of 38 gold to 57 quicksilver, and is known as “gold amalgam.” It is very easily tested by heating upon a piece of charcoal by a blow-pipe, when the quicksilver volatilizes and the gold remains.
Gold in paying quantities is found in numerous combinations, and must be discovered and extracted either chemically, by the “ wet method,” or by assaying in the crucible by means of the cupel and furnace, when it cannot be separated on the spot by the blow-pipe. These methods are taught in any book upon the assa} of gold.
Where Is Gold Found ?
In studying the geologic aspect of this subject and making the practical ipplication of our knowl edge to the search, we may state that the original position of gold must have been in great depths. From these depths it has been brought up by the upheaval of the granitic rocks, and perhaps, along with basaltic and other intrusions shot up from im mense depths. In the course of ages the attrition and breaking down of these higher or uplifted levels, and the long-continued floods, rains and the waves of ancient oceans and other disintegrating forces whicli produced the sedimentary rocks, at the same
88 prospector’s pteld-book and guide.
time liberated the gold which was incapable of de composition. The gold thus found new and varied resting places in the sedimentary rocks of various ages and in all the conditions which the surface might assume.
The quartz rocks are neither igneous nor sedimen tary, but are supposed to have been in liquid form as solutions of silex, which, during long periods of time, gradually deposited the silex and whatever they contciined, the water disappearing by evapora tion or absorption.
Frequently, cellular quartz has been found with gold within the cells, the material which surrounded the gold having become decomposed, and, thus re leasing the undecomposed gold, the latter is found in the cells of the quartz.
Gold, therefore, is to be expected and looked for in granitic regions (Fig. 40), and* in those rocks and from those gravels and sands which owe their origin to such regions. It requires much judgment, gen eral exploration, and knowledge of the region before the prospector can, with probability, expect to meet with gold, or before he should begin the search. But with a full knowledge of the geologic condition of the country, and acting in accordance with the above facts, the prospector will soon come upon traces of gold, if any exist.
In looking for indications, the prospector should never pass an ironstone “ blow out ” without ex amination, as, according to the German aphorism, “the iron hat covers the golden head,” or as the
SPECIAL MI N Ell A LOCi V - 0 ( J LD .
C'oniishman puts it, iron rides a good horse.” Tlie ironstone ontcro}) may cover a gold, silver, copper or tin lode.
liesides the general instruction given above, con siderable study should be given to the peculiar and seemingly irregular deposits of gold where it does not a|)pear to have been washed down from any higher levels. For instance, in California and some other districts free gold has been found in drifts and sand and in the beds of streams which have not only been filled np, but have been buried under regions of sandstone or other rocks, but the whole country apparently has been raised, or the sur rounding region has sunk so as not to show any very considerable elevation beyond where the gojd deposits have been formed. But, even in this case.
Fig. 40.
Section showing the two conditions under u'hich gold is usually found in rock
and drift.
The Structure of the Ural Mountains, — a. Granitic and gneiss rocks penetrated with greenstones and porphyrytic rocks containing gold finely disseminated, b. Micaceous, talcose, and argillaceous slaty rocks, sni)posed to be Laiirentian and Cambrian, c. Silurian and Devonian strata, d. Car boniferous, limestone and grits, e Coal measures. /. Permian and newer rocks. G, G, G, G. Drift, filling hollows in rocks with gold, especially at the base of the drift.
PKOSPEC'l'OK V FIELD-BOOK AND GL'IDE.
the general rule has been shown to be correct, for these deposits have been proved to be in the beds or channels of ancient rivers, which had either been dried up and overflowed by vast eruptions of lava or basalt, and again by floods bringing new soil and creating sedimentary rock, or the country has been raised, or subsidence of a great extent of land has taken place. In many cases, however, no sub sidence has occurred, but only overflow and filling up through ages, and the actual sources still remain elevated.
Such events as we have just described do not transpire without leaving, in some parts, traces or features or material, which, to the practised eye of a skillful prospector, are evidences of some such movements and changes, and he may proceed to make a successful opening only after he has care fully examined a large tract of country, for it is from extended survey that he may the more wisely judge of the relation of superficial parts to the greater depths of even small areas.
Those rocks which lie more immediately over the granite, and which, although they owe their origin to a sedimentary condition, have been subjected to heat and heated waters, as is supposed, we have called metamorphic rocks.” But they have been, probably, first formed from the disintegration of the most ancient rocks, and have brought with them fragments of gold. These metamorphic rocks have been changed from ordinary sedimentary rock by the action of heat and by pressure, and the in-
SPECIA K M I N ER A JX)(i Y UOLJ ).
tluence of such treatnieiit may be suspected by their appearance as crystalline in their composition ; that is, the fine grains which compose them, as well as tlie larger grains, are angular, whereas the mater ials of purely sedimentary rocks are tine without angular shape. The larger part of granite is sup posed to have been metamorphic or changed, as the word means, or “ altered ” merely by tlie action of heat into a crystalline form or mass.
The igneous rocks are those whose forms are due to having been melted and driven to the surface through fissures in the overlying rocks. They are variously composed of feldspar, hornblende, little quartz, with comparatively small proportions of otlier substances, and are called by various names according to the composition. The metamorphic granite contains quartz, feldspar, and mica ; the igneous granite contains little or no quartz. Syenite- granite contains hornblende in place of mica. Some times the mica is very black, as hornblende is, and in that case ma}" be distinguished from the latter by its more easy cleavage, as we have shown, under a sharp penknife ; this black mica is the kind we have described as hiotite (p. 15). There is a syenite which contains no quartz, called hyposyenite. These rocks are not the original home of gold, but at pres ent it is largely in these metamorphic rocks that the most paying gold is to be found, more especially in the quartz veins which have intersected these rocks. One, 'therefore, of the most important studies of the prospector is to acquaint himself
92 prospector’s field-book and guide.
familiarly with the ap})earance, the locations, and the departures of these metamorpliic rocks. In many places where the alluvial gold, derived from the gold-bearing gravels, has almost ceased to be worth working, there Btill remain sources undis covered, and these sources may probably be traced back even yet to some out-crop or to some ancient elevation now having subsided.
The above remarks are applicable to explorations for other metallic ores than gold. They apply to silver, and especially to tin ores, and with some modifications to copper ores and to quicksilver, as we shall show.
Gold in combination. We have been speaking of gold as native and alone. But it must not be thought that this condition is the only one in which paying gold is found. The combinations of gold with various oxides and sulphides of other metals are very valuable, and should be studied.
In almost all gold-bearing regions the iron sul phides carry much gold, and in some regions the paying gold is found only in this substance. Hence, it is well for the prospector to determine the presence of gold in the pyrite or whatever sulphide may pre sent itself. We, therefore, state a method or two of determining the fact that gold exists in this sub stance.
1. To separate gold in metallic sulphides, for in stance, iron pyrites. Powder the sulphide as finely as possible. Put about an ounce into a Hessian crucible and heat to a very low red heat for an
Special Mineralogy - Gold. 93
hour, or until there is very little escape of sulphur fumes. Remove the crucible and put its contents into a porcelain dish. Pour over the roasted pow der three fluidounces of strong nitric acid, by drops, until all violent action ceases. Add water, 8 or 10 fluidounces ; the gold, if any, will appear as a very fine black powder ; filter and dry, pick out a small particle of the powder and mash it upon a hard surface, iron or agate, in an agate mortar ; if it is gold, it will show the gold color. A sufficient quantity of the dried powder may be placed upon a piece of charcoal, and by means of either 0 or I flame of the blow-pipe it may be melted, and both by its color and softness be proved to be gold.
There is difficulty in this process which the prospector may not be able easily to overcome, and that is the necessity of using the strongest nitric acid. If he has a little laboratory he may readily make his own nitric acid of sufficient power, and then he possesses the simplest and quickest method of treat ing suljihides or any gold-hearing pyrites. The process is as follows : This acid may be made from common saltpetre and sulphuric acid of commerce. Dry the saltpetre after breaking it into small lumps of a half inch in diameter, carefully drop the lumps into a glass retort, hang the retort on a wire or stand, and introduce the beak into a glass bottle. Place the bottle in a basin of cold water and you may now apply the heat of a lamp, keeping the flame low and five or six indies off from the bottom of the retort. A coal oil lamp with a sliort chimney
04 PROSrECTOK’s FIELD-BOOK AND GUIDE.
may be used, and the heat regulated to a point at wliicli hrownisli vapors a})})ear in the retort. Keep enough acid in tlie retort to Ixirely cover tlie salt petre, and keep cool water in tlie basin, and the vapors come over and condense without much trouble.
Stop the operation when the vapors cease to come over and the mass in the retort seems to settle down to an even surface. 44ien draw out the beak of the retort and put the glass stopper into the bottle, and keep the bottle away from light and heat. Wash out the retort, and if you require more nitric acid renew the ojieration. The retort should he tubu lated to allow of adding suljihuric acid during the operation if needed.
This acid is a yellowish-brown liipiid and is known as “ fuming nitric acid,” and is one of tliose very active and convenient aids in the laboratory whicli cannot readily lie purchased, and, therefore, must generally he made, hut so little of it may he used that a small quantity goes a great way, and it will effect a result which the strongest and purest chemically-i)U]*e nitric acid fails to jiroduce. Its effect is to release the gold from the combination of iron and sulphur by oxidizing the latter as well as the former, and rendering them soluble in water, while the gold remains in metallic form of an ex ceedingly fine Idack powder, as we have said.
. *2. Another method of detecting and separating the gold, where the above method cannot he used, is by pulverizing the sulphide ore very finely and mix-
S Fecial M I Neka J A)G Y - Gold .
ing it with three or four times its weight of caustic potash or caustic soda, *and then subjecting the crucible, which contains the mixture, to a low red heat till all the contents cease agitation and become perfectly tranquil. Then remove the crucible, wait till all is cool, and then add hydrochloric (muriatic) acid in an amount equal to three or four times the bulk of the mass. To this, after standing three or four hours in a warm place, add the usual nitric acid (about an ounce), after transferring all the liquid to a porcelian dish, or, next best, to a beaker- glass. Let it stand in a warm place for about an hour, tlien add a little more nitric acid (about half ounce), stir it well with a glass rod or strip of glass, and let it stand again for an hour or two. Examine carefully, and if it seems to have been dissolved more thoroughly than before, add a little more nitric acid and warm again, stirring well as before. If no more seems to be dissolved, then filter and wash the sediment in the filter and let it dry, and remove the filter and contents for further ex amination. Now precipitate the gold from the fil trate by i)Ouring into it a solution of ferrous sulphate. [Any clear green crystals of “ copperas ” (sulphate of iron) of the drug store, filtered, aftei- saturated solution in clean rain-water and kept in corked bottles, will answer this purpose.] Let the solution stand in a warm place for an hour, drop in a few more drops, and if any further precipitation takes ])lace, add half an ounce of the sulphate, stir it again, let it remain an hour longer in a warm
1)G
Prospector S Field-Book And Guide,
})lace till all precipitation ceases. Decant the supernatant clear water and transfer the remainder to a filter-paper carefully, and a little at a time, to avoid breaking the filter-paper, then rinse the porcelain dish to get all particles upon the filter- l)aper, and, when all the liquid has })assed through, let it dry and remove all the contents of the paper to a small porcelain capsule or crucible, and apply the heat of the hlow-pipe to burn off the ])aper or any organic substance which may have got into the })owder ; the gold remains, which may he gathered upon charcoal and melted into a globule by the con centrated liame of the hlow-pipe, if in small quan tity. Lastly, examine the contents of the filter Avhicli was laid aside ; and, if any appearance of gold is noted, separate it under examination by a pocket lens.
The high value of gold renders even a grain of gold to the ounce of ore, if that ounce is an average ounce in the ton, Avorth $80 to the ton, of 2000 pounds. Hence, a pyrites which contains a half grain to the half ounce may prove too valuable to neglect. In the Brazils, in deep mines, the ore yields only half an ounce to the ton of ore, and yet it is mined at a profit.* In California, a continuous yield of three-eighths to half an ounce of gold to tlie ton of quartz is considered profitable working, f
ft must be remendiered, however, that the above process of extracting the gold from pyritous ore
*Makiiis’ ]\Ietallurj>:y, p. 2127.
t Davies’ Metalliferous Minerals and Mininji:, p. 54.
Special Mineralogy - Gold.
does not extract with perfect accuracy all the gold unless conducted with more care and time than we have suggested, but it is sufficient to reveal the fact that the ore is valuable.
3. The following method requires more time and care and the use of a little furnace, but will give very accurate results. Pulverize the ore supposed to contain any gold, whether pyritous or not. Heat it in a crucible very gradually at first, increasing the heat to drive off as much sulphur as possible, frequently stirring it and increasing the heat till all fumes seem to have escaped. Withdraw it and prepare a crucible (clay or Hessian crucible), by dipping it in a strong solution of borax in water, and heating the crucible and repeating the dipping and heating till the crucible shows a glazed inside. Then transfer all the roasted powdered ore, after weighing it (if you desire relative, quantity), into the crucible, and cover it with the following mixture (called a flux): Six times the weight of ore in lith arge, one of dry borax, and about twenty grains of charcoal pulverized. Heat slowly at first, not al lowing much foaming, until all is quiet and the metal button settles down at the bottom of the crucible. Cool and break the crucible to extract the button of metal, which is now ready for cupel ling. {For this process, see p. 08.)
We have given these three methods of separating gold from all the usual ores, any one of which may readily be used, and a little practice will enable the operator to be expert iiHtheir use. A great deal
98 prospector’s field-book and guide.
more depends upon the skill of the operator than upon the cost of his appliances.
In Review With Additional Remarks.
AVe have not thought it important to give a list of places in the world where gold has been found. Our object is to indicate where gold may be found, and in the search derive some aid from observing the conditions in which gold has already been found. From what has been said, it is plain that gold is primarily to be found in the oldest rock, and those rocks which are thrown up as dykes and which have been shot up through other rocks by subterranean forces. But while this is the primary origin or source, so far as observation goes, or science suggests, yet another source of native gold exists in the al luvial or drift of all countries, having been derived through disintegration from its primary condition : and not only in the disintegrated drift and loose material carried down streams or in the rush of floods, but also spread over the plains, or floors of ancient seas, which during the past ages have been consolidated into rock or slate, and hence, as we have said, it is found in the metamorphic rock or shales and schists. And yet there is one more im portant source which the prospector has always to keep in memory, and that is, the auriferous quartz, which, as has been stated, is not an igneous or meta morphic rock, nor yet it is of sedimentary origin or nature, but, as supposed, the great ancient solvent of the finer particles scattered over the rocks, and
Special Mineralogy - Gold.
because of great heat and pressure, forced into fis sures and cracks, and there, through some chemical or physical cause, precipitating its gold, it has solidified.
The practical drift of these theories will lead the prospector to expect that in the streams bearing gold the sources of gold are to be sought at the heads of the streams. He will pay special attention to the immediate vicinity of angles and bends and forks of the stream, and especially to rough portions, such as cataracts and falls. He will also study the courses of ancient river beds, especially where ancient pits and recesses have been filled by overflowing lava or covered over, as where plains have been formed by volcanic rocks over auriferous channels and valleys.
Where the sources of auriferous sands lead up to chains of hills or mountains of granite or metamor- phic slates or rocks, the search should be for quartz reefs or outcrops along the strike, or line of ridges, or their serrated edges.
It sometimes happens that along such outcrops or reefs rusty or brown quartz fragments are found. These fragments frequently contain gold, sometimes in minute quantities and sometimes so discolored by the pyrites, which have become weather-changed, as to deceive one who is unaware of this peculiarity. .
This fact is important to keep in memory, for some of the most valuable gold deposits have been developed beneath just such outcrops, or lower down in the quartz the deposits have proved to be rich.
Another fact should be remembered, that with
100 prospector’s field-book and guide.
the modern crushing machinery which has been brought into use, together with the use of chlorine under pressure to dissolve gold, it is quite possible to use quartz with finely disseminated particles and make it pay remarkably well, when such quartz may contain gold in such minute dissemination as scarcely to be visible under the lens. When, there fore, such quartz is found, it must not be supposed to be too poor to be profitable, but be preserved and the place of its origin noted for future examination.
Phillips gives the following rule for ascertaining the amount of gold in a lump of auriferous quartz :
The specific gravity of gold is 19.000.
The specific gravity of quartz is 2.600.
These numbers are given here merely for conven ience in explaining the rule ; they do not accurately represent the specific gravities of all quartz and quartz gold. (The quartz gold of California has not, on an average, a specific gravity of more than 18.600.)
1. Ascertain the specific gravity of the lump. Suppose it to be 8.067.
2. Deduct the specific gravity of the lump from the specific gravity of the gold ; the difference is the ratio of the quartz by volume : 19.000—8.067 f=10.933.
3. Deduct the specific gravity of the quartz from the specific gravity of the lump ; the difference is the ratio of the gold by volume : 8.067—2.600=
As in the Newbury-Vautin process.
Special Mineralogy - Gold.
4. Add these ratios together and proceed by the rule of proportion. The product is tlie percentage of gold by bulk: 10.933+5.467-16.400. Then, as 16.400 is to 5.467, so is 100 to 33.35.
5. Multiply the percentage of gold in bulk by its specific gravity. The product is the ratio of the gold in the lump by weight : 33.35x19.00—643.65.
6. Multiply the percentage of quartz by bulk (which must be 66.65, since that of gold is 33.35) by its specific gravity. The product is the ratio of the quartz in the lump by weight: 66.65x2.60—
7. To find the percentage, add these two ratios together and proceed by the rule of proportion : 633.65+173.29=806.94. Then, as 806.94 is to 633.65, so is 100 to 78.53. Hence, a lump of aurif erous quartz having a specific gravity of 8.069, con tains 78.53 per cent, of gold by weight. (The Mines, Miners, and Mining Interests of the United States in 1882, by Win. Ralston Batch, Phila., p. 761.)
Chapter Vl
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
Platinum occurs native and in flattened or angular grains or nuggets which are malleable. Its color and streak are steel-gray. Lustre metallic bright. Isometric, but is seldom found in crystals. Hardness 4 to 4.5. Specific gravity 16 to 19. As heavy as gold, and, therefore, easily distinguished and separated from lighter materials. Before the l)low-pipe it is infusible ; not affected by borax, ex cept as containing some metal, as iron or copper, which gives the reaction. Soluble in heated nitro-muriatic acid.
Platinum is occasionally found in the gold-bear ing gravels of California and Oregon, but the an nual production is small. There are no means of knowing whether it is present in sufficient abund ance for separate mining. The prospectors, as a rule, do not know the value of the black sand, nor are they always able to distinguish it from less valuable ores ; and it is, therefore, not unlikely that deposits may yet be found.
The supply of platinum comes chiefly from Rus sia, where it occurs in gravels, probably originally auriferous, on the Siberian side of the Ural. Since ( 102 1
Platinum, Etc. - Silver. 103
serpentine is usually near at hand, and the placers increase in richness as the rock is approached, and since the metal has been found in this rock, it seems probable that this is the source. This mode of occurrence of platinum and the association with serpentiferous rocks prevails also in other platinum- producing regions. Platinum is always alloyed with the other metals of the platinum group, irid ium, osmium, palladium, etc., and with iron, the amount of platinum varying from 50 to 80 per cent. In Russia, as well as in other platinum-producing regions, chrome iron and iridosmium are associated with the metal. The United States now consumes more platinum than any other country, incandes cent electric lamps and other electric apparatus calling for a great supply. Although only a very minute quantity is required in each case, so many lamps are called for that the demand is very great, and the price has risen much higher than formerly. It may be interesting to note that the name plati num is derived from plata, the Spanish word for silver, since it was regarded in South America at the time of its discovery (1735) as an impure ore of that metal.
Platinum, like gold, does not readily combine with other elements, and in nature the only com pound known is an arsenide called Sperrylite, which is found in very small quantities in the Sudbury section of Ontario, Canada. Its color is tin-white ; lustre bright ; hardness about 7 ; specific gravity
104 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Platiimni may be distinguished by its great weight, l)y its gray color, its sectile nature, and b}" the fact that it will not dissolve in any simple acid, and with difficulty in nitro-muriatic acid (aqua- regia). It may be distinguished from lead by its action under the blowpipe flame, since lead melts immediately, leaving a yellowish coating, while platinum refuses to melt under the hottest flame, and leaves no coating whatever. When it exists in the alluvial soil it may be ‘‘panned out” just as gold or other heavy metals, and even more easily because of its greater gravity.
It may be found in some metal-bearing veins in crystalline metamorphic and syenite rock, from which it has been washed down just as in the case of gold. In the latter condition it has been found more extensively than in any other.
Its chemical test is as follows : Dissolve the grains of the ore in nitro-muriatic acid (4 parts muriatic acid to 1 part nitric), preferably with gentle heat, add proto-chloride of tin (solution) also called stan nous chloride (SnC); if platinum is present a dark brownish-red color will be produced, but no precipitate.
The metal may be obtained separate from its gold, and in the presence of other metals, by evap orating the above solution of the ore in a porcelain dish to dryness, at a gentle heat with ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac or muriate of ammonia), and the . residue treated with dilute alcohol (one- fourth part water). The gold will remain in solu-
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
tion and the platinum be precipitated, the precipi tate to be ignited when the platinum will be pure. The gold, if present, may be precipitated by adding a solution of ferrous sulphate, after evaporating off the alcohol. Ferrous sulphate is proto-sulphate of iron (copperas in crystals).
Stannous chloride may readily be purchased at any chemist’s warehouse, but as it is easily pre pared we give the best method as follows : File a piece of tin into powder and heat very hot (nearly to boiling) with strong hydrochloric acid in a porce lain dish or beaker-glass, always keeping tin in the glass or dish, by adding tin if necessary. When no hydrogen gas is evolved {i. e. no bubbles arise), dilute with four times its bulk of pure water, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, and filter. Keep the filtrate in a well-stop- pered bottle in which some tin has been placed. If you have pure tin-foil, that form of tin may be used, for without the presence of metallic tin the stannous chloride (SnCl2) is in danger of changing into stannic chloride (SnCl) with precipitation of a white substance (oxychloride of tin), which ren ders the reagent unfit for use.
Iridium, a steel-white, extremely hard metal, next in specific gravity to osmium, is supplied partly from its alloy with native platinum, and partly from the iridosmium which occurs in the platiniferous gravels. It is used for pen points and in jewelry, and recently in metal-plating.
Osmium is the heaviest known metal. It comes
106 prospector’s field-book and guide.
from tlie same sources as iridium, and in the form of iridosmium is used for pointing tools and pens.
Palladium is a brilliant silver-white metal. It also occurs with platinum, but on account of its high price is but little used.
Silver. This metal occurs native in various shapes, as in small grains in the rock, as branching and leaf-like, and also in small octahedral crystals and in other forms. Hardness, 2.3 to 3 ; specific gravity, 10.1 to 11.1, according to its purity. It is never found absolutely pure, but contains some gold and frequently a little copper.
It is always sectile and malleable, and in this re spect very easily distinguished from a substance frequently mistaken for native silver, namely, mis- jyickel, which is an arsenide of iron, having very much the appearance of silver, but always brittle.
Before the Blow-pipe, on charcoal, native silver is distinguished from tin, zinc, antimony, or bismuth, by the fact that it melts and leaves no whiteness or any other appearance of oxide upon the coal around the globule.
Tin will leave a white film and lead a yellow ; zinc a yellow which whitens on cooling. But silver leaves no film or cloud of any kind upon the coal.
The Chemical Test of silver is as follows : Dis solve the metal in nitric acid in a test-tube, prefer ably with the heat of an alcohol fiame, but not to the boiling point. Add an equal amount of pure water (clear rain water will answer), then drop in several drops of a solution of common table salt (or
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
muriatic acid). If a cloudy white precipitate occurs which settles and blackens after exposure, of a few seconds to sunlight Or a few minutes to daylight, the substance is silver.
It should be remembered at this ])oint, that tins test is for silver alone, since lead and mercur\" are also precipitated as a white cloud by the same solu tion, but neither blackens by exposure to the light. This distinguishes silver. If, however, further proof is needed, drop into the test tube strong ammonia water ; the i)recipitate is dissolved if it is that of silver, it is not if it be of lead, and it is blackened by the ammonia if it is mercury.
If there is much copper in the silver it may be detected by dipping a clean strip of polished iron or steel into the solution, for the metallic coppei* will immediately appear upon the surface of the iron.
It must not always be supposed that native silver is metallic or white in appearance, for it is readily tarnished by sulphur, and the proximity of sulphur in other minerals or in water may greatly discolor the native silver.
Comparatively speaking, very little of the silver of the mines is derived from native silver. Most of the silver of commerce is obtained from some of the minerals named below, which are combinations of silver with other metals, and with sulphur or chlor ine, as sulphides of silver, etc., in which condition they bear no resemblance to native silver.
But in all silver minerals of any commercial
108 prospector’s field-book and guide.
value, the already mentioned tests are usually suf- ticient to detect the existence of silver.
Other forms in whicli silver is found are —
Silver Sulphides are very largely associated with lead sulphides or galena, and sometimes called, when pure, silver glance or argentite. This is found in masses, but when crystallized it occurs in cubes or octahedral forms. When freshly broken it has a metallic lustre, otherwise it is of a dull gray or leaden appearance. It is sectile, and its “streak” or the color of its powder is the same as that of the mineral itself, and rather shining. Chemical com position : silver 87; sulphur 13. Hardness 2 to 2.5. Specific gravity 7.1 to 7.4.
The ore is soluble in nitric acid, and on adding common salt to the solution a white curd is thrown down which blackens on exposure to sunlight. It is very fusible, giving off an odor of sulplmr when heated. Before the blow-pipe on charcoal, with or witliout carbonate of soda, it yields a white globule of metallic silver which can be flattened under a hammer.
The ore occurs in veins in granite, porphyry, and slate, with arsenic, silver and lead ores.
Horn Silver {Cerargyrite is the mineralogical name). The mineral known under these names is a chloride of silver occurring in massive form and sometimes in crystals. It has a resinous lustre and yields a shining streak. It is translucent on the extreme edges, and has a waxy appearance. It cuts like horn or wax, and on an outcrop looks like dirty
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
cement. It contains 75.3 per cent, silver, and 24.7 per cent, chlorine when iinmixed or nearly pure, and then has a pearly-gray or greenish-gray appear ance.
A polished piece of iron may be slightly coated with silver if a piece of horn silver is moistened and rubbed upon the iron.
Horn silver is very easily fusible, it melting in the flame of a candle. Heated with carbonate of soda on charcoal, it yields a globule of metallic silver.
This mineral, in various degrees of impurity, forms a very large part of the silver-bearing ores of some mines in South America, as well as in the Western States and Territories of the United States. It is a valuable ore.
Brittle Silver Ore (Stephanite is the minera- logical name) is a silvei' sulphide with antimony, and is found in masses and sometimes in rhombic prism crystals. It is easily distinguished from silver sul phide (or glance) by the fact that it is brittle, while the glance, if fairly pure, may be cut with a knife in chips without breaking.
This ore is black or iron gray, has a hardness of 2 to 2.5 and a specific gravity of 6.2 to 6.3, and when pure, contains 71 per cent, of silver, the rest being antimony with some other admixtures, usu ally iron or copper. It is an abundant silver ore in the Comstock Lode, Nevada; (Figs. 41, 42), in the Reese River and Humboldt and other regions, and at the silver mines in Idaho.
110 prsopector’s field-book and guide.
On charcoal, under the blow-pipe, it decrepitates and coats the coal Avith a film of antimony (anti- monous acid), which, after considerable blowing, turns red, and a globule of silver is obtained.
Red Silver Ore, or Ruby Silver, is an ore which contains arsenic and antimony, or more usu ally arsenic or antimony. That containing only antimony is a dark red and is knoAvn mineralogic- ally as Pyrargyrite ; it contains 59.8 per cent, silver, 17.7 per cent, sulphur, and 22.5 per cent, of antimony. It occurs generally in crystals. When the silver sulphide is associated with arsenic only, the color is light red and the name Proustite is applied to it. It contains 65.5 per cent, of silver. It may contain both arsenic and antimony, and have a grayish appearance. In Idaho, it has been found in masses of several hundred pounds weight, at Poorman Lode (Dana). In Mexico it is Avorked extensively as an ore of silver.
Rromic Silver or Bromyrite. This is a com mon ore containing bromine 42.6 per cent, and sil- Aer 57.4 per cent.
There are other minerals in AARich silver occurs, but they are only exceptions or rare, and if one is acquainted Avith those mentioned above, he aauII very likely detect the rarer silver minerals AAdiich are not ores in the usual sense, but they may lead AAdien discovered to valuable results.
Geology of Silver Ores. The most valuable ores occur in the earlier or more ancient rocks, such as the granitic or gneissoid rocks, clay slates, mica
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
schists, older limestones, and in the metamorphic rocks. The remarkable geologic conditions under which silver ores and veins occur may be under stood more readily by the following diagrams than any descriptions without them. (Figs. 41 and 42.)
In the diagrams the rocks are seen tilted up from the horizontal position to one nearly vertical, but evidently after this uplifting the trachytic dykes were shot through the masses of conglomerate. The lodes bearing silver are represented by contin uous double lines, and the dykes by dotted vertical lines. The entire distance represented from Sutro to the west end of the diagram is about miles, on a course east and west, being the same as that of the Sutro tunnel upon this branch, which joins or intersects to the north and south branch of the tunnel at the Comstock lode.
In order that the superficial nature of the country may be understood, we have given the north and south section of the same region, showing some of the mines by vertical black lines and by shaded spaces where the mines have been worked more or less extensively. (Fig. 42.)
The north and south section exhibits the hilly surface, and fully illustrates the work of the pros pector who would become acquainted with the min eral deposits of a similar region.
It will be seen in the east and west section that all the lodes outcrop. (Fig. 41.) The non-metallic substances of these lodes are quartz, fluorspar, with, perhaps, some chlorides or sulphides ; the latter may
MouritDavidson 7827/t. , above the sed level
112 prospector’s field-book and guide.
SECTION ACROSS THE COMSTOCK LODE AND SURROUNDING STRATA, EAST AND WEST.
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
be metallic, and there may occur some traces of gold and silver, perhaps also of antimony, lead, etc. The wisest course, therefore, is for the prospector, after having settled in which direction the strike or course of the strata runs, to make an examination directly across the strata, the chief object being to learn the nature of the rocks of the region, and, at the same time, to detect the outcropping of any lodes or dykes.
II is object is to become acquainted with the strata by means of the loose material, the fragments, or small outcropping rocks, where he cannot penetrate beneath the soil.
It may become necessary to traverse a great dis tance before any certain information may be gained, and where the hill surfaces are covered with soil, the ravines will frequently disclose the nature of the rock.
It will be noticed that the Comstock Lode begins immediately adjoining the syenite rock, and at the outcrop extends six or eight times the actual thick ness of the lode below. It is also apparent that the lodes generally, at least in this region, bifurcate near the surface, even in the syenite, and when an outcrop has been discovered, the probability is that not far off another outcrop of the same lode may be found (Fig. 41).
The Comstock Lode has been traced for four or five miles nortli and soutli, but the values of the deposits are not uniform. The great bodies of ore may be seen in the north and south section
114 prospector’s field-book and guide
NOKTH AND SOUTH SECTION OF THE COMSTOCK LODE, SHOWING THE MINES AND THE SUKFACE.
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
where the excavations are largest, as around the Savage, and from the Exchequer to the Crown Point properties. But this whole region is filled with dykes and lodes for miles beyond the Comstock Lode, which lies on the eastern slope of a range of hills running somewhat parallel, but about fifteen miles east of the great Sierra Nevada range, south of the Pacific Railroad, and between the lakes Bigler and Carson in the western part of the State.
In the east of Nevada, at the Eureka Mines, the ores are found in a bed of limestone overlying the granites, quartzose slates, and metamorphic rocks of great thickness. The limestone containing the ore is about 300 feet thick. But while the immediate geology varies from that of the Comstock, the general facts are the same, namely, that the silver-bearing lodes are in or very near the granites or earliest rocks. In this case the overlying rocks, though limestone, are dolomitic, containing from 36 to 46 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia, and the min eralized belt of limestone, or that containing the ores, is very much broken, and in some places ap parently crushed, as if it had been subjected to a grinding process, and then partly rejoined by the cementing power of calcareous matter deposited from solution in percolating water.
A peculiarity in this last described limestone is found in the large caverns which occur along the course of mineral deposit. On the floors of these caverns are found beds of ore which seem to have dropped from their position in the limestone, as
116 prospector’s field-book and guide.
that has been dissolved out and carried off where the fissures easily permitted the percolating waters to pass rapidly away.
The geology of this region appears to be in the order of granites, quartzose slates, and metamorphic rocks of great thickness, limestones containing segre gations of ore, calcareous shales, and these sur mounted by limestones also of great thickness. The special region to which this geological series refers is in the Ruby Hill mines.
The Emma Mine, with many others, is situated still further east, in the Wahsatch range of moun tains, which runs north and south about twenty miles east of the Great Salt Lake. This mine is about the same distance southeast of the Great Salt Lake. The adjacent rocks of this mine are granite, in massive beds dipping from 50° to 70° eastward. Tins is overlaid by quartzites of a reddish color, then occurs a series of slates, upon which are thick beds of white limestone, and these pass rapidly into the carboniferous dolomitic limestone. It is in these last limestones that the ore deposits of the Emma and adjacent mines are worked.
It is a fact, however, that the ores are mainly silica and lead, of which there is over 70 per cent. The amount of silver is about 0.40 to 0.50 of 1 per cent, according to some analyses. A sample amount of 82 tons, gross, yielded 156 ounces of silver.
These three mining districts present the general geologic conditions in which the silver ores are found in these and other States and Territories, and
Platinum, Etc. - Silver.
the prospector should expect to find surface indica tions accordingly, but modified more or less by ex posure to weather.
Although, from the preceding illustrations, silver is shown to be found both in the very early groups of rocks and in the carboniferous limestone, the latter is the exception, but appears to be found in the latter only when that limestone has occurred with little or no separating horizons from the earl iest rocks.
Chapter Vii.
Copper, And How Measured In Ores.
Copper. It occurs both native and in a compound state. Native copper is found in various shapes, and even in octahedral cr3stals. Its color is copper red ; it is always sectile and malleable ; hardness 2.5 to 3, specific gravity 8.5 to 8.9, according to purity. Frequentl} associated with native silver. It is tested by the hlow-pipe ; giving in small quan tities blue tinge to almost black in the borax bead, according to quantity used, and the kind of flame, whether inner or R, or outer or 0, the latter giving blue color, the former giving the copper color or metallic opaque brown.
Chemically, it dissolves readily in nitric acid, and, if ammonia be added, the solution becomes green, or greenish-blue if ammonia be in excess.
In the absence of chemicals or a blow-pipe, the mineral, when containing native copper, or when onl}- a compound containing copper, may be tested by heating it either in the mass, or, better, in powder, and when hot dropping it into some salty grease and then putting it in a flame or upon burn ing charcoal, when the characteristic green color will appear in the flame with great distinctness.
(118)
Copper, And How Measured In Ores. 119
Moreover, if the mineral contains copper in con siderable quantity and it is dissolved in nitric acid, the copper will be deposited immediately upon a strip of polished iron or upon the end of a knife- blade, if either be dipped into the solution.
Various minerals contain copper, but many in so small proportions that it would not be lucrative to work them as ores. We mention several of the more important ores of copper, and also some copper minerals, which, to the prospector, will be suggestive that the more important ores are not far off.
Red copper ore or ruby copper {Cuprite is the mineralogical name) : Occurs massive, granular, and earthy ; brittle ; if in crystals, octahedral and twelve sided ; nearl} opaque ; deep red or ruby colored, sometimes weathered to an iron-gray on the surface ; hardness 3.5 to 4 ; specific gravity 8. Composed of copper 88.78 per cent., the remainder oxygen when pure.
Before the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it yields a globule of metallic copper ; with borax bead gives the indications of copper. It forms a blue solution in nitric acid. These tests distinguish it from red oxide of iron. It occurs in granite and slate with copper ores and galena, and forms a valuable source of the metal.
Copper Glance or Vitreous Copper {Chalcocite is the mineralogical name) — massive — slightly sec- tile ; color blackish-gray, tarnishing to blue or green. Hardness 2.5-3 ; specific gravity 5. 5-5.8. Com posed of copper 77.2 ; sulphur 20.6, and sometimes of a little iron. It is fusible in a candle flame.
120 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Before the blow-pipe it gives off an odor of sul phur. When heated on charcoal, a malleable globule of metallic copper remains, tarnished black, but rendered evident on flattening under a hammer. With borax bead it gives the indications of copper. Dissolves in nitric acid, forming a blue solution. These tests distinguish it from sulphide of silver. Occurs with other copper-ores.
Gray Copper {Tetrahedrite is the mineralogical name) : brittle ; steel-gray or iron-black, sometimes brownish; hardness 3-4 ; specific gravity 4.75-5.1. Composed of copper 38.6, sulphur 26.3, and fre quently antimony and arsenic, zinc, iron, silver, etc. It frequently contains silver and sometimes as much as 25 to 30 per cent. Before the blow-pipe it gives a bead of copper or of copper and silver. It occurs with copper pyrites, galena and blende. This ore is wrought for copper and occasionally for silver.
Copper pyrites {Chalcopyrite is the mineralogical name). Massive. Color is a brass yellow, sometimes tarnished and iridescent. Hardness 3.5 to 4, specific gravity 4.15. Composed of copper 34.6 ; sulphur 34.9 ; iron 30.5. Before the blow-pipe it fuses to a magnetic globule on charcoal, and with borax me tallic copper is the result. It is sometimes mistaken for gold, or iron, or tin pyrites. But it is brittle, gold is not ; it will not strike fire as does iron pyrites ; and it may be distinguished from tin pyrites by the film that tin pyrites leaves on the charcoal, while copper pyrites leaves no residue under the blow pipe. It occurs in granite and slate in lodes or veins, and is a valuable ore of copper.
Copper, And How Measured In Ores. 121
Silicate of Copper (Clirysocolla is the minera- logical name) is a bright-green or bliiish-green mineral, scarcely worthy of being called an ore, although it contains from 35 to 40 per cent, copper and a large amount of silica. It is a secondary de posit. Its hardness is 2 to 4, and specific gravity 2 to 2.3. Its only significance to the prospector is that it may be associated with true ores. Its powder (streak) is white, while the mineral itself is green ; this is due to the quartz or silex in the mineral. It does not entirely dissolve in nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe with soda, it gives a bead of copper.
Black oxide of copper is usually found on the surface, and is generally due to the decomposition of some sulphide or other copper ore. It occurs in masses of a dark, earthy appearance, and sometimes in minute shining particles, and soils the fingers when handled.
Malachite, green carbonate of copper, has a fibrous structure nearly opaque, and of an emerald- green color, and contains about 57 per cent, of cop per. In hardness it is 3.5 to 4, and in specific gravity 3.6 to 4.
Below the blow-pipe it becomes blackish. With borax it yields the usual blue-green bead, and on charcoal is reduced to metallic copper. It com pletely dissolves in nitric acid, and thus it may be distinguished from silicate of copper, which has nearly the same color and will not dissolve.
Blue Carbonate of copper [Azurite is the min- eralogical name) is only used for ornamental pur-
122 prospector’s field-book and guide.
poses. It is of a deep blue color, sometimes trans parent, brittle, and gives a bluish streak. It has a hardness of 3.5 to 4.5 and a specific gravity of 3.7 to 4. Can be scratched with a knife. It blackens when heated. On charcoal it is reduced to a globule of pure copper. With the borax bead it gives the indications of copper. It is soluble in nitric acid with effervescence, forming a blue solution.
Variegated Copper Pyrites {Bornite is the min- eralogical name, but is also called Eruhiscite) :
Fig. 43.
’ll b “b
a
Section of the copper bed at the Dolly Hide mine, Maryland, a, Slate, h, b, b, b, Ore beds or segregations of ore. c, c, c, c, Crystalline lime stone (metamorphic).
usually massive, of a copper-red to a pinchbeck- brown color and a blackish to lead-gray streak. Hardness 2.5 to 3, specific gravity 5.5 to 5.8. It contains 79.8 per cent, copper and 20.2 per cent, of sulphur. Before the blow-pipe it gives a bead of copper.
COPPER, AND now [EASlTRED IN ORES.
The GiiOLOGY OF COPPER is iDore varied than that of many other metals, as it occurs in rocks of almost every age. In Cornwall the slates are more pro ductive than the granites, while in our mines in the luistern States the new red sandstone, the carbon iferous limestone, and silurian rocks furnish copper. Also found in the rnetamorphic limestone, near slate (Fig. 43). In the Lake Superior region, where large deposits of native copper are found, the rocks are sandstones and shales underlying green stone or a kind of trap, and in some places seem to be igneous (Figs. 44, 45). Ruby copper ore occurs
Fig. 44.
n R
Section ok strata in Lake Supeiuok copper region, a, Granite, b, Gneis- soid. c, Greenstone, hornblende, conglomerates with interstratified slates. d, Slaty rocks and traps, etc. e, Potsdam sandstone. C, C, Places of copper deposits. 0, B, Iron ore beds. Section from N. W. to S. E.
Fig. 45.
Copper. Section of the Eagle vein. Lake Superior, a, Poryphyritic rocks, b, Greenstone, c, c. Conglomerate, d, d, d, Amygdaloid bearing cop per. e, e, e, Shafts. /, Montreal River.
in Arizona between (juartzose and liornblendic rocks and limestone. It occurs in both lodes and
124 prospector’s field-book and guide.
deposits, and the best way for the prospector to pre pare for actual discovery is to make himself well acquainted with the copper compounds, whether ores or minerals. They may indicate true ores, although they contain little copper.
To become read} in the detection of copper as an ore the following facts should be kept in mind, as furnishing suggestions for skillful practice. (Figs. 43, 44, and 45.)
1. All copper ores weigh more than quartz or limestone, and the comparative weights should be so well known by practice that there should be no hesitation in judging that the mineral you hold is more than 2.6 in specific gravity, 2.6 being that of either quartz or limestone.
2. Next examine the mineral with your pocket lens for evidence of copper, such as green or bluish spots, or brassy points or particles ; if found, chip one off and use the blow-pipe with borax bead or with soda or borax on charcoal. If the char acteristic color appears, it is copper. Now proceed with other parts of the specimen. If a sulphury smell is plain, it is probably a sulphide. Place a small chip upon a depression in the charcoal, cover with soda or borax, turn the inner flame upon it and reduce to a metallic globule ; if it shows the color of copper and is malleable, it is copper ; if it blackens apply your magnetized knife-blade, and if it is attracted the mineral contains iron, and it may contain both iron and copper.
3. The next work is to examine the region to
Copper, And How Measured In Ores. 125
gather any other specimens and evidences of true ores, before attempting to know more of any particular specimen. If the surface specimens are numerous it may be well to gather some six or eight and pro ceed to an examination as to the available copper. This is now the work of the chemist, and should be submitted to him. But as the skillful prospector frequently wishes to be his own chemist, where work for the desired object is not difficult nor very complicated, we give the following simple process of arriving at the per cent, of copper in an ore without regard to other elements contained therein :
To OBTAIN THE PER CENT. OF COPPER IN AN ORE.
The only chemicals needed are nitric acid, ammonia, and sodium sulphide (the colorless crystallized hy drosulphide of soda of commerce is good enough). All the apparatus needed are a glass flask or tall beaker-glass and a marked tall glass called a burette. This glass may be obtained at any chemical ware house. The burette is marked in cubic inches or cubic centimetres, from 25 to 100. Dissolve some sodium sulphide in clear rain-water (about a half ounce to a pint). Keep the solution in a glass- stoppered bottle. Obtain some pure copper (ordi nary good copper wire will answer), weigh the piece accurately and dissolve in nitric acid, add some water (twice the amount of acid used, or a little more), then add ammonia until, when stirred with a long piece of glass or glass rod, the solution smells strongly of ammonia (the ammonia must be in ex cess). Now All the burette with sodium sulpliide to
126 trospector’s field-book and guide.
the 100 mark, and from the burette pour into the copper solution until the blue color of copper entirely disappears ; note on the burette by its marks the exact amount of sodium sulphide used. That amount represents the weight of the amount of copper used.
Now for the ore. Pulverize some of the averaged ore, weigh it, and treat it as you did the copper Avith nitric acid and ammonia, and proceed Avith the sodium sulphide. When the ore solution has become entirely colorless, note Avhat amount of sodium sulphide solution you have used, and you may then calculate the exact amount of copper in the ore by simple proportion. The presence of tin, zinc, lead, iron, cadmium, antimony, arsenic, or bismuth in the ore does not interfere Avith the opera tion. But silver does. Therefore, a small amount of the ore must be dissolved in nitric acid (free from all muriatic acid or chlorine, as this would precipi tate the silver before you AAwld notice it), and tested by dropping into the solution a drop or tAvo of hydrochloric acid or solution of common table salt (sodium chloride). If any silver exists in the ore a milky cloudiness Avill appear, of a density greater or less, in accordance Avith the amount of silver present. If no silver appears, then you proceed as already directed. If silver does appear, then the solution containing the Aveighed ore must first be treated Avith the salt solution or diluted hy drochloric acid, until all cloudiness or Avhite precip itate entirely ceases. The solution of ore noAV con tains no silver, and you may proceed as directed,
Copper, And How Measured In Ores. 127
This process is sufficiently accurate for all assays provided the following precautions are observed : —
1. Heat the copper solution (after adding the am monia) to boiling point or little below while adding the sodium sulphide. 2. Add a little ammonia to the ammoniacal solution to keep it from losing am monia by evaporation. 3. When the blue am moniacal solution begins to lose its color, drop the sodium sulphide in cautiously, so as not to exceed the amount necessary to exactly precipitate the cop per and no more.
Note the precijntates : The sodium sulphide first produces its black precipitate of copper sulphide, but before that takes place the ammonia will pro duce another precipitate, provided the copper con tains any lead or tin. If the copper contains zinc, that will be precipitated immediately following the black copper sulphide, but will be white. If it con tains any cadmium, that will be precipitated at the very moment the decoloration takes place, if tlie adding of the sodium sulphide is continued. Cad mium is known by a beautiful clear yellow precipi tate. With care and skill each may be noticed.
In simply determining the amount of copper, liowever, no regard need be had to any of these pre cipitates, only pay attention to the point of de coloration.
4. The sodium sulphide may need proving to see if it lias lost any of its strength if kept long, and this may be done by a new trial witli a new solution holding a known amount of copper. Or, exactly
128 prospector’s pield-p>ook and guide.
the same weight of crystals of sodium sulphide to the same amount of pure water may be used as before, and the old solution thrown away. Or, by re-testing the sodium sulphide the same solution may be used for a long time, for, if it has become weakened, make allowance for the additional sodium sulphide required. It should be kept in a cool place, out of the sun and light also.
Chapter Viii.
Lead And Tin.
Lead. It very rarely occurs native, it then has a hardness of 1.5 and specific gravity 11.3 to 11.4. But the most usual ore of lead is the sulphide called Galena. When chemically pure it contains 85.55 lead and 13.45 sul})hur. Its gravity is 7.2 to 7.5, according to admixtures.
Galena almost always contains silver, and hence all galenas should be tested for silver.
Niagara Limestone.
Cambho-
Silubian
f Galena liinestoiie which hears lead.
I Trenton limestone, fossils.
- Sandstones, shales, and calcareous lieds. Lower magnesian limestones.
Lower limit of lead.
White Potsdam Sandstone.
r
i I Fossiliferous slates.
CAMBKIAN ! Lower—
I Doloniitic limestones. 1 Dark sandstones.
Drcler of Strata in the Lead District of Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa.
Test for Silver in Galena. Powder the galena and dissolve it in strong nitric acid (fuming acid is best, which we have described), then dip a h ( 129 )
130 prospector’s field-book and guide.
piece of polished copper strip, and, if silver exists in any amount, there will be formed a film of silver on the copper. If the film becomes decidedly silvery, and in a short time, the ore should be laid aside for a more careful analysis, directions for which we shall give. The geology and form of lodes of the galena ores are seen in Figs. 46, 47.
Fig. 46.
Lead Lode in Micaceous Slate in Mine near Middletown, Conn.
Galena is found associated with zinc sulphide (blende), iron pyrites, fluorspar, antimony, carbon ate of lime, sulphate of baryta, also with copper pyrites, but very seldom with more than two of these minerals at a time.
In several regions, but very extensively in Colo rado, a rich carbonate of lead has been found. (Fig. 47.)
Carbonate of Lead (Cerussite, mineralogical name). If perfectly pure, its composition is lead 83.6, carbonic acid 16.4. As a mineral its hard ness is 3 to 3.5, its specific gravity 6.4 to 6.5.
Lead And Tin.
Color (if freshly broken), white to gray, or even black, if it has been much weathered. If in good condition it is translucent or even transparent. Very brittle. If it contains copper it is nsnally tinged bine or green. It has a glassy or vitreous appearance, and is easily melted before the blow pipe, and a lead bead or globule is readily obtained.
Fig. 47.
Section of strata in California Gulch, Colorado, showing portion of THE CARBONATE OF LEAD DEPOSITS, a, Poi’phyritic rock, 12 to 100 ft. thick, b, Thin bed of white clay, c. Carbonate of lead bed, 1 to 20 ft. thick, d. Oxide of iron, 1 to 6 ft. thick, e, e, Limestone. /, Clay slates, g, Quartzites and metamorphic rocks resting upon gneiss.
By using a little bone-asb plastered in a hollow in the coal and turning the 0 F upon the lead, after a little skillful blowing the lead is absorbed and drawm off and a bright silver globule remains, pro vided the lead contains silver. This is blow-pipe cupelling.
Prospector S Field-Book And Guide.
Sulphate of lead often accompanies the carbon ate. It somewhat resembles the carbonate, although it is of slightly less hardness, 2.75 to 3, specific gravity 6.12 to 6.3. It may be distinguished from the carbonate by the fact that it does not effervesce in an acid, as the latter always will. Its mineralogical name is anglesite. It is composed of lead oxide 73.6 and sulphuric acid 26.4 in the pure specimens.
There are many other minerals containing lead, but as they do not come properly under the denom ination of ores, we omit them. At the same time it is well to become somewhat acquainted with them. The blow-pipe will always enable the prospector to determine the presence of lead.
Phosphate of Lead. Mineralogically, pyro- morpliite. Composition, when pure, 89.7 phosphate and 10.3 chromate of lead, with arsenate of lead (0 to 9), phosphate of lime (0.11), and fluoride of cal cium. Hardness 3.5 to 4 ; specific gravity, 6.5 to 7; color, green with modifications. It has a resinous lustre and is translucent ; contains 78 per cent. lead. Heated on charcoal before the blow-pipe a globule is formed which takes on a crystalline appearance on cooling, leaving a yellow oxide of lead on tlie charcoal. With carbonate of soda in the reducing flame it yields a yellow globule. It is soluble in nitric acid.
Chromate of lead is a yellow mineral contain ing protoxide of lead 68.15, chromic acid 31.85. Hardness 2.5 to 3; specific gravity 5.9 to 6.1. Color, various shades of bright hyacinth-red, streak
Lead And Tin.
(powder) orange-yellow. Lustre, vitreous. Trans lucent, and sectile. Mineralogical name is crocoite.
Lead ochre, massicot mineralogically. This mineral occurs massive, as a compact earth of a sulphury -yellow or reddish 'yellow appearance. It has a hardness of 2, a specific gravity of 8, and, when pure, 9.2. It is composed of oxygen 7.17, lead 92.83. Before the blow-pipe it fuses readily to a yellow glass, and on charcoal is easily reducible to metallic lead.
There are yet other combinations of lead whicli are not ores. They may always be suspected by their weight and be determined by the blow-pipe with soda on charcoal. They may be of service in indicating the presence of lead in the form and quantity of true ores.
The geology of lead. Almost all the galenas and the carbonates contain silver, and some of the latter, as in Colorado, contain large quantities of silver. The geology of lead is very much the same as that of silver.
These ores are found in veins and lodes, and also in flats and beds, and in pockets (Fig. 48). The galenas occur in limestones, called the “ galena limestones,” a yellowish-gray, hard, compact, crys talline rock. The lowest horizon of lead ore in workable quantities lies above that of copper.
‘‘The limestones and underlying schists are, for the most part, in a metamorphic condition, and there can be no difficulty, from the presence of porphyry above and the quartzites and gneiss
13-1 1>HO.SPECT()K’s field-book and ouide.
lielow, ill recognizing their jiosition,” a.s in the C'anihro-silurian system. It is supposed that the largest proportion of silver is contained in the ore derived from this geologic horizon.
Fig. 48.
Section op Galena limestone showing how the lead occurs in lodes, a, flats, b, b, b, and pockets, c, from mere threads to sev’eral feet of thickness.
AMiere wtiter has had its course, however, the condition of a mine and of its veins and beds of ore may have been changed. Koliert Hunt, as it re gards British mines, says, that the circulation of water in the veins is affected by the inclination of the strata in the direction of tlie vein. The richest deposits are found in that portion of strata which, is the most elevated, for instance, on the side of a powerful cross vein, thus :
The circulation of water is dependent upon an outlet at a lower level.
*B. C. Davies, F. G. S. A Treatise on Metalliferous Min erals, London, 1802, p. 250.
Lead And Tin.
Fig. 49.
In the case of lead mines, it is stated that in con- se(jnence of tlie conditions connected witli the descent of water, the ricliest deposits of lead are generally found at no great distance from the out cropping of the containing rock. Veins which run on the sides of a mountain in a direction nearly parallel with the valleys contain more extensive dej)Osits of lead than those which cross the valleys at right angles.*
Fig. 50.
Section of a Lead Deposit in a Fissure in the Limestone. Williams A Co.’s Mine, Wiseonsiii. B, B, B, B, limestone. A, the fissure running down. C, C, C, C, masses of ore. Met amorphic.
Tlie prospector sliould keep tliis suggestion in mind.
British Mining, by Roliert Hunt, London, 1884, p. 844.
136 prospector’s field-book and guide.
The lead ores are found in the fissures wliere they seem to have been deposited by waters which have dissolved them out from neighboring beds (Fig. 50).
Tin. When a tin-bearing mineral is heated be fore the blow-pipe with carbonate of soda or char coal, white metallic tin is yielded. By dissolving this in liydrochloric acid and adding metallic zinc, the tin will be deposited in a spongy form. In the blow-pipe assay tin leaves behind a white deposit which cannot be driven off in either flame. If it be moistened with nitrate of cobalt solution, the deposit becomes bluish green, and this test dis tinguishes it from other metals.
Assay of tin ore. If the ore is poor it should be concentrated, the vein-stuff being got rid off as much as possible. If mixed with iron or copper pyrites, it should be calcined or else treated with acids. One method is to mix the ore with one-fifth of its weight of anthracite coal or charcoal, and expose it in a crucible to a great heat for about twenty minutes. The contents are then poured out into an iron mould, and the slag carefully exam ined for buttons.
Another method is to mix 100 grains of the ore with six times its weight of cyanide of potassium, and expose the mixture to the heat of a good fire for twenty minutes. The contents are allowed to cool and afterwards broken to remove the slair.
o
Veins of tin ore traverse granite, gneiss, mica, slate, etc. The usual ore of tin is the oxide (bin- oxide) whose typical composition is tin 78.38, oxy-
I.Ead And Tin.
gen 21.02, hardness 6 to 7, speeihc gravity 6.8 to 7. It is, as a mineral, called cassiterite, and contains small quantities of iron, copper, manganese, tung sten, tantalic acid, arsenic, sometimes silica, and rarely lime. It occurs massive and in crystals, also in botryoidal and reniform shapes, concentric in structure and radiated fibrous, internally, and is then, in the last form, called ‘‘ ivood tin,” from its woody appearance. Toads-eye tin is the last de scribed, but in very small shot-like grains, and stream tin is the same only in form of sand, found near or in streams.
Tin ore (binoxide) is nearly as hard as quartz, and will scratch glass, especially if freshly broken. Pure crystals are rare. They are nearly transparent, but in the mass, as it occurs in the mines in Dakota and in many other places, the ore is a dark brown color and sometimes almost black ; the fine powder or streak as made by a file, is light brown, however dark the mineral may be. The brown color or shade is due to oxide of iron in composition ; if perfectly free from all associated impurities it would be nearly white or colorless. The usual appearance in mass or pebbles or finer, is that of a dirty or burned-brown color with varying depths of shade.
In the pebble form it is apt to wear quite smooth, due to its extreme hardness.
It was in this form that it was discovered in Banca, in 1710, and in the neighboring island, Billiton, and traced to its source in the mountains, where the central rock is granite, covered by quartz-
188 prospector's field-book and GTTIDE.
ites, altered sandstones, and slaty rocks. The altered sandstone just above the granite is the most productive rock, and it is traversed in all directions with tourmaline.* The same general associations largely exist in Wyoming and Dakota tin mines.
There is another mineral containing tin which may lead to the discovery of the true ore. It re quires only a short description, which we give.
Tin pyrites {sulphide of tm) whose composition is, as a mineral, 29 to 30 sulphur, 25 to 31 tin, 29 to 30 copper, with iron and sometimes zinc. It has been dug as an ore of copper and called “ hell metal.” Its hardness is 4, specific gravity 4.3 to 4.5 ; has a metallic lustre ; color, steel-gray to black, often yellowish from the presence of copper sulphide ; it is opaque and brittle.
With nitric acid it affords a blue solution, and sulphur and tin oxide separate and may be tested on charcoal, where it fuses to a globule, which, in the oxidizing flame, gives off sulphur and coats the coal with white oxide of tin.
This ore or mineral, for it does not as yet deserve the name of tin ore, is of little use, but the pros pector does well to make himself acquainted with it, as it is frequently associated with the binoxide or cassiterite, or black oxide, as the true ore is fre quently called.
This last form is that in which tlie tin ores of
*D. C. Davies, F. G. S. Metalliferous Minerals, Jjondon, 1892, p. 184.
Lead And Tin.
South Dakota are invariably found. The gangue matter varies as do the minerals associated, but the general geologic conditions are largely the same throughout many miles of country. Although tlie Hearney Peak Mines are the chief centres of the tin developments, the whole country around for many miles seems to hold out promise of the same general metallic deposits, and particularly of the black oxide.
The tin veins are gold-bearing, and it is supposed* that the gold is carried in the pyrite which some times accompanies the cassiterite.
It is peculiar that in the granites, wlien they con tain mainly mica and quartz, or mica and albite (soda-feldspar), tin is usually present, but when all the elements of the granite are present the tin is ab sent. If the vein consists of feldspar alone the tin is absent, but when it is composed of quartz alone, as is frequently the case, the quartz is always banded as in a fissure vein, and is usually tin-bear ing, but the tin-stone is of a reddish-brown.
Another peculiarity is in the large quantities of the phosphate minerals found in these regions. Of other minerals, columbite occurs in masses of many pounds’ weight. Tantalite has also been found in the Etta Mine. Also, uranium is reported as found in some of the veins. Albite is everywhere the predominating feldspar.
Mineral Resources of the U. S., 1888. Washington, D. C., 1890, pp. 148, 150.
140 prospector’s field-book and guide.
From what has been said it is plain that tin oxide occurs in the earliest rocks, and even in the granites. It is also to be found in streams or near them, but derived from the rock to which it may be traced. It may be found in lodes, or in the drift and alluvial to which it has come from the moun tain sources. It is also associated with a large vari ety of minerals, but not always the same in different regions. These minerals are characteristic of the tin regions and formations.
It is evident that a most important aid to the prospector is a study of the characteristics of the tin-stone ores, and he may find it beneficial to be come acquainted with the special minerals above mentioned as associated with the ores.
These minerals include, in some mines, ivolframite, which gives trouble in the Cornwall and other tin mines, and the following description and tests may aid in detecting it :
Wolframite is in hardness 5-5.5, specific gravity 7.1-7.55, therefore, in these features it resembles the tin oxide ; though somewhat softer, yet the specific gravity is practically the same, although really heavier. So in color it frequently closely resembles tin oxide. But in the streak (or scratch powder), wolframite is a dark reddish-brown to black, while the tin oxide gives a white or grayish-brown pow der : wolframite is opaque, while the tin oxide is translucent and sometimes transparent on the edges ; when mixed with iron or manganese rarely, it looks almost opaque. Composition of wolframite : tung-
Lead And Tin.
Stic acid about 75, the remainder protoxide of iron and manganese protoxide, more of the latter than of the former.
One other mineral present in the Hearney Mines is a brown garnet, and inasmuch as the small stream tin has to the inexperienced the same general form and color, the two distinct substances are allowed to remain together even in sampling. But while the garnets are of about the same hardness as the tin oxide, they are much lighter, and may be easily separated by panning,” the moving water in the pan throwing the garnets away from the edge of the water, and the heavier grains of tin oxide remaining behind. Where the garnet is somewhat massive it may, with a little observation, be readily distin guished and separated.*
The home of the tin deposits is, geologically, in the granites, as we have said, but they are of a peculiar type, from whose composition feldspar is largely absent and mica largely present. They underlie the oldest sedimentary rocks belonging, evidently, to the Laurentian Series, if not to an earlier primitive group. f
In Dakota it is stated J that granite in the form of bosses and (nearer to the Hearney Peak range) in long dikes is common. But at the Etta, and in its vicinity, the granitic masses are columnar rather
U. S. Geolog. Survey. Min. Res. of U. S., 1888, p. 15H. t D. C. Davies. Treat, on Met. Min., Loud., 1892, ]). 208, i Trans. Amer. Inst, of Mining Engineers, vol. 13, 1884- ]886, p. 691-696.
142 prospector’s field-book and guide.
than tabular in form. The line of demarcation be tween the granitic mass and the slates is sharp and distinct. There is a clay selvage in contact, making a distinct Avail as in regular veins. In the Etta mine, as in other similarly formed granitic masses of the region, the composition is characterized by extremely coarse, massive crystallizations of the constituent minerals.
The cassiterite of the Iback Hills is pure, ranging from 92.80 to 97.50 of tin oxide.
Recently, “tin ore” has been reported discovered on the western slope of the Blue Ridge, a few miles north of Ashby’s Gap, about sixty miles southwest of Washington. Also, large deposits are rej)orted from the region of San Diego, Southern California.
Chapter Ix.
Zinc - Iron.
Zinc. The chief ores of zinc are :
Zinc Carbonate. Mineralogical name Smithson- ite, composition, zinc 51.44, oxygen 13.10, carbonic acid 35.46. But the composition in the mines varies because of the presence of protoxide of iron, man ganese, and magnesia. Color, when pure, nearly white, through various shades of yellow and gray to brown. Hardness 5, specific gravity 4-4.4.
It is easily detected by the blow-pipe, as it gives a green color when heated after being moistened with half a drop of nitrate of cobalt solution. On char coal, with soda, it coats the coal with a white film, which is yellow when hot and white on cooling, but if moistened with the cobalt solution and heated in the 0 F it turns green. With muriatic acid it effer vesces and dissolves. In mass it is translucent and brittle.
Zinc Silicate. Mineralogical name, calamine; composition, zinc oxide 67.5, silica 25, water 7.5. Hardness 4.5-5, the latter when crystallized (Dana), gravity 3.16-3.9. Color and streak the same as in Smithsonite. Acts before the hlow-i)ipe as does Smith sonite, but does not effervesce with acids, and (143)
144 pkosppxtor’s field-book and guide.
gelatinizes ; it is soluble in a strong solution of pot ash.
Red oxide of zinc, inineralogical name is zincite (pron. zinkite), and its composition is zinc 80, oxygen 20, varied by the presence of 3 to 12 parts of peroxide of manganese, which gives the red color, for zinc oxide, pure, is white. This ore is peculiar to one region in New Jersey, Franklin, Sussex Co. Hardness 4-4.5, specific gravity 5. 4-5. 7 ; color, red and yellowish-red, streak the same ; translucent, brittle.
Sulphide of zinc, inineralogical name sphalerite or blende, miners’ name black-jack. Composition, zinc 66.8, sulphur 33.2, but varied in the mines by iron, and sometimes cadmium. Color varies from yellow to brown and almost black, having a wax}" look. Hardness 3.5 to 4, specific gravity 3.9 to 4.2 ; brittle, translucent.
The geology of zinc and of lead are so nearly
Fig. 51.
Section of strata near Sparta, New Jersey, zinc mines,
n, Slaty rock with feldspathic dykes, h, b, Limestone, c. Franklinite iron ore with zinc 20 to 30 ft. wide, d, Red oxide of zinc 3 to 9 ft. wide, c, e. Crystalline limestone. /, Feldspathic rock.
Zinc - Iron.
alike that what has been said of the latter will apply to the former. (Fig. 51.)
Ill New Jersey a section of strata near Sparta shows slaty rock with feldspathic dykes, then lime stone adjoining the Franklinite iron ore with zinc 20 to 30 feet wide, then the red oxide of zinc 3 to 9 feet wide, then crystalline limestone, and next feldspathic rock (Fig. 51).
Enormous and extensive deposits of the sulphide are rejiorted as occurring in Colorado, at George town and Mount Lincoln, and in Montana, near Jefferson City.
The author received a letter stating that some blende sent him came from a group of mines near Cotopaxi, Colorado ; where a vein of zinc blende exists in granite rock ; the blende is 15 feet thick, no rock with it, and only a trace of lead, some copper pyrites, also a trace of cadmium ; about 8 per cent, of iron and about 7 ounces of silver [to the ton] is contained in the crude ore. I have mined and sold from 20 to 30 tons daily on orders.”
From more recent examinations made by Mr. E. H. Saltiel, and reported to the author (1891), the fissures or ‘‘ chimneys ” of ore are in a metamorphic granite country rock. The vein matter penetrates granite, garnet rock, mica schist, and several varieties of the hornblendic series of rocks, principally pyroxene. The latter show a strong “ peppering ” of galena with silver and chalcopyrite. Then come the enormous bodies of zinc blende mixed with chalco])yrite and some iron
146 prospector’s field-book and guide.
pyrite. Following and lying parallel to the zinc blende is pyroxene of about 22 feet thickness, and garnet rock permeated with silver-bearing galena and chalcopyrite, with a small jier cent, of zinc blende. These descriptions apply to Hinsdale, Lake, and Clear Creek counties, Colorado.
The blow-pipe shows the same tests for zinc as have previously been mentioned. The fumes of sulphurous acid may be easily noticed when the mineral is placed in an open tube of glass (a test tube with a small hole in the bottom will be suffi cient), and strongly heated.
Iron. Native iron is not found in nature, but occurs with a small percentage of nickel in meteor ites. It resembles ordinary iron, is malleable and attracted by a magnet. Specific gravity 7.0 to 7.8.
The chief ores of iron are magnetite, hematite (red and brown), and black band.
Iagnetite is composed of iron 72.4 and oxygen 27.6. This ore is always easily attracted by the magnet, and sometimes is found capable of attract ing iron, and then is called 'polaric” or ‘‘load stone.”
Hardness 5.5 to 6.5, specific gravity 5 to 5.1. Color, nearly black ; streak black. In powder or small grains it is always attractable by a magnet ized knife-blade.
Nitric acid does not act upon it, but muriatic acid dissolves it when in very fine powder, and under long-continued heat.
Iron exists in magnetite as protoxide and per-
Zinc - Iron.
oxide or FeO and Fe2 03, and upon this difference of oxides is based the action of important tests.
Franklinite is an ore somewhat resembling magnetite in color, hardness, and specific gravity, but it contains manganese and zinc, and as an ore, is peculiar to Sussex Co., New Jersey. Its streak is dark brown, and its action on the magnet is feebler than in the case of magnetite. The iron is said to he of the composition of peroxide, or Fe203, but it is probably in part protoxide, and this is the cause of its feeble effect on the magnet.
It is easily detected under the blowpipe. Alone, it is infusible, but with borax in the 0 F it colors the borax bead with the amethystine color of man ganese, and in the Fi F it shows the bottle-green oi iron. On charcoal with soda it gives the bluish - green manganate, and also the coating of zinc, especially if the soda is mixed with borax. It is soluble in fine poAvder in muriatic acid.
Specular ore is the peroxide of iron without the protoxide. This oxide is also called the sesqui- oxide, or one and a half oxides, since iron combines with oxygen in the proportion of one to one and a half parts, or FeaOg, and this is the highest propor tion of oxygen the iron Avill combine with, and hence it is the peroxide, the peroxide and sesqui- oxide being the same in this case.
Specular ore is called red hematite from its color, which in some masses is so intensely red as to appear nearly black, but it may ahvays he distin guished from magnetite by its red streak, and the
148 prospector’s field-book and guide.
blacker the ore the more decided is the red of its powder or streak. It is never magnetic. We have always found that in cases where specular ore showed any magnetic attraction, it was due to tlie fact that the ore contained some protoxide of iron.
Fjg. 52.
(tEOLOGIC HORIZONS AROUND THE IRON ORES OF LAKE SUPERIOR.
a, Gneiss, h, Hornblende slates, c, The same with numerous thin beds of iron ore which frequently unite, d, Potsdam sandstone.
Hardness 5.5, specific gravity 4.5 to 5.3, composi tion, 70 per cent, iron, 30 per cent, oxygen. Color, reddish to almost black.
Brown Iron Ore or Brown IIE[ATITE or Limonite. This is the same in composition as red hematite, except that it has less iron and contains water in chemical combination, generally about 14 l)er cent. Color always brown. AV hen heated red-
Zinc - Iron.
hot it loses its water and turns to a liright-red, unless largely mixed with alumina and silex, when the red color is shaded. It is not magnetic unless heated with soda under the blow-pipe, when it be comes metallic, as all iron ores do.
The amount of metallic iron in a pure specimen is 59 per cent., sometimes decreased by presence oi alumina, silica, magnesia, and other impurities, so that its average in many good mines is only about 35 to 36 per cent. iron.
Spathic Iron Ore or Siderite is an iron car bonate, composed of iron protoxide 62 per cent, and carbonic acid, or 48 per cent, pure iron, but frequently composed of manganese. Hardness 3.5 to 4.5, gravity 3. 7-3. 9, streak white. Color gray or cream color, unless weathered, when it is brownish.
When in powder it effervesces with muriatic acid, especially when hot. Translucent on edges, and thin plates or splinters.
With the blow-pipe in a closed tube (test tube) it decrepitates, becomes blackened, and gives off car bonic acid. Before the blow-pipe alone, held by forceps, it blackens and fuses. In the test tube with muriatic acid it may be tested for carbonic acid, by letting a lighted thread down into the tube, when the flame is instantly extinguished. The solution in the tube may be tested for iron by dropping a drop of solution of ferricyanide of potassium into the muriatic acid solution, when it becomes in stantly a deep blue. This is a test of protoxide of iron, spathic ore being iron in the condition of prot oxide only.
150 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Black band ore is an argillaceous spathic ore of various dark colors, being largely combined with carbonaceous material. It is found extensively in Great Britain, near the summit of the coal measures. In our country the black band ores are also associ ated with the coal measures, both in the anthracite and bituminous regions.
Chromic Iron or Chromite, generally with 49.90 to 60.04 per cent, of chromic oxide, 18.42 to 35.68 per cent, of ferrous oxide, 10 to 12 per cent, alumina, 5.36 to 15 per cent, magnesia, and 4 to 6 per cent, silica, occurs usually massive, mixed with other iron ores or in serpentine. It is an iron-black to brown ish-black color and a faintly metallic lustre. Streak or powder, dark-brown. Fracture, irregular ; specific gravity, 4.4 to 4.6 ; hardness 5.5, is not scratched by a knife. With borax bead it gives the character istic indications of chromium. It is largely used in the preparation of chromium colors.
The following iron ores are not used for the mak ing of iron and steel, but may nevertheless prove of value.
Iron Pyrites, usually in cubes and allied forms, sides often marked by fine parallel lines. Occurs also massive and contains 46.7 per cent, of iron and 53.3 per cent, of sulphur. Color, brass yellow ; lustre, metallic ; streak, brownish-black ; fracture irregular; specific gravity 4.8 to 5.1 ; hardness 6 to 6.5 ; cannot be scratched with a knife, but is scratched by quartz, and scratches glass with great facility. Before the blow-pipe it burns with a blue
Zinc - Iron.
flame, giving off an odor of sulphur, and ultimately fuses into a black magnetic globule. It is found in great abundance, and is used as a source of sulphur. It is easily distinguished from copper pyrites by its hardness, the latter being readily cut with a knife. From gold it is distinguished by its hardness and in not being malleable, and in giving off sulphurous odors in the blow-pipe flame.
Arsenical Pyrites or Mispickel contains 34.4 per cent, of iron, 19.6 per cent, of arsenic, and 46.0 per cent, of sulphur. It occurs in flattened prisms and also massive. Color, white ; lustre, metallic ; streak, gray, fracture, uneven ; specific gravity 6.0 to 6.3 ; hardness 5.5 ; cannot be scratched with a knife, but is scratched by quartz. Heated before the blow pipe it gives off white arsenical fumes of a garlic odor, and finally fuses into a black globule. It is abundant in mining districts, and sometimes is auriferous. With the improved processes now in use, it is possible to extract the gold profitably, and hence mispickel ores should be examined for gold.
The geology of the iron ores varies and may be divided into that of the magnetites, which are always derived from the granites, gneiss, schist rocks, clay slates, and rarely, the metamorphic lime stones.
The red hematites seem to be only an alteration derived from the magnetites, and belong to the same more ancient rocks.
The brown hematites (limonites) are derived from both the former and are generally sedimentary.
Prospector S Field-Book And Guide.
Very frequently in extensive magnetite regions, where the country back is mountainous, the brown ore has been formed in basins and knees and inter locked portions of the lower country, where ages of rains, storms and freshets, have gradually trans ported and altered the magnetic ores of the upper regions and brought down these iron oxides to the lands, where they have been arrested and settled down in beds of brown hematite. This seems to have been the history of all the hematitic limonite beds and deposits ; they are on the lower levels where were formed, although in after ages they may have been uplifted.
Iron ores are, therefore, to be found in three gen eral geologic regions : (1) in the earliest rocks ; (2)
Fig. 53.
a, Qxiartzite or siliceous rock, b, Red hematite iron ore alternating with siliceous matter, c, Siliceous rocks.
ill the carboniferous, and (3) in the more recent or sedimentary rocks, and in accordance with their composition as magnetites and specular ores, as
Zinc - Ikon.
carbonaceous or black band and spathic ores, or as brown ores of the limonite order.
One of the most peculiar geologic conditions is found in the Pilot Knob Mountain, wherein the iron strata have been thrown up as in Fig. 53.
The Use Of The Magnetic Needle In Prospecting For Iron.
In ordinary cases, where the surface is covered with loose earth, it is common to search for mag netic iron ore with a magnetic needle or a miner’s compass, and for preliminary examinations it is now the chief reliance. In using this instrument considerable practice is required ; but this joined to good judgment gives indications of the presence of ore which are almost infallible. There has been very great improvement, within a few years past, in the methods of searching for magnetic ore as well as in the instruments to be used for that purpose, and the work is now well done by many persons.
In the Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 1879, W. H. Scranton, M. E., makes a report, accompanied by a map, upon a magnetic survey made at Oxford, Warren Co., New Jersey, to determine the location of a vein, and the proper places to sink shafts. Mr. Scranton finds Gurley’s Norwegian compass the best, though the slowest to work with. He sums up the indications from the magnetic needle in searching for ore, as it usually occurs in New Jersey, as follows :
“An attraction which is confined to a very small
154 prospector’s field-book and guide,
spot and is lost in passing a few feet from it, is most likely to be caused by a boulder of ore or particles of magnetite in the rock.
“ An attraction which continues on steadily in the direction of the strike of the rock for a distance of many feet or rods, indicates a vein of ore ; and if it is positive and strongest towards the southwest, it is reasonable to conclude that the vein begins with the attraction there. If the attraction diminishes in going northeast, and finally dies but without becom ing negative, it indicates that the vein has con tinued on without break or ending until too far off' to move the compass needle. If, on passing towards the northeast, along the line of attraction, the south pole is drawn down, it indicates the end of the vein or an offset. If, on continuing further still in the same direction, positive attraction is found, it shows that the vein is not ended ; but if no attraction is shown, there is no indication as to the further con tinuance of the ore.
In crossing veins of ore from southeast to north west, when the dip of the rock and ore is as usual to the southeast, positive attraction is first observed to come on gradually, as the ore is nearer and nearer to the surface, and the northwest edge of the vein is indicated by the needle suddenly showing negative attraction just at the point of passing off it. This change of attraction will be less marked as the depth of the vein is greater, or as the strike is nearer north and south. The steadiness and continuance of the attraction is a much better indication of ore
Zinc - Iron.
than the strength or anionnt of attraction is. The ore may vary in its susceptibility to the magnetic influence from impurities in its substance ; it does vary according to the position in which it lies — that is, according to its dip and strike ; and it also varies much according to its distance beneath the surface.
'Method of Using the Compass in Searching for Ore. — It is sufficient to say that the first examinations are made by passing over the ground with the com pass in a northwest and southeast direction, at in tervals of a few rods, until indications of ore are found. Then the ground should be examined more carefully by crossing the line of attraction at inter vals of a few feet, and marking the points upon which observations have been made, and recording the amount of attraction. Observations with the ordinary compass should be made and the varia tion of the horizontal needle be noted. In this way materials may soon be accumulated for staking out the line of attraction, or for constructing a map for study and reference.
“ After sufficient exploration with the magnetic needle, it still remains to prove the value of the vein by uncovering the ore, examining its quality, meas uring the size of the vein, and estimating the cost of mining and marketing it. Uncovering should first be done in trenches dug across the line of attraction, and carried quite down to the rock. When the ore is in this way proved to be of value, regular mining operations may begin.
ISG prospector’s field-book and guide.
places where there are offsets in the ore, or where it has been subject to bends, folds, or other irregularities, so that the miner is at fault in what direction to proceed, explorations may be made with the diamond drill.”
Chapter X.
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, C’Obalt And Cadmium.
Mercury or Quicksilver. Native mercury is rarely found. It occurs disseminated in liquid globules through sandstone and other rocks, in cavities of which it may accumulate. It is bright, white, and of specific gravity 13.6 at 32° F. How ever, the principal sources of quicksilver are the following ;
Cinnabar, or sulphide of mercury, found massive, of a granular texture, reddish color, and scarlet-red streak. Composition : mercury 86.2, sulphur 13.8, when pure. It is the most valuable ore of mercury.
Hardness 2 to 2.5, specific gravity 8.99, sectile. Before the blow-pipe on charcoal it is volatile if pure, gives sulphurous flames if heated in an open tube, and mercury condenses on the sides of the tube, so that it may easily be seen with a lens or even the naked eye.
Native amalgam. This is a mixture of silver and mercury, and when pure, contains from 64 to 72 per cent, mercury. Color, silver-white; hardness 3-3.5, specific gravity 10.5-14. On charcoal before the blow-pipe, the quicksilver evaporates and the silver remains.
( 157)
158 prospector's field-book and guide.
In California the ore, cinnabar, is in alternate beds of clayey shale and layers of flinty rock. The ore is found on a range from the summit of the lower Cambrian rocks to the base of the Cambro- silurian strata, and it occurs in the midst of erup tive and metamorphic rocks, being mostly associated with greenstone and porphyry, and the ores are fre- (|uently accompanied by bituminous matter.*
Bismuth. This metal occurs native, of a reddish silver-white color. Brittle when cold ; hardness 2- 2.5, specific gravity 9.7. Sectile when heated. It carries, sometimes, traces of arsenic, sulphur, tellur ium, and iron. On charcoal before the blow-pipe, it fuses and entirely volatilizes, leaving a coating which is orange-yellow while hot and lemon-yellow on cooling (this is the trioxide of bismuth). It dis solves in nitric acid, but subsequent dilution causes a white precipitate.
Very little bismuth has been found in our coun try. The metal occurs on the Continent of Europe, associated with silver and cobalt, also with copper ores. Although there is but little call for it in the arts, a deposit or lode of bismuth would be valuable.
Where it has been found in the United States it has been associated with wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese), also with tungstate of lime, with galena and zinc blende in quartz.
Its GEOLOGY is tlic Same as that of copper ; it occurs in veins, in gneiss, and other crystalline rocks.
B, C. Davies’ Met. Min., Jjond., 1881, p. 284.
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 159
Nickel. It does not occur native, except in meteorites.
Under the blow-pipe, nickel requires care and some practice. On charcoal, with soda in the inner flame, it gives a gray metallic powder, attractable by the magnet. In the borax bead in the outer flame it gives a hyacinth-red to violet-brown while hot, a yellowish or yellow-red when cold. In the reducing or inner flame, a gray appearance is given. These appearances are modified by the impurities of the mineral and the amount of nickel in the mineral. The wet process is the only method of determining the true value of the nickel-bearing mineral.
Its chief ores are :
Smaltite, which is a combination of cobalt, iron and nickel, and arsenic in varying proportions.
Before the blow-pipe in the closed tube, it gives off arsenic as a metallic sublimate on the sides of the glass. In the open tube it gives off white sub limate of arsenious acid.
On charcoal it gives an arsenical odor and fuses to a globule, which, under successive heatings with borax, gives the reactions for iron, cobalt, and nickel {page 1 71).
Hardness of the ore 5.5-6, specific gravity 6.4- 7.2, metallic lustre ; color, tin-white, sometimes a little tarnished ; streak, grayish-black ; brittle.
Nickel arsenide, copper nickel'' mineralogical name, nicolite. Composition : nickel 44.1 ; arsenic 55.9. It looks somewhat like pale copper, but con-
160 prospector’s field-book and guide.
tains no copper. Hardness 5-5.5, specific gravity 6.67-7.33 ; streak, pale brownish to black ; brittle. It frequently contains a little iron, and sometimes a trace of antimony, lead, and cobalt.
If carefully treated under the bloAV-pipe with borax, it will show the iron if present, in the bead, and the cobalt and nickel by successive oxidations {page 171). But the nickel requires especial treat ment, the detection of which we shall speak of in this chapter.
There is another mineral, not properly an ore, called
Emerald-nickel, a carbonate of nickel, contain ing 28.6 water when pure. It forms incrustations on other minerals, like another called millerite.
Millerite, a sulphide of nickel forming tufts of very fine acicular, brassy-looking crystals, in cavi ties of the red hematite of Sterling Iron Mines in Northern New York, and velvety incrustations on ores in Lancaster Co., Penna., where nickel is found and worked. In the former place no nickel abounds, but in the latter it has been found in paying quantities. But the sulphide forms at the latter place vary very much, as examined under the microscope, from the acicular crystals found in the ores at Sterling, N. Y., and yet they are the same chemical combination. The ore upon which the tufts of velvety covering are found at the Gap Mine, Lancaster Co., Penn., is pyrrhotite or sulphide of iron, holding 4 to 5.9 per cent, nickel in coni})o- sition ; that of Sterling, N. Y., is the red hematite.
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 161
The sources of nickel discovered in Sudbury, Can ada, north of Georgian Bay, yield nickel in pyrrhotite (sulphide of iron), and apparently also in chalcopy- rite, whose typical composition is copper 34.6, iron 30.5, sulphur 34.9. It is a mineral of brass-yellow appearance, and one which furnishes the copper of commerce at the Cornwall Mines (Eng.) and at the copper beds in Fahlun, Sweden. In the latter place it is imbedded, as it appears to be in the region of the Sudbury Mines, only that the Sudbury ore is imbedded in pyrrhotite and the Swedish in gneiss.
The chalcopyrite does not mix intimately with the nickel ore so as to form a homogeneous mass, but occurs by itself in pockets or threads, etc., but inclosed with massive pyrrhotite, which, while it may have more than 30 per cent, of nickel present, does not show any signs of the changed composition.*
This per cent, is far above the average of nickel in the pyrrhotite, which seldom carries less than per cent, or more than 9 per cent, of nickel.
The following new ores of nickel are reported by Dr. Emmons from Sudbury, Canada :
Foleyrite of a bronze-yellow color, grayish-black streak, and metallic lustre. It occurs massive and contains 32.87 per cent, of nickel. Its specific gravity is 4.73, hardness 3.5.
Wkartonite contains 6.10 per cent, of nickel. It has a pale bronze-yellow color, black streak and
*Dr. E. B. Peters, Manager of the Canada Coi)per Company.
162 prospector’s field-book and guide.
metallic lustre. Specific gravity about 3.73 ; hard ness about 4.
Jack’s Tin or Blueite contains 3.5 per cent, of nickel. It is of an olive-gray to bronze color, me tallic lustre and black streak. Specific gravity 4.2 ; hardness 3 to 3.5.
Analysis Of Ores For Nickel And Cobalt.
As this analysis requires care, we give the follow ing method in full :
1. Reduce finely 50 grains of the ore. Put it in a dry beaker-glass and pour a mixture of one part sulphuric acid with three parts nitric acid, both pure and concentrated, or 40 to 50 c.c. to 2 grams of ore.
2. Heat the covered beaker ou a sand-bath to near 212° Fah. for two hours. Then partly un cover, and evaporate the nitric acid entirely.
3. Cool and add 100 or more c.c. of water and let it stand for four hours ; the insoluble residue is LEAD sulphate, silex, etc.
4. Filter off the soluble part and place the moist lead sulphate in a beaker and dissolve it by first pouring in ammonia (20-25 c.c.), and next acetic acid till it is decidedly acid. The sulphate now dissolves if kept warm for some twenty minutes. Filter and wash, and if any residue remains (silex, etc.), reserve for future examination.
5. The LEAD is now separate, but if the amount is sought, pass a current of hydrogen sulphide through the solution till the lead is entirely pfe-
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 163
cipitated. Filter, dry, place the residue in a porce lain crucible and heat to a low-red heat, passing a current of dry hydrogen into the crucible while heating to prevent any oxidizing of the sulphide. When the crucible and contents remain the same in weight, the last weight of the lead sulphide is the correct amount. Of this weight, 86.61 parts in 100 are lead, 13.39 are sulphur.
If the ore has no lead in it, the above work is omitted entirely. The likelihood of lead may be tested qualitatively from a small quantity dissolved, precipitated by hydrogen sulphide, and the precipi tate determined by the blow-pipe on charcoal giving the lead coating, and with soda, the metallic globule.
6. To Separate the Copper. The filtrate re maining after the insoluble lead sulphate was filtered off, as in No. 4, now contains whatever the mineral is composed of, copper, iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. Dilute the filtrate to about 500 c.c., heat to nearly boiling, and pass hydrogen sulphide through it, and thus precipitate all the copper after adding 1 or 2 c.c. of hydrochloric acid. Filter, wash, dry, and ignite the precipitate in an atmosphere of hydrogen. The result will be pure CU2S, from which the copper may be ascertained as 79.85 parts of the whole weight of CU2S.
7. Concentrate by evaporization the filtrate of No. 6 remaining after the copper was separated, add 1 or 2 c.c. of nitric acid, and boil the filtrate two or three minutes, let it become nearly cold, add an excess of ammonia, and let it stand in a warm place half an hour.
164 prospector’s field-book and guide.
8. Filter the precipitate into a porcelain dish and redissolve the iron oxide (hydroxide) with hydro chloric acid poured slowly into the filter, complete washing of the filter with hot water, reduce the free acid in the filtrate with ammonia, then very nearly neutralize it carefully with sodium (metallic) or ammonium carbonate ; the solution must remain clear, though dark red, if much iron is present. Now add a strong neutral solution of ammonium or sodium acetate (not in large excess), and then boil a short time. When rightly performed the iron oxide precipitate will settle rapidly, and the super natant liquor will be clear. Wash rapidly with boiling water, and, at first, separate the clear part by decantation, and then filter. If great exactitude is required, redissolve in hydrochloric acid, and once more precipitate with the acetate just as before. Add this filtrate to the ammoniacal filtrate men tioned at the beginning of No. 7 paragraph.
The iron is now separated as basic ferric acetate, and it is almost, if not entirel}", separated from all nickel and cobalt which are yet in solution.
9. The first filtrate. No. 7, contains all the nickel and cobalt. It must now be concentrated to about 250 c.c. If it is slightly acid, proceed ; if not, then add muriatic acid until it is very slightly acid. Now heat the filtrate in a beaker to gentle boiling, and pass iiydrogen sulphide through the liquid. A black precipitate follows, if nickel sulphide with cobalt sulphide, they are together.
10. Filter, wash, and dry ; incinerate the filter-
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 165
paper with the precipitate if very small in quantity, otherwise separately ; heat in porcelain crucible. Dissolve in aqua regia (nitro-inuriatic acid), and treat it till only yellow sulphur remains, evaporate and expose the residue to a heat of 180° Fah. to make any silica insoluble. Moisten with a few drops of muriatic acid, add 20 c.c. of water to dis solve the salts, add some solution of hydrogen sul phide to separate any copper or lead which may have escaped separation, filter into a porcelain disli and concentrate all to about 100 c.c.
11. Boil gently, and while boiling add pure so dium sarbonate solution until the liquid is slightly alkaline. Continue boiling a few minutes, add a few grains of pure soda solution (sodium hydroxide). This is best prepared freshly by dropping a small ball of metallic sodium into a half ounce of water in a platinum dish or crucible, or, not so well, in a porcelain dish. Heat to boiling again a few min utes till all the nickel and cobalt are precipitated, wash the precipitate with boiling hot water by de cantation, and finally on the filter, until a drop on polished platinum shows no residue. After drying the precipitate remove it to a piece of glazed paper ; cover with a bell glass. Then incinerate the filter till the carbon has entirely disappeared, add it to the precipitate already obtained, place all in a cru cible, cover it and expose to heat to redness, and, finally, if desired, reduce the oxides to the metallic condition by ignition under a stream of hydrogen.
12. As this process of reduction to metal is some-
166 prospector’s field-book and guide.
times very useful, vve give a simple plan of appa ratus for this purpose. Get a half pint, wide mouthed pickle bottle and introduce two glass tubes of a quarter inch diameter into a cork fitting the. mouth, after having nicely adjusted the cork to the mouth of the bottle. The tubes may be easily bent and blown as in A B, Fig. 54 below, over the fiame of an alcohol lamp, before permanently fastening them in place. To blow a funnel end, heat the end of the tube to softness and mash it together, hermetically seal, then reheat rapidl} roll it be tween finger and thumb while gently blowing at the other end until swollen large enough, then, with pincers, break it or chip it off ; if enlarged twice or three times the diameter it is large enough for the purpose. The tubes intended to be bent should be rapidly rotated in the enlarged flame un til red-hot, and then bent to the right angle and gradually cooled.
It is well to make another of these bottles for dry ing the hydrogen, as in B. Introduce the tube as shown in the figure, wherein B represents the drying bottle in which is placed a quantity of fragments of chloride of calcium of the size of peas or even smaller. In putting the cork with tubes into this bottle, the bottle should be on its side and rolled while introducing the longer tube into the calcium chloride, so. that the fragments may not obstruct the tube as it is pushed down. The exit tube may be bent or straight, and properly sized india-rubber tubing may be fitted over the ends so as to make
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 167
connections. A common clay stem smoking pipe arranged as in the figure, with the bowl inverted into the crucible which is placed on a wire support on a retort stand, c, is quite sufficient. The usual alcohol blast lamp, d, is necessary for this operation. To put the apparatus to work it is only necessary to introduce some three or four ounces of broken up pieces of zinc into A, together with water sufficient to half fill the bottle, cork up with the tubes ar-
Fig. 54.
ranged as above, and pour into the funnel-shaped tube common oil of vitriol gradually, until the gas begins to come over, then stop as the water becomes heated, and the gas will increase without addition. You may noAV prepare your crucible, and, when in place, and the tubes all arranged, the gas may be made to come over more rapidly by adding a little more oil of vitriol drop by drop.
13. The crucible should be weighed after cooling , and replaced, the flame of the blast lamp relighted.
168 prospector’s field-book and guide.
and red heat renewed under the hydrogen apparatus until the crucible, when again weighed, shows no alteration in weight. The oxide now has been re duced to the pure metal form, and it may then be cooled.
In the case of the analysis we are now upon, the metallic reduction will be that of both nickel and cobalt, and they will appear as a dark powder in the bottom of the crucible.
When the hydrogen apparatus is no longer to be used, the generator bottle A should be washed thoroughly and the zinc also ; the latter may be left in the bottle and the cork replaced loosely, but the cork must be removed from bottle B, and a tight- fitting cork be used in its place, as the chloride may be used again. All is ready for another operation by simply replacing and adding water and acid as before.
14. Separation of Nickel and Cobalt. The two metals should be weighed in order that if the cobalt be found, the nickel may be known by the difference. Dissolve the two metals in nitric acid and evaporate them till there is no free nitric acid. Next add about 6 to 8 grams (100 grains), po tassium nitrite dissolved in 10 to 15 c.c. of hot water. If any fiocculent particles appear, add a little acetic acid, just sufficient to dissolve them, and now a precipitate of cobalt (as tripotassium cobaltic nitrite), takes place slowly. The whole volume should now be 15 to 20 c.c. Cover the beaker con taining it with glass, and set it aside in a warm
Mercury, Bismuth, Nk’Kel, Cobalt, Etc. 169
place for twenty -four hours. Filter, wash with a solution of potassium acetate (which may be made by neutralizing acetic acid with crystallized potas sium bicarbonate, leaving the solution slightly acid), and proceed to more efficiently separate the cobalt as a metal, as follows : —
Dilute the filtrate, heat, and precipitate with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), Mash the greater part of the saline matter out and then dissolve the precipitate in nitric acid, evaporate to dryness, add two or three drops of nitric acid and dissolve in a small volume of water, filter, concentrate the filtrate, and repeat the process of separation with potassium nitrite as before. Put this precipitate, with the filter-paper, into a beaker, add about 100 c.c. of water, heat, add muriatic acid to dissolve it, separate the filter-paper by filtering it and washing it in a funnel, evaporate the solution on a water-bath, and let it remain on the water-bath two or three hours to render the silica insoluble, then moisten with muriatic acid, add water, filter, and convert the co balt to metallic form, as was done before for both nickel and cobalt, namely, as in paragraph No. 11. The cobalt is now entirely separate from the nickel. Weigh it, and by difference from the weight of the two determine the weight of nickel as suggested in No. 14. The amount of nickel is now known by weight, and readily compared with the whole amount of the original weight of ore employed at the beginning.
If the above process is carefully followed out, in a
170 prospfx'tor’s field-book and guide.
mineral containing lead, copper, iron, cobalt, and nickel, the cobalt and nickel are separated with great exactness.
But the main ore of nickel is pyrrliotite, and, as in the Gap Mine, Lancaster Co., renn., and in the Sudbury Mines, Canada, pyrrliotite contains only iron and nickel, seldom cobalt enough to notice. So that much less work is required, as follows : Pul verize, dissolve in muriatic acid in a flask. If much free acid is present, nearly neutralize with sodium or ammonium carbonate; the solution should be clear, but, if there is much ferric chloride, it should be of a deep-red color ; now do as directed in No. 8, to add the ammonium acetate, and pro ceed as before.
In view of the importance of nickel-steel armor plates, prospecting for nickel is a work of unusual interest. In addition to the discovery of the nickel pyrrliotite in Canada, which we have already no ticed, new discoveries have been reported from New Caledonia, an island 900 miles east of Australia. The ore is a nickel silicate and has been named Garnierite, after M. Gamier, its discoverer. It is also found in Oregon. It contains from 8 to 10 per cent, of nickel, has a green color and jdelds an un colored streak.
The mines at the Gap, Lancaster Co., Penna., are considered nearly, if not quite exhausted, and the miners are looking for richer veins of ore. There is now, as may readily be imagined, increased de mand for nickel ores.
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 171
Cobalt. — Cobalt does not occur in native form. The folloAving are the minerals of importance :
Smaltite seems to he composed of cobalt, nickel, iron, and arsenic; the typical form is arsenic 72.1, cobalt 9.4, nickel 9.5, iron 9 100. Hardness 5.5-6, specific gravity 6. 4-7. 2. Color, tin-white, sometimes iridescent. Streak, grayish-black. Brittle, Before the blow-pipe, on charcoal with soda, the arsenious acid fumes are given off, and the garlic smell is plainly observed. With borax for the bead the assay may be made to show (with successive heatings), the reactions first of iron, then cobalt, and nickel, provided the operator is skillful in oxidizing the powdered ore by cautious degrees ; when one borax bead shows iron reaction by a certain amount of carefully applied 0 F to the bead, try another with increased degree of oxidization until you per ceive the cobalt blue and nickel brown, if both are present.
CoBALTiTE is composed of sulphur, arsenic, and cobalt in the typical proportions of 19.3, 45.2, 35.5 100, but it frequently, as a mineral, contains iron. Hardness 5.5, specific gravity 6-6.3. Under the blow-jiipe, in an open tube, it sends off sulphurous fumes and a sublimate of arsenous acid. With borax bead gives the blue of cobalt. Dissolves in warm nitric acid, separating the sulphur and arsenic.
Cobaltite and smaltite are valuable as affording the greater part of smalt of commerce, and the for mer is used in porcelain painting.
172 prospectorIs field-book and guide.
Erythrite is a soft (1.5-2. 5), peach-red mineral of specific gravity 2.9, transparent or translucent, sometimes pearl- or greenish-gray.
Composition, typical, arsenic 38.43, cobalt oxide 37.55, water 24.02 100.
In a closed tube, under blow-pipe, it yields water and turns bluish. Gives tlie usual blue for cobalt in the borax bead.
Valuable for the manufacture of smalt. It is sometimes known as cohalt bloom”
Linnueite. This is valuable for the large amount of both cobalt and nickel it sometimes contains. Hardness 5.5, specific gravity 4.8-5 ; metallic lustre ; color, pale steel-gray, tarnishing to red. Composi tion, sulphur 42, cobalt 58 100, but cobalt is re placed by large amounts of nickel, and sometimes copper. Some specimens from Mineral Hill, Mary land, and from Missouri, have yielded as high as 29.56 and 30 per cent, nickel, with 21 to 25 per cent, cobalt in the same specimen, but with a small amount of iron (3 per cent.).
Earthy Cobalt, or Cobalt Wad {Asholite is the mineral ogical name), occurs as a bog ore, with man ganese, iron and copper, and nickel. It is blue- black at times, has a hardness of 1 to 1.5, and specific gravity of 2.2 to 2.6. It sometimes contains up to 35 per cent, of cobalt oxide.
Its geological position is in the earlier rocks, as the chlorite slates with chalcopyrite, blende, and pyrite, as in Maryland. Sometimes the ore is found in cavities in the limestone of the carboniferous age,
Mercury, Bismuth, Nickel, Cobalt, Etc. 173
as in Great Britain. The tin-white cobalt is found in the gneissic and primitive rocks, as in Norway. LinnaBite is found at Mine la Motte, Mo., in masses, sometimes in octahedral crystals among its rich ores of lead and nickel.
Cadmium. Of this mineral but one ore is known, namely, the sulphide, or Greenockite, with 77.7 per cent, cadmium. Color, honey to orange-yellow and brick-red ; in hexagonal prisms ; hardness 3 to 3.5 ; specific gravity 4.5 to 4.908. Before the blow pipe, on charcoal with soda, it yields a red-brown deposit. Cadmium is frequently associated with zinc ores, the blende of Eaton, for instance, contain ing 3.4 per cent.
Metallic cadmium is white like tin, and shares with it the property of emitting a crackling sound when bent. It is so soft that it leaves a mark upon paper.
Chapter Xl
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, And Other Minerals.
Aluminium is not found native. It is the basis of all clays which are oxides of aluminium com bined with various other substances, as silex, iron, magnesia, and lime, hut chiefly silex, so that clay may be known, chemically, as a silicate of alumina.
The sapphire and true ruby are pure crystallized oxides of aluminium. Emery and corundum are impure oxides.
It is formed from the breaking down or wear, chiefl} of the feldspathic rocks or elements of granite or gneiss and porphyries. Where great masses have been formed they make up the kaolin used in the manufacture of porcelain.
The most valuable kaolins are those entirely free from iron. This is easily tested by the blow-pipe, since, when the kaolin is heated, it changes from white to brown, a proof that iron is present. Kaolin beds without any trace of iron are valuable.
Corundum is an oxide of aluminium, and is val uable for its abrasive qualities. It has a hardness of 9, being in this respect only inferior to the diamond, and a speciflc gravity of 3.9 to 4.2. It easily scratches topaz and quartz. It is generally found (174)
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 175
associated with the crystalline rocks, as granular limestone, gneiss, mica slate, chlorite slate. It occurs of many colors, blue, black, also red, green, yellow, white. Dull crystals are called corundum, and gray or black granular varieties Emery. The blue variety is called Sapphire, the most esteemed shade being deep velvet blue ; the blood-red variety is the Oriental Ruby, which can be readily dis tinguished from other red gems by its superior hardness ; the bright yellow variety is the Oriental Topaz, distinguished by its hardness from the topaz, yellow tourmaline and false topaz ; the bright green is the Oriental Emerald ; the bright violet. Oriental Amethyst. One variety exhibits a six- rayed star inside the prism, and is called the Asterias. Ruby is the most highly prized form of this mineral.
In the metal aluminium, it is probable that the finer clays will serve in the future as the source, although at present artificial refuse from certain manufactures has been largely used, together with some minerals, as cryolite, bauxite, etc.
Cryolite is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, and contains sometimes 13 per cent, of al uminium. At present it is imported from Green land, but it exists and is reported as found in the United States.
Hardness 2.5, specific gravity 3. It is white, with various shades of 3ellow and light brown, easily fusible in a candle flame. Translucent ; brittle.
With the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it fuses to a
176 prospector’s field-book and guide.
clear bead, becoming opaque on cooling. After long blowing with 0 F the assay spreads out, the fluoride of sodium sinks into the coal, and the suffo cating odor of fluorine is given off and the alumina remains as a crust, which, if touched with a little' cobalt solution and gently heated, gives a blue color of alumina. If some of the cryolite is powdered and placed near the open end of a glass tube and the flame from the blow-pipe turned carefully on it, the fluorine will be freed and will etch the glass, showing corrosion and proving the presence of fluorine.
Bauxite. This mineral is soft and granular, and abounds in some places. It is easily worked, and, although it contains only from 50 to 70 per cent, of the oxide of aluminium, it has only a small per cent, of impurity beside the water of combination. It is supposed to be the most economical ore for the production of aluminium. The finely pulverized mineral is mixed with sodium carbonate, 3 of the latter to 1 of the former, heated below the melting point, the mass well stirred all the time until, when any portion is treated with an acid, there is no effer vescence. The mass is taken out of the heat, ground and lixiviated with hot water, which extracts the sodium aluminate in solution, leaving the silica and iron insoluble. The alumina is precipitated from the clear solution by means of carbonic acid gas forming sodium carbonate, while the alumina settles to the bottom of the vessel. This is washed with hot water mi dried, From this the metal is forme4
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 177
chiefly by electrolysis from the pure oxide or from its salts, as reported by Alfred E. Hunt.*
Bauxite is a ferruginous clay of dull lustre and of various colors, specific gravity 2.55, the impuri ties being, generally, a small quantity of silica with a sesquioxide of iron and water. It is soluble in sulphuric acid.
Deposits of bauxite have been found in Alabama, Georgia and Arkansas. The ore occurs associated with limonites and kaolins in irregular beds, in the region underlaid by the Knox dolomite of the Lower Silurian formation. In Alabama these occurrences are always near to the foot-hills of the mountains formed of the W eisner quartzite or sandstone, which in Alabama is a member of the Cambrian. The bauxite, therefore, seems to be associated chiefly with the lower beds of the Knox dolomite. In Georgia the bauxite occurs in the same formation, and in Arkansas in territorial areas and in the neighborhood of eruptive syenites.
There are some rich clays, existing in large quan tities, which, when digested with sulphuric acid, part with their silica ; and other processes may be found for preparing clay so as to eliminate both iron and silica, which detracts from the purity of the metal aluminium.
There are at Gay Head, on the west end of Mar tha’s Vineyard, immense cliffs of clay of several colors. Some of this clay is nearly white, and shows
Technology Quarterly, Vol. IV., No. 1, April, 1891.
178 prospector’s field-book and guide.
little or no iron under the blow-pipe. There are tons of it which show very little silica, if the trial of small quantities proves what the masses are. Clays of this kind may yet prove to be the chief economic source.
ANTIMONY. This metal is usually found asso ciated with arsenic and sulphur, the chief ore being
Stibnite, which is a sulphide of antimony, anti mony 71.8, sulphur 28.2. This ore affords nearly all the antimony of commerce. Hardness 2, gravity 4.5, metallic lustre; color and streak lead-gray, sec- tile. When pure, perfectly soluble in muriatic acid.
Before the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it fuses, spreads out, gives sulphurous and antim onions fumes, coats the coal with white oxide of antimony ; this coat treated in R F tinges the flame greenish-blue.
Geology. It is found in veins in some places, as in Wolfsberg, in the Hartz, and other localities. Abundant in the granitic ranges south side of Tu lare Valley, near the pass of South Amedia, South Central California. Found in the metamorphic rocks. It occurs with ores of silver, lead, and zinc, when it gives great trouble in purifying those metals.
MANGANESE. The ores of manganese are di vided into three general classes : —
1. Manganese ores.
2. Manganiferous iron ores.
3. Argentiferous manganese ores.
WAD is the name given to manganese oxide. It is found in earthy compact masses of a dark brown color, cliiefly oxide of manganese and water.
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 179
Easily recognized under the blow-pipe, as it gives (in minute quantities), in the borax bead, a violet color in the 0 F, but disappears when the R F is turned upon it, and reappears when the 0 E is re peated.
It is found in beds varying from several inches to a foot or more in thickness. Hardness 1 to 3, spe cific gravity 2.3 to 3.7. Wad is used as a flux in iron smelting, and in a lixiviated state as a paint.
Pyrolusite. This is the peroxide or dioxide with 63.2 per cent, of manganese and 36.8 per cent, oxygen. Its crystalline form is the rhombic prism and it generally occurs in the form of minute cr3s- tals grouped together and radiating from a common centre. It has an iron-black or steel-gray color, a semi-metallic lustre and yields a black streak. Spe cific gravity 4.7 to 5 ; hardness 1.5 to 2.5 ; infusible before the blow-pipe, and acquires a red-brown color. On heating it generally yields some water and loses 1 2 per cent, of oxygen. With borax, soda and mi crocosm ic salt it shows manganese reaction. It dis solves in hydrochloric acid, when heated, with vig orous evolution of hydrogen.
PsiLOMELANE occurs luassive, frequently shelly, seldom fibrous ; color, iron-black to bluish-black, streak bluish -black and shining ; fracture, con- choidal to smooth. Specific gravity 4.1 to 4.2, hard ness 5.5 to 6. Before the blow-pipe it delds man ganic oxide, giving off oxygen. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid, chlorine being evolved. The powdered ore colors sulphuric acid red. Psilome-
180 prospector’s field-book and guide.
lane contains from 40 to 50 per cent, of manganese, and some baryta and potassa. A solution in hydro chloric acid of the variety containing baryta gives a heavy white precipitate with sulphuric acid.
Manganese Carbonate {Rhodoclirosite is the mineralogical name) occurs in spherical and nodular aggregations of cauliform texture or in compact masses of granular texture. It is rose-red to rasp berry-red in color, by weathering frequently brown ish, with a glassy or mother-of-pearl lustre. It cleaves like calcite. It contains 61.4 per cent, of manganese protoxide and 38.6 per cent, of carbonic acid, with part of manganese frequently replaced by calcium, magnesium, or iron. Specific gravity 3.3 to 3.6 ; hardness 3.5 to 4.5. Before the blow-pipe it is infusible and becomes black. From similar min erals it is distinguished by its rose-color and the manganese reaction with soda and borax ; and from silicate of manganese by its inferior hardness, its effervescence with acids and its non-fusibility.
Tlie manganese in ores of the third class is valu able, even where the silver alone is sought, as it facilitates the work whereby the silver is extracted ; this it does because of its fluxing quality.
Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas are the chief producing States.
The geological position of manganese in some places seems to be the same as with the red hematite, as in Virginia.
In Tennessee it is found in the foot-hills of the mountains, four miles from Newport, Cocke Co., in
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 181
pockets, and is a black oxide of 48 per cent, metallic manganese.
In Vermont it is found near a siliceous limestone, and in the vicinity of brown hematite ores. It exists in the triassic formation in Bosnia.
In North Carolina it is found in light-colored gneissic schists.
Other Useful Minerals.
Alum is hydrated sulphate of potash and alumina, and is best known by its astringent sweetish taste. Hardness 2 to 2.5. Specific gravit} 1.8. Soluble in its own weight of boiling water. Found incrust- ing and impregnating dark slaty rocks, with yellow streaks. Used in dyeing and calico printing, candle-making, dressing skins, clarifying liquors, and in pharmacy.
Apatite, Phosphate of Lime, occurs in six-sided prisms, also in masses. It is transparent or opaque ; colorless, white, yellowish, green, violet, with a glassy lustre, and yields always a white streak. Fracture, conchoidal or uneven. Specific gravity 3.16 to 3.22 ; hardness 5. In thin laminae it is fus ible with difficulty before the blow-pipe ; when moistened with sulphuric acid tinges the flame greenish. It is soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids without effervescence. F rom beryl it is dis tinguished by its. inferior hardness and its solubility in acids. It occurs in gneiss, slate, crystalline lime stone and mica schist. It is used in the manufac ture of fertilizers. It contains phosphoric acid, lime and fluorine.
182 prospeotok’s field-book and guide.
Arsenic is found in the mineral kingdom partly in a metallic state, partly in combination with oxygen, sulphur and other bodies.
1. Native Arsenic occurs seldom distinctly crystal lized, but usually in fine granular, spherical or nod ular masses. Specific gravity 5.7 to 5.8 ; hardness 3.5 ; brittle ; uneven and fine-grained fracture ; metallic lustre ; color, whitish lead-gray, usually with a grayish-black tarnish ; evolves an odor of garlic on breaking ; contains occasionally more or less iroji, cobalt, nickel, antimony and silver. Be fore the blow-pipe it quickly volatilizes before fusing, giving off white fumes having an odor of garlic. Native arsenic occurs especially in veins in crystal line slates and transition rocks in subordinate quan tities associated with ores of silver, lead, cobalt and nickel.
2. Realgar, with 70.029 per cent, of arsenic and 29.971 per cent, sulphur. Color, red ; crystallizes clinorhombic ; fracture conchoidal to splintery ; hardness 1.5 to 2.0 ; specific gravity 3.4 to 3.6. It is but slightly affected by acids ; soluble with a de posit of sulphur in aqua regia, and in concentrated i)otash lye with separation of dark brown sulphuret of arsenic. From ruby silver and cinnabar, it is readily distinguished by it inferior hardness, slighter specific gravity and orange-yellow streak, the streak of the two above-mentioned minerals be ing cochineal-red.
3. Orpiment, with 60.9 per cent, of arsenic and 39.1 per cent, of sulphur, occurs in nature, but for
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 183
industrial purposes is mostly artificially prepared. The mineral has a lustrous lemon-yellow or orange- yellow color, is cleavable into thin, flexible, trans parent laminse ; hardness 1.5 to 2 ; specific gravity 3.4 to 3.5 ; soluble in nitric acid, potash lye and ammonia.
Asbestos. Fibrous. Color, green or white. The asbestos of commerce is practically a finely fibrous form of serpentine, that is to say, it is essentially a hydrated silica of magnesia. Every deposit of ser pentine is a possible repository of asbestos. It occurs in seams half an inch to several inches in width, running parallel or crossing one another, the width of each seam making the length of the fibre. Canada furnishes at present a large portion of the world’s supply of asbestos ; the profitable mining, however, is at present confined to a small area in the great serpentine belt of the Province of Quebec, that lies to the south of the St. Lawrence River. In the form of a rough cloth asbestos is used for covering steam-pipes, and for many purposes re quiring an incombustible material.
Barytes, or barium sulphate, commonly called heavy spar, occurs in tabular, glassy crystals, and also in dull masses in veins of various rock forma tions. Color, white or tinted ; transparent or trans lucent ; lustre, vitreous or pearly. Specific gravity, 4.3 to 4.7. Hardness, 3 to 3.5. It is readily dis tinguished by its great comparative weight. When heated in the blow-pipe flame splinters fly off the crystals. It fuses with difficulty, and imparts a
184 prospector’s field-book and guide.
green tinge to the flame. After fusion with soda, it stains silver coin black. It is not acted upon by acids.
In the United States barytes is found in man}" places, it being mined in Virginia, Missouri, New Jersey and other states. It frequently occurs in connection with lead and zinc deposits forming the gangue of the metal-bearing vein. The best varieties of barytes are the white and gray. The chief use of barytes is as pigment.
Borax. Monoclinic. Fracture, conchoidal. Lus tre, vitreous to resinous. Color, white, sometimes grayish, bluish or greenish. Streak, white. Trans lucent to opaque. Principal producing localities in the United States: the Columbus and Rhodes marshes in Nevada, the Saline marshes in Califor nia. In the Calico district the borate of lime is taken from a fissure vein, and this district is the only place in the world where deep mining for borax is carried on.
Coal (Mineral). Massive, uncrystalline. Color, black or brown ; opaque. Brittle or imperfectly sectile. Hardness 0.5 to 2.5. Specific gravity 1.2 to 1.80. Coal is composed of carbon with some oxygen and hydrogen, more or less moisture, and traces also of nitrogen, besides some earthy material which constitutes the ash.
Anthracite {Glance coal, Stone coal.) Lustre high, not resinous, sometimes submetallic. Color, gray- black. Hardness 2 to 2.5. Specific gravity, if pure, 1.57 to 1.67. Fracture often conchoidal. Good
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 185
anthracite contains 78 to 88 per cent, of fixed carbon.
Bituminous coal. Color, black. Lustre, usually somewhat resinous. Hardness 1.5 to 2 ; specific gravity 1.2 to 1.4. Contains usually 75 to 85 per cent, of carbon.
Cannel coal. Very compact and even in texture, with little lustre, and fracture largely conchoidal.
Brown coal (often called lignite). Color, black to brownish black. Contains 52 to 65 per cent, of fixed carbon.
Jet resembles cannel coal, but is harder, of a deeper black and higher lustre. It takes a brilliant polish and is set in jewelry.
Dolomite is composed of carbonic acid, lime, ipagnesia. It occurs in rhombohedrons, faces often curved. It is frequently granular or massive ; white or dull tinted ; and glassy or pearly. Specific grav ity 2.8 to 2.9 ; hardness 3.5 to 4. Effervesces in nitric acid and dissolves more slowly than calc spar. Yields quicklime when burnt. Occurs in extensive beds of various ages like limestone. It is used as a building-stone and in the manufacture of Epsom salts. It is difficult to distinguish from calcite without chemical analysis.
Feldspak, Okthoclase, is composed of silica, alumina, potash or soda (lime). Crystallized or in irregular masses. Opaque ; usually flesh red or white, or of various dull tints. Lustre, glassy or pearly ; fracture, irregular, but in some directions it splits with an even, glimmering cleavage face.
186 prospector’s field-book and guide.
specific gravity 2.3 to 2,8 ; hardness 6. Before the blow-pipe it fuses with difficulty ; is not touched by acids. Where found in sufficient quantity to be of industrial value, it is usually obtained from veins in granite or pegmatite. The minerals associated with feldspar are chiefly quartz and mica, while tourmaline and topaz also occur commonly. Feld spar is, to a limited extent, employed in the manu facture of glass, hut the chief use for it is as a china glaze and as a glass-forming ingredient in the body of the porcelains.
Fluorspar, Fluorite, consists of 48.7 per cent, of fluorine and 51.3 per cent, of calcium. It occurs in cubes or octahedrons, and also in masses. It is transparent or opaque ; white or light violet, blue, green or yellow ; sometimes layers of different tints in the same piece. Lustre, glassy. It breaks with smooth cleavage planes parallel to the octahedral faces. Specific gravity 3 to 3.2 ; hardness 4. Be fore the blow-pipe it is fusible with difficulty to an enamel. It is used in the manufacture of hydro fluoric acid, with which glass is etched, and also as a flux for copper and other ores. Sometimes it is employed for ornaments, especially massive pieces, they taking a high polish. It occurs in veins with lead and silver ores.
Graphite, Plumbago, Blacklead, consists of carbon. It occurs in hexagonal crystals, but usually in foliated or massive layers. Color, steel gray to bluish black. Hardness very slight, 0.5 to 1. Soils the fingers, makes a mark upon paper, and feels
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 187
greasy. The specific gravities of different kinds of graphite vary according to the content of foreign admixtures, but lie within the limits of 2.105 and 2.5857. Graphite is not affected by acids and strongly resists other chemical agents. It is largely used in the manufacture of pencils, crucibles, stove polish, and lubricants for heavy machinery. It is found in various parts of the earth, chiefly in crys talline limestone, in gneiss and mica schists, fre quently replacing the mica in the latter so that they become actual graphite schists. Graphite is ex tensively mined at Graphite, Warren Co., N. Y., and at Cranston, R. I. In the Rocky Mountains veins of graphite of considerable size have been found in Wyoming and in Colorado, where it occurs in beds two feet thick, but very impure ; in the coal measures of New Mexico, in Nevada, in Utah, and in the Black Hills of South Dakota.
The value of graphite depends upon the amount of its carbon. To test the purity of graphite, pulverize and then dry at about 350° F. 20 grains of it ; then place it in a tube of hard glass 4 to 5 inches long, half an inch wide, and closed on one end. Add twenty times as much dried oxide of lead and mix intimately. Weigh the tube and contents, and afterwards heat before the blow-pipe until the con tents are completely fused and no longer evolve gases. Ten minutes will suffice for this. Allow the tube to cool and weigh it. The loss in weight is carbonic acid. For every 28 parts of loss there must have been 12 of carbon.
188 prospector’s field-book: and guide.
Gypsum is composed of sulphuric acid, lime and water. It occurs in prisms with oblique termina tions, sometimes resembling an arrow-head. It is transparent or opaque, white or dull tinted, with a glassy, pearly or satin lustre. Cleavage occurs easily in one direction ; specific gravity 2.3 ; hard ness 2 ; can be readily cut with the knife. In the blow-pipe flame it becomes white and opaque with out fusing, and can then be easily crumbled between the fingers. Nitric acid does not cause effervescence. It occurs in fissures and in stratified rocks, often forming extensive beds. When pure white it is called Alabaster ; when transparent Selenite, and wdien fibrous Satin Spar. When burnt it forms Plaster of Paris. It is used for ornaments, and as a fertilizer.
Lithographic limestone. The only stone yet found possessing the necessary qualifications for lithographic work is a fine-grained homogeneous limestone, breaking with an imperfect shell-like or conchoidal fracture, and, as a rule, of a gray, drab or yellowish color. A good stone must be suffi ciently porous to absorb the greasy compound which holds the ink, soft enough to work readily under the engraver’s tool, yet not too soft, and must be firm in texture throughout and entirely free from all veins and inequalities. The best stone, and indeed the only one which has yet been found to fill satisfactorily all these requirements, occurs at Solenhofen, Bavaria. These beds are of Upper Jurassic age and form a mass of some eighty feet
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 189
in thickness. The prevailing tints of the stone are yellowish or drab.
In the United States materials partaking of the nature of lithographic stone have been reported from various localities, but we believe all have failed as a source of supply of the commercial article, though it is possible that ignorance as to the proper methods of quarrying may have been a cause of failure in some cases.
Mica. Always crystallized in thin plates, which may be split into extremely thin flexible layers. Transparent in thin layers. Color, white, green, brown to black. Specific gravity 2.7 to 3.1. Hard ness 2 to 2.5 ; very easily scratched with a knife. Before the blow-pipe it whitens, but is infusible ex cept on thin edges. It is abundant in granite and schist. It is extensively used in sheets, and ground. Sheets are used for stoves and for insulating pur poses in electrical plants. The ground material is used as a lubricant, and in making ornamental and fire-proof paint. The most valuable variety is the pure white in large sheets, though for electrical pur poses, the amber-colored variety may be used. Spotted varieties are of little or no value.
Molybdenum. The sulphide occurs native as Molybdenite in crystallolaminar masses or tabular crystals, having a strong metallic lustre and lead- gray color, and forming a greenish-black streak which is best seen by drawing a piece across a cliina plate. Specific gravity 4.5 to 4.6 ; hardness 1 to 1.5 ; easily scratched by the naih It coutains 58,9
190 prospector’s field-book and guide.
of molybdenum and 41.1 per cent, of sulphur. It occurs sparingly in granite, syenite and chlorite schists, and is sometimes mistaken for graphite, from which it is, however, readily distinguished by the streak, that of graphite being black. Before the blow-pipe it is infusible, but tinges the flame faint green. Heated on charcoal for a long time it gives off a faint sulphurous odor and becomes encrusted white. Its chief use is in the preparation of a blue color.
Nitre or saltpetre is composed of potash and nitric acid. It is soluble in water. It has a cool ing taste, and is easily distinguished by the vivid manner in which it burns on red-hot charcoal. It is usually found native as an efflorescence on the soil.
IvOCK .Salt has the character of ordinary table salt, but is more or less impure. Occurs in beds interstratified with sandstones and clays, which are usually of a red color and associated with gypsum. Specific gravity 2 to 2.25 ; hardness, 2 to 2.5. It contains 39.30 per cent, of sodium and 60.66 per cent, of chlorine, but most samples contain clay and a little lime and magnesia. The surface indications of rock salt are brine springs supporting a vegetation like that near the sea coast, also occasional sinking of the soil caused by the removal of the subter ranean bed of salt by spring water. Bock salt is ob tained by sinking wells, from which the brine is pumped and evaporated in large pans, or by min ing, the same as for any other ore.
Aluminium, Antimony, Manganese, Etc. 191
Slate is an argillaceous shale easily recognized by its cleavability, and varies in color from light sea-green and gray to red, purple and black. It has been formed by sedimentary deposits, and now con stitutes extensive beds in the Silurian formation.
Sulphur. Native sulphur occurs crystallized or massive in volcanic regions and in beds of gypsum. Color, yellow ; lustre, resinous ; specific gravity 2.1 ; hardness 1.5 to 2.5. It is fusible and burns with a blue flame and well known odor. It is fre quently found contaminated with clay or pitch.
Talc or Soapstone, called Steatite when mass ive, is a silicate of magnesia. It is trimetric, foliated or massive, nearly opaque, of a white or green color, pearly lustre and greasy feel. Specific gravity 2.7 ; hardness 1 ; easily impressed by the nail, but impure varieties are much harder. It is readily distinguished by its greasy feel and pearly lustre ; it is not attacked by boiling sulphuric acid. It is often applied to useful purposes, as for gas burners, a filling for paper, etc.
Chapter Xi].
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat.
Crude petroleum occurs only in the higher strata of rocks, it being never found in metamorphic rocks or crystalline formation. The Pennsylvania oil strata belong to the Devonian age, the anticlinal ridges being more favorable, it is said, than the synclinal ones. In Kentucky it occurs near the base of carboniferous limestone. In California it is found in strata belonging to the tertiary age, in Colorado and other western States in those belong ing to the cretaceous, and in North Carolina in those belonging to the triassic. In West Virginia it occurs in strata belonging to the coal measures. Crude petroleum is a fluid of a dark color, sometimes black, and contains 84 to 88 per cent, of carbon, the rest hydrogen.
In prospecting for petroleum, the prospector, be sides the customary outfit, should carry a stick pro vided with a long iron point. It is best to follow the courses of rivers and creeks upward, because the progress of the work will not then be impeded by the turbidity of the water. It is also advisable to make such excursions in the warm season of the year, because the oil exudes more freely at that time ( 192 )
I’Etroleum, Opocehite, Asehalt, Peat. 193
than in cooler weather, when espeeially heavy oils and mineral tar, or maltha, are readily converted into a butyraceous mass. It is also best to wait until the water in the rivers and creeks is low.
Observe whether the surface of the water exhibits variegated iridescent figures, this being especially the case in places where the water stands quietly or moves very little, for instance, in coves. Such an iridescent film, when found, may be due to petro leum, but also to iron oxides and similar substances. However, by touching the surface of the water, for instance, with the iron-pointed stick, a film of oxide of iron may be disintegrated in angular pieces and very small flakes, which can be moved in any direc tion, while oil films, when separated, reunite, and can be readily distinguished from allied indications b}" the many changes in color and figures. To be sure, films of very heavy oil may occasionally be met with which can be separated into angular pieces, behaving in this respect like iron oxides, but they almost invariably exhibit variegated movable rings of color. In swamps other substances may ])roduce a phenomenon similar to crude oil.
When indications of oil have in this manner been discovered in a quiet part of a water-course, try to remove the iridescent film and turn up the bottom by several times driving the iron-pointed stick into it. If films of oil together with bubbles of gas re appear, and this phenomenon occurs regularly after repeated experiments, there may be an outcrop of oil which deserves further examination.
194 Phospectors Field-Book And Guide.
However, if the work with the iron-pointed stick yields negative results, the oil must have floated down from above, and the examination of the water course has to be continued until by means of the iron-pointed stick the source of the traces of crude oil has been found. This source will usually be in sandstone or other porous rock, and pieces knocked off with a hammer will exhibit the oil generally in the form of drops, partly upon the surfaces of the strata and partly also in small cavities. Instead of petroleum, mineral tar — a black smeary mass — will frequently be found.
The rock itself is occasionally impregnated, which may be recognized partly by the odor and partly by the so-called water-test. For this purpose place a piece of the rock in quiet water, if possible exposed to the rays of the sun ; if the rock contains oil the characteristic iridescent colors appear, as a rule, immediately upon the surface of the water.
The fresh fracture of oil-bearing sandstone is, as a rule, of a darker color than that of adjoining rock. After rain, drops of water adhere to out-crops of oil sandstone in a manner similar to that observed on other fatty substances.
If in prospecting in water courses oil-bearing sandstone has been found, the question has to be answered whether the prospector has to deal with contiguous rock or simply with an erratic block.. This question can, as a rule, be decided without much difficulty, from the position of the stratifica tion and the petrographic character of the rock in
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 195
question as compared with the surroundings. How ever, if there is still a doubt, examine, by means of the water-test, the portions of rock in the natural continuation of the block.
Should the oil-bearing rock actually turn out to be an erratic block, the rock from which it has been derived will he found above, either on the slopes or in the water-course itself. Knowing the petro graphic character of the oil-bearing block, it will not be difficult to find in the neighborhood the rock from which it is derived. In the above-described manner the water-courses are traced to the limits of the territory. In carrying on the work of prospect ing, it is advisable to examine specimens of all the sandstone by means of the water-test, since the latter frequently shows the presence of petroleum, though there may be no external indications of it.
It may be mentioned, that in cooler weather the traces of oil upon the surface of the water do not yield blue, red, yellow, etc., figures, or at least not very vivid ones, but a milky coloration, which pos sibly may also be due to other causes, so that deter mination is more difficult and less certain. This is another reason why it is advisable to select warm days for prospecting. That oil may also be detected by its odor need scarcely be mentioned.
In sioampy puddles iridescent fihnSj which do not consist of iron oxides, but of hydrocarbons formed by decomposition, are occasionally met with. It due to the latter cause, they do not reappear, or at least only to a slight extent, when removed with the iron-
196 prospector’s field-book and guide.
pointed stick from the surface of the water. How ever, in examining the bottom, gas-bubbles gener ally rise to the surface. Such puddles are examined first in the centre, and then by detaching pieces from the edges with the iron-pointed stick.
Salses {mud-volcanoes), as well as abundant ex halations of natural gas, if not derived from coal measures, are promising indications of the presence of petroleum in the territory.
It need scarcely be mentioned that porous rock — if oil-bearing — justifies greater expectations than compact rock, and that larger quantities of oil may be looked for in oil-bearing sandstone of greater thickness.
Although, generally speaking, a rich occurrence of oil may be inferred from abundant indications in the outcrop, the reverse is not always correct ; in many oil-fields, now productive, the indications when first found were not especially encouraging.
If the oil occurs in definite geological horizons, the latter must be particularly searched for and traced and carefully examined in the water-courses crossing them, not only because the strata are there most denuded so as to allow of the best view of their geological structure, but also because the oil, since the restraining cover is wanting, has the best chance of exuding there, and the cut of the water-course is generally one of the lowest points of the outcrop, where the most abundant exudation takes place in consequence of the greater head of pressure.
A very important question is whether the oil
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 197
occurs in beds or in veins. In answering this ques tion the following particulars may serve as guiding points.
AVith proportionately great denudation of the oil bearing rock, it is sometimes possible directly to decide this question by observation, whereby the prospector, however, must take into consideration that even with a bed-like occurrence the oil will collect in small fissures. With a vein-like occur rence a fissure may be traced to where it assumes larger dimensions in the strike and dip.
If the prospector has to deal with a thick seam or stratum of sandstone, recognized as oil-bearing, im bedded in another rock, for instance, shale, such seam should be traced and pieces freshly cut from it examined as to their content of oil by the water-test. If positive results are obtained, it may be inferred that the sandstone is the bearer of the oil, and that it is a bed-like occurrence.
In a large mass of sandstone several outcrops of oil may sometimes be found at quite a distance from each other. If in tracing the stratum of the first outcrop according to its strike, the second, third, etc., outcrops are encountered, we have to do with a bed-like occurrence. This tracing of the stratum is effected by means of a compass, however, always with due consideration to the configuration of the ground. Suppose the cross-section of the sandstone bed with the declivity — the so-called outcrop-line — construed and traced. The outcrop-line will deviate the more from the straight line of strike, the flatter the
198 prospector’s field-book and guide.
strata and declivities lie. In tracing the same stratum, it must be observed whether its strike does not change, which, of course, will necessitate a change in the route of the prospector.
If some promising outcrops of oil have been found.
Fig. 55.
which will justify the execution of more extensive and more expensive prospecting work, it is advis able to mark accurately in the sketch-map, in addi tion to the outcrops, the relative heights, generally determined by an aneroid barometer, the strike and dip of the stratum reduced to the astronomical
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 199
meridian, and the outcrops of well characterized concordant strata, for instance, imbedded shale, S, Fig. 55, no matter whether they lie in the upcast or downcast of the crops of oil, a. The relative heights of one of these strata are determined in several places, selecting points which can be readily found upon the map, and, if possible, lie at the same height, which can be readily effected without essen tial error with the assistance of an aneroid barometer by taking observations in rapid succession. The points of same height, for instance, 1 and 2, give the strike of the stratum for a greater distance.
By connecting the outcrops of oil a by a line A A, and again determining in the latter several points of the same height, for instance, 3, 4 and 5, the general strike is again obtained. If the latter runs parallel with the general strike of the characteristic stratum S, previously traced, one is justified in in ferring a beddike occurrence of oil, even if the con strued dip of the outcrop line of oil corresponds with the observed local dip of the strata.
In these investigations it is presupposed that the oil is recognized as exuding from the solid rock, an error regarding the outcrop of it being, therefore, excluded. Such an error may, however, occur when the outcrop is covered with loose masses of earth and rock, to the base of which the oil exuding above flows down hidden, and escapes further below by some accidental cause.
A vein-like occurrence of oil will not show the above-mentioned conformities with the characteristic
200 prospector’s field-book and guide.
concordant strata. Such an occurrence presupposes a fissure, which is generally connected with a throw of the strata. This is most frequently established by the fact that a characteristic stratum suddenly ends and does not reappear in its natural continua tion, but either to the right or left, or higher or lower. If two or more such points of disturbance have been found, their connecting line is the out crop line of the fissure. Fig. 56. If this line passes
Fig. 56.
through the outcrop a, or if several outcrops lie in it, a vein-like occurrence of oil must be inferred.
However, sometimes the oil occurs in a maze of smaller and larger fissures. This is shown in the construction by the fact that in tlie presence of sev eral outcrops a linear distribution of the same can not be recognized, and that the combinations yield the most varying results according to whether ex-
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 201
ploration is carried on from the one or the other outcrop. Such occurrence presents uncommon dif ficulties in prospecting.
It need scarcely be mentioned that in prospecting for oil, it is of great importance to hunt up and map the anticlinals and their saddles, as well as faults.
Tlie directions here given for prospecting may have to be modified according to local conditions. With a sufficient preliminary knowledge of geology, any difficulties will, as a rule, he readily overcome by thoroughly digesting the principles of the direc tions given.
As regards the quality of the surface oil, it must be remembered that it is not a criterion for the oil occurring at greater depth. The oil thickens on the surface of the earth, and with increasing density becomes viscous and dark. If pale, limpid, and spe cifically lighter oil is found at the outcrop, it is sure evidence of oil of excellent quality at greater depth. In every case it may be expected that the quality of the oil at greater depth is superior to that at the outcrop.
Ozocerite is a mineral paraffine or wax, and oc curs generally in fissures and cavities in the neigh borhood of coal-fields and deposits of rock salt, or under sandstone pervaded with bitumen. It is found in various localities in Africa, America, Asia and Europe. In the United States it occurs in Arizona, Texas and Utah.
The most interesting deposit is in East Galicia ; the ozocerite occurs there in a saliferous clay be-
202 prospector’s field-book and guide.
longing to the miocene of the more recent tertiary period, and forming a narrow, almost continuous strip on the northern edge of the Carpathian Moun tains. This miocene* group of saliferous clay con sists chiefly of bluish and variegated clays, sands and sandstones, with numerous occurrences of gyp sum, rock salt and salt springs. In Boryslaw, the strata of saliferous clay form a perceptible saddle as they sink on the south below the so-called menilite
Fig. 57.
slates, which are very bituminous and foliated, and form here the most northern edge of the Carpathian Mountains. The principal deposit of ozocerite con verges with the axis of this saddle as shown in Fig. 57, S being the strata of saliferous clay ; and M menilite slate.
Closely allied to ozocerite are the following min eral resins:
Retinite, generally of a yellowish brown, some-
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 203
times of a green-yellow or red color. It is found with brown coal in various localities.
Elaterite or elastic bitumen, of a blackish brown color, subtranslucent, and occurring in soft, flexible masses in the lead-veins of Castleton, in Derbyshire, in the bituminous sandstone of W ood- bury, Connecticut, etc.
Pyropissite occurs in strata in brown coal.
Ozocerite occurs in various shades of color, from pale yellow to black; when melted it generally shows a dark-green color. The pale varieties are chiefly found in places containing much marsh gas. The dark-green, heavy variety is the best, while the black kind, or asphaltic wax, is the poorest; it con-, tains resinous combinations of oxygen, and is inter mediate between mineral oil and ozocerite.
The odor of ozocerite is, according to its purity, agreeably wax-like. In consistency it is soft, pliable, flexible to hard ; the mass in the latter case showing a conchoidal fracture, but softens on kneading. The boiling-point lies between 133° and 165° F., and of the so-called ‘‘marble wax ” even as high as 230° F. The specific gravity is from 0.845 to 0.930.
Ozocerite is readily soluble in oil of turpentine, petroleum, benzine, etc., and with difficulty in alcohol and ether ; it burns with a bright flame, generally leaving no residue. Its elementary com position is about that of petroleum, 85 per cent, of carbon. and 15 per cent, of hydrogen.
Native Asphalt or Bitumen is solid at the ordi nary temperature, of a black to blackish-brown
204 prospector’s field-book and guide.
color and a conchoidal fracture with glossy lustre. Hardness 1 to 2 ; specific gravity 1 to 2. It melts at 90° F., and is very inflammable. It appears to be formed by the oxidation of the non-saturated hydrocarbides in petroleum. The most remarkable deposits are in Cuba and Trinidad. Other noted localities are the Dead Sea, Seyssel (France), Lim- mer, the Abruzzo, and V al de Travers. It occurs also of every degree of consistence, and in immense quantity, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, chiefly in the States of Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz and Tabasco, where not unfrequently it is associated with rock salt and “saltpetre.” It has recently been discovered in Utah in widely separated places. It has been found associated with ozocerite and more extensively as melted out of sandstone. Cali fornia includes a large area which furnishes asphalt, much the larger proportion being the product of the decomposition of petroleum, while the remainder occurs in veins that are evidently eruptive, the for mer occurring in beds of greater or less extent on hill-sides or gulch slopes, below springs of more fluid bitumen. These deposits are scattered over the country between the bay of Monterey and San Diego, but are chiefly observed west and south of the coast ranges, between Santa Barbara and the Soledad pass. Asphalt occurs also in other localities in the United States, for instance in Connecticut, in thin seams and veins in eruptive rock ; in New York in the region of eruptive and metarnorphic rocks, in Tennessee in the Trenton limestone, etc.
Petroleum, Ozocerite, Asphalt, Peat. 205
In some American specimens sulphur has been found to the extent of 10.85 per cent. Asphalt is in great request for paving purposes ; it is of in creasing value and deposits are eagerly sought for.
Peat. Peat is not a mineral, but consists of the cumulatively resolved fibrous parts of certain mosses and graminacea?. It gradually darkens from brown to black with increasing age. It occurs in beds or in bogs. As a fuel, it is most economically used at the place where it is grown. Good peat yields about 3 to 6 per cent, of tar proper, which is com paratively easy to purify by the usual method.
Chapter Xiil
Gems And Precious Stones.
Although many varieties of gems and precious stones are known to occur in the United States, systematic mining for them is carried on only at a few places, and the annual output is still very small in comparison with the prospective extent of the field. Not many persons are familiar with the appearance of gem stones in their native state, so that while quartz pebbles are often mistaken for rough diamonds, garnets for rubies, ilmenite for black diamonds, etc., on the other hand it is quite probable that many valuable occurrences have es caped notice.
Diamond. Diamonds are usually met with in alluvial soil, often on gold-diggings. In some Indian fields a diamond-bearing conglomerate oc curs which is made up of rounded stones cemented together and lies under two layers, the top one con sisting of gravel, sand and loam, the bottom one of thick clay and mud. In the neighborhood of Pan- nah, between Sonar and the Sona river, diamonds are found in ferriferous pebble conglomerate and in river alluvium. The most beautiful crystallized specimens are.however found on the west side of the ( 206)
Gems And Precious Stones. 207
Nalla-Malla mountains near Banganpally, between Pennar and Kistnah, in a diamond-bearing layer between beds of primitive conglomerate.
In Borneo, the diamond is found associated with magnetic iron ore, gold and platinum, in alluvial deposits consisting of serpentine and quartz frag ments as well as marl.
In Brazil, the province Minas Geraes is rich in diamonds, the most important occurrence being at Sao Joao do Barro, where they are found in an entirely weathered talcose slate. In other parts of the same country the diamond is also obtained from a conglomerate of white quartz, pebbles and light colored sand, sometimes with yellow and blue quartz and iron sand. In the province of Bahia occurs the so-called black diamond, which though not suitable for jewelry, may on account of its hard ness replace the diamond for many other purposes.
In South Africa the diamond occurs associated chiefly with garnet and titanic iron ore, as well as with quartz opal, calcareous spar, and more rarely with iron pyrites, bronzite, smaragdite and vaalite. According to St. Meunier the South African diamond bearing sands are composed of an exceedingly large number of constituents, eighty different varieties of minerals and rocks having been found in them. Of minerals occur, for instance, diamond, topaz, garnet, bronzite, ilmenite, quartz, tremolite, asbestus, wollastonite, vaalite, zeolite, iron pyrites, brown iron ore, calcareous spar, opal, hyalite, jasper, agate, clay. Of rocks are found, serpentine, eklogite, pegmatite
20s PROSPECTOR'S PIELD-EOOiC AND GDIDE.
and talcose slate. At the Kimberley mine, which more or less represents others in the neighborhood, the diamond-bearing ground forms a “ pipe ” or “ chimney ” surrounded by formations totally differ ent from the payable rock. The encasing material is made up of red sandy soil on the surface, under neath which is a la3’er of calcareous tufa, then yellow shale, then black shale, and below this, hard igneous rock. The diamond-bearing ground consists of “ yellow ground ” (really the decomposed “ blue ground ”), which is comparably friable ; and deeper down the “ blue ground ” (hydrous magnesian con glomerate), which needs blasting by dynamite. The “ blue ground ” is of a dark bluish to a greenish gray color, and has a more or less greasy feel. With it are mixed portions of boulders of various kinds of rock such as serpentine, quartzite, mica-schist, chlorite-schist, gneiss, granite, etc. All this “ blue ground ” has evidently been subjected to heat. Tlie gems are in the matter which binds these ro(*ks, not in the rocks themselves.
Diamonds are also found in the Ural, various parts of Australia, New Zealand and in the United States. In the latter country diamonds have been found at a number of localities, but never enough to warrant any extended mining for them. lany ex perienced geologists hold to the opinion that since so many associations of the diamond are present in North Carolina they have hopes of their being found there. The garnet districts of Arizona and New Mexico may also be looked upon as favorable for
Gems And Precious Stones. 209
the occurrence of this gem. Of the localities where diamonds have been found in the United States may be mentioned : the gold diggings of T witty’s mine in the itacolumite region of Rutherford Co., North Carolina, 1847 ; further in Hall Co., Georgia 1850, in the gold diggings on the south slopes of the Alleghany mountains, in Arizona, and in Cali fornia, together with platinum in various gold dig gings. Further at Dysartville, McDowell Co., North Carolina, in Idaho, San Juan Co., Colorado, and Cherokee Flat and several other localities in Butte Co., California.
The natural surface of the diamond is often unequal ; its sides are lined, somewhat convex, and generally appear dulled, or as they are commonly called, rough, by the evident action of fire. The diamond breaks regularly into four principal cleav ages. It does not sparkle in the rough, and the best test is its hardness and its becoming electric, when rubbed before polishing. The color of the diamond varies through all tones of the color-scale, from absolute colorless through all shades of yellow, red, green, blue to intense black. Some colorless diamonds acquire on heating a reddish shade, which disappears on cooling. The value of the diamond is generally speaking proportional to its want of color. The black diamond occurs in pieces weighing up to 2 lbs., but mostly in pieces the size of a hazel nut, with crystalline structure and consisting of a mass of minute octahedrons, sometimes so porous as to have a pumice-stone-like appearance.
210 prospector’s field-book and guide.
The specific gravity of the pure diamond varies from 3.5 to 3.6 ; that of the black diamond is from 3.012 to 3.255.
One of the most beautiful qualities of the diamond is its power of refraction ; that of water is, 0,785 ; that of the ruby, 0.739 ; that of the rock crystal, 0.654 ; that of the diamond, 1.396. The refraction of the diamond is single in the entire crystals ; when broken it possesses double, but imperfect refraction, in the thin layers.
The value of the diamond is dependent on its color, its size and the finish given to it by working. Perfectly colorless stones bring the highest price, and next stones with a reddish, greenish and bluish shade, which, however, are quite rare. Yellowish diamonds are of less value, the price paid for them being the lower the more the yellow color plays into brown.
Of the larger diamonds each has its own name and its own history. Of these may here be men tioned the Koh-i-noor or mountain of light. Fig. 58 d. It weighs lOfiyV carats. The Orlof, Fig. 58, a, weighs 194f carats and is as large as half a pigeon’s egg ; it adorns the sceptre of the Kussian emperor. The Grand Duke of Tuscany or Florentine, Fig. 58, h, is one of the most beautiful diamonds. It is a yellow diamond and weighs 139|- carats. It belongs to the House of Austria. The Pitt or Regent, Fig. 58, c, belongs to the French Treasury and, with the exception of the Koh-i-noor, is the most beautiful and most regular diamond. It weigh 136} carats.
Gems And Precious Stones.
Fig. 58.
Sapphires and Kubies. The sapphire is the blue variety of corundum in its purest crystalline state, and the ruby the red variety. The bright yellow variety is the Oriental topaz, distinguished by its hardness from the topaz, yellow tourmaline and false topaz. The bright green is the Oriental emerald, and the bright violet the Oriental amethyst. These varieties readily scratch the emerald and amethyst. One variety exhibits a six-rayed star
212 prospector’s field-book and guide.
inside the prism, and is called the asterias. Dull crystals are called corundum, and gray or black granular varieties emery. The latter two kinds are used for polishing powder. The ruby is the most highly prized form of corundum, the most precious being the East Indian ruby, which is of the deepest red, and some stones of a peculiarly vivid red are more valuable than the diamond.
Corundum is the sesquioxide of aluminium. It is infusible before the blow-pipe and unattacked by acids. It crystallizes in six-sided prisms, often irregularly shaped, and sometimes occurs in gran ular masses. Transparent or opaque. Lustre glassy, sometimes pearly. Fracture uneven or con- choidal. Specific gravity 3.9 to 4.2. Hardness 9, it being next to diamond, the hardest of minerals. It occurs in river sands, in granite, feldspar, mag netic iron, basalt.
The principal locality for sapphires in the United States is in the garnet districts near Helena, Mon tana ; Santa Fe, New Mexico; southern Colorado and Arizona. Here they occur in the sand, associ ated with peridot, pyrope and almandine garnet.
Common corundum occurs in Massachusetts at Chester, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and still more in North Carolina and the adjacent states of South Carolina and Georgia.
Spinel contains in the typical form, magnesia and alumina. It is usually found in octahedrons, often in twins which are therefore called spinel twins. Usually red and transparent ; also white,
Gems And Precious Stones.
blue, green, yellow, brown, black, the dark shades being usually opaque. Lustre glassy. Fracture, conchoidal. Specific gravity 3.5 to 4.0. Hardness 8 ; scratches quartz. Infusible, and thus distin guished from garnet, which it may resemble. Its color is transiently altered by heat. It is distin guished from zircon by its superior hardness and inferior specific gravity. Occurs in river sand, in igneous rocks, gneiss, limestone. When red it forms the spinel or halas ruby, which is distin guished from the Oriental ruby by its inferior hardness. When bright green it is called chloro- spinel; orange, rubicelle; violet, almandine ruby ; black, pleonast. Spinel is occasionally met with in gem form in the United States.
Topaz is composed of silica, alumina and fluorine. It occurs in prismatic crystals, sometimes furrowed lengthwise, variously terminated, breaking easily across with smooth brilliant cleavage. Transparent or semi-transparent. White, yellow, greenish, blu ish, pink. Lustre, glassy. Specific gravity, 3.5. Hardness, 8. Scratches quartz ; is scratched by sapphire. Infusible, but often blistered and altered by heat. When smooth surfaces are rubbed on cloth they become strongly electric, and can attract small pieces of paper, but rough surfaces do not show this. The brilliant cleavage of topaz distin guishes it from tourmaline and other minerals. Topaz occurs in gneiss or granite with tourmaline, mica, beryl ; also cassiterite or tin-stone, apatite, fluorite. The white topaz resembles the diamond,
214 prospector’s field-book and guide.
but unlike the latter it can be scratched by sap phire. Topaz has been found in Arizona, New Mexico, and occasionally in southern Colorado. In the latter state, and in Utah and Mexico, it some times occurs in fine, clear crystals in volcanic rocks. A notable locality, especially for very large crystals, is at Stoneham, Blaine, and another at Trumbull, Connecticut.
Beryl or Emerald is composed of silica, alumina and beryllium or glucinum. It is almost always found in distinct crystals, and usually in forms easy to recognize. The crystals are hexagonal prisms, usually green, transparent or opaque. Lustre, glassy ; fracture uneven ; specific gravity, 2.7 ; hard ness, 7 to 8 ; scratches quartz. Infusible, or nearly so, but becomes clouded by heating. Occurs in granite rocks with feldspar and quartz. Valuable for jewelry when transparent and rich grass green (emerald), or sea-green (aquamarine). Emerald has been found in North Carolina and aquamarine at a number of localities in the United States.
Phenacite is a silicate of beryllium or glucinum. Its hardness is about the same as topaz and its specific gravity 3.4 to 3.6. It occurs in glassy rhombohedral crystals, and its hardness, beautiful transparency and color make it valuable for cutting as a gem, since it is capable of extreme polish. Phenacite has been found at Pike’s Peak, Colorado, in crystals of sufficient size and quality to furnish fair gems.
Zircon is composed of silica and zirconia. It is
Gems And Precious Stones.
found in square prisms terminated by pyramids, and in octahedrons, but often also in pebbles and grains. Transparent or opaque. Wine or brown ish red, gray, yellow, white. Lustre, glassy ; frac ture, usually irregular, but in one direction it can be split so as to exhibit a smooth even cleavage face having an adamantine lustre like the diamond. Specific gravity 4.0 to 5.0 ; hardness 7.5 ; scratches quartz, is scratched by topaz. Infusible ; the red varieties, when heated before the blowpipe, emit a fluid phosphorescent light, and become permanently colorless. Zircon occurs in syenite, granite, basalt. In some regions it occurs in the rock so abundantly that when the rock has been worn down by the weather, it is left unaltered in considerable quanti ties. It may then be obtained by washing the gravel in the manner of the gold miner. Clear crystals are used in jewelry, in jeweling watches, and imitation of diamond. It may be distinguished from the latter by its inferior hardness, and in not becoming so readily electric by friction. Fine crystals are obtained in New York and Canada ; and good specimens also come from North Carolina and Colorado.
Garnet is composed of silica, alumina, lime, iron, magnesia, manganese. It is found almost always in distinct crystals, and as these crystals are commonly isolated and scattered through the rock, it is not difficult to recognize them. The crystals are usually twelve-sided, having the form of a rhombic dodecahedron. They are transparent or
216 prospector’s field-book and guide.
opaque ; generally red ; also brown, green, yellow, black, white. Lustre, glassy or resinous, fracture conchoidal or uneven ; specific gravity 3.5 to 4.3; hardness, 6.5 to 7.5 ; cannot be scratched with a knife. Fusible with more or less difficulty. Red varieties impart a green color to borax bead owing to presence of chromium. Garnet usually occurs in crystals scattered through granite, gneiss or mica schist, also in crystalline limestone ; with serpen tine or chromite ; also in some volcanic rocks. Fine colored transparent varieties (carbuncle, cinnamon stone, almandine) are used in jewelry. The garnets found in New lexico and Southern Colorado, and there called “ rubies,” are as fine as those from any other locality, the blood-red being the most desirable. Very fine crystals of cinnamon stone, cinnamon garnet or essonite have been found in New Hamp shire, Maine, and at many other points in the United States.
Tourmaline is composed of silica, alumina, mag nesia, boracic acid, fluorine, oxides of iron (lime and alkalies). It is found in prisms with three, six, nine or more sides, furrowed lengthwise, terminat ing in low pyramids. Commonly black and opaque, rarely transparent, and of a rich red, yellow, or green color. Lustre glassy ; fracture uneven ; spe cific gravity 3.1 ; hardness 7 to 8 ; cannot be scratched with a knife. When the smooth side of a prism is rubbed on cloth it becomes electric and can attract a small piece of paper. Tourmaline occurs in granite and slate. Only the fine colored
Gems And Precious Stones.
transparent varieties, which are used as gems and for optical purposes, are of value. The principal source of tourmaline in the United States is the locality Mount Mica, at Paris, Maine.
Epidote is a silicate of alumina, iron and lime, but varies rather widely in composition, especially as regards the relative amounts of alumina and iron. It is usually found in prismatic crystals, often very slender and terminated at one end only ; they belong to the monoclinic system. Lustre, vitreous ; color, commonly green, although there are black and pink varieties. Epidote is found in many localities in the United States and in very large crystals ranging from brown to green in color, but as a rule the crystals are only translucent or semi-opaque, though some stones of considerable value and great beauty have been found in Rabun county, Georgia.
Opal is composed of silica and water. It is never found in crystals but only in massive and amorphous form. Fracture, conchoidal ; specific gravity 2.2; hardness, 6 ; can be scratched by quartz and thus distinguished from it. It is infusible and generally milk-white. The most beautiful variety of opal is that called precious opal, which exhibits a beautiful play of colors and is a valuable gem. One kind of precious opal with a bright red flash of light is called the fire opal, and another kind is the harle quin opal. Common opal does not exhibit this play of colors, and it varies widely in color and appear ance. Milh opal, as one variety is called, has a pure
218 prospector’s field-book and guide.
white color and milky opalescence, while resin opal or wax opal has a waxy lustre and yellow color. Jasper opal is intermediate between jasper and opal ; wood opal is petrified wood in which the mineral material is opal instead of quartz. Opal is com monly met with in seams of certain volcanic rocks ; sometimes it occurs in limestone and also in metal lic veins. Precious opal is rare in the United States, though some of high value is said to have been found in Creek Co., near John Davies River, Oregon.
Turquois is a hydrated phosphate of aluminium, containing also a little copper phosphate which is probably the source of the color, which in the most precious variety is robin’s-egg blue, and bluish- green in less highly prized varieties. It occurs only in compact massive forms, filling seams and cavi ties in a volcanic rock. Specific gravity 3.127. Turquois has been found in the Holy Cross mining region thirty miles from Leadville, Colorado, and of late years a number of mines have been opened in New Mexico. It occurs also in Arizona and at a point in Southern Nevada. At the latter place it is found in veins of small grains in a hard shaly sand stone. The color of this turquois is a rich blue, al most equal to the finest Persian, and the grains are so small that the sandstone is cut with the turquois in it, making a rich mottled stone for jewelry.
Agate is found in almost every part of the world, and the difference of the constituent parts makes the specific gravity vary from 2.58 to 2.69. The
Gems And Precious Stones.
agate, properly so called, is naturally translucent, less transparent than crystalline quartz, but yet less opaque than jasper. It is too hard to be even scratched rock crystal. It takes a very good polish. It is never found in regular forms, but al ways either in nodules, in stalactites, or in irregular masses. Eye agates consist of those parts of the stone in which the cutting discovers circular bands of very small diameter arranged with regularity round one circular spot. These circles are fre quently so perfect that they appear to be traced by the compass. The first round is white, the second, black, green, red, blue or yellow ; the most rare are those whose circles are at equal distance from the centre. Moss agate contains brown-black mosslike or dendritic forms distributed rather thickly through the mass. These forms consist of some metallic oxide (as of manganese). Of all the American stones used in jewelry there is no other of which so much is sold as the moss agate. The principal sources of supply are Utah, Colorado, Montana and Wyoming.
Chalcedony is a semi-transparent variety of quartz, of a waxy lustre and varying in color from white to gray, blue, brown and other shades. In some instances it resembles icicles, and in others the frosty surface of a liquid.
Carnelian and Sard have red or brownish tints and are varieties of chalcedony.
Jasper is quartz rendered opaque by clay, iron and other impurities. It is of a red, yellow or
220 prospector’s field-book and guide.
green color. Sometimes the colors are arranged in ribands, or in other fantastic forms. It is used for ornamental work.
Bloodstone is green jasper, with splashes of red resembling blood spots.
Rock crystal is pure, transparent, colorless (piartz, and is found at a great many localities in the United States. In Herkimer County, at Lake George, and throughout the adjacent regions in New York state, the calciferous sandstone contains single crystals, and at times cavities are found filled with doubly terminated crystals, often of re markable perfection and brilliancy. These are collected, cut, and, often uncut, are mounted in jewelry and sold under the name of “ Lake George diamonds.”
Amethyst is a transparent variet} of quartz of a rich violet or purple color. It is found at many localities in the United States, but not in as fine or large specimens as in Brazil or Siberia.
Onyx or Sardonyx is a semi-transparent variety of quartz made up of regular layers, one above the other, of different colors, often white and red. It is much used for cameos.
Many other gem-stones are known to occur in the United States, and the following list compiled by Mr. George F. Kunz is here given :
Mineral Resources of the United States, Washington,
Gems and precious stones.
List of gem stones knoivn to occur in the United States.
Acliroite (tourmaline). Agate (quartz).
Agatized wood (quartz). Almandine (garnet). Amazon stone (microcline). Amber.
Amethyst (quartz). Aquamarine (beryl). Asteria.
Beryl.
Bloodstone,
Bowenite (serpentine). Cairngorm (quartz). Catlinite.
Chalcedony (quartz). Chiastolite.
Chlorastrolite,
Chondrodite.
Chrysolite,
Danburite.
Diamond.
Diopside (pyroxene). Elseolite (nephelite). Emerald (beryl).
Epidote.
Essonite (garnet).
Fleche d’ amour (quartz). Fluorite.
Fossil coral.
Garnet.
Grossularite garnet. Heliotrope,
Hematite.
Hiddenite (spodumene). Hornblende in quartz. Idocrase,
Indicolite (tourmaline), lolite.
Isopyre.
Jade.
Jasper (quartz).
Jet (mineral coal),
Labradorite.
Labrador spar (labradorite). Lake George diamonds (quartz) Lithia emeralds (spodumene). Made.
Malachite.
Moonstone (feldspar group). Moss agate (quartz).
Novaculite (quartz).
Obsidian.
Olivine (chrysolite).
Opalized wood (opal).
Peridot (chrysolite).
Phenakite.
Prehnite.
Pyrope (garnet).
Quartz.
Bhodonite.
Rock crystal (quartz).
Rose quartz ( quartz )..
Ruby (corundum).
Rubellite (tourmaline).
Rutile.
Rutile in quartz (quartz). Sagenite (quartz).
Sapphire (corundum),
Silicihed wood (quartz).
Smoky quartz (quartz).
Smoky topaz (quartz).
Spinel.
Spodumene.
Sunstone (feldspar).
Thetis hair stone (quartz). Thomsonite.
Tourmaline.
Topaz.
prospector’s field-book and guide.
Turquois.
Venus hair stone (quartz). Willemite.
Williamsite (serpentine). Wood agate (quartz).
Wood j asper ( quartz ) . Wood opal (opal). Zircon.
Zonochlorite (prelinite).
Lint of species and varieties found in the United States, but not met with
in gem form.
Andalusite.
Axinite.
Cassiterite.
Clirysoberyl
Cyanite.
Ilvaite.
Opal.
Prase (quartz).
Spliene.
Titanite.
List of species and varieties not yet identified in any form in the Un ited
States.
Alexandrite.
Cat’s-eye clirysoberyl. Cat’s -eye quartz. Clirysoberyl cat’s-eye. Clirysoprase.
Deraantoid. Euclase. Lapislazulite. Ouvarovite. Quartz cat’s-eye.
List of gem stones occurring only in the United States
Bowenite.
Clilorastrolite.
Chondrodite.
Iliddenite.
Litliia emerald.
Novaculite.
Rutile.
Thetis hair stone.
Thomsonite.
Willemite.
Williamsite.
Zonochlorite.
Table of Cliamcteristics of Gems.
Gems And Precious Stones.
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Table of Characteristics of Gems. — Continued .
224 lROSPECTOKS FlELD-fcOOlC ANt) GtJiPP.
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Table of Characteristics of Gems. — Concluded.
Gems And Precious Stones.
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Appendix.
Weights And Measures.
British weights and measures, and those used in our country, are based upon the weight of a cubic inch of distilled water at 62° Fah., and 30 inches height of the barometer, the maximum density. This was decided by Parliament, in the reign of George IV., to be 252.458 grains. Recent experi ments, however, show that a cubic inch of water at the temperature of maximum density is 252.286 standard grains. On this account scientists are urging the readjustment of the gallon, bushel, etc., but at present the tables below are correct. See also No. 8.
Weights and measures of various nations : —
No. 1. — English Length.
1 inch.
1 foot.
1 yard.
1 rod, pole, or perch (16 feet).
1 chain (22 yards or 66 feet).
1 furlong (220 yards or 660 feet).
1 mile (1760 yards, or 5280 feet).
A span 9 inches ; a fathom 6 feet ; a league 3 miles ; a geographical mile 6082.66 feet, same as a nautical knot, 60 being a degree, i. e., 69.121 miles.
(227 )
3 barleycorns
12 inches
3 feet
yards
4 poles or 100 links
10 chains
8 furlongs
228 phosiector’s field-book and guide.
Particular Measures of Length.
A point, of an inch. A line, inch.
A palm, 3 inches.
A hand, 4 inches.
A link, 7.92 inches.
A pace, military, 2 feet, 6 inches. A pace, geometrical, 5 feet.
A cable’s length, 120 fathoms.
A degree (average), 69 miles.
No. 2. — Subface Measure.
144 square inches
9 square feet
30 square yards 16 poles (square)
40 poles
10 chains or 4 roods
640 acres
No. 3. — Surface
9 square feet
4,356 “ “
10,890 “ “
43,560 “ “
27,878,400 square feet
1 square foot.
1 square yard.
1 pole, rod, or perch (square) 1 chain (sq. ) or 484 sq. yds.
1 rood (sq. ) or 1210 sq. yds.
1 acre (4840 sq. yds.).
1 sq. mile.
Measure in Feet.
1 square yard.
1 pole, rod, or perch.
1 square chain.
1 square rood.
1 acre.
1 square mile.
No. 4. — Solid Measure.
1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot.
27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard.
16| feet long, 1 foot high, and IJ feet thick 1 perch stone — 24| cubic feet.
No. 5. — AVeigiit.
Troy Weight. Platinum, gold, silver, and some precious stones are weighed by Troy weight, dia monds by carats of 4 grains each.
24 grains 20 pennyweights 12 ounces
1 pennyweight.
1 ounce (480 grains).
1 pound (5760 grains).
Appendix.
No. 6. — Avoirdupois Weight.
16 drams 16 ounces 14 pounds 2 stones 4 quarters
1 ounce (4371 grains).
1 pound (7000 grains).
1 stone.
1 quarter.
1 hundred-weight (112 pounds).
20 hundred-weight 1 ton (long ton) (2240 pounds).
No. 7. — Weights by Specific GRAVITY
Frequently the weight of masses is required where it is very inconvenient, or, perhaps, impossi ble, to use scales. The following method may be sufficiently accurate : —
Find the average specific gravity of the mass either by actual weight of a piece or by the follow ing table. Then measure the cubic contents of the mass as nearly as possible and multiply by the weight of a cubic foot. Thus, a mass of limestone (say good marble) measures 40 cubic feet. The specific gravity of good marble is 2.6, that is, it is 2.6 as heavy as a cubic foot of Avater, which weighs 62.5 pounds. Therefore 62.5
A cubic foot of good marble weighs 162.5 pounds, and the 40 cubic feet will weigh 162.5
6500.0 pounds,
230 prospector’s field-book and guide.
or about 3J tons. Of course all rock masses have not plane sides, and the irregularity requires some calculation and various allowances which the pros pector must make, and can easily do with a little consideration.
Where greater accuracy of specific gravity and of bulk is desired for small masses, and no scales are at hand, the following plan may be very satisfac torily adopted. Fill a tub or hogshead or large box with rain water, after having inserted a tube or piece of tin pipe into the upper edge. Pour in more water until it will hold no more without running out of the spout. Introduce the mass of rock and catch all the water which runs out of the pipe. Now measure the overflow ; this represents the exact cubic measure of the rock introduced.
1 gallon contains . 231 cubic inches.
1 quart ‘‘ . 57.75 or 57| cubic inches.
Ipint “ . 28.87 or 28|
Igill “ . 7.21 or 7i “
See Appendix, No. 8.
Suppose the overflow was 8 gallons, 1 quart, 4J gills, and that the specific gravity of the rock or ore was 6.5 by the table below. Then the mass will cause an overflow of 1936.99 cubic inches, and this is 208.99 more than one cubic foot, or about 1.120 of a cubic foot for the mass.
Since 6.5 was the specific gravity of the ore, 6.5x62.5 pounds 406.25, which would be the weight of a cubic foot of the ore, and 406.25 x 1.120
Appendix.
455 pounds, the exact weight of that mass you introduced into the water.
Specific Gravity, how to Find. Where the mass is of very nearly the same density in all parts, the specific gravity may be taken of a small part as follows : —
Suspend the scales so that they will be steady, weigh about an ounce or pound of the ore accu rately, then tie the ore by a horse-hair or a fine silk thread to the hook that holds one of the scales, and let it (the ore) hang below the scale pan, and then weigh the ore entirely submerged in water. The thread or hair may be attached to the centre of the scale pan and weighed in that way, but the pan in either case must remain on the scales just as before. Then the weight in air divided by the weight in air minus the weight in water, is the specific gravity : e. g., a piece of ore weighs in air 100 grains, in water 80 grains, then 100 divided by (100 — 80— 20)= 5, the specific gravity of that piece of ore. You may now proceed as in the case of the marble block.
No. 8. — Special Weights, etc.
One cubic foot of water is equal to 7.475 U. S. gals, of 231 cubic inches each, or 7J gallons nearly ; or 6.2321 Imperial gals, of 277 J cubic inches each. This, with what follows, is important in the con struction of tanks, pools, etc., where contents, w’eight, and pressure are to be considered.
It should be remembered that, although the Eng-
232 trospector’s field-book and guide.
lish Imperial gallon is 277 J cubic inches=:10 lbs. avoir, of distilled water at 62° Fair., Bar. 30 inches, and equal to 277.274 cubic inches, the United States standard gallon is 231 inches, or 58372.1754 grains, or 8.3389 lbs. of distilled water maximum density. This is almost exactly to a cylinder 7 inches diameter, 6 inches high. The beer gallon 282 inches.
One gallon 8.3389 lbs.; one quart 2.847 lbs.; one pint 1.423 lbs.; one gill .355 lbs.; U. S. standard measure. One cubic foot of water 62.3210 lbs., British weight ; recent and correct
. - Fr EN on I e a sur es — Len gt h .
No. 9
Millimetre (iVo metre) Centimetre “ “ )
Decimetre “ “ )
Metre (the unit of length)
Decametre (10 metres)
Hectometre (100 metres)
Kilometre (1000 metres)
Myriametre (10,000 metres)
.03937 inch.
.3937 “
39.3708 “ or 3.2809 ft.
32.809 ft. or 10.9363 yds. 109.3633 yards.
1093.63 yds. or .6238 mile. 6.2138 miles.
Surface.
Centiare (y-J- of an are or sq. metre — 1.1960 sq. yds.
Are (unit of surface) j tt9.6033 sq. yards or
i, . 0247 acre.
Decare (10 ares) 1 1196.033 sq. yds. or
.2474 acre.
11960.33 sq. yds. 2.4736 acres.
Hectare (100 ares)
or
Appendix.
Solid Measure.
Decistere of a store) Store (cubic metre) Decastere (10 stores)
3.5317 cubic feet.
35. 31 06 “ “
353.1658 “
Weight.
Milligramme (xoVo gramme) Centigramme (xo )
Decigramme (xo “ )
Gramme (unit of weight) Decagramme (10 grammes)
.0154 grain. .1544 “
1.544 grains. 15.44 “
154.4 “
Hectogramme (100 “ )
1.544 grains. -
3.2167 ozs. Troy or 3.5291 ozs.
Avoir.
Kilogramme (1000 “ ) — - 32x ozs. or 2.2057 pounds.
Myriagramme (10,000 grammes) 22.057 pounds.
No. 10. — Specific Gravity of Ietals, Ores, Rocks, etc.
Platinum
Gold .
Mercury . . . .
Lead .
Silver .
Copper .
Iron when pure . Iron, cast, average
11.35-11.5 10.1-11.1 8. 5-8. 9
6.7 ; foundry 6.9 to 7
Ores : associated with gold and silver.
(Gold) Iron pyrites . 4. 8-5. 2
Copper pyrites . 4. 0-4. 3
(Silver) Galena . 7. 2-7. 7
Glance (silver) . 7. 2-7. 4
Ruby silver (dark) . 5. 7-5. 9
“ “ (light) . 5. 5-5. 6
Brittle silver (sulphide) . 5. 2-6. 3
Horn silver . 5. 5-5. 6
234 prospector's field-book and guide.
Other Ores.
Zinc blende .
. . 3.7-4.2
Mercury (C’innabar) .
. . 8-8.99
Till — tinstone, cassiterite
. . 6. 4-7.6
Tin pyrites .
. . 4. 3-4. 5
Copper — Red or rubv copper . .
. . 5.7-6.15
Gray .
Black oxide .
Pyrites . . .
Carbonate (Malachite) . .
. . 3.5-4. 1
Lead — sulphide (Galena)
Carbonate ( white lead) . .
Zinc — Blende . .
. . 3. 7-4. 2
Calamine .
Iron — Hematite (red) .
Magnetic .
Brown hematite .
. . 3. 6-4.0
Spathic (carbonate) . . .
Pyrites (mundic)
Antimony — gray sulphide . . .
Nickel — Kupfer nickel .
Cobalt — Tin-white .
Glance .
Pyrites .
Bloom .
Earthy .
Manganese — Black oxide
AVad, Bog manganese . .
. . 2. 0-4. 6
Bismuth — Sulphide .
Oxide . 4.3
IlNERALS OF CoMMON OCCURRENCE.
Quartz . . 2. 5-2. 8
Fluorspar . 3. 0-3. 3
Calc spar . 2. 5-2. 8
Barytes . 4. 3-4. 8
Granite Gneiss Mica slate
2. 4-2. 7
2. 6-2. 9
Appendix.
Syenite . 17-3.0
Greenstone trap . 2. 7-3.0
Basalt . 2. 6-3.1
Porphyry . 2. 3-2. 7
Talcose slate . 2. 6-2. 8
Clay slate . 2. 5-2. 8
Chloritic slate . 2. 7-2. 8
Serpentine . . . 2. 5-2. 7
Limestone and Dolomite . . 2. 5-2. 9
Sandstones ... . 1.9-2. 7
Shale . 2.8
Other minerals are mentioned in the text with their specitie gravities.
Earth Clay
Chalk 14 ‘‘ ‘
Coarse gravel 19 “ ‘
Pit sand 22 cubic feet.
Piver sand 19 “ “
Marl 18 “
Shingle 23 “ “
11. — A Ton Weight of the FoLLO\viN(i wu.i. Avekage in Cuphc Feet ;
21 cubic feet.
18 “ “
Power for Mills.
As the Felton wheel seems to find the most fre- (jiient application in California, it may be conveni ent to have the following rule, applicable to this wheel :
When the head of water is known in feet, multi ply it by 0.0024147, and the product is the horse power obtainable from one miner’s inch of water.
The power necessary for different mill parts is :
For each 850 lbs. stamp, dropping 6 inches 95 times per
minute . 1.33 H. P.
For each 750 lbs. stamp, dropping 6 inches 95 times per
minute . 1.18 “
For each 650 lbs. stamp, dropping 6 inches 95 times per
minute . 1.00 “
23G prospector’s field-book and guide.
For an 8-incli by 10-inch Blake pattern rock breaker . 9.00 II. P. For a Frue or Triumph vanner with 220 revolutions per
minute . 0.50
For a 4 feet clean-up pan, making 30 revolutions per
minute . 1.50 “
For an amalgamating barrel, making 30 revolutions per
minute . 2.50 “
For a mechanical batea, making 30 revolutions per
minute . 1.00 “
Boring.
Rock is bored with jumpers of 10 to 18 lbs., used aloue or with boring bars and hammer. The former are more etiective, but can only be used perpendicularly, or nearly so, and with rock of moderate hardness; they require more skill.
18 lb. hammers are used for 3 inch boring bars.
16 1b. “ “ “ 2J inch boring bars.
14 lb. “ “ “ 2 and If inch boring bars.
5 to 7 lb. “ “ “ 1 inch boring bars.
The boring bars may be made of l|-inch bar iron of various lengths, with steel bits up to 3 inches. A bit should bore from 18 to 24 feet with each steeling, and requires to be sharpened once for every foot bored.
Diamond Drill.
This drill is applicable to sinking ti bore-hole for prospecting for minerals or water, shafts, etc., or blasting under water.
It consists of a circular row of carbonados,” a species of diamond, set in a circular steel ring. This is attached to a hollow steel tube, which is
Appendix.
kept rotating at about 250 revolutions per minute, pressed forward by a force varying from 400 to 800 lbs., according to the nature of the rock. AVater is supplied through the tube, which washes out the debris and cools the diamonds.
Granite and the hardest limestones are penetrated at the rate of 2 to 3 inches per minute, sandstones 4 inches, quartz 1 inch.
The diamond drill is not effective in soft strata, such as clay, sand and alluvial deposits.
The Chemical Elements, their Symbols, Equiva lents AND Srectfic Gravities.
Name.
Symbol.
Atomic
Weight.
Specific
Gravity.
Aluminium .
Al.
! 27.5
Antimony .
Sb.
Arsenic .
As.
Barium . .
Ba.
Bismuth .
Bi.
' 210.0
Boron . .
B.
! 11.0
Bromine .
Br.
Cadmium .
Cd.
Caesium .
Cs.
Calcium .
Ca.
' 40.0
Carbon .
Cerium .
Ce.
Chlorine .
Chromium . .
Cr.
Cobalt .
Co.
Columbium .
Cb.
Copper .
Cu.
Didymium .
Bi.
Erbium .
E.
—
Fluorine .
F.
Gallium .
Ga.
Glucinum .
Gl.
Gold (Aurum) .
Au.
Hydrogen .
Indium .
In.
238 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Xame.
Iodine .
Iridium .
Iron (Ferrum) .
Lantluinum .
Lead (PI urn bn in) .
Litliiuin .
Magnesium .
Manganese .
ISIercnry (Hydrargyrum) . .
Molybdenum .
Nickel .
Niobium .
Nitrogen .
Osmium .
Oxygen .
Palladium .
Phosidiorus .
Platinum .
Potassium (Kalium) . . . .
IHiodium .
Kubidium .
Puthenium .
Selenium .
Silicon .
Silver (Argentum) .
Sodium (Natrium) .
Strontium . .
Sulphur .
Tantalium .
Tellurium .
Thallium .
Thorinum .
Tin (Stannum) .
Titanium .
Tungsten (Wolfram)
Uranium .
Vanadium .
Yttrium .
Zinc .
Zirconium .
mbol.
Atomic
Weight.
Specific
Gravity,
Ir.
Fe.
La.
Pb.
Mg.
Mn.
Hg.
Mb.
Ni.
8.60’
Nb.
N.
Os.
O.
Pd.
P.
Pt.
K.
Ho.
Kb.
Ku.
Se.
Si.
Ag.
Na.
Sr.
S.
Ta.
Te.
Tl.
Th.
Sii.
Ti.
W.
U.
Y.
Al
—
Zn.
Zr.
The figures indicating tlie proportions by weight
appp:ndix.
in which the elements unite with one another are called the combining or atomic weights, because they represent the relative weights of the atoms of the different elements. Since hydrogen is the lightest element, it is taken as the standard, and its combin ing or atomic weight=l.
To find the proportional parts by weight of the ele ments of any substance whose chemical formula is known :
Rule. — Multiply together the equivalent and the exponent of each element of the compound ; the product will be the proportion by weight of that ele ment in the substance.
Example. — Find the proportional weights of the elements of alcohol, C2HgO :
Carbon Cg equivalent 12 X exponent 2 24 Hydrogen He “ IX “ 6
Oxygen O “ 16 X “ 1--16
Of every 46 lbs. of alcohol, 6 lbs. will be H ; 16 0 ;
To find the proportions by volume, divide by the specific gravity.
Common Names of Chemical Substances.
Common Names. Aqua fortis.
Aqua regia.
Blue vitriol.
Cream of tartar. Calomel.
Chalk.
Caustic potash. Chloroform.
Chemical Names. Nitric acid.
Nitro-hydrochloric acid. Sulphute of copper. Bi-tartrate of potassium. Chloride of mercury. Carbonate of calcium. Hydrate of potassium. Chloride of formyl.
240 rROSPECTORS FIELD-BOOK AND GUIDE.
Common Names. Common suit.
Copperas or green vitriol. Corrosive sublimate.
JJry alum.
Epsom salts.
Etliiops mineral.
Galena.
Glauber’s salt.
Glucose.
Iron pyrites.
Jeweler’s putty.
King’s yellow.
Laughing gas.
Lime,
Lunar caustic. iMosaic gold.
Muriate of lime. iSIuriatic acid.
Nitre or saltpetre.
Oil of vitriol.
Potash.
Realgar.
Red lead.
Rust of iron.
Sal ammoniac.
Salt of tartar.
Slaked lime.
Soda.
Spirits of hartshorn. Spii'its of salt.
Stucco or plaster of Paris. Sugar of lead.
V erdigris.
Vermilion.
Vinegar.
Volatile alkali.
Water.
AVhite precipitate.
White vitriol.
Chemical Names. Chloride of sodium.
Sulphate of iron.
Richloride of mercury. Sulphate of aluminium and potassium.
Sulphate of magnesium. Black sulphide of mercury. Sulphide of lead.
Sulphate of sodium.
Grape sugar.
Bisulphide of iron.
Oxide of tin.
Sulphide of arsenic.
Protoxide of nitrogen.
Oxide of calcium.
Nitrate of silver.
Bisulphide of tin.
Chloride of calcium. Hydrochloric acid.
Nitrate of potash.
Sulphuric acid.
Oxide of potassium.
Sulphide of arsenic.
Oxide of lead.
Oxide of iron.
Chloride of ammonia. Carbonate of potassium. Hydrate of calcium.
Oxide of sodium.
Ammonia.
Hydrochloric acid.
Sulphate of lime.
Acetate of lead.
Basic acetate of copper. Sulphide of mercury.
Acetic acid (diluted). Ammonia.
Oxide of hydrogen.
A m m oni ated m ercury . Sulphate of zinc.
Appendix.
Prospectors’ Pointers.
Old-Timer Instructs The Tenderfoot Prospector On Locating.
Take a soft pine board, and a hard lead pencil, and the writing will sometimes outlast your claim. I have seen such notices that have withstood the storms of seven or eight years and still remain legible. There is a great variety of ways to write a notice ; and nearly every prospector has his own way. But the briefest and most concise way is as good as any, and the easiest. Now, I’ll write you one for the Catharine this way :
Catharine Lode.
Notice is hereby given that I, the undersigned citizen of the United States, having complied with Chapter 3G, Title 32, Revised Statutes of the United States, and the local regulations of Barker district, claim by right of discovery, 1500 feet in length, and 600 feet in width, along the mineral-bearing vein, to be known as the Catharine (or any other name).
Beginning at centre of discovery shaft and run ning : “ How far do you run northerly ?”
“ Seven hundred feet northeast.”
“ Seven hundred feet in a northerly direction and 800 feet in a southerly direction.”
“ Always say northerly, southerly, easterly, and westerly in writing notices. Don’t give it any spe cific direction. When you say ‘ northerly,’ it gives
242 prospector’s field-book and guide.
you a chance to swing your stakes all around the North Pole, if necessary. You can swing your stakes after your location is made any way you want to, provided there are no conflicting claims, unless you change from northerly and southerly to easterly and westerly, or vice versa. In that case, you have to make an amended location and record it. Let’s see. Where were we ? Oh, yes ; together with 300 feet on either side of the vein.
“ Located this 18th day of June, 1891.
“ Locator — Tenderfoot, Prospector.”
Now that is all that is necessary to hold any claim, as far as the notice goes. Some prospectors put in a claim for all dips, spurs, angles, and varia tions throughout the width, breadth and depth of the claim ; but that’s all foolishness. The law grants you all the spurs and angles and dips you want. You just go ahead and do as the law re quires you to do, to hold any mining claim.” — Butte Bystander.
Glossary Of Terms
Used In Connection With
Prospecting, Mining, Mineralogy, Geology, Etc.
Acicular. Keedle-shaped.
Adamantine. Of diamond lustre.
Adit. A nearly horizontal passage from the surface by which a mine is entered. In the United States an adit is usually called a tunnel.
Aerolite. A stone or other body which has come to the earth from distant space.
Agate. Name given to certain siliceous minerals.
Alligator. A rock-breaker operating by jaws.
Alloy. A compound of two or more metals fused together.
Alluvium. The earthy deposit made by running streams, especially in times of flood.
Amalgamation. The production of an amalgam or alloy of mercury ; also the process in which gold and silver are extracted from pulverized ores by producing an amalgam from which the mercury is afterwards expelled.
Amorphous. Without any crystallization or definite form.
Analysis (in Chemistry). An examination of the sub stance to find out the nature of the component parts and their quantities. The former is called qualitative and the latter quantitative analysis.
Aimnometer. An instrument for measuring the rapidity of an air-current.
(243)
244 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Anticlinal. The line of a crest, above or under ground, on the two sides of wliich the strata dip in opposite ‘directions. The converse of synclinal.
Apex. In the U. S. Revised Statutes, the end or edge of a vein nearest tlie surface.
Aquafortis. Name formerly applied to nitric acid.
Aqua regia. A mixture of nitric and hydrocldoric acids. One volume of strong nitric to three or four of liydrochloric acid is a good mixture.
Arborescent. Of a tree-like form.
Arenaceous. Siliceous or sandy (of rocks).
Argentiferous. Containing silver.
Argillaceoiis. Containing clay.
Arrastre. Apparatus for grinding and mixing ores by means of a heavy stone dragged around upon a circular bed. Chietly used for ores containing free gold.
Arsenite. Compound of a metal. with arsenic.
Assay. To test ores and minerals by chemical or blowpipe examination.
Assay-ton. A weight of 29.166| grammes.
Assessment-work. The work done annually on a mining claim to maintain possessory title.
Auriferous. Containing gold.
Axe Stone. A species of jade. It is a silicate of magnesia and alumina.
Back of a lode. The part between the roof and the sur face.
Back-shift. The second set of miners working in any spot each day.
Bank claim. A mining claim on the bank of a stream.
Bar. A vein or dike crossing a lode ; also a sand or rock ridge crossing the bed of a stream.
Bar-diggings. Gold-washing claims located on the bars (shallows) of a stream, and worked when the water is low, or otherwise with the aid of coffer-dams.
Glossary Of Terms.
Barilla. Native copper disseminated in grains in copper ores.
Barrel-amalgamation. The amalgamation of silver ores in wooden barrels with quicksilver, metallic iron, and water.
Base metals. The metals not classed as noble or precious. See Noble metals.
Basin. A natural depression of strata containing a coal bed or other stratified deposit ; also the deposit itself.
Battery. A set of stamps in a stamp mill comprising the number which fall in one mortar, usually five ; also a bulk head of timber.
Battery-amalgamation. Amalgamation by means of mer cury placed in the mortar.
Bed. A seam or deposit of mineral, later in origin than the rock below, and older than the rock above ; that is to say, a regular member of the series of formation, and not an intrusion.
Bedded-vein. A lode occupying the position of a bed, that is, parallel with the stratification of the inclosing rocks.
Bed-rock. The solid rock underlying alluvial and other surface formations.
Bed-way. An appearance of stratification, or parallel marking, in granite.
Belly. A swelling mass of ore in a lode.
Black band. A variety of carbonate of iron.
Black flax. A mixture of charcoal and potassium car bonate.
Blackjack. Zinc-blende.
Black tin. Tin ore ready dressed for smelting.
Blanch. Lead ore mixed with other minerals.
Blende. Sulphide of zinc.
Blind level. A level not yet connected with other work ings.
Blind lode. One that does not show surface croppings.
Blossom. The oxidized or decomposed outcrop of a vein or coal bed. Also called smut and tailing.
246 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Blow-out. A large outcrop beneath wliicli the vein is smaller.
Blue-john. Fluorspar.
Blue lead. The bluish auriferous gravel and cement de posit found in the ancient river-channels of California.
Bluff. A high bank or hill with a precipitous front.
Bonanza. A body of rich ore.
Booming. The accumulation and sudden discharge of a quantity of water (in placer mining, where water is scarce). See also Hushing.
Bort. Opa(iue black diamond.
Boulder. A fragment of rock brought by natural means from a distance, and usually large and rounded in shape.
Brasque. A lining for crucibles ; generally a compound of clay, etc., with charcoal dust.
Breast. The face of a working.
Breccia. A conglomerate in which the fragments are angular.
Buddie. An inclined vat, or stationary or revolving plat form upon which ore is concentrated by means of running water.
Bullion. Uncoined gold and silver. Base bullion is pig lead containing silver and some gold, which are separated by refining.
Burr. Solid rock.
Button. The globule of metal remaining in a crucible at the end of fusion.
Cage. A frame with one or more platforms used in hoist ing in a vertical shaft.
Cairngorm. A variety of quartz, frequently transparent ; used as an ornament.
Calcareous. Containing carbonate of lime.
Calcine. To expose to heat with or without oxidation.
Calcite. Carbonate of lime.
Canon. A valley, usually precipitous ; a gorge.
Glossary Of Terms.
Cap or cap-roch. Barren vein matter, or pinch in a vein, supposed to overlie ore.
Carat. Weight, nearly equal to four grains, used for diamonds and precious stones. With goldsmiths and assay ers the term carat is applied to the proportions of gold in an alloy ; 24 carats represent fine gold. Thus 18 carat gold signifies that 18 out of 24 parts are pure gold, the rest some other metal.
Carbonaceous. Containing carbon not oxidized.
Carbonates. The common term in the West for ores con taining a considerable proportion of carbonate of lead.
Case. A small fissure admitting water into the workings.
Cawk. Sulphate of baryta (heavy spar).
Cement. Gravel firmly held in a siliceous matrix, or the matrix itself.
Champion lode. The main vein as distinguished from branches.
Chasing. Following a vein by its range or direction.
Chert. Hornstone ; a siliceous stone often found in lime stone.
Choke damp. Carbonic acid gas.
Chlorides. A common term for ores containing chloride of silver.
Chloridize. To convert into chloride. Applied to the roasting of silver ores with salt, preparatory to amalgama tion.
Chute. A channel or shaft underground, or an inclined trough above ground, through which ore falls or is “ shot ” by gravity from a higher to a lower level.
Claim. The portion of mining ground held under the Federal and local laws by one claimant or association, by virtue of one location and record.
Cleavage. The property of a mineral of splitting more easily in some directions than in others.
Clinometer. An apparatus for measuring vertical angles, particularly dips.
248 trospector’s field-book and guide.
Cohre ores. Copper ores from Cuba.
Color. A particle of gold found in the prospector’s pan.
Concentratiori. The removal by mechanical means of the lighter and less valuable poidions of ore.
Conchoidal. Name given to a certain kind of fracture re sembling a bivalve shell.
Conglo'merate. A rock consisting of fragments of other rocks (usually rounded) cemented together.
Consume. The chemical and mechanical loss of mercury in amalgamation.
Contact. The plane between two adjacent bodies of dis similar rock. A contact-vein is a vein, and a contact-hed is a bed, lying, the former more or less closely, the latter abso lutely, along a contact.
Counter. A cross vein.
Country., or Country rock. The rock traversed by or adja cent to an ore deposit.
Course of a lode. Its direction.
Cradle. See Jiocker.
Cranch. Part of a vein left by old workers.
Crater. The cup-like cavity at the summit of a volcano.
Cretaceous. Chalky.
Crevet. A crucible.
Crevice. A shallow fissure in the bed-rock under a gold placer, in which small but highly concentrated deposits of gold are found ; also the fissure containing a vein.
Cribbing. Close timbering, as the lining of a shaft.
Cribble. A sieve.
Croirpinej-out. The rising of layers of rock to the surface.
Cross-course. An intersecting (usually), a barren vein.
Cross-cut. A level driven across the course of a vein.
Cross-vein. An intersecting vein.
Cupriferous. Containing copper.
Bead-roasting. Roasting carried to the farthest practica ble degree in the expulsion of sulphur.
Glossary Of Terms.
Dead-work. AYork that is not directly productive, tliongli it may be necessary for exploration and future production.
Debris. The fragments resulting from shattering and dis- integration.
Decrepitate. To crackle and tly to pieces when heated.
Delta. The alluvial land at the mouth of a river ; usually bounded by two branches of the river, so as to be of a more or less triangular form.
Denudation. Eock laid bare by water or other agency.
Deoxidation. The removal of oxygen.
Desilver ization. The process of separating silver from its alloys.
Desulphurization. The removal of sulphur from sulphuret ores.
Develcjpment. Work done in opening up a mine.
Dialling. Surveying a mine by means of a dial.
Diggings. Applicable to all mineral dei)osits and niining camps, but in usage in the United States applied to placer mining only.
Dike. A vein of igneous rock.
Diluvium. Sand, gravel, clay, etc., in superficial deposits.
Dip. The inclination of a vein or stratum below the hori zontal.
Divining rod. A rod, most frequently of witch-hazel, and forked in shape, used according to an old but still extant superstition for discovering mineral veins and springs of water, and even for locating oil wells.
Discoverg. The first finding of the mineral deposit in place upon a mining claim. A discovery is necessary before the location can be held by a valid title. The opening in which it is made is called discovery- shaft.) discovery-tunnel, etc.
Ditch. An artificial water-course, flume or canal to con vey water for mining.
Dolly. An apparatus used in washing gold-bearing rocks (Australia).
Drift. A horizontal passage underground ; also unstrati fied diluvium.
250 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Druse. A crystallized crust lining the sides of a cavity.
Dyke. See Dike.
Efflorescence. An incrustation of powder or threads, due to the loss of the water of crystallization.
Elutriation. Purification by washing and pouring off the lighter matter suspended in water, leaving the heavier por tions behind.
E)\try. x\n adit.
Erosion. Tlie act or operation of wearing away.
Exploitation. The productive working of a mine, as dis tinguished from exploration.
Face. In any adit, tunnel, or slope, the end at which work is progressing or was last done.
Fathom. 6 feet.
Fanlt. A dislocation of the strata or vein.
Feeder. A small vein adjoining a larger vein.
Feldspathic. Containing feldspar as the principal ingre dient.
Ferruginous. Containing iron.
Fire-damp. Light carburetted hydrogen gas.
Fissure-vein. A fissure in the earth's crust filled with mineral.
Flint. A massive impure variety of silica.
Float-copper. Fine scales of metallic copper which do not readily settle in water.
Float-gold. Fine particles of gold which do not readily settle in water, and hence are liable to be lost in the ordinary stamp-mill process.
Float-ore. Water-worn particles of ore ; particl,es of vein- material found on the surface, away from the vein outcrop.
Floor. The rock underlying a stratified or nearly hori zontal deposit ; also a horizontal, Hat ore body.
Flume. A wooden conduit bringing water to a mine or mill.
Glossary Of Terms. 251
Flux. A salt or other mineral added in smelting to assist fusion by forming more fusible compounds.
Foliated. Arranged in leaf-like laminre (such as mica schist).
Foot-wall. The wall under the vein.
Forfeiture. The loss of possessory title to a mine by fail ure to comply with the laws prescribing the quantity of assessment work, or by actual abandonment.
Formation. The series of rocks belonging to an age, period or epoch, as the Silurian
Fossil. Term applied to express the animal or vegetable remains found in rocks.
Founder shaft. The first shaft sunk.
Free. Native, uncombined with other substances, ns free gold or silver.
Free-milling. Applied to ores which contain free gold or silver, and cnn be reduced by crushing and amalgamation, without roasting or other chemical treatment.
Fullers earth. An unctuous clay, usually of a greenish- gray tint, compact yet frinble. Used by fullers to absorb moisture.
Gad. A steel wedge.
Galiage. Koyalty.
Gallery. A level or drift.
Gangue. The mineral associated with the ore in a vein.
Gash. Applied to a vein wide above, narrow below, and terminating in depth within the formation it traverses.
Geode. A cavity, studded around with crystals or mineral matter, or a rounded stone containing such cavity.
Glance. Literally, shining. Name applied to certain sul- Ijhides.
Goaves. Old workings.
Gopher or Gopher-drift. An irregular pn specting drift, following or seeking the ore without regard to maintenance of a regular grade or section.
Gossan or Gozzan. Hydrated oxide of iron, usually found at the decomposed outcrop of a mineral vein.
prospector’s field-book and guide.
Gravel mine. In the United States, an accumulation of auriferous gravel.
Gri}). A small narrow cavity.
Grit. A variety of sandstone of coarse texture.
Guhhin. A kind of iron stone.
Gulch. A ravine.
Gullet. An opening in the strata.
Hade. See Underlay.
Hanging-side or Hanging-wall. or Hanger. The wall or side over the vein.
Heading. The vein above a drift : also an interior level or air-way driven in the mine.
Heading side. The under side of a lode.
Hog-hack. A sharp anticlinal, decreasing in height at both ends until it runs out ; also a ridge produced by highly tilted strata.
Horse. A mass of country-rock inclosed in an ore deposit.
Hungry. A term applied to hard barren vein matter, such as white quartz.
Hushing. The discovery of veins by the accumulation and suflden discharge of water, which washes away the surface soil and lays bare the rock. See Booming.
Hydraulicking. Washing down a bank of earth or gravel by the use of pipes, conveying water under high pressure.
Hydrous. Containing water in its composition.
Igneous. Resulting from the action of fire, as, lavas and basalt are igneous rocks.
Impregnation. An ore-deposit consisting of the country- rock impregnated with ore.
Incline. A shaft not vertical ; also a plane, not necessarily under ground.
Incrustation. A coating of matter.
In place. Of rock, occupying, relative to surrounding masses, the position that it had when formed.
Irestone. Hard clay slate; hornstone; horn-blende.
Iridescent, Showing rainbow colors.
Glossary Of Terms.
Jigging. Separating ores according to specific gravity with a sieve agitated up and down in water. The apparatus is called ‘djig or jigger.
Jinny-road. A gravity plane underground.
Jump. To take po.ssession of a mining claim alleged to have been forfeited or abandoned ; also, a dislocation of a vein.
KeckJe-meckle. The poorest kind of lead ore.
Kibhal or kibble. An iron bucket for raising ore.
Kicker. Ground left in first cutting a vein, for support of its sides.
Kiiufs yellow. Sulphide of arsenic.
Knits or knots. Small particles of ore.
Lagoon. A marsh, shallow pond or lake.
Lamina. A thin plate or scale.
Lava. Kock formed by the consolidation of liquid matter which has flowed from a volcano.
Leaching. See Lixiviation.
Leatli. Applied to the soft part of a vein.
Level. A horizontal passage or drift into or in a mine.
Limp. An instrunient for striking the refuse from the sieve in washing ores.
Litharge. Protoxide of lead.
Lixiviation. The separation of a soluble from an insoluble material by means of washing with a solvent.
Loadstone. An iron ore consisting of protoxide and peroxide of iron ; Magnetite.
Locate. To establish a right to a mining claim.
Lode. A regular vein carrying metal.
Long Tom. A kind of gold-washing cradle.
Mainway. A gangway or principal passage.
Marl. Clay containing carbonate of lime.
Mass-copper. N'ative copper occuring in large masses.
254 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Massicot. See Litharge.
Matrix. The rock or earthy material containing a mineral or metallic ore ; the gangue.
Measures. Strata of coal, or the formation containing coal beds.
Meat-earth. The vegetable mould.
Metamorphic. Changed in form and structure.
Mine. In general, any excavation for minerals. More strictly, subterranean workings, as distinguished from quar ries., placer and hydraulic mines, and surface or open works.
Mineral. In miners’ parlance, ore.
Mineralized. Charged or impregnated with metalliferous mineral.
JSHneral-right. The ownership of the minerals under a given surface, with the right to enter thereon, mine and remove them. It may be separated from the surface owner ship, but, if not so separated by distinct conveyance, the latter includes it.
Mine-rent. Tlie rent or royalty paid to the owner of a mineral right by the operator of the mine.
Miners’’ inch. A local unit for the measurement of water supplied to hydraulic miners. It is the amount of water tlowing under a certain head through one scpiare incli of the total section of a certain opening for a certain number of hours daily.
Minium. ITotoses(iuioxide of lead.
Mock ore. A false kind of mineral.
Monkey drift. A small prospecting drift.
Mountain blue. Blue copper ore.
Muffle. A semi-cylindrical or long arched oven, usually small and made of fire-clay.
Mundic. Iron pyrites, called so in Cornwall.
Native. Occurring in nature ; not artificially formed ; usually applied to the metals.
Nickeliferous or Niccoliferous. Containing nickel.
Nittings. The refuse of good ore.
Glossary Or Terms.
Nohle metals. The metals which have so little affinity for oxygen that their oxides are reduced by the mere application of heat without a reagent ; in other words, the metals least liable to oxidation under ordinary conditions. The list in cludes gold, silver, mercury, and the platinum group.
Nodule or Noddle. A small round mass.
Nugget. A lump of native metal, especially of a precious metal.
Opeyi cut. A surface working, open to daylight.
Ore. A natural mineral compound, of the elements of which one at least is a metal.
Outcrop. The portion of a vein or stratum emerging at the surface, or appearing immediately under the soil and surface debris.
Output. The product of a mine.
Oxidation. A chemical union with oxygen.
Oxide. The combination of a metal with oxygen.
Panning. Washing earth or crushed rock in a pan, by agitation with water, to obtain the particles of greatest specific gravity it contains; chiefly practiced for gold, also for quicksilver, diamonds and other gems.
Parting. The separation of two metals in an alloy, es pecially the separation of gold and silver by means of nitric or sulphuric acid.
Pavement. The floor of a mine.
Pay-streak. The zone in a vein which carries the profit able or pay-ore.
Peroxide. The oxide which contains greatest amount of oxide.
Peter or peter-out. To fail gradually in size or quality.
Phosphates. Phosphoric acid combinations.
Pinch. To contract in width.
Pipe or pipe-vein. An ore-body of elongated form.
Piping. Washing gold deposits by means of a hose.
Placer. A deposit of valuable mineral, found in particles in alluvium or diluvium., or beds of streams, etc.
256 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Plat. The map of a survey in horizontal projection.
Plumbago. Graphite or black lead.
Plush-copper. A fibrous red copper ore.
Pocket. A small body of ore.
Porphyritic. Of the nature of porphyry.
Potstone. Compact steatite.
Precipitate. Term applied to solid matter which is sepa rated from a solution by the addition of reaj?ents or exposure to heat.
Prill. A good sized piece of pure ore.
Pryan. Ore in small pebbles mixed with clay.
Pudding-Stone. A conglomerate in which the pebbles are rounded.
Puljj-assay. The assay of samples taken from the i. e., pulverized ore and water, after or during crushing.
Putty pjoirder. Crude oxide of tin.
Quarry. An open or day working.
Quartz. Crystalline silica ; also, any hard gold or silver ore, as distinguished from gravel or earth, hence quartz-min ing as distinguished from hydraulic, etc.
Quartose. Containing quartz as a principal ingredient.
Quicksand. Sand which is, or becomes, upon the access of water, ‘‘quick,” i. e., shifting, easily movable or semi liquid.
Pace. A small thread of spar or ore.
Pange. A mineral-bearing belt of rocks.
Pavine. A deep narrow valley.
Peduce. To deprive of oxygen ; also, in general to treat metallurgically for the production of metal.
Pefractory. Resisting the action of heat and chemical agents.
Pider. See Horse.
Piffle. A groove or interstice, or a cleat or block, so placed as to produce tlie same effect, in the bottom of a sluice, to catch free gold.
Glossary Of Terms. 257
Rim-rock. Tlie bed-rock rising to form the boundary of a placer or gravel deposit.
Roasting. Calcination, usually with oxidation.
Rocker. A short trough in which auriferous sands are agitated by oscillation, in water, to collect their gold.
Rolleii-tray. x\. gangway.
Rosette copper. Disks of cnp])er, red from the presence of suboxide, formed by cooling the surface of melted copper through sprinkling with water.
Royalty. The dues of a lessor or landlord of a mine, or of the owner of a patented invention.
Rusty gold. Free gold which does not easily amalgamate, the particles being coated, as is supposed, with oxide of iron.
Saddle. An anticlinal in a bed or flat vein.
Sal ammoniac. Chloride of ammonium.
Saline. A salt-spring or well ; salt works.
Schist. Crystalline rock.
Schorl. Black tourmaline. .
- Seam. A stratum or bed of coal or other mineral.
Sectile. Easily cut.
Segregate. To separate the undivided joint ownership of a mining claim into smaller individual 'segregated ” claims.
Segregation. A niineral deposit formed by concentration from the adjacent rock.
Salvage or Self edge. A layer of clay or decomposed rock along a vein-wall.
Shaft. A pit sunk from the surface.
Shake. A cavern, usually in limestone; also a crack in a block of stone.
Shift. The time for a miner’s work in one day ; also the gang of men working for that period, as the day-shift the night-shift.
Side-hasset. A transverse direction to the line of dip in strata.
Siliceous. Consisting of or containing si lex or quarts.
prospector’s field-book and guide.
Slag. The vitreous mass separated from tlie fused metals in smelting ores.
Slickensides. Polished and sometimes striated surfaces on the wads of a vein, or on interior joints of the vein-material or of rock masses.
Slime ore. Finely crushed ore mixed with water to the consistence of mud or slime.
Sline. Natural transverse cleavage of rock.
Slip. A vertical dislocation of rocks.
Slope. An inclined opening to a mine.
Sluicing. Washing auriferous earth through long boxes (sluices).
Slums. The most finely crushed ores.
Spall or S}}aid. To break ore. Pieces of ore thus broken are called spalls.
Speiss or speise. Impure metallic arsenides, principally of iron produced in copper and lead smelting. Cobalt and nickel are found concentrated in the speiss obtained from ores containing these metals.
Spoon. An instrument made of an ox or buffalo horn, in which earth or pulp may be delicately tested by washing to detect gold, amalgam, etc.
Spur. A branch leaving a vein, but not returning to it.
Starmary. A tin mine, or tin works.
Step-vein. A vein alternately cutting through the strata of country-rock and running parallel with them.
Stockwork. An ore deposit of such a form that it is worked in doors or stories.
Slope. To remove the ore.
Stratum. A bed or layer.
Streak. The powder of a mineial, or the mark which it makes when rubbed upon a harder substance.
Striated. Marked with parallel grooves or striae.
Strike. The direction of a horizontal line drawn in the middle plane of a vein or stratum not horizontal.
String. A small vein.
Glossary Or Terms.
Strip. To remove from a quarry, or oper working, the overlying earth and disintegrated or barren surface rock.
Stull. A platform laid on timbers, braced across a work ing from side to side, to support workmen or to carry ore or waste.
Stu7't. A tri6ide-bargain which turns out profitable for the miner.
Sublimation. The volatilization and condensation of a solid substance without fusion.
SubmetalUc. Of imperfect metallic lustre.
Subsidence. The sinking down of.
Subtransparent. Of imperfect transparency.
Sulphate. A salt containing sulphuric acid.
Sulphide. A combination of metal with sulphur.
Sulphurets. In miners’ phrase, the undecomposed me tallic ores, usually sulphides. Chiefly applied to auriferous pyrites.
Synclinal. The axis of a depression of the strata ; also the depression itself. Opposed to anticlinal., which is the axis of an elevation.
Tailings. The lighter and sandy portions of the ore on a buddle or in a sluice.
Tail-race. The channel in which tidings, suspended in water, are conducted away.
Thermal. Hot, e. c/., thermal springs.
Throw. A dislocation or fault of a vein or stratum, which has been thrown up or down by the movement.
Tinstone. Ore containing small grains of oxide of tin.
Toad stone. A kind of trap -rock.
Toughening, lielining, as of copper or gold.
Translucent. Allowing light to pass through, yet not transparent.
Trap. In miners’ parlance, any dark igneous, or appar ently igneous, or volcanic rock.
Tribute. A portion of ore given to the miner for his labor.
260 prospector’s field-book and guide.
Trogue. A wooden trough, forming a drain.
Troio. A wooden channel for air or water.
Tuff or Tufa. A soft sandstone or calcareous deposit.
Tunnel. A nearly horizontal underground passage, open at both ends to day. See Adit.
Turn. A pit sunk in a drift.
Underlay or Underlie. The departure of a vein or stratum from the vertical, usually measured in horizontal feet per fathom of inclined depth.
Un stratified. Not arranged in strata.
Upcast. A lifting of a coal seam by a dike.
Vein. See Lode. The term vein is also sometimes applied to small threads, or subordinate features of a larger deposit.
Vein stuff. Ore associated with gangue.
Vermilion. Mercury sulphide.
Vitreous. Glassy.
Volatile. Capable of easily passing off as vapor.
Vug.,Vugg or Vugh. A cavity in the rock, usually lined with a crystalline incrustation. See Geode.
Wastrel. A tract of waste land, or any waste material.
Weathering. Changing under the effect of continued ex posure to atmospheric agencies.
Whim or Whimsey. A machine for hoisting by means of a vertical drum, revolved by horse or steam power.
White-damp). A poisonous gas sometimes encountered in coal mines.
Wild lead. Zinc blende.
Win. To extract ore or coal.
Winze. An interior shaft, usually connecting two levels.
Working home. Working toward the main shaft in ex tracting ore.
Working out. Working away from the main shaft in ex tracting ore.
Glossary Of Terms.
Zinc-scum. The zinc-silver alloy skimmed from the sur face of the bath in the process of desilverization of lead by zinc.
Zinc-white. Oxide of zinc.
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Index.
Acid, nitric, preparation of, 93,
Adamantine lustre, 5 Agate, 218, 219
Alabama, deposits of bauxite in,
m
Alabaster, 188 Almandine ruby, 213 Alum, 180
Alumina, detection of, 51 indication of, 59 Aluminium, 174-178
antimony, manganese, 174-
future source of, 175 production of, from bauxite, 176, 177
Amalgamating assay, directions for making an, 83-85 Amalgam, native, 157 Amethyst, 220
oriental, 175, 211 Amydolite, 12
Analyses of ores, wet method,
Analysis, dry method of, 53
of ores for nickel and cobalt,
qualitative, of ores, 53 wet method of, directions for the, 53-65
Aneroid barometer, to measure heights with the, 42, 43 Anglesite, 132 Anthracite, 184, 185 Antimony, 178
aluminium, manganese, 174-
detection of, 51
Antimony, indication of, 64
ore, testing of, by the dry method, 70, 71 Apatite, 181 Aqueous rocks, 13 Areas, to measure, 43-45 Argentite, 108
Arizona, meteoric masses from, 38 occurrence of diamonds in,
ruby copper in, 123, 124 true turquoise in, 40 Arkansas, deposits of bauxite in,
Arsenic, 182, 183
detection of, in ores, 50 native, 182 testing for, 63, 64
with the blow-pipe,
Arsenical pyrites, 151 Asbestos, 183 Asbolite, 172, 173 Ashby’s Gap, tin ore near, 142 Asphalt, native, 203-205 noted deposits of, 204 petroleum, ozocerite, peat, Assay, 22
amalgamating, directions for making an, 83-85 furnace, 65, 66 of tin ore, 136 Asterias, 175, 212 Australia, occurrence of diamonds in, 208
Avoirdupois weight, 228 Azoic rock, 8 Azurite, 121, 122
(263 )
Index.
BALAS ruby, 213
Banca, discovery of tin in,
Barium sulphate, 183, 184 Barometer, aneroid, to measure heights with the, 42, 43 Barytes, 183, 184 Basalt, 12 Batea, the, 77 Bauxite, 176-178 Beds and layers, 16 Bell-metal, 138 Beryl, 214
Billiton, discovery of tin in, 137 Biotite, 15 Bismuth, 158 gold, 74
indication of, 62 nickel, cobalt, cadmium and mercury, 157-173 Bitumen, 203-205 elastic, 203 Bituminous coal, 185 Black band ore, 150 diamond, 207, 209 gold, 74
Hills, cassiterite of the, 142 jack, 144 lead, 186, 187 oxide of copper, 121 Blende, 144 Bloodstone, 220 Blow out, iron stone, 88, 89 Blow-pipe, the, 19-29
color of borax bead in test ing with the, 25-27 flames, illustration and practice in showing the characteristic power of, 23, 24
how to make a, 25 mode of using the, 20, 21 practice, illustration of, 22-
requirements for, 19,20 principal means of chemic ally testing minerals be fore the, 25-29 testing with carbonate of soda on charcoal before the, 27-29
Blue carbonate of copper, 121, 122 Blueite, 162
Blue Ridge, tin ore on the western slope of the, 142 Bog iron, 18 Borax, 20, 184
bead, color of the, in testing with the blow-pipe, 25-27 Boring, 236 bars, 236
Borneo, occurrence of the dia mond in, 207 Bornite, 122 Brasquing, 66
Brazil, occurrence of the diamond in, 207
British weights and measures, basis of, 227
Brittle silver ore, 109, 110 Bromic silver, 110 Bromyrite, 110 Brown coal, 185
hematite, 148. 149 iron ore, 148, 149
pADMlUM, 173
mercury, bisnmth, nickel and cobalt, 157-173 Calamine, 143, 144 Calcite hexagonal crystals, 34, 35 California, asbestos in, 183 asphalt in, 204 cinnabar in, 158 Gulch, section of strata show ing portion of the lead de posits in, 131 diamonds in, 209 free gold in, 89 petroleum in, 192 platinum in, 102 tin ore in, 142 Canada, asbestos in, 183 pyrrhotite in, 170 Candle, flame of a, study of the, 22 i Canuel coal, 185 I Carbonados, 237 Carbonate of lead, 130, 131
deposits, section of strata showing ! portion of the,
Index.
2G5
Carbonate of soda, dry, prepara tion of, 20
Carbonates, mineral detection of,
Carnelian, 219 Cassiterite, 137 Cerargyrite. 108, 109 Cerussite, 130, 131 Chalcedony, 219 Chalcocite, 119, 120 Chalcopyrite, 2, 120 Chemical elements, their symbols, equivalents and specific gravities, 237, 23S substances, common names of, 239, 240 Chlorospinel, 213 Chromate of lead, 132, 133 Chromic iron, 1 50 Chromite, 150
Chromium oxide, indication of, 59, GO
Chrysocolla, 121 Cinnabar, 157 streak of, 3 Cleavage, 2
Coal, mineral, 184, 185 Cobalt, 171-173
and nickel, analysis of ores for, 162-170 separation of, in ana lyzing nickel and cobalt ores, 168,
cadmium, mercury, bismuth and nickel, 157-173 detection of, 51 earthy, 172, 173 indication of, 61 wad, 172, 173 Cobaltite, 171
Colorado, deposits of sulphide of zinc in, 145 petroleum in, 192 true turquoise in, 40 Compass, method of using the, in searching for ores, 155, 156 Comstock lode, east and west sec tion across the. 111,
extent of the, 1 13
Comstock lode, north and south section of. 111, 114 silver ore in the, 109 Conch oidal fracture, 3 Connecticut, topaz in, 38 Copper, and how measured in ores, 118-128
bed at Doll}" Hide Mine, Md., section of the, 122 behavior of, before the blow- j)ipe, 118
black oxide of, 121 blue carbonate of, 121, 122 indication of, 50, 62 geology of, 123-125 glance, 119, 120 green carbonate of, 121 nickel, 159, 160 occurrence of, 1 18 ore, red, 119
testing of, by the dry method, 70 properties of, 118 pyrites, 120
separation of, in analyzing nickel and cobalt ores, 163 silicate of, 121
suggestions for the detection of, as an ore, 124, 125 testing for, 118, 1 19 to obtain the per cent, of, in an ore, 125-128 Corundum, 174, 175, 212 Cradle, the. 77-79 Crocoite, 132, 133 Crowder’s Mount, N. C., occur rence of lazulite at, 37 Crowder’s Mount, N. C., topaz at,
Crucibles, 65
Crystalline forms, systems of, 30 Crystallographic systems, illus trations of, 36, 37 Crystallography, 30-40 Crystals, gold, 74, 75 Cryolite, 175
Cuba, asi)halt de[)Osits in, 204 Cube, the, 31, 32 Cupel, 65
Cupellation, 68, 69 Cuprite, 119
Index.
Cyanide of potassium, 20
extraction of gold by, 85, 86
Dakota, forms of granite in,
Diamond, 206-211 black, 201, 209 color of, 209 drill, 236, 237
minerals associated with the, in South Africa, 207 natural surface of the, 209 occurrence of the, 206-209 refraction of, 210 rocks associated with the, in South Africa, 207, 208 rough, 209
specific gravity of, 210 value of, 209, 210 Deposits, irregular, 16 surface, 16-18 Dodecahedron, the, 32 Dolerite, 12
Dolly Hide Mine, Md., section of the copper bed at, 122 Dolomite, 185 Drill, diamond, 236, 237 Dry assay of ore, 65-71
pulverization for the, 67,
method of analysis, 53 Dykes, volcanic, 12 Dysartville, McDowell Co., N. C., occurrence of diamonds at, 209
Eagle vein. Lake Superior, section of the, 123 Earth, movements of the crust of, 9
Earthy cobalt, 172, 173 fracture, 2
East Galicia, occurrence of ozo cerite in, 201, 202 Elaterite, 203
Elements, chemical, their sym bols, equivalents and spe cific gravities, 237, 238 to find the proportional parts by weight of the, 239 Emerald, 214
Emerald, nickel, 160 oriental, 175, 211 Emery. 175, 212 Emma Mine, 116 English length, 227 Epidote, 217 Erubiscite, 122 Erythrite, 172
Etta Mine, form of granitic masses at the, 141, 142 minerals occurring in the, 139
Eureka Mines, geology of, 115 limestone of, 115, 116 occurrence of ores in the, 115
Excess, definition of, 59 Eye agates, 219
Feldspar, i85, i86
crystals, 35, 36
Filtrate, the, in analysis by the wet method, 58 Fire opal, 217 Flame, oxidizing, 22 reducing, 22 i Florentine, the, 210 I Fluorite, 186 Fluorspar, 186
Flux for melting gold and silver ores, 69 Foleyrite, 161 Fracture, 2, 3 Franklinite, 147 French measures, 232, 233 Fuming nitric acid, preparation of, 93, 94
Furnace, assay, 65, 66
Galena, i3o
limestone, section of, 133,
test for silver in, 129, 130 testing for, by the dry method, 70
Gallon, contents of the, 231, 232 Garnet, brown, 141 Garnets, 39, 215, 216 Garnierite, 170
Gay Head, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., clays at, 177, 178
Index.
Geras and precious stones, 206-
occurrence of, 40 table of characteristics of,
Gem-stones known to occur in the United States, list of, 221, 222
occurring only in the United States, 222 species and varieties of, found in the United States, but not within gem form, 222 species and varieties of, not yet identified in any form in the United States, 222
Geology, mineralogy, raining, prospecting, etc., glossary of terras used in connec tion with, 243-261 practical, 9-19
Georgia, deposits of bauxite in, 177 lazulite found in, 37 Glance coal, 184, 185 Glass bottle, mode of cutting off the bottom of a, 56 Glassy lustre, 5
Glossary of terms used in connec tion with prospecting, mining, mineralogy, geology, etc., 243-
Gneiss, 13 Gold, 72-101
action of, under the blow pipe, 76
amalgam, 74, 87 bismuth, 74 black, 74 color of, 1, 2 crystallization of, 74, 75 distribution of, 72, 73 dust, 74, 75
extraction of, by cyanide of potassium, 85, 86 German aphorism relating to, 88
' in combination, 92-98
metallic sulphides, to sep arate, 92-98
Gold, in review with additional re marks, 98-101
instrument for the discovery of, 77
largest nugget of, ever found,
localities of the chief sup plies of, 73 lump of, 74, 75 manner of occurrence of, 73 native, composition of, 73 determination of, 50 in pyrites, detection of,
ore, flux for, 69 ores, testing of, by the dry method, 68-70 original position of, 87 physical properties of, 75, 76 placer, 86
points to observe by the prospector in searching for, 99, 100
primary location of, 98 resistance of, to acids, 76 rule for ascertaining the amount of, in a lump of auriferous quartz, 100, 101 specific gravity of ores associ ated with, 233
Tungusian method of search ing for, 17
variations in the color of, 75, 76
various forms and conditions of, 86, 87
where found, 87-92 Grand Duke of Tuscany diamond, the, 210 Granite, 14-16
metamorphic, composition of, 91
Granites, tin ore in the, 139 Granitic regions, gold in, 88 Graphite, 186, 187
test for the purity of, 187 Graves’s Mount, Ga., occurrence of lazulite at, 37 Gray copper, 120 Green carbonate of copper, 121 Greenockite, 173
Index.
Greenstone, 12 Gypsum, 188
Hackly fracture, 2
Hall Co., Ga., diamond found in, 209 Hardness, 3, 4 scale of, 4 test of, 4, 5 Harlequin opal, 217 Hearney Peak Mines, 139
minerals in the, 141
Heavy spar, 183, 184 Heights, inaccessible, to measure,
Hematite, brown, 148, 149 red, 147, 148
Hexagonal system, 33, 34
illustrations of, 36 Horizons, geological necessity of a knowledge of, 9, 10 in the United States which abound in the useful min erals, 10
Horn silver, 107, 109 Hydraulic mining, 80-82 Hydrogen apparatus, 166, 167 sulphide, apparatus for pre paring, 56-58 Hyposyenite, 91
IDAHO, diamonds in, 209 Igneous rocks, 8, 12
composition of,
India, occurrence of the diamond in, 206, 207
Instruction, preparatory, 1-29 Intrusive rocks, 12 Iridium, 105 Iron, 146-156
and zinc, 143-156 chief ores of, 146-150 determination of the amount of, in an ore, 66, 67 geology of, 151-153 meteoric 38 native, 146 ore, brown, 148, 149 spathic, 149
Iron ores, not used for the mak ing of iron and steel, 150, 151
occurrence of, 7, 8 pyrites, 2, 150, 151
to separate gold in, 92-
sesquioxide, indication of, 60 specular, streak of, 3 use of the magnetic needle in prospecting for, 153-156 Ironstone “ blow out,” 88, 89 Isometric system, 30-32
illustrations of, 36
JACINTH, form of the, 33 Jack’s tin, 162 Jasper, 219, 220 opal, 218
Jefferson Co., N. Y., condemna tion of valuable iron ore in, 6 Jet, 185 Jumpers, 236
Kaolins, most valuable, 174 Kentucky, occurrence of pe troleum in, 192
Kimberley mine, diamond bear ing ground at the, 208 Koh-i-noor, the, 210
Lake GEORGE diamonds, 220 Lake Superior copper region, section of strata in, 123
iron ores of, geo logical horizons around the, 148
Lapis lazuli, 37 Lava, 12
Layers and beds, 16 Lazuli te, 37 Lead, 129-136
and tin, 129-142 carbonate of, 130, 131 chromate of, 132, 133 deposit, section of a, in a fissure in the limestone, 135 district of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, order of strata in the, 129
Index.
Lead, geology of, 133-136 indication of, 55 lode in micaceous slate, 130 occurrence of, 129 ochre, 133
ore, testing of, by the dry method, 70 phosphate of, 132 properties of, 129 section of galena limestone showing the occurrence of, in lodes, 134
separation of, in analyzing nickel and cobalt ores, 162,
sulphate of, 132
indication of, 62 veins, circulation of water in, 134, 135 Length, English, 227 French, 232
particular measures of, 228 Lignite, 185 Lime, detection of, 51 phosphate of, 181 Limestones, galena, 133 Liraonite, 148, 149 Line, inaccessible, to measure an,
Linnaeite, 172
Lithographic limestone, 188, 189 Lode, examination of a, 18 prospecting, 82, 83 Lodes, 16 Long tom, 79 Lustre, kinds of, 5, 6
Magnesia, detection of, 51 Magnetic needle, use of the, in prospecting for iron,
Magnetite, 146, 147 occurrence of, 18 Malachite, 121 Manganese, 18, 178-181
aluminium, antimony, 174-
carbonate, 180
indication of, 61 chief producing statea of, 180 detection of, 51
Manganese, geological position of, 180, 181
ores, classes of, 178 Mnssicot, 133
Measure, French, solid, 233 surface, 232 solid, 228 surface, 228
Measures and weights, 227-233 French, 232, 233 Mercury, 157, 158
bismuth, nickel, cobalt and cadmium, 157-173 detection of, 52 indication of, 55 ore, testing of, by the dry method, 70
oxide, indication of, 62 Metallic adamantine lustre, 5 lustre, 5 streak, 3
Metals, color imparted by, to fused borax, 25-27 colors of. 1 forms of, 1 native, 1
specific gravity of, 233 testing for, Avith carbonate of soda on cliarcoal before the blow-pipe, 27-29 Metamorphic granite, composi tion of, 91 rocks, 13
formation of, 90, 91 Meteoric iron, 38 Meteorites, constitution of, 38, 39 Mica, 189
schist, 13
Middletown, Conn., lead lode in micaceous slate in a mine near,
Milk opal, 217 Millerite, 160, 161 Mill parts, power necessary for different, 235, 236 Mills, power for, 235, 236 Mineralogy, geology, mining, prospecting, etc., glossary of terms used in connec tion with, 243-261 special, 72-191
Index.
Mineralogy, technical, 1-9 definition of, 7
Mineral carbonates, detection of,
resins allied to ozocerite, 202,
substances, assumption of a characteristic form by, 30 tar, 194
Minerals, associated with the diamond in South Africa,
cleavage of, 2
composition of, indicated by their forms, 30 form of, 6 fracture of, 2, 3 guises of, 1 hardness of, 3, 4 lustre of, 5, 6
of common occurrence, spe cific gravity of, 234, 235 principal means of chemically testing, before the blow pipe, 25-29 streak of, 3
various, useful, 181-191 weight of, 6
Mining, hydraulic, 80-82
mineralogy, geology, pro specting, etc., glossary of terms used in connection with, 243-261 Mispickel, 151 Molybdenite, 189, 190 Molybdenum, 189, 190 Monoclinic system, 35, 36
illustrations of, 36, 37
Moss agate, 219 Mud volcanoes, 196 Muffle, 65 Muscovite, 16
Native amalgam, 157
New Caledonia, nickel ores in, 170
New Mexico, true turquoise in, 40 New Zealand, occurrence of dia monds in, 208 Nickel, 159-170
Nickel and cobalt, analysis of ores for, 162-170 separation of, in ana lyzing nickel and cobalt ores, 168, 169 arsenide, 159, 160 chief ores of, 159-161 cobalt, cadmium, mercury and bismuth, 157-173 detection of, 51 indication of, 61 Nicolite, 159, 160 Nitre, 190
Nitric acid, preparation of, 93, 94 North Carolina, lazulite found in,
manganese in, 181 meteoric iron in, 38 petroleum in, 192 topaz found in, 38
Obsidian, 12
Octahedron, the, 32 Oil-bearing rock, tracing the, 195 sandstone, fresh fracture of, 194
Oil strata, Pennsylvania, 192 Onyx, 220 Opal, 217, 218
Ore, association of, in metallifer ous veins, 18, 19 determination of the amount of iron in an, 66, 67 dry assay of, 65-7 1 Oregon, platinum in, 102 Ores, analyses of, wet method,
analysis of, for nickel and cobalt, 162-170 method of using the compass in searching for, 155, 156 preliminary examinations of,
qualitative analysis of, 53 specific gravity of, 233, 234 Oriental amethyst, 175, 211 emerald, 175, 211 ruby, 175 topaz, 175, 211 Orlof diamond, the, 210 Orpiment, 182, 183
Index.
Orthoclase, 16, 185, 186 crystals, 35
Orthorhombic system, 34, 35
illustrations of, 36 Osmium, 105, 106 Oxide of tin, 136-138 Oxidizing flame, 22 Ozocerite, 201-203
petroleum, asphalt, peat,
properties of, 203
PALLADIUM, 106 Pearly lustre, 5 Peat, 205
petroleum, ozocerite, asphalt,
Pelton wheel, rule applicable to the, 235
Pennsylvania oil strata, 192 Persia, occurrence of the true tur quoise in, 40 Petroleum, 192-201
bed-like occurrence of, 197 color of traces of, 195 crude, occurrence of, 192 properties of, 192 indications of, 193 occurrence of, in definite geological horizons, 196 outcrop of, 193 outfit for prospecting for, 192 ozocerite, asphalt, peat, 192-
prospecting for, 192 quality of, 201 vein-like occurrence of, 199,
water test for, 194 Phenacite, 214 Phosphate of lead, 132 of lime, 181
Pilot Knob, Mo., section of, 152,
Pitt diamond, the, 210 Platinum, 102-106
chemical test of, 103, 104 derivation of the term, 103 distinction of, 103 indication of, 63 minerals associated with, 103
Platinum, occurrence of, 102 properties of, 102 serpentine as a source of, 103 supply of, 102 Placer gold, 86 Plaster of Paris, 188 Pleonast, 213 Plumbago, 186, 187 Pockets, 16
Porphyritic granite, 15 Potash feldspar, 16
crystals, 35 Potassium cyanide, 20
extraction of gold by, 85, 86 Precious opal, 217 Precious stones arid gems. 206-225 Precipitate, contents of the, in the wet method of analysis, 58 Preparatory instruction, 1-29 Prism compass, the, 48 Prospecting, mining, mineralogy, geology, etc., glossary of terms used in connection with. 243-261 Prospectors’ pointers, 241, 242 Psilomelane, 179, 180 Pyrargyrite, 110 Pyrite, 2
Pyrites, arsenical, 151 copper, 120
detection of native gold in, 74 iron, 150, 151 tin, 138
variegated copper, 122 Pyrolusite, 179 Pyromorphite, 132 Pyropissite, 203 Pyrrhotite, 170
QUALITATIVE analysis of ores.
Quartz, auriferous, rule for ascer taining the amount of gold in a lump of, 100, 101 cellular, 88 rocks, 88
Quicksilver, 157, 158
Realgar, i82
Red copper ore, 119 hematite, 147, 148
Index.
Red oxide of zinc, 144 silver ore, 1 1 0 Reducing flame, 22 Regent diamond, the, 210 Resin opal, 218 Resinous lustre, 5 Retinite, 202, 203 Retort, construction of a, 84, 85 Rhodium gold, Mexican, 74 Rhodochrosite, 180 Rhombohedral form, 34 Roasting, 23 Rock, azoic, 8 crystal, 220
refraction of, 210 oil bearing, tracing tlie, 193 salt, 190
sedimentary, determination of the name of, 8 testing of, for petroleum, 194 Rocker, the, 77-79 Rocks, aqueous, 13
associated with minerals, ne cessity of an acquaintance with, 7
associated with the diamond in South Africa, 207, 208 classification of, 10 definition of, 10, 11 formation of, 11 horizons of, 8 igneous, 8, 12 intrusive, 12 metamor[)hie, 13
formation of, 90, 91 specific gravity of, 233-235 volcanic, 12 Rubicelle, 213
Rubies and sapphires, 211, 212 Ruby copper, 119
crystallization of the. 39 oriental, 175 refraction of, 210 silver, 110 true, 174
Oalses, 19G
Saltiel, E. H., report of, on zinc deposits in Colorado, 145, 146.
Saltpetre, 190
Sandstone, 14
oil-bearing, fresh fracture of,
Sandstones, examination of, 52 Sajiphire, 174. 175
crystallization of the, 39 streak of, 3
Sa[)phires and rubies, 211, 212
Sard, 219
Sardonyx, 220
Satin spar, 188
Scales, 67
Scorifiers, 65
Scranton, W. 11. , summary b}', of indications from the mag netic needle in searching for iron ore, 153-156 Sedimentary rock, determination of the name of, 8 Selenite, 188
Serpentine as a source of plati num, 103 j Shale, 14 ; Siderite, 149
I Silenium, detection of, in ores, 50 [ Silicate of copper, 121 ! Silky lustre, 6 Silver, 106-117
behavior of, before the blovv- I pipe, 106
I chemical test of, 106, 107
glance, 108
in galena, test for, 129, 130 indication of, 55
in ores, 50
native, determination of, 50 ore, brittle, 109, 110 flux for, 69 red, 110
ores, geology of, 110-117 testing of, by the dry method. 68-70 princii)al source of, 107 properties of, 106 specific gravity of ores asso ciated with, 233 sulphides, 108 Slate, 191 Sluices, 80
Small conchoidal fracture, 2 Smaltite, 159, 171
.Index.
Smithsonite, 143 - Soapstone, 191
Soda, dry carbonate of, prepara tion of, 20
feldspar crystals, 35, 36 Solenhofen, Bavaria, lithographic limestone at, 188, 189 Solid measure, 228
French, 233
South Africa, occurrence of the diamond in, 207, 208 Dakota, tin ores of, 138,
Sparta, New Jersey, zinc mines, section of strata near, 144, 145 Spathic iron ore, 149 Special mineralogy, 72-191 Specific gravity, how to find,
of metals, ores, rocks, etc., 233-235 weights by, 229-231 Specimens, actual, value of study of, 72
Specular ore 147, 148 L
Sperry lite, 103 Sphalerite, 144 Spinel, 213
twins, 213 Splintery fracture, 2 Stannous chloride, preparation of,
Steatite, 191 Stephanite, 109, 110 Stibnite, 178 ,
Stone coal, 184, 185 Streak, 3 Stream tin, 137 Sub-conchoidal fracture, 2 Sulphate of lead, 132 Sulphide of mercury, 157 tin, 138 zinc, 144
Sulphides, metallic, to separate gold in, 92-98 silver, 108 Sulphur, 191
detection of, in ores, 50 indication of, 63 testing for, with the blow pipe, 29
Surface deposits, 16-18 measure, 228 French, 232 Surveying, 41-49 Sussex Co., N. J., Franklinite in,
Swampy puddles, examination of, for petroleum, 195, 196 Syenite granite, 15, 91
Talc, 191
Technical mineralogy, 1-9 Tennessee, occurrence of man ganese in, 180, 181 Tetragonal system, 32, 33
illustrations of, 36 Tetrahedrite, 120 Thomas’s Mountains, topaz found in, 38
Tin, 136-142
and lead, 129-142 deposits, home of the, 141, detection of, 51 indication of, 64 ore, assay of, 136 ;
properties of, ,137 ' testing of, by the dry method, 70 oxide of, 136-138
geological position of, 140
pyrites, 138
sulphide of, 138 "
Titanium, detection of, 52 Toad’s eye tin, 137 Ton weight, average cubic feet in a, 235
Topaz, 38, 213, 214 oriental, 175, 211 Tourmaline, 216, 217 Trachyte, 12 Traps, 12
Triclinic system, 36 Trinidad, asphalt deposits in, 204 Troy weight, 228 Trumbull, Conn., topaz found at,
Turquois, 37, 218 Twitty’s mine, Rutherford Co., N. C., diamond found in the,
'Index
UNEVEN fracture, 2
United States, asphalt in the,
barytes in the, 184 borax in the, 184 diamonds in the, 208, 209
gems and precious stones in the,
horizons in the, which abound in the useful min erals, 10
lithographic lime stone in the, 189 ozocerite in, 201 principal locality for sapphire in the, 212
topaz in the, 214 Ural Mountains, diamonds in the,
structure of the, 89 Uranium, detection of, 51, 52 Utah, asphalt in, 204 topaz in, 38
VARIEGATED copper pyrites,
Veins, metalliferous, association of ore in, 18, 19 Vermont, manganese in, 181 Vitreous copper, 119, 120 lustre, 5
Volcanic dykes, 12 rocks, 12
Wad, 178, 179
Water, refraction of, 210 Water- test for petroleum, 194 Wax opal, 218 Waxy lustre, 5 Weight, 228, 229 French, 233 Weights, 67
and measures, 227-233 by specific gravity, 229-231 special, 231, 232
West Virginia, petroleum in, 192 Wet method of analysis, direc tions for the, 53-65 Whartonite, 161, 162 Wolframite, 140, 141 Wood opal, 218 tin, 137
Zinc, 143-146
and iron, 143-156 blow- pipe tests of, 146 carbonate, 143 chief ores of, 143, 144 detection of, 51 red oxide of, 144 silicate, 143, 144 sulphide of, 144 Zincite, 144 Zircon, 214, 215 form of the, 33
Collection Of Ores
Required For
Osborn’S
Prospector’s Fi?Id Book and Giiide.
Gold.
1. Gold in quartz.
2. Gold ore, pyritiferous.
Sidver.
3. Native silver, wire.
4. Native silver, in quartz.
5. Argentite, glance.
6. Stephanite, brittle silver.
7. Cerargyrite, horn silver.
8. Pyrargyrite, ruby silver.
Copper.
9. Copper, native.
10. Cuprite, red oxide.
11. Chalcocite, copper glance.
12. Tetrahedrite, ray copper.
13. Chrysocolla, silicate.
14. Melaconite, black oxide.
15. Malachite, green carbonate.
16. Azurite, blue carbonate
17. Bornite, variegated pyrites.
Lead.
18. Galena, sulphide, cube.
19. “ (granular, argentif.).
20. Cerussite, carbonate.
21. Angles! te, sulphate.
22. Pyromorphite, phosphate.
Tin.
23. Cassiterite, oxide, (cryst.).
“ “ toad’s eye tin.
25. “ “ stream tin.
26. Stannite, sulphide.
Rare Metals.
27. Columbite.
28. Wolframite.
29. Rutile.
30. Zircon, tetragonal.
31. Platinum.
Zinc.
32. Smithsonite, carbonate.
33. Calamine, silicate.
34. Zincite, oxide.
35. Sphalerite, sulphide.
Iron.
36. Iron, meteoric.
37. Magnetite, oxide, granular.
38. “ lodestone.
39. Franklinite.
40. Hematite, (cryst.).
41. “ specular ore.
42. Limonite, brown ore.
43. Siderite, spathic ore.
44. Chromite, chromic ore.
45. Pyrite, sulphide, octahedral.
46. “ massive.
47. Arsenopyrite, mispickel.
Mercury, Etc.
48. Cinnabar, mercury sulphide.
49. Bismuth.
Nickel And Cobalt.
50. Smaltite, arsenide.
51. Niccolite, nickel arsenide.
52. Millerite, nickel sulphide.
53. Pyrrhotite, niccoliferous pyrite.
54. Cobaltite, sulph-arsenide.
55. Gamierite, nickel silicate.
56. Asbolite, cobalt oxide.
Aluminium.
.57. Corundum, (crystal) oxide.
58. “ emery, oxide.
59. Cryolite, fluoride.
60. Bauxite, hydrate.
Antimony And Manganese.
61. Stibnite, antimony sulphide.
62. Wad, bog manganese.
63. Pyrolusite, oxide.
64. Psilomelane, oxide.
65. Rhodochrosite, carbonate.
Other Useful Minerals.
66. Apatite, hexagonal.
67. “ phosphate rock.
68. Arsenic, native.
69. Realgar, red arsenic sulphide.
TO. Orpiment, yellow arsenic sul phide.
71. Dolomite, rhombohedral.
72. “ massive.
73. Orthoclase, feldspar, monoclinic.
74. “ “ cleavage.
75. Microcline, triclinic.
76. Fluorite, cubic.
77. “ massive.
78. Quartz, hexagonal.
79. Calcite, dog-tooth spar.
80. “ rhombohedral cleavage.
81. Graphite, plumbago.
82. Gypsum, plaster.
83. “ selenite.
84. Barite, orthorhombic.
85. Celestite.
86. Muscovite, mica.
87. Molybdenite.
88. Halite, rock salt.
89. Sulphuf, native.
90. Borax, monoclinlc.
91. Alunite, alum stone.
92. Talc, soapstone,
93. Petroleum.
94. Anthracite c al.
95. Bituniinous coal.
96. Cannel coal.
97. Elaterite, elastic bitumen.
98. Asphaltum,
99. Ozokerite,
100. Diamond.
101. Emerald.
102. Topaz, orthorhombic.
10:1. Garnet, dodecahedral.
104. Opal, precious.
105. Turquois.
Rocks,
106. Trachyte.
107. Basalt.
108. Greenstone.
109. Obsidian.
110. Gneiss.
111. Mica schist.
112. Granite.
113. Porphyry.
114. Syenite.
115. Sandstone.
116. Quartzose conglomerate.
117. Limestone, coarse.
118. “ lithographic.
119. Shale.
120. Chioritic schist.
This list includes all important minerals mentioned in the text, besides illustrating the Scale of Hardness and the six systems of Crystallization.
In selecting specimens from our large stock, a collection is secured which represents, in a brief way, the varieties with which the prospector or miner is most likely to meet, and it has, therefore, a thoroughly practical value. It is an indisjiensdble aid and guide to users of the book.
The following sizes are kept in stock ready for shipment. With the neat and durable oak compartment cases they can be parried in small space. Every specimen is accurately labeled witH name, composition and locality, and numbered to correspond to list.
In ordering, mention third edition of this book.
$16.00. 120 specimens, averaging 2}4x2 in. Handsome oak case, three drawers, fitted with pasteboard trays, $6.50 extra.
$11.00. 120 specimens, averaging 2X1% in. Oak compartment cases, $2.40 extra.
$7.00. 120 specimens, averaging l%xl34 in. (numbered only). Oak com partment cases, $1.60 extra.
A more complete special series of ores is the Metallurgical Collection, embracing all important ores of the various metals.
$76.00 . 200 specimens, averaging 2%x2 in. Case, $10.00 extra.
$36.00. 200 specimens, averaging 1%X1% in. Case, $3.20 extra,
$36.00. 100 specimens, averaging 2%X2 in. Case, $6.50 extra.
$16.00. 100 specimens, averaging 1%X1% in. Case, $1.60 extra.
Gold Ores. 10 specimens. $10.00.
Silver Ores. 15 specimens. $7.50.
Blow-pipe Collection of 70 small specimens in hardwood case. Num bered to correspond to list, arranged to include all species recommended by Dana, Von Kobell and Brush. $3.50.
Complete Illustrated Catalogue Free. Gives prices of all collections and of single specimens. Also a complete list of all known mineral species, giving name, composition and form of each. Postage, S cts. (bound, 8 cts,).
Fubnished By
A. E. Eoote,
1317 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Dealer In Minerals And Books.
Fob
“Collections Oe Minerals”
Eirst Prizes were awarded us at the World’s Expositions of Philadelphia, New Orleans, London and Paris.
ISIinerals purchased in quantity. Rare or beautiful crystallizations especially wanted.
OJTXjOC3-TJE
Of
practical and Scientific Bood
Published By
Henry Carey Baird & Co.
Industrial Publishers, Booksellers And Importers.
810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia.
>6®" Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will he sent by mail, free oi postage, to any address in the world, at the publication prices,
A Descriptive Catalogue, 90 pages, 8vo., will be sent free and free of postage, to any one in any part of the world, who will furnish his address.
ACS' Where not otherwise stated, all of the Books in this Catalogue are bound
in muslin,
Amateur Mechanics’ Workshop:
A treatise containing plain and concise directions for the manipula tion of Wood and Metals, including Casting, Forging, Brazing, Soldering and Carpentry. By the author of the “ Lathe and Its Uses.” Seventh edition. Illustrated. 8vo. . . . 2.50
ANDRES. — A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Volatile and Fat Varnishes, Lacquers, Siccatives and Sealing. Waxes.
From the German of Erwin Andres, Manufacturer of Varnishes- and Lacquers. With additions on the Manufacture and Applicationi of Varnishes, Stains for Wood, Horn, Ivory, Bone and Leather, From the German of Dr. Emil Winckler and Louis E. Andes. The whole translated and edited by William T. Brannt. With 11 illustrations. i2mo.
ARLOT. — A Complete Guide for Coach Painters :
Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coach Painter, for eleven years Foreman of Painting to M. Eherler, Coach Maker, Paris. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. To which is added an Appendix, containing Information respecting the Materials and the Practice of Coach and Car Painting and Varnishing in the United States and Great Britain 2mo. . . . 1.25
(I)
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A.RMENGAUD, AMOROUX, AND JOHNSON.— The Practi cal Draughtsman’s Book of Industrial Design, and Ma- chinist’s and Engineer’s Drawing Companion :
Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and Archi tectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Prof, of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Re written and arranged with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By William Johnson, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Illustrated by fifty folio steel plates, and fifty wood-cuts. A new eilition, 4tO-,
cloth . 16.00
ARMSTRONG. — The Construction and Management of Steam Boilers :
By R. Armstrong, C. E. With an Appendix by Robert Mallet, C. E., F. R. S. Seventh Edition. Illustrated, i vol. i2mo. 75
ARROWSMITH. — Paper-Hanger’s Companion :
A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Preparatory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on Walls; the various Cements and Pastes Adapted to the Several Purposes oi the Trade ; Observations and Directions for the Panelling and
Ornamenting of Rooms, etc. By James Arrowsmith. i2mo., cloth i.oo
ASHTON. — The Theory and Practice of the Art of Designing Fancy Cotton and Woollen Cloths from Sample :
Giving full instructions for reducing drafts, as well as the methods of si)Ooling and making out harness for cross drafts and finding any re quired reed; with calculations and tables of yarn. By Frederic T. Ashton, Designer, West Pittsfield, Mass. With fifty-two illustrations. One vol. folio
ASKINSON. — Perfumes and their Preparation :
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing Complete Directions for Making Handkerchief Perfumes, Smelling-Salts, Sachets, Fumigating Pastils; Preparations for the Care of the Skin, the Mouth, the Hair; Cosmetics, Hair Dyes, and other Toilet Articles. By G. W. Askinson. Translated from the German by IsiDOR Furst. Revised by Charles Rice. 32 Illustrations. 8vo. 13.00 3AIRD. — Miscellaneous Papers on Economic Questions.
By Henry Carey Baird. preparation.')
BAIRD. — The American Cotton Spinner, anc Manager’s and Carder's Guide :
A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and TwLt Calculations, etc. ; with notices of recent Improvements: together with Rules and Examples ior making changes in the sizes and numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of the late Robert H. Baird. i2mo.
ljti.se
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
BAIRD. — Standard Wages Computing Tables :
An Improvement in all former Methods of Com()utation, so arrang'd that wages for days, liours, or fractions of hours, at a specified rate per day or liour, may be ascertaineil at a glance. By T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio 5.00
BAKER. — Long-Span Railway Bridges:
Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type Systems of Construction; with numerous I'urmulse and I'ables. By
B. Baker. i2mo. . i.oo
BAKER. — The Mathematical Theory of the Steam-Engine; With Rules at length, and Examples worked out for the use of Practical Men. By T. Baker, C. E., with numerous Diagrams. Sixth Edition, Revised by Prof. J. R. Young. 121110. . 75
BARLOW. — The History and Principles of Weaving, by Hand and by Power:
Reprinted, with Considerable Additions, from “ Engineering,” with a chapter on Lace-niaking Machinery, reprinted from the Journal of the “Society of Art..” By Alfred Barlow. With several hundred illuTrations. 8vo., 443 pages ;io.oo
BARR. — A Practical Treatise on the Combustion of Coal: Including descriptions of various mechanical devices for the Eco nomic Generation of Heat by the Combustion of Fuel, whether solid, liquid or gaseous. 8vo. 2.50
BARR. — A Practical Treatise on High Pressure Steam Boilers: Including Results of Recent Experimental Tests of Boiler Materials, together with a Description of Apyiroved Safety Apparatus, Steam Pumps, Injectors and Economizers in actual use. By Wm. M. Barr 204 Illustrations. 8vo. . $3 00
BAUERMAN.— A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron:
Containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of . Assay, and Analysis of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By H. Bauerman, F. G. S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings from Drawings by J. B
Jordan. . . 2.oc
BRANNT. — The Metallic Alloys: A Practical Guide
For the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amalgams, and Solders, used by Metal-Workers; together with their Chemical and Physical Properties and their Application in the Arts and the Industries; with an Appendix on the Coloring of Alloys and the Recovery of Waste Metals. By WILLIAM T. Brannt. 34 Engravings. A New, Re vised, and Enlarged Edition. 554 pages. 8vo. . .
BEANS. — A Treatise on Railway Curves and Location of Railroads:
By E. W. Beans, C. E. Illustrated. i2mo. Tucks . 1.50
BECKETT.— A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, and Watches
Bv Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LI.. D., Q. C. F. R. A. S. With numerous illustrations. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
A
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
BELL. — Carpentry Made Easy:
Or, The Science and Art of Framing on a New and Improved System. With Specific Instructions for Building Balloon Frames, Barn Frames, Mi 1 Frames, Warehouses, Church Spires, etc. Comprising also a Syteln of Bridge Building, with Bills, Estimates of Cost, and valuable Tables. Illustrated by forty-four plates, comprising /learlv 200 figures. By William E. Bell, Architect and I’ractical Builder.
BEMROSE.— Fret-Cutting and Perforated Carving:
With fifty-three practical illustrations. By W. Bemrosk, Jr. i vol.
BEMROSE.— Manual of Buhl-work and Marquetry:
With Practical Instructions for Learners, and ninety colored designs
By W. Bemrose, ]r. i vol. quarto $3-OC>
BEMROSE.— Manual of Wood Carving:
With Practical Illustrations tor Learners of the Art, nd Original and Selected Designs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Intro duction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 illustra tions, 4to. - 2. 5c
BILLINGS.— Tobacco :
Its History, Variety, Culture, Manufacture, Commerce, and Various Modes of Use. By E. R. Billings. Illustrated by nearly 200
BIRD. — Tl'e American Practical Dyers’ Companion:
Comprising a Description of the Principal Dye-Stufi's and Chemicals used in Dyeing, their Natures and Uses; Mordants, and How Made; with the best American, English, h'rench and German processes for Bleaching and Dyeing Silk, Wool, Cotton, Linen, Flannel, Felt, Dress Goods, Mixed and Hosiery Yarns, Feathers, Grass, Felt, Fur, Wool, and Straw Hats, Jute Yarn, Vegetable Ivory, Mats, Skins, Furs, Leather, etc., etc. By Wood, Aniline, and other Processes, together with Remarks on Finishing Agents, and Instructions in the Finishing of Fabrics, Substitutes for Indigo, Water-Proofing of Materials, Tests and Purification of Water, Manufacture of Aniline and other New Dye Wares, Harmonizing Colors, etc., etc. ; embrac ing in all over 800 Receipts for Colors and Shades, accompanied by 170 Dyed Samples of Raiu Materials and Fabrics. By F. J. Bird, Practical Dyer, Author of “ The Dyers’ Hand-Book.” 8vo. $10.00 BLINN. — A Practical Workshop Companion for Tin, Sheet- Iron, and Copper-plate Workers :
Containing Rules for describing various kinds of Patterns used by Tin, Sheet-Iron and Copperplate Workers; Practical Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Tables of the Weights of Metals, Lead-pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumference# of Circles; Japan, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements, Compr.sitions, etc., etc. By Leroy J. Blinn, Master Mechanic. With One Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. l2mo. , $2.50
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue
BOOTH, — Marble Worker’s Manual:
Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, then Cutting, Working and Polishing; Veneering of Marble ; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble, Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc., etc. Translated from the French by M. L. Booth. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles, i2mo., cloth $1.50 BOOTH and MORFIT. — The Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, Practical and Theoretical :
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine and Pharmacy, By jAMiiS C. Booth, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of Applied Chem istry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by Campbell Morfit, author of “ Chemical Manipulations,” etc. Seventh Edition. Com plete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978 pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations
BRAM WELL.— The Wool Carder’s Vade-Mecum
A Complete Manual of the Art of Carding Textile Fabrics. By W. C. Bramvvell. Third Edition; revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Pp. 400. i2mo . $2 qc
BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils :
Comprising both Fixed and Volatile Oils, their Physical and Chemi cal Properties and Uses, the Manner of Extracting and Refining them, and Practical Rules for Testing them ; as well as the Manu facture of Artificial Butter, Lubricants, including Mineral Lubricating Oils, et!c., and on Ozokerite. Edited chiefly from the German of Drs. Karl Schaedler, G. W, Askinson, and Richard Brunner, with Additions and Lists of American Patents relating to the Extrac tion, Rendering, Refining, Decomposing, and Bleaching of F'ats and Oils. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated. Revised Edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 10.00
BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles :
Based upon the most Recent Experiences in the Practice and Science ; comprising the Chemistry, Raw Materials, Machinery, and Utensils and Various Processes of Manufacture, including a great variety of formulas. Edited chiefly from the German of Dr. C. Deite, A. Engelhardt, Dr. C. Schaedler and others; with additions and lists of American Patents relating to these subjects. By Wm. T. Brannt, Illustrated by 163 engravings. 677 pages. 8vo. . . 7.50
BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and the Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol, and the Prepara tion of Alcoholic Liquors, Liqueurs, Cordials, Bitters, etc. ; Edited chiefly from the German of Dr, K. Stammer, I )r. F. Ellsner, and E. Schubert. By Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by thirty-one engravings. i2mo. 1552.50
6 Henrv Carey 13A1Rd & Co.’S Catalogue.
BRANNT — WAHL. — The Techno-Chemical Receipt 3ook\
Containing several thousand Receipts covering the latest, most portant, and most useful discoveries in Chemical Technology, an( their Practical Application in the Arts and the Industries. Editec chiefly from the German of Drs. Winckler, Eisner, Heintze, Mier. zinski, Jacobsen, Koller, and Heinzerling, with additions by \Vm. 'i. Brannt and Wm. H. Wahl, Ph. D. Illustrated by 78 engravings. :2?no. 495 pages . , 52 oo
BROWN. — Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements: Embracing all those which are most important in Dynamics, Hy draulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam-Engines, Mill and other Gearing, Presses, Horology and Miscellaneous Machinery; and in cluding many movements never before published, and several c.f which have only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown
i2mo . $i.ot.
BUCKMASTER. — The Elements of Mechanical Physics :
By J. C. Buckmaster. Illustrated with numerous engravings.
i2mo . 5l-00
BULLOCK. — The American Cottage Builder :
A Series of Designs, Plans and Specihcations, from 5200 to $20,000, for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting and Iandscape Gardening. By lOHN Bullock, Architect and Editor of “The Rudiments of Architecture and Building,” etc., etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. 8vo. $2.50
BULLOCK. — The Rudiments of Architecture and Building: For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, En gineers and Mechanics. Edited by John Bullock, author of “ The American Cottage Builder.” Illustrated by 250 Engravings. 8vo.52.50 BURGH. — Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modem
Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine Purposes.
By N. P. Burch, Engineer. i2mo. $1.50
BYLeS. — Sophisms of Free Trade and Popular Political Economy Examined.
By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common Pleas). P'rom the Ninth English Edition, as published by the Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo. . . . 51.25
BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes:
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, deliverea at the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical College, and the Society of Dyers and Coloiists. By ¥. II. Bow MAN, D. Sc., P . R. S. L., F. L. S. Illustrated by 52 engravin's.
BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi neer :
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abia-.ve Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing and Lackering, Apoaratus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en gravings. 8vo . 5.00
BYRNE. — Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers : Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book
form . 1.50
BYRNE. — Tne Practical Metal-Worker’s Assistant:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Piumier, Napier, Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every
Branch of the Subject. 8vo . 5-O0
BYRNE. — The Practical Model Calculator:
For the Engineer, Mcchan.c, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Nliner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 600 page . . . . . . . . . $S OO
CABINET MAKER’S ALBUM OF FURNITURE; Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engrat ed Plates, Oblong, 8vo. 1.50
CALLINGHAM. — Sign Writing and Glass Embossing:
A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James
Callingham. i2mo . 1.50
CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added. Observations on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ- >ng P'orging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking and Expansi )n ; and the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Edf. 8vo. Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5-00
8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO/S CATALOGUhi.
CAREY. — A Memoir of Henry C. Carey.
By Dr. \Vm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth , . 75
CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey:
Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commen
cial. 8vo. . . 1.25
Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey’s “ Principle;? of Social Science.” By Kate McKean, i vol. i2mo. . 2.00
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. Si 0.00
Past, Present and Future. 8vo . $2.50
Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . .
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . . $2.00
The Unity of Law: As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, Social, Mental and Moral Science {1872). 8vo. . . 12.50
CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working:
Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex' haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse power, steam, heated water and compressed air; a description of the varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood engravings, and thirteen folding plates. i vol. 8vo. . $9.00
COLBURN. — The Locomotive Engine :
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. 121110. . i.oo
COLLENS. — The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia.
By T. Wharton Collens, author of “ Humanics,” “The History of Charity,” etc. 121110. Paper cover, 00 ; Cloth . $1.25
COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfutneiy:
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold J Cooley. 121110. . . . . . . . . $1.50
COOPER. — A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans mission of Power.
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Manigement o' Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together witn chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and Wood Frictional Gearing; on the .Strength of Belting Leather; and on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo . 3.50
CkAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and Miller.
By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. 13.50
Henrv Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
CROSS. — The Cotton Yarn Spinner:
Showing how the Preparation shouki be arranged for Different Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. 121110. . 75
CRISTIANI. — A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- TIANI, Chemist. Author of “ Perfumery and Kindred Arts.” Illus trated by 1 76 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . 15.00
Coal And Metal Miners’ Pocket Book:
Of Principles, Rules, Formulae, and Tables, Soecially Compiled and Prepared for the Convenient Use of Mine Officials, Mining En gineers, and Students preparing tliemselves for Certificates of Compe tency as Mine Inspectors or Mine Foremen. Revised and Enlarged edition. I Illustrated, 565 pages, small i2nio , cloth.' . 2.00
Pocket book form, flexible leather with flap . . 2.75
DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing :
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A Davidson. i2mo.
DAVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and Mining:
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 76 Engravings. i2mo. . . . . . . 00
DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: By D. C. Davies, F. G. S , Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged by his son, E. Henry Davies. i2mo, 524
DAVIES. — A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying:
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D C. Davies, F. G. S, Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding plates. i2mo. $2.00
DAVIS.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, Tiles and Terra-Cotta:
Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, b'ire Brick and Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, Re-
lO
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
torts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and Unglazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising every product of Clay employed in Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed Description of tlie Different Clays employed, the Most Modern Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Plandling, Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Dry ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi tion. Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 engravings. 662 pages OO
DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale: By Charles T. Davis Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. 1.50 DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Paper:
Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, (Coloring and F'inishing of every hind of Paper, Including the Dif ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa per, com[)lete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. $6.00 DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Leather:
Being a description of all of tl Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather ; including the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con nected with an Intelligent ami Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc, By CiiARi.iis Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples o( Dyed Leathers. One voL, 8vo., 824 pages . . , I 5.00
DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, etc. :
Based upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, including a descrijHion of the most Recent American Processes, by William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. l2mo. . . . 2.50
DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders’ Guide: being a Blain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel Engravings; together with the use of the most approved principles of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Grae'f, Architect. 41©.
$2.00
HENRY CAREY BAIRU & CO.’S CATALOGUE. ii
DE KONINCK — DIETZ. — A Practical Manual of Chemical Analysis and Assaying :
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron* Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. De Roninck, Dr. Sc., and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A, Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. 121110. . . . 1.50
DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor’s Guide:
Containing the necessary information to make any person of com* mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher By Andrew DtiNt'AN. Revised. 72 engravings, 214 pp. i2mo. 1.50 DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation of Alcoholic Liquors :
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol from Wine, Molas'es, Beet', Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho del, Fiuits, etc.; with the Di tillation and Rectification of Brandy Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duplais, Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the United .Slates Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and Collection of Taxes on Distilled .Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. 10 00 DUSSAUCE. — Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder.
By Profe-sor H. Dussauce. 121110.
Dyer And Color-Maker’S Companion:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and pl.iin Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and F'inishing the Goods. 1 21110. i.oo EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine,
For the use of Engineers. Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi neer. Illustrated by sixty three Engravings, including exanipks of the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages . . . 200
EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines,
Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards. Illustrated . . . 2.00
EDWARDS. — The American Steam Engineer:
Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam Engines and Boilers. P'or the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- rnakers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully Uiustrated, 419 pages. 121110. $2.50
12 Henry Carey Baird & Co/S Catalogue.
EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, ani Screw Propellers,
Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice ot the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates, 4to. $5.00 EDWARDS. — The Practical Steam Engineer’s Guide
In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, Portable, and Steam Fire-Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers. Injector* Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. a20 pages. i2mo. 50
EISSLER. — The Metallurgy of Gold :
A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear* ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler. With 132 Illustrations, i2mo, 5.00
EISSLER. — The Metallurgy of Silver :
A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. i2mo. $4-25
ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political Economy.
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo . 50
ELDER. — Questions of the Day,
Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . 3.00
GRNI. — Mineralogy Simplified.
Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including Ores, by means of the Blow] ipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, based on Professor von Kobell’s Tables for the Determinatioti of Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, enlarged and improved. l2mo. FAIRBAIRN. — The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery of Transmission
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pullevs, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR William Eairbairn, Bait C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume, i2mo $2.00
FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America.
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rad, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By
Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo . 00
FORSYTH, — Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and other Monuments;
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction Ijy Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . i3-5o
Hjd:NRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
FRANKEL — HUTTER. — A Practical Treatise on the Manu* facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: Based on the German of LadislaUs Von Wagner, Professor in the Royal Technical High School, Buda Pest, Hungary, and other authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic School of Hanover, Edited by Robert Hotter, Chemist, Practical Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $3 50
GARDNER. — The Painter’s Encyclopaedia:
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner.
158 Illustrations. i2mo. 427 pp . $2.00
GARDNER. — Everybody’s Paint Book:
A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work, and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing, Polishing, Staining, Paoer Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. i2mo., 183 pp. . i.oo GEE. — The Goldsmith’s Handbook:
Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste ; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold ; with a New System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. . . i.7S
GEE. — The Silversmith’s Handbook :
Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal ; its Solders; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys; Methods of Manijxila- tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. $1-75 GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS:
Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong GRANT. — A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears :
Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. 00
GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron:
Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green wood, F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. i2mo. $2.00
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
GREGORY. — Mathematics for Practical Men :
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates $3.oa GRISWOLD. — Railroad Engineer’s Pocket Companion for th( Field :
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necess.try T..bles for En gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and hixamples. By
W. Griswold. i2mo., tucks .
GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena:
By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines oi France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. I'ranslated, with the author’s sanction, with an i-appendix, by L. D B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . 2.50
Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmei and Mechanic :
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas. ure. Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land Measure, Interest Tables, with'Directions for Finding the Interest on any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 32 mo., boards. 1 86 pages .25
IIASERICK. — The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cottoa and Linen,
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By E. C. Haserick. lilusirated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarni or Fabrics. 8vo. 7-50
Hats And Felting:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . $1.25
HOFP'ER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha,
Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc And Gutta Percha Compositions, Water proof Substances, Elastic Tissues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., eie, P'rom the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. BraiVnt.
Illustrated i2mo. . . . . $2.c
HAUPT. — Street Railway Motors:
With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various Systems now in Use. i2mo, , . . . . 1-75
Henry Carey Baird & Co/S Catalogue.
HAUPT— RHAWN.— A Move for Better Roads:
Essays on Road-making and Maintenance and Road I.aws, for which Prizes or Honorable Mention were Awarded through the University of Pennsylvania by a Committee of Citizens of Philadel phia, with a Synopsis of other Contributions and a Review by the Secretary, I.EWis M. Haupt, A. M., C. E. ; also an Introduction by William H. Rhawx. Chairman of the Committee. 319 pages.
8vo. . 2.00
HUGHES. — Annerican Miller and Millwright’s Assistant:
By William Carter Hughes, izmo . 1.50
HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Gecmet rical Drawing :
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool wich ; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En- gineering College, Cooper’s Hill ; Indian Ihildic Works and Tele graph Departments ; Royal Marine Liht Infantry; the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 examples. Small quartc 2.50
JERVIS, — Railroad Property:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.oc KEENE. — A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging:
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House foi ascertaining the Strength of Wines, By James B. Keene, of H. M. Customs. 8vo. . . . . . . . 00
KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and Financial Questions :
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . l?2.5c;
KELLOGG. — A New Monetary System :
The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on “Labor and other Capital.” With numerous additions from his manuscript Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which F added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, i2mo.
KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer’s Hand-Book :
Beincr a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo. Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mo. . $1.25
HENRY CARtY BAIRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
KENTISH. — A Treatise on a Box of Instruments,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logs rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim her, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thoma* Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. $1.00
KERL. — The Assayer’s Manual:
An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and Furnace and other Artiticial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor in the Royal School of Mines, Translated from the German by William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en gravings. 8vo . $30C
KICK. — Flour Manufacture.
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice, By Frederick Kick Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H, H. P. PoWLES, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . iio.oo KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the Alkali Trade :
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thom.asi K I NGZETT, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. Svo. $2.30 KIRK. — The Founding of Metals:
A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Devcription of the Founding of Alloys; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substancet used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. B) Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemi>t. lllustratei Third edition. 8vo. $2. $6
LANDKIN. — A Treatise on Steel:
Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro- "f'jses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867.
i2mo . 3.00
LANGBEIN. — A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposition of Metals :
Translated from the German, with Additions, by Wm. T. Brannt. 125 illustrations. 8vo. ;554.oo
LARDNER. — The Steam-Engine:
For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. i2mo. . 75
?-EHNER. — The Manufacture of Ink:
Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation of Writing, Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow ders, etc. Translated from the German of SiGMUND Lehner, with additions by William T’. Brannt. Illustrated. 12-mo. $2.00
Hejsry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
LARKIN. — The Pracucai Brass and Iron Founder’s Guide:
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By Tames Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in keany, Neafie & Co.’s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition, revised, with extensive additions. i2mo. . . . 2.50
LEROUX. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Worsteds and Carded Yarns :
Ccrmprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni*
versa! Exposition, 1867. 8vo. . 5.00
LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams :
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments* and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings.
8vo. . $2.50
LESLIE. — Complete Cookery:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. Sixtieth thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New
Receipts. . .
LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator :
Their Origin and Progressive Development ; including the Most Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo . $4.oo>
LIEBER. — Assayer’s Guide ;
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Revised. 283 pp. i2mo. $1.50 Iockwood’s Dictionary of Terms :
Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- Incr, Smith’s and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six- Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author of “ Pattern Making.” 417 PP- *2mo. - . . $i’00
Heiirv Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
LUKIN. — Amongst Machines:
Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used in the Manufacture of Wood, Metai, and other Substances. J2mo.
LUKIN. — The Boy Engineers:
What They Did, and Mow They Did It. With 30 plates. fSmo,
LUKIN. — The Young Mechanic :
Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds of Tools, and for Construction of Steam-Engines and Mechanical Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John Lukin, Author of “The Lathe and Its Uses,” etc. Illustrated.
l2mo . $1-75
MAIN and BROWN. — Questions on Subjects Connected with the Marine Steam-Engine;
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. B}' Thomas J, Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal "aval College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . $1.00
MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass’t S. Professor Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineei R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . i.oo MAIN and BROWN. — The Marine Steam-Engine.
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass’t S. Mathematical Professor at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo.
M AKINS. — A Manual of Metallurgy:
By George Hogarth Makins. ioo engravings. Second edition rewritten and much enlarged. i2mo., 592 pages . . 00
MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical Engineers :
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer.
8vo . 5e
MICHBLL. — Mine Drainage:
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michele. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00
MOLESWORTH. — Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- bound in Pocket-book form ;Sl-oo
Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
MOORE. — The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me chanic :
Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipts, Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By ' R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo. . 2.50
MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten. sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork.
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo . |5i.5a
MAUCHLINE. — The Mine Foreman’s Hand-Book
Of Practical and Theoretical Information on the Opening, Venti lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed to Assist Students and Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By Robert Mauchline, Ex-Inspector of Mines. A New, Revised and Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 114 engravings. 8vo. 337 pages 3-75
NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing.
By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus trated. 8vo. 422 pages
NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulte, foi finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers ;
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NICHOLLS.— The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and Engineer’s Reference Book:
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers. Iron, Copper, and Tinsmiths
20 Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. Ulus*
trated by sixteen plates, i2mo. . 12.50
NICHOLSON. — A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and h'inishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2ino,, cloth $2,25 NICOLLS. — The Railway Builder;
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NORMANDY. — The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An alysis ;
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NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms; accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.00 NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc tion of Ships and Screw Propellers ;
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . $1.25
O’NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O’Neill, Analy tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo.
491 pages . 00
ORTON. — Underground Treasures*.
How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination of all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James Orton, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia’, and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of the “Andes and the Amazon.” etc. A New Edition, with Additions Illustrated . .
HENRY CAREY BArRD & CO.’S CATALOGUE.
OSBORN. — The Prospector’s Field Book and Guide:
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l2mo . 1.50
OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min' ing:
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OVERMAN. — The Moulder’s and Founder’s Pocket Guide :
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Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
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ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught:
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24 Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
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Hekry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
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28 Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
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Recent Additions.
BRANNT.— Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing- Waxes :
Their Raw Ma'terials and their Manufacture, to which is added the Art of Varnishing and Lacquering, including the Preparation of Put ties and of Stains for Wood, Ivory, Bone, Horn, and Leather. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages. i2mo.
BRANNT — The Practical Scourer and Garment Dyer:
Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning ; the Art of Removing Stains , Fine Washing ; Bleaching and Dyeing of Straw Hats, Gloves, and Feathers of all kinds; Dyeing of Worn Clothes of all fabrics, in cluding Mixed Goods, by One Dip; and the Manufacture of Soaps and Fluids for Cleansing Purposes. Edited by William T. Brannt, Editor of “The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book.” Illustrated.
203 pages. i2mo. . 2.00
BRANNT. — Petroleum,
Its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical Constitution, Technology, Examination and Uses; Together with the Occurrenee and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and Dr. Alexander Veith, by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. 7.50
BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit-Wines ;
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $S-O0
BRANNT. — The Metal Worker’s Handy-Book of Receipts and Processes :
Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- tion.s for the working of all Metals ; including the Decoration and Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their Preservation. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated, i2mo. $2.50
Henry Carey Baird & Co.'S Catalogue.
DEITE,— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture cf Per* fumery ;
Comprising directions for making all kinds of Perfumes, Sachet Powders, Fumigating Materials, Dentifrices, Cosmetics, etc., with a full account of the Volatile Oils, Balsams, Resins, and other Natural and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr, C. Deite, assisted by L. Borchert, F. Eichbaum, E. Kugler, H. Toeffner, and other experts. From the German, by Wm. T. Brann t. 28 Engrav ings. 358 pages. 8vo. . I3.00
EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and Practical :
With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice. By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . $2.0
EDWARDS. — goo Examination Questions and Answers;
For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book form, gilt edge 1.50
POSSELT. — Technology of Textile Design :
Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac* tuie of the various Textile Fabrics. By £. A. PosSELT, Head Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 293 pages. 4to. . $S'
POSSELT. — The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. PossELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 4to. . iz-OQ
POSSELT, — The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics:
Being a Practical Treatise for the Use of all Persons Employed in the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, containing a Description of the Growth and Manipulation of Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Silk Flax,
Jute, Ramie, China Grass and Hemp, and Dealing with all Manu facturers’ Calculations for Every Class of Material, also Giving Minute Details for the Structure of all kinds of Textile Fabrics, ancl an Appendix of Arithmetic, specially adapted for Textile Purposes. By E. A, PossELT. Over 400 Illustrations, quarto. . 5-00
RICH. — Artistic Horse-Shoeing:
A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in Trotters. By George E. Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. . . i.oo
32 Henry Carey Baird & Co.’S Catalogue.
RICHARDSON. — Practical Blacksmithing :
A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled Workmen to the columns of “ The Blacksmith and Wheelwright,” and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the Simplest Joli of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings,
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson.
Vol. I. 210 Illustrations. 224 pages. i2mo. . . $1.00
Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. . . i.oo
Vol. III. 390 Illustrations. 307 pages. i2mo. . , ;i.oo
Vol. IV. 226 Illustrations. 276 pages. i2mo. , . ;i.oo
RICHARDSON. — The Practical Horseshoer:
Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches which have appeared from time to time in the columns of “ 1 he Blacksmith and Wheelwright,” etc. Compiled and edited by M. T.
Richardson. 174 illustrations . i.oo
ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen :
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . $2.00
ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management:
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. j2.oo ROPER. — The Young Engineer’s Own Book:
Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . 3-00
ROSE. — Modern Steam-Engines:
An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steam. Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. Illustrated by 422 engravings. Revised. 358 pp. . . $6.00
ROSE. — Steam Boilers:
A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo . $2.0
SCHRIBER. — The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter:
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing, and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus trations. 177 pp. i2mo . $1.00
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Library Of Congress
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