Natural History May-June 1925: Vol 25 Iss 3

1925 · Historical

Natural History May-June 1925: Volume 25 , Issue 3. Digitized from IA1643518-04 . Previous issue: sim_natural-history_march-april-1925_25_2 . Next issue:…

Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: archive.org.

pampericst: TOT, JUL 7 39% ol. ee Se et MAY-JUNE, 1925

CX XW ae OC OS Ba MQ

(NATURAL! TA iReEe

PES XG XMS XE OX es ee rox

be Bk a. . Oh,

.

we

Ps J

b

a ms

a ; ; ;

2, X aw 8), X Ow RO, XK ov 8s, ov. es

ah

om @LO INI ND OF THE AMERICAN @

My USHON RO NICO IAD HISTORY 5 EXPLORATION-RESEARCH- EDUCATION G

a A (eG) DE AIDE Pe been

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION $3.00 SINGLE COPIES 50 CENTS FREE TO MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATE ME R

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Scientific Staff for 1925

Henry FarrFrieLtp Ossporn, LL.D., President Freperic A. Lucas, Sc.D., Honorary Director GeorGE H. SHerwoop, A.M., Acting Director and Executive Secretary Rosert C. Murphy, D.Sc., Assistant Director (Scientific Section) James L. Cuark, Assistant Director (Preparation Section)

I. Division Of Mineralogy, Geology, And Geography

History of the Earth

CuestTer A. Reeps, Ps.D., Associate Curator of Inverte- brate Paleontology (In Charge) Epwarp J. Fortes, B. 8., Assistant

Minerals and Gems Herbert P. Wuit.ock, C. E., Curator Grorce F. Kunz, Pa.D., Research Associate in Gems

Extinct Animals

W. D. Marruew, Pa.D. Curator-in-Chief Henry Farrrietp Ossorn, LL.D., D.Sc., Honorary Cu-

rator Water GRANGER, Associate Curator of Fossil Mammals Barnum Brown, A.B., Associate Curator of Fossil Reptiles Cuar.es C. Moog, Pu. D., Associate Curator Wituiam K. Grecory, Pu. D., Associate in Paleontology Cuitps Frick, B.S., Research Associate in Paleontology

Ii. Division Of Zoology And Zooge- Ography

Marine Life

Roy W. Miner, Pa.D., Curator

Witiarp G. Van Name, Pu.D., Assistant Curator

Frank J. Myers, Research ‘Associate i in Rotifera

Horace W. Stungarp, Pa.D., Research Associate in Para- sitolor~

A. L. Tre

iL, Pa.D., Research Associate in Annulata

Insect Life

Frank E. Lutz, Pa.D., Curator A. J. MurTcHusr, Assistant Curator of Coleoptera Frank E. Watson, B.S., Assistant in Lepidoptera —— M.WHEELER, Pu. D., Research Associate in Social nsects Caries W. Lena, B.S., Research Associate in Coleoptera Hersert F. Scuwarz, A.M., Research Associate in Hymenoptera Fishes Basurorp Dean, Pa.D., Honorary Curator Joun T. Nicuots, A.B., Associate Curator of Recent Fishes

E. W. Gupaer, Pa.D., Associate in Ichthyology Cuarius H. Townsend, Sc.D., Research Associate

Amphibians and Reptiles

G. Kinasiey Noste, Pa.D., Curator

Birds

Frank M. Cuaapman, Sc.D., Curator-in-Chief

W. DeW. Miter, Associate Curator

Rosert CusHMan Morpsay, D.Sc., Associate Curator of Marine Birds

James P. Cuapin, Pa.D., Associate Curator of Birds of the Eastern ae.

Lupiow Griscom, M.A., Assistant Curator

JonaTHAN Dwiaat, M. D., rch Associate in North American Ornithology

Exsiz M. B. NaumsBurae, Research Associate

Mammals of the World H. E. Anruony, A.M., Associate Curator of Mammals of the Western Hemisphere (In Charge) HERBERT Lana, Associate Curator of African Mammals Cart E. AKELEy, Associate in Mammalogy

Comparative and Human Anatomy

Wi.uram K. Grecory, Px.D., Curator

8S. H. Cuuss, Associate Curator

H. C. Raven, Assistant Curator

J. Howarp McGreaor, Px.D., Research Associate in Human Anatomy

Duptey J. Morton, M.D,, Research Associate

III. DIVISION OF ANTHROPOLOGY Science of Man

CuarkK Wissier, Px.D., Curator-in-Chief

Purny E. Gopparp, Pa.D., Curator of Ethnology

N. C. Nexson, M.L., Associate Curator of Archeology

a W. Meap, Assistant Curator of Peruvian Arche- ology

J. ALDEN Mason, Pu.D., Assistant Curator of Mexican Archeology

CuareNncE L. Har, A.M., Research Associate in Mexican and Central American Archzology

Mito Hetiman, D.D.S., Research Associate in Physical Anthropology

Animal Functions Ratps W. Tower, Pa.D., Curator

Iv. Division Of Asiatic Exploration And Research

Third Asiatic Expedition

Roy Caapman AnpkeEws, A.M., Curator-in-Chief

WatTeR GRANGER, Associate Curator in Paleontology

Freperick K. Morris, A.M., Associate Curator in Geology and Geography

Caries P. Berkey, Px.D., [Columbia University], Re search Associate in Geolo

Amapevus W. Grasav, S.D. Research Associate

Currorp H. Pops, Assistant in Zoédlogy

[Geological Survey of China],

V. Division Of Education And Pub- Lication

Library and Publications Rates W. Towser, Ps.D., Curator-in-Chief Ipa Ricuarpson Hoop, A.B., Assistant Librarian

Public Education George H. Suerwoop, A.M., Curator-in-Chief G. Cryps Fisuer, Ps.D., Curator of Visual Instruction Grace Fisaer Ramsey, Assistant Curator

Public Health CHARLES-EpwarkD Amory Winstow, D.P.H., Honorary Curator Mary Greia, Assistant Curator

Astronomy G. Cuiype Fisuer, Ps.D. (In Charge)

Public Information Committee Grorce N. Prnpar, Chairman Gerorce H. Sxerwoop, A.M Rosert C. Murpay, D.Sc.

Natural History Magazine

Roy W.

Miner, Pu.D., Editor

A. Kataerine Bercer, "Assistant Editor

Advisory Committee Georce H. Suerwoop, Chairman

H. E. Antuony, A.M. FRANK M. CuHapman, Sc.D. E. W. Gupaer, Pa.D,

Frank E. Lutz, Px.D G. Kinesuey Noste, Px.D. Hersert F. Scuwarz, A.M.,

Natural History

The Journal Of The American Museum

Devoted To Natural History,

Exploration, And The Develop-

Ment Of Public Education Through The Museum

May—June, 1925

[Published June, 1925]

Volume Xxv, Number 3

Copyright, 1925, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y.

Natural History

VoLuME XXV CONTENTS FOR MAY-JUNE, 1925 NUMBER 3

Frontispiece, A Study in Locomotion Among Marine Animals Detail of Wharf-pile Group in the Darwin Hall, American Museum, from a photograph colored by William Belanske

Ee a os ee ee eee, FRANK J. Myers 211

The story of microscopic pond-dwellers which appear to have “ wheels in their heads”’

ee rere 2 HERMAN O. MUELLER 224 The expert glass modeler of the American Museum describes the technique of making the glass parts of a complicated group The Sense of Hearing in Invertebrate Animals. Uxtric DAHLGREN) 233 Do invertebrates hear? This article describes certain structures in the lower animals that appear

to be organs of hearing

Animals of the Seashore Roy WaLpo MINER Duotone reproductions from the invertebrate window groups in the Darwin Hall, American Museum An Instance Where Evolution Has Turned Backward. WILLARD G. VAN NAME 241

Showing how the members of that strange group of animals, the ascidians, appear to change from a higher to a lower type during the course of their life history

Reef Builders of the Tropic Seas Roy Watpo MINER) 250 The story of the coral polyp and its relation to the up-building of coral islands

Spiders as Fishermen and Hunters K. W. GupGEerR 261 The collated observations of many naturalists on the predacious habits of the spider

A Remarkable Partnership Wiiuiam M. Savin 276 How the Pronuba moth and the Spanish bayonet depend upon each other for their existence

A Sujuaro Desert in Arizona Dr LANcEY VERPLANCK 282 A vivid account of the specialized fauna and flora of a typical American desert

Byways and Highways in Burma BaRNUM Brown 294

Experiences of an American Museum explorer among the people of this unique land described by word and camera

Tm Weems TIGA... . 5 5 oo neck cinsans HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBoRN — 309 An inspiring exposition of the character essential to a true scientist ‘Impressions of Great Naturalists”. WituiamM K. Gregory 311

A review of a new work by Henry Fairfield Osborn

a Ae

Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subscription price $3.00 a year.

Subscriptions should be addressed to George F. Baker, Jr., Treasurer, American Museum of Natural History, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City.

Natura History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileg membership.

Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912.

Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, A.‘ of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918.

ew tl

im

of

of

SUBAIO AUIMUMUILMS PoTJOsjzUO. Ajpue We pus pezeulps909 ALYY ‘uo jO JaMOG yNOYIIM Asso]

id juwyM ay} jo 013848 OY,

ssessod yorym jo y40q ‘(snssadspp snuqvjobojnv ZT) 1 ad Obij0'7)

Ss 84} YIM -WIB SUIIMS YOIYM ‘(DLsivanbuinb Dagawmojfijovg) ysyAljef ayy YH ‘puBy 9UO0 9Y44 UO ‘paysBizUOD aut

Ad

unasnyy upr2dsaup ay) fo DY uinsvg ay} ut dnouy apid-favymy fo pojeq STVWINV ANIHUVW DNOWV NOLLOWOOOT NI AGOLS V

Natural History

VoLUME XXV MAY-JUNE NuMBER 3

What Is a Rotifer?

By FRANK J. MYERS

Research Associate in Rotifera, American Museum

Intropuctory Notre BY THE Epiror.-—A drop of water from the border of a lily pond placed beneath the eye of the microscope, reveals to the uninitiated observer a new world of unbelievable creatures darting and spinning hither and thither amid an environment of strange vegetation. Among the most conspicuous beings in this miniature aquatic world are the toplike rotifers or “wheel bearers,’”’ tiny animals whose heads are wreathed with rows of rapidly vibrating hairlike ‘‘cilia,”

which move in rhythmic succession, so that an illusion of rotation is presented. These rotifers are of many diversified species. Mr. Myers, one of the best informed authorities on rotifers, has had the enviable privilege of making a lite study of these beautiful organisms, and describes them intimately is this article.

OTIFERS have engaged the at- The first group includes the limnetic tention of investigatorseversince rotifers which are those found in the the microscope was evolved, on open waters of lakes and ponds. Their

account of their interesting habits and life is a restless one, for necessity com- diversity of form, their complex organi-_ pels them to be in constant motion. zation for such small creatures, and the Their physiological processes are so ‘ase with which they may be obtained delicately adjusted that a trip to the and studied. They derive their name, bottom would mean instant death. meaning ‘‘ wheel bearers,” from several Their food consists of minute lowly common species of the class which were plants and animals floating and drifting probably the first ones observed in about in the water. abundance. These bear two circlets of The second group comprises the hairlike cilia on the front of the head, littoral rotifers, to which probably the rhythmic motion of which gives more than three fourths of all the them the appearance of rapidly rota- known species belong. They are those ting wheels, for which in fact they found swarming on plant stems, leaves, were at first mistaken. mosses, and alge, close to the shore There are not many places where one where the shallow water permits an need search in vain for rotifers, abundant growth of aquatic plants. provided there is sufficient moisture to Certain species in the adult. stage are sustain life. They abound in lakes and permanently attached to water plants. ponds, pools and bogs, among the They usually surround themselves leaves of aquatic and terrestrial mosses. with a protective case, either secreted Evin the briny waters of the ocean, by the animal itself or built up of inc! iding the tide pools along the shore, foreign material. hay their quota. It is, therefore, con- As a rule the same species of rotifers ver nt to divide these animals into will be found year after vear in the eco’ gical groups according to their same pond, but occasionally a species hab at, which obviously determines will disappear completely for several bot! their food and mode of reproduc- years and then return to its old haunts, tion and affects profoundly their as though nothing had happened. struc ire and life history. Very few rotifers are parasitic. One

ese “™

with the squid (Lege pow

led swimming organs

ficiently co

highly coérdinated and ef

lessly without power 0

species makes its home in the alga,

Vaucheria, and seems to be unable to

complete its life cycle elsewhere. Others co

Ww

—— i WY - Meds

yy 5

‘: ri ee 9 Son

Typical rotifer, clet of cilia on illusion of rotat-

showing double cir- head, which give the ing wheels

are parasitic on various worms. But as a rule, the rotifers are well behaved.

A large group is found among the leaves of all kinds of mosses, where a little moisture is nearly always present. In order to protect themselves during unavoidable desiccation, these ani- mals have evolved remarkable

Natural History

habit, the details of which are known only in this group. When the little tufts of moss in which the rotifers make their homes, begin to show unmistak- able signs of drying up, the animals start making their preparations. In every cell of their tiny bodies the chro- matin of the nucleus begins to break up and gradually to move toward the cell wall. In the completely dried rotifer it can be found as a very thin inner coating in each cell. This re- arrangement of the cell contents allows the oxidation continue during the period of desiccation but at a greatly retarded rate; so much so, that these rotifers may be kept in a dried condition for years, to revive upon the addition of a little water. This adaptation also carries them through the winter, and even permits their being imbedded in ice. James Murray, the naturalist of the Shackle- ton Antarctic Expedition, tells of sink- ing an eighteen-foot shaft to the

processes to

Two species of rotifers (Cephalodella lobata and eva), showing long hooklike toes, and heads completely cover-

ed with cilia

What Is

bottom of a completely frozen lake, bringing up some lumps of the frozen bottom ooze which were then thawed out. He found the melted ooze swarm- ing with living rotifers. It is impossible even to guess at the length of time which had elapsed since this lake froze solid, or when, in the natural course of events, such a body of ice would be likely to melt sufficiently to allow the rotifers to take up their interrupted life once more.

On account of the extreme diversity of form and the infinite variety of detail displayed among these creatures, it is quite impossible to give a general definition which will include all the species of rotifers without exception. However, they agree in their minute size, bilateral symmetry, the possession of a crown of hairlike cilia called the corona, and in being absolutely depend- ent upon moisture for the maintenance of life. The body is protected by a firm cuticle, the lorica, often hardened to form a shell. The posterior portion of the body is usually somewhat elon- gate and is misnamed the “foot,” although “tail”? would be more appro- priate. It contains two or more “cement glands”’ discharging a viscous fluid through ducts opening at the posterior end of the body or at the tips of the so-called toes, thus enabling the aniinals to attach themselves to other objects, either permanently or tem- porsrily. To illustrate the manner in

which rotifers feed and swim, let us im?ine a man attempting to row a boa which is fastened to a post on the

ban by means of a rope. The effort proc ices currents on each side, flowing opp. ite to the direction in which the boat 5 pointed. If the rope is suddenly cut ule the man is rowing, the boat glide: ahead and continues to do so as long s the man continues to row. The

A Rotifer?

rotifer is the boat, its cilia the oars, and its foot, with its adhesive toes, the rope. As long as the toes maintain their hold, the force of the moving cilia is spent in the water, producing currents which bring particles of food

to the mouth, but as soon as the hold is broken, the force acts on the animal, and away it glides to seek pastures new.

The rotifer digestive system is very simple. The mouth is at the lower edge of the ciliated corona, and a short cesophagus contains a peculiar appar- atus (the mastax) for the crushing and grinding of food. While these internal “‘jaws’”’ are found in all rotifers, there is nevertheless a bewildering array of variation in the details of their struc- ture. They consist fundamentally of three pieces, one median and ventral, forked at the anterior end, and two lateral pieces somewhat nearer the dorsal side, usually divided at the tips into toothlike processes. The three pieces form a sort of tripod, with the apex toward the front. In one large group of rotifers these three pieces are short and broad and adapted to crushing and grinding the food, which consists of small unicellular alge and similar objects. There is a modification of this type, in which the median element is very much reduced. The function and the diet of the animal is, however, much the same as in the principal type.

Pincer-like throat jaws of a typical rotifer (Pleurotrocha)

214 Natural

The slow-moving herbivorous rotifers that crawl about on the leaves and plant stems searching for food, have

jaws of a somewhat different form. The rods of the tripod are more elon-

gate and strengthen the walls of the

History

or ice tongs, the inner edges often furnished with many needle-like teeth. This whole apparatus can be thrown out through the mouth opening, and forms a formidable offensive weapon. As all the jaws are formed of com-

Gastric Glands

Bladder

Foot Glands

Stomach

Anatomy of a typical rotifer (Pleurotrocha petromyzon)

mastax. The cavity between is filled with a powerful muscle, which, by its alternate contraction and expansion, acts like a piston, so that the whole apparatus functions as a pump. By means of its pumping action, a rotifer is able to empty a plant cell of its contents, after having pierced the wall with the pointed tips of the jaws. The predatory rotifers, on the other hand, are equipped with highly specialized and efficient jaws resembling pincers

paratively resistant material, it possible to isolate them by dissolving away the tissues of the body wit! vaustic alkali. They then mounted on slides for detailed st: under the microscope, and affor convenient means of determining m

can

species.

The cesophagus stomach, the posterior half of w! functions as an intestine. A pal gastric glands is usually present.

opens into

What Is A Rotifer? 215

waste products of digestion are dis- charged through the cloaca, opens just above the foot.

The muscular system is very simple, but performs admirably the few func- tions required of it. Longitudinal muscles withdraw the head and delicate corona in case of the slightest disturb- ance (which means danger to rotifers), and circular muscles drive them forward again by their action on the body wall.

The nervous system is almost as simple. Nerves radiate from a large central ganglion in the head to the different organs of the body. This ganglion is usually called the brain, no doubt on account of its position. It is obvious that this name is far too pre- tentious for such a simple organ. A rotifer is capable of making so few responses to external stimuli that any complex apparatus for controlling them would be quite useless.

The mode of reproduction is very unusual and interesting. The sexes are distinct, but the females are far more numerous than the males. The males of many species have never been seen, and so far as the moss-dwelling group is concerned, all the evidence indicates that males do not exist. The females are normally developed, but

which

the males are degenerate, possessing ither mouth nor digestive organs of kind, except in rare cases, and their span is consequently very short, illy counted in hours rather than The following anatomical de-

therefore emales.

ition applies only to

arly all female rotifers lay eggs.

me cases development is com- plei-d within the body of the mother, fron: which the young may not emerge into ‘he outside world until after a Secor! generation has started to mature in the ovary. The normal reproduction

is asexual. The female lays unfertilized eggs which, ina few days, develop into ancther generation of females. In warm-weather species, this continues throughout the summer. In the fall some of the females will lay larger quantities of smaller eggs, from which

Rotifer (T'richocerca longiseta) feeding on chlorophyll of “pond seum” Spirogyra. It bores a small hole in each plant cell and pumps out the spiral chlorophyll for food

males develop. with the females. The fertilized eggs resulting this very tough shell, which enables them

These, in turn, pair

from mating have a to withstand the rigors of winter, and postpone their development until the following spring. This is one of nature’s provisions for perpetuating the species by bridging the cold months.

Rotifer eggs are so minute and so readily carried about that there are practically no barriers to their distribu- tion. The most important agent is the wind. When bodies of water dry up,

ky,

av °

vy rye t

©

Photograph by Roy W. Miner

A Collecting Place Rich In Littoral Rotifers

; of microscopic pond life including rotifers, minute

One-celled algm are also found in grea

cr

) z a n

a o A

) os v7) —

ie) Q

3S

os

Ss

— x) a 17)

Dq

— r

crustaceans, and protozoans.

Liz

Sse[s puvy B pu J3zBM puod ay} jo ref [jews & Sursn ‘yoyo sty jo sojduivs SurulUexe st SoA “JPY FYB oy} YY “Jou OY} Jo pus Sursodyy 9y4 Ul poez8ijus0U0D pu poinydeo . F ; Vimy 7 3 S ISSR UR rT *3TAT y 1B SIOpIjOI (SUIUIUILMS-90.1]) dou] YOIGM Jo suBo Aq “jou YS peysoul-ouy B YF SIOJIJOI JO} SUTIYSY WV JUBYSISSE UB pus SIOATY “AP 9J9] 849 FV . MHUOM LY SHALNOH YaAALLOY

vis SsoUuBpUuNngs qBeouid UL PUNO} OS[S 018 ese pe][e2-9ug *suvozojzyoid pues ‘suBo0Beysna9 a;NUIUL ‘s1ojI}OI Burpnypour ayy puod o1doososoru jo soroeds Auvul y}IM ULIGMS UOT}BOO] B YONS Jo spuv{d 19078M poBioUIqns ouLL

cary FIFTTrVyr rrurarr. yy rrr arr rA.rTay Ur rT OFrhCUPFA ATT OFT Of eee (OhULt

Photograph by Roy .W. Miner A beautiful pond such as this is an ideal location for limnetic rotifers, i. e. those of

open waters

What Is A Rotifer?

or the level lowered, the wind catches the resting eggs and blows them away. Since they are so small and light, they may be carried long distances, to fall and hatch in places where conditions are favorable, such as other bodies of water or moist places. Water fowl of various kinds distribute the eggs from pond to pond. Not only do the resting eggs become imbedded in the mud that adheres to the legs and feathers, but they also pass through the alimentary tract of the birds without injury.

The best places to hunt for rotifers are in soft-water lakes and ponds, provided one wishes to find many differ- ent species, but the individuals will not be so numerous as in similar locations in hard water. As the result of three months’ collecting in neutral and alkaline waters in southern California, during the winter of 1915, 106 different species were found, while in one after- noon the following summer, 84 species were collected from near the shore of Lenape Lake, Atlantic County, New Jersey. There are probably more species of rotifers in this small, soft- water lake, than in all southern Cali- fornia. Exactly 100 species were col- lected during one week’s work among the hard-water lakes in the vicinity of Madison, Wisconsin, during the sum- mer of 1916, while a like number, including a few new to science, were collected in one hour in a small soft- water lake near Eagle River in the northern part of the same state. The general statement may be made, therefore, that ponds and lakes in good fa‘ning country may contain many ro'lers but relatively few species, Wile in poor farming country, or whe there is no farming at all, such bocies of water will contain many specs but relatively few individuals. In order to be suitable for farming, the

soil must contain plenty of lime. We have not yet learned how to farm acid soil with any great success.

While rotifers always can be found plentifully in permanent water containing an abundance of aquatic plants or submerged they are not so easily found in a pond or lake surrounded by rocky shores and containing very little submerged vege- tation. In the latter case, however, look for a small cove or protected spot along the shore line. It need be only a square yard or two in area, provided it is protected in some way, perhaps by a fallen log, large stones, or a break in the shore line. The important point is that it must be sheltered from direct wave action and yet have free circula- tion with the main body of water. In such quiet coves, patches of aquatic moss or algae are nearly always present and, no matter how small the quantity may be, it is sure to harbor rotifers. The plants should be carefully floated into a wide-mouthed bottle without crowding, and then carried home and allowed to stand quiet for a while. At the moment the bottle is filled, a change in temperature and environ- ment begins. Many of the more deli- cate organisms soon die and start to decompose, while all the others are using up the life-giving oxygen, which is almost a fixed quantity in the narrow container. As the supply of oxygen decreases, the heavier vitiated water sinks to the bottom of the bottle, while the fresher water rises toward the surface. The rotifers soon forsake the aquatics and ascend with the fresh water, just as we would go to the win- dow of a stuffy room for more air. Finally, they reach the surface where a certain amount of oxygen is present. Being phototactic animals, they as- semble at the point nearest to the light

bodies of

moss,

A beautiful stationary rotifer (Stephano- ceros eichorni) from a model in the American Museum

and crowd into the meniscus, or the angle formed by the water drawn up and around the side of the glass by capillary attraction. They may now be removed in quantity with a pipette. Purely limnetic species are captured by dragging a net of very finemesh through the water and transferring the contents to stock bottles.

The beautiful stationary rotifers must be looked for in pure water which is comparatively undisturbed, as they

Natural History

are very sensitive to wave action. The tubes in which these fixed forms live are found attached to the leaves and stems of submerged aquatics and can be recognized readily with a hand magnifier.

Some specific cases of the habits of a few rotifers will possibly help more than anything else to point out why this branch of natural history is so interesting. In the soft acid waters of the New Jersey Coastal Plain there is an animal which goes by the formidable name of Dicranophorus isothes. It tires out small bivalve crustaceans until they open wide their shells, after which the rotifer makes a meal from the organs of its victims. Some time ago, during the study of a pond collec- tion, an apparent tragedy was enacted. A Dicranophorus isothes was caught by the neck between the shells of one of these crustaceans which then promptly contracted, squeezing the neck of the rotifer almost flat and seemingly slowly strangling it to death. In a similar collection a day or so later, the same thing was observed, but this time in five or six instances. This could hardly be accident, and on more prolonged investigation it was found that when a hungry Dicranophorus came in contact with these animals it worked its way rapidly toward the posterior end of its victim and deliberately inserted its head between the shells. Of course, the little entomostracan instantly closed tightly squeezing the rotifer by th neck. Nothing daunted, our rotifer remained perfectly quiet until its victim grew weary and relaxed ii shells a little. Then in went the rotife1 head farther and farther until a vit spot came within reach of the formida! pinching jaws. This was the beginni: of the end of the microscopical tragec The rotifer made a meal on the vit:

What Is A Rotifer? 221

A Dicranophorus eating its way into a living cladoceran by means of its powerful pincer-like jaws

of its victim, leaving only the empty shell, as it slowly swam away in search of more. Rotifers are always hungry. They pass their lives eating, reproduc- ing their kind, and trying to avoid their enemies. In no other group of animals is the struggle for existence more in- tense. The law of the pond is to swal- low everybody smaller than yourself if you can, and keep from being swallowed as long as you can.

The spindle-shaped rotifer with a long tail and longer name, T'richocerca longiseta, obtains a living by slowly working its way along a filament of the beautiful alga, Spzrogyra, our common “pond scum.”” By means of its jaws, which are adapted for nibbling and

pumping, it bores a rcund hole near the end of each cell, and then pumps out the green contents.

The glassy-shelled rotifers Brachionus rubens and Brachionus variabilis ride about, as a means of easy locomotion, by holding on with their toes to the back of the entomostracan Daphnia. If Daphnia be killed, all the Brachioni speedily abandon the dead host. One can imagine a Daphnia’s delight when, in molting, which may occur once in three or four days, it can slip out of its old clothes and suddenly escape from its unbidden guests.

Ascomorpha volvocicola, a soft-bodied rotifer, makes her home inside the beautiful spheres of the colonial proto-

;, Small rotifers (Brachionus) enjoying a ride on a Daphnia, to which they hold on with t toes

22 Natural History

A free-swimming rotifer (Furcularia longiseta) with enormously long toes

zoan, Volvox, feeding on the green monads that stud its gelatinous ex- panse, or swimming to and fro “like a goldfish in an animated globe.”’ The eggs are laid and hatched within the Volvox colony. After hatching, the young eat their way out of their globular prison or are expelled with embryo Volvox clusters when Mother Volvox dies and decays.

What interested in pond life, has not seen the beautiful Floscularia ringens carefully making round bricks with her specialized brick- making apparatus, then cementing ach one exactly in its place, thus building up her tubular home?

Macrochextus subquadratus and col- lins? swim through the water with their numerous long dorsal spines appressed to their backs. When danger threatens, the head and foot are drawn within the shell. This action throws outward the dorsal spines, making the little animals about as easy for an enemy to

microscopist,

swallow as chestnut burrs.

There are two rotifers with names also far out of proportion to the ani- mals themselves (Scaridium longi- caudum and Scaridium eudactylatum), that use another method to avoid being swallowed. They suddenly spread out their long, stout toes, and then snap them together, actually leaping through the water with such tremendous bounds as to take them out of the field of the

microscope so suddenly that they

appear to have vanished completely. Little Polyarthra trigla makes a quick succession of leaps and bounds by means of six lateral winglike appendages fastened to its neck and worked by a powerful striate muscular band. The beautiful, flower-like members of the family Collothicacea seem to be the original inventors of the modern rat trap. Numerous long hairlike setz are spread out in the water by the un- folding of the lobes of the coronal cup, Small aquatic organisms come in contact with them and follow them down into a spacious chamber, the coronal cup itself, near the base of which is an are of cilia that produces currents impelling the prey farther downward. Here there is an opening leading into a long, flexible tube that hangs down into the middle of a second chamber. Woe be- tide the little animal that touches the entrance of this tube! It is through instantaneously by the action of invisible cilia, and dropped into the chamber below, from which there is no retreat. Here it is slowly stupefied and finally ground up by the pincer-like jaws lying near the bottom of th chamber where the stomach opens. And then there is the voracious Acyclus inquietus living only in an among the fixed colonies of anothe rotifer, Sinantherina socialis. As th young of Sinantherina are free-swim

from which these sete arise.

-arried

entrance to the

What Is A Rotifer?

ming and as the adult Sinantherina is too large to be swallowed, Acyclus de- votes its entire attention to the small, free-swimming offspring, them up as they glide past.

Rotifers play an important part in the direct food supply of fishes. To illustrate this very roughly, let us liken the more important classes of small organisms, in a lake or pond, to the rungs of a ladder. The lowest rung would be the bacteria; the next rung above, would be the protozoans, many of which feed on bacteria; the third would be the rotifers, many of which feed on the protozoans; the fourth would be the aquatic worms and en- tomostracans, many of which feed on the rotifers. The highest rung would be the young and small fishes, all of which feed on entomostracans and aquatic worms.

snapping

If we remove a single rung of

our ladder, we weaken all the rungs

above, and by taking out the rotifer rung we reduce the fish supply in a given body of water proportionally. Rotifers play an important part as scavengers. Their importance depends on their minute size and unparalleled numbers. Many are so constituted that their diet is practically confined to such floating and adhering particles as are present in the water in a state of fine comminution. By disposing of such material, which otherwise would foul the water, they become one of the factors that help to keep the water of our ponds and lakes pure and clean. We have seen that rotifers have such a wide range of habitats, that it would be hard for anyone taking the trouble, not te find some near home. As Doctor Hudson has so aptly said: “It is so 1atural to recommend one’s favorite ursuit that the recommendation often uries little weight; and yet, there is iuch to be said for the study of rotifers

Tube-building rotifer (Floscularia ringens) making spherical bricks, one of which may be seen just beneath the hair-covered, finger- shaped projection at the top. Model in the American Museum that cannot be gainsaid. They are to be found almost everywhere; they cost nothing; they require neither expen- sive lenses nor apparatus; they are beautiful in themselves; they tempt us to take pleasant walks and explore the country; and they suggest all kinds of difficult questions on life and being.”

Glass Models Of Minute Water Plants Magnified

). These are traps for capturing the microsco} prepared in the Museum laboratories, whi ated animal and plant life magnified to

Three vesicles of the bladderwort ( Utricularia pond life. A detail of the Rotifer Group, now being

-half inch of pond bottom with its assocl

represents one It is blown entirely of glass

diameter of more than four feet.

The Rotifer Group

By

Herman O. Mueller

Glass Modeler, American Museum

HE department of lower inverte- brates of the American Museum has in preparation a group illus-

trating pond life magnified 100 diam- eters. This group will be a companion piece to the Bryozoa Group which shows two inches of sea bottom magni- fied 25 diameters, now on exhibition in the Darwin Hall of the Museum. The new group will depict an associa- tion of minute animals and plants com- mon in our pond water, but for the most part visible only under the microscope.

Most of the organisms possess a texture and coloring so translucent and delicate that glass is the only medium capable of reproducing them faithfully and naturally. It may interest the reader to learn something about the technique of constructing a few of the glass models for this group. Although many of the manipulations in glass blowing are very simple, it is quite difficult to describe them, and it is only by actually watching the modus operandi that a clear idea of the process may be gained. However, I shall attempt to describe some of the im- portant steps in the process.

rough drawing embodying the main elements of the group is first outlined. With this as a guide, a sketch model of the group as a whole is cor.structed. This is usually one qu.rter or one third the size of the proposed magnification, and includes the most conspicuous objects, made to scale, and grouped roughly together. The value of this scale model is appar- ent when one realizes that because of

its smaller size the different parts can

be altered or moved to more suitable positions, while experimental trans- parencies for the background may be tried out with less difficulty than in the full-sized group, or additions planned where necessary. It is, so to speak, an experiment station, which, when completed, is a miniature of the final group, but without detail.

All the technical difficulties, how- ever, are by no means solved. On the contrary, when the work on the real group is begun, other problems arise, as for instance, the welding of the single parts, and the handling of the finished pieces, a more complicated undertaking on account of their greater size. Also, the higher the magnification repre- sented, the more complicated is the structure which becomes visible and which must be shown in the model. To accomplish this, careful drawings of the exact magnifications of the plants and animals are made with the aid of the microscope. From these drawings, the various models are constructed in glass, wax, celluloid, or other suitable material.

The Utricularia, an aquatic species of the bladderworts, when viewed under the microscope, reveals a form of great beauty and transparency. Natur- ally, the only medium to be used in its reproduction is glass. stem a glass tube of the proper dimen- sions was cut in sections of from five to eight inches in length, to be welded together to form the stem of the water plant. Throughout the main there runs a network of green-colored

For the main

stem

cells concentrically arranged in three layers. In making this network a

Natural History

smaller tube, about one quarter the diameter of the outer stem, was cut in sections corresponding to the zigzag portions of the outer tube. Around this smaller tube the three layers were built up to form a triple network. First, a mosaic of cells was laid on this tube horizontally, by applying threads of dark green glass and slightly fusing them in the blast lamp so that they stand out in relief on the surface of the transparent inner tube. The green threads or strips, one-half inch long and one-sixteenth inch wide, were placed a short distance apart to form an alter- nating pattern running lengthwise and covering the whole tube. From the ends of each horizontal thread finer threads about a thirty-second of an inch in diameter were fused to rise vertically about an eighth of an inch. These were connected by cross threads and thus gave the second layer of cells. Above these cells another layer was constructed in the same fashion, form- ing the third concentric set. As the meshes of all this complicated network must be of just the right size to fit into

A Magnified Stem Of The

Bladderwort (Utricularia)

Modeled in glass. The plant cells show through the trans- parent walls of the stem. glass threads built up in a triple rank and modeled to give the appearance of the actual cells in the plant stem. The method of modeling is described in the text

These cells are constructed of fine

the larger tube or main stem, it was necessary to use the finest needle flame of the blast lamp to make the minute weldings involved.

When one of these cell sections was finished, it was inserted into the cor- responding section of the outer stem. Then a new empty section was added to the latter and fused to it at an angle of forty degrees, because of the zigzag shape of the stem. This was repeated until the whole main stem, consisting of ten sections, was completed. At the angles of the stem are situated finely dissected leaves resembling branched spines, to which vesicles or bladder-li!:e sacs are attached, one or more on each leaf. These branched leaves modeled from small, thin, glass tubcs, the terminal ends tapering to a poii't. To these, shorter tubes were fused xt irregular distances and then bent a id curved like staghorn prongs. A vesi ‘le was then attached to the basal stem: of -ach leaf close to the main zigzag sts These vesicles, which vary in s ¢ were made from a glass tube ! st blown to form a globe, then flatte: od

were

The Rotifer Group 227

on two opposite sides and shaped to the proper size. In nature the vesicles are traps which capture microscopical creatures, or rather, these tiny swim- ming animals enter through a trapdoor at the apex of the vesicle. At this juncture a layer of cells was painted on the vesicle, which was then sprayed, by means of an air brush, with tints varying from light rose to deep purple, asin nature. When the color was suffi-

Larva of a harlequin fly (Chironomus) just ptured by the plant. This larva was feeding n food particles adhering to the branched nes projecting from the vesicle, and gradu- iv worked its way down the stem until it t. ched the slippery trapdoor which straight- % vy opened and caught it by the head. Be- ¢: se of the downward-pointing hairs lining th vesicles, the struggles of the larva merely dr wit farther into the trap. The frontispiece (P. xe 224) shows a larva entirely enclosed Wi iin the vesicle. The modeling of the hex- ag ial vesicle cells is described in the text

A vesicle of the bladderwort (Utricularia) modeled in glass. The natural size of this remarkable structure is about that of a pin’s head. It is shaped like a flattened pitcher and has an ingenious trapdoor equipped with slippery hairs pointing toward a slot which is usually closed. If a rotifer or other tiny pond animal chances to rest upon this door, it immediately slips through the slot which quickly closes upon the prisoner. The animal swims about inside the utricle and finally dies. The fluid product of its decaying body is absorbed by the plant cells for food

ciently dry to permit handling, another layer of green cells was put on the vesicle. But this outer layer was con- structed of fine, green glass threads so fused as to form a network of hexagonal meshes. This network layer, shaped exactly to the vesicle, was so flexible that it could be snapped over the vesicle, blending with it so as appar- ently to form an integral part with the whole structure.

When all the leaves with their vesicles were ready for fusion to the

228 Natural History

Two generations of glass modelers.—Herman Mueller and his father welding together

the complex parts of the Utricularia model. modeling ever attempted.

while the delicate branches and vesicles are being attached.

This is probably the most difficult piece of glass Two jets of flame are played around the plant stem to soften it

The magnification of the Utricu-

laria model is graphically shown in this picture. The water plant from which it was modeled

measured about one-half inch

main stem, the work had reached a critical stage, for every part was in a delicately and completely finished state, even to the fine coloring. If anything had broken during this fusing opera- tion, it would have been necessary to make over the entire branch. When colored parts are to be fused together, the color must be cleaned off for a distance of about two inches from the junction, otherwise the color burns and creates dark areas in the glass. The clear spaces are refinished afterward. When all the pieces of the Utricularia were ready to be assembled, the main branch was mounted on three supports so as to eliminate any tension. As a precaution the tube was covered with

asbestos so that the flame could not strike it while the leaves were being fused into place, and only the spot where the joint was to be made was left bare. The openings at the base of th leaf-branch and of the main stem at the point of junction, were of the sam: diameter, and two jets of flame playec continually around the glass to softe: it before the joining was made. After leaf-branch fused the are around the place of attachment w: time to prevel perform th

was on, annealed for some future delicate operation, it was necessal for two glass blowers to work togeth

cracking. To

from opposite sides of the branch. Among other water plants to be 1

The Rotifer Group 229

cluded in the group are three large branches of Anacharis, and many fila- ments of Spirogyra spreading through- out the group and clustered in a dense mass at one side. The main stem of the Anacharis was made of a glass tube about four feet long and three fourths of aninch in diameter. One end of the tube was closed in the blowpipe and tapered to a conical shape soas to permit the leaves of the branch tip to come close together as if just opening. Nu- merous holes, corresponding to the number of leaves, were pierced in the tube by means of the blowpipe. The leaves were fashioned from thin, blown-glass tubes of cylinder-like shape. Two glass threads, representing the midrib of the leaf, were fused on this cylinder, one opposite the other, and the cylinder split lengthwise in the fine needle flame. In this manner two leaves were obtained from one cylinder. The irregular edges of these canoe-like shells were finished off and one end drawn out to a point, giving it a leaf- like appearance, while the other end was shaped to fit the main stem. The end which joins the stem was provided with a short peg to hold the leaf in position when it was inserted in the hole provided for it in the stem.

The Spirogyra filaments were com- paratively simple and were made of glass tubes one quarter of an inch in diameter, varying in length from three feet to seven and one half feet. After they had been bent in the blowpipe flame to the right shape and proper curves, they were ready for coloring. The spiral green chlorophyll bands vere painted on the tube, and at inter- als a ring was painted to indicate the ivision walls between the successive

‘lls.

Besides the water plants, the rotifers cr wheel-animaleule are conspicuous

oooee-

y

A picturesque corner of! the Rotifer Group, showing the bladderwort (Utricularia), Anacharis, and the fine filaments of pond scum (Spirogyra). These plantsare the stage setting for the multitudinous animal life which, though now completed in glass, has not yet been inserted in the group. The skeleton of a dead leaf is shown at the bottom of the pic- ture

A Rotifer Inhabitant Of The Half-Inch Of Pond Bottom

Modeled in glass. This animal (Notommata copeus) is shown crawling along a filament of Spirogyra, boring a neat hole in each plant cell through which it pumps out the spiral chlorophyll upon which it feeds

The Rotifer Group

in the group. In fact, the whole group centers around the rotifers, and for this reason it will be known as the Retifer Group. Many species will be represented, some of them free-swim- ming, some creeping and sessile, others feeding on plants, with shapes of endless variety and beauty.

In describing the technique of con- structing a rotifer model, Notommata copeus (page 230) is a good example. The pear-shaped body is blown and modeled froma glass tube to the required magnification, all append ages such as auricles, proboscis, foot, and anten-

ne, are welded on, and the outer contour of the animal completely finished. At the constriction of the

neck, it is cut into two parts to permit the insertion of the internal organs. This cut has to be very clean and sharp, so that there will be no unsightly marks when the parts are cemented together again. Great care must be exercised when the cutting operation is per- formed, for a failure at this stage of the work will necessitate a reconstruction of one or more parts. The internal organs, consisting of the brain and its appendages, internal jaws, stomach, gastric glands, and ovaries, are shaped separately and then welded together in one piece, each in its proper position, so that there will be no danger of a part becoming displaced when the finished model is handled. After the internal organs are painted with permanent transparent oil colors, they are inserted in the body and cemented fast with Canada balsam. When the cement has set, the model is ready for ac ding the hairlike cilia.

The most tedious operation in the en‘ire process is making and cementing these cilia on the rotifer models. In some species, the cilia are so numerous an closely set that it is impossible to

fuse them to the corona in even the finest flame of the blast lamp. In such vases, the cilia are formed from fine glass threads drawn out to almost hair- like thinness, curved in the flame, cut to the proper length, and cemented one by one to the model. The lengths of the cilia vary from one thirty-second to one quarter of an inch in the magni- fied models of the group.

Several species of the desmids, or microscopic algae, will be represented in the group. diversity of ornamental form, eylindri- val, denticulate, crenulate, and lobed.

To illustrate the process of making a model of this kind, let us take Clos- terium (page 232). This model, magni- fied 100 diameters, is two and one quar- ter inches long and three eighths of an inch wide and has the shape of a crescent moon. It was blown from a glass tube to a spindle-shaped form and the two tapering ends bent in the flame to give it the crescent shape. On one side, near the widest diameter, an opening was made for the insertion of the chlorophyll. This granular chloro- phyll was imitated by making little beads from fine, green glass threads and fusing them together, so as to form large masses resembling shad roe. These were separated into smaller parts which were filled into the shell of the Closterium. The temporary opening of the latter was then closed and the model completed for outside coloring. For the larger specimen of Closterium, a core of clear glass was first inserted in the shell and a coating of beads cemented around it. The thin layer of green beads over the core gives the desired density and the effect of translucency.

The lower part of the group was modeled in plaster and wax, to imitate a muddy section of a pond bottom. A

They also show great

masses

partly decomposed leaf, a fragment of twig, and masses of pond sediment are all shown magnified till they give a strange, unfamiliar appearance. The leaf is made entirely of wax. After the microscopic drawing was made and enlarged to the right dimensions, sections of the leaf were modeled in plastilene and plaster molds made from these models. When the molds were hard, liquid wax was poured into them. This was removed from the molds when cool and the wax sections fused to form the complete leaf.

For the background of the group,

Natural History

three plate-glass transparencies will be used. On the first glass nearly all the objects in the group, plants and animals, will be painted in detail to blend with the foreground. On the second glass fewer objects will be painted, somewhat fainter in color and less clearly defined, while the third will simply be sprayed a light green to give apparent density to the water.

With the exception of the trans- parencies on which the colorist is now working, the group is practically com- pleted and will soon be ready for in- stallation.

A single-celled microscopic plant (Closterium).—modeled in glass. minute plants known as desmids, which are very abundant in pond water. material is the green chlorophyll. At each tip of the crescent is a cluster of “dancing cells”

This is one of the The dark granular

A

or eta,

“a. —as

ee il —

Fig. 1.—A sharp-winged katydid (Microcentrum rhombifolium) walking on

a blade of grass.— Notice the apertures of the

er two ears seen on the inner side of the second segment

er a

(tibia) of each front leg. Another aperture is found on the other (outer) side of each tibia. This katydid is found quite

commonly in August and September on shrubbery, vines, and hedges about suburban homes. In the evening it sounds its note, a sharp tiiic-tiic-tic-tic-tic- tic at intervals and can be readily traced and captured by this sound. From a sketch by

Bruce Horsfall

The Sense of Hearing in Invertebrate Animals By ULRIC DAHLGREN

Professor of Biology, Princeton University; Director of the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory

E humans are so accustomed to take our sense of hearing for granted, and this confidence is

so supported by our knowledge that other highly organized vertebrate ani- mals as the cat, horse, rat, ete., can also hear, that we seldom pause to consider the rest of the world of animal life in its relation to the atmospheric waves that are responsible for what we call sound.

Our sense of hearing, any sense of hearing, is a highly specialized modifi- cation of the sense of touch or peicep- tion of mechanical stimulation. In the higher vertebrates the sound waves are first collected and concentrated by 2 loud speaker or megaphone called the outer ear or pinna. These con- centrated waves beat against a delicate stretched membrane called the ear- drum or tympanum. This vibrates and its whole surface again concentrates

the motion against a chain of three tiny bones, the earbones, named incus, malleus, and stapes. These bones transmit the motion to part of a sac (the ventriculus) filled with fluid. The terminal end of this is elongated into a hollow projection known as the legena. In the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds, this legena is straight or slightly curved, but in man and other mammals it has become elongated and compacted into a spiral form called the cochlea. On the inside of the cochlea, and run- ning its entire length, is a strip of epithelium, modified into very sensi- tive nerve cells. These nerve cells are so delicate that they report to the brain even the slightest mechanical stimulus, so that we interpret it as sound. But even the sound waves in the fluid do not affect these nerve cells directly. First they must strike the wide surface of a delicate membrane

234 Natural History

which, secreted by a neighboring row of cells, overlies the fine processes that arise from the nerve cells. The vibra- tions created in this tectorial mem- brane, are then transmitted to an organ which mechanically stimulates the ends of the nerve-cell processes and produces, probably through chemico-physiological means, a nerve impulse that travels to the brain and comes to our consciousness as sound or “hearing,” a form of “touch.”

A most interesting fact about the vertebrate organ of hearing, is that it seems modified through evolution from part of an organ found in lower in- vertebrates, which originally recorded the sense of balance. This simple sense organ contained one or more stony particles of lime, the otoliths, so ad- justed that, through their movements, the animal apparently sensed the pull of gravity and reacted accordingly by modifying its position with refer- ence to the earth’s surface. This is called the “static” function and is still the most important function of the inner ear in the lowest vertebrates, the fishes. In higher vertebrates, another portion of the inner ear records, by means of the inertia of certain fluids, the relative positions of the body in successive periods of time. The first function is stasis by gravity, the second, stasis by inertia. Thus our hearing power is due to a modification of part of an organ which was first devoted solely to two other forms of “‘touch.”

But the vertebrate animals, impor- tant as they seem to the average man because he himself is a vertebrate, are, from the standpoint of a broadly trained zoologist, but a small part of the animal kingdom.

Dozens of other groups of animals are found in the seas and on the land, constructed on totally different plans,

as the mollusks, echinoderms, insects, crustaceans, worms, ete. In spite of the differences of structure, however, most of them, like the vertebrates, must eat, move, and fight, and for these activities they must possess senses that will serve to guide them in their life work. Among these senses, we think of them as possessing the power to hear. Dothey? To most of them hear- ing would be of great value, for instance in enabling them to find their way, detect their enemies, seek their mates, and accomplish many other necessary operations.

A large number of them can see. Also many can smell or taste. Prac- tically all possess the perception of mechanical stimuli which ‘we all “touch.” Is this sense of touch so equipped that it can register vibrations of the tiny air (and water) waves that produce what we call hearing?

As we experiment with them by carefully observing their reactions to various sounds, we are forced to con- clude that most of them cannot hear a sound, or at least cannot distinguish between different tones (wave lengths) of sound. We vertebrates live in an otherwise deaf world! All the useful- ness, all the beauty and importance of sound, are unavailable to more than nine tenths of the creatures about us. Many are blind. Many taste poorly. We wonder how they can live as a race under such handicaps. And yet it is under such conditions that life began, and under these same condi- tions most life still exists.

Naturalists have recognized thes conditions and have eagerly sought t discover in the lower animals some structures connected with the nervou: system that fulfill the requirements b: which sight, taste (and smell), touc! equilibrium, and hearing may operat:

owe en 2 60a

— a,

lan)

The Sense Of Hearing In Invertebrate Animals

Eyes, olfactory organs, touch organs, and organs of equilibration are well known, but, only in a few cases, do sensory organs appear that can be dis- tinguished as ears or sound-perceiving structures.

One index of the power, in any particular species of animal, to per- ceive sound, is the ability to make some kind of a noise. This does not always follow, but in many cases it does, and it is this clue that has pointed the way to the discovery in a few cases, of sound-perceiving organs in inverte- brates.! Clicking, rasping, and other sounds have been noted in many animals.

If one goes out into the country on a still, warm August night, one becomes aware of a great volume of sound. There is no doubt that thousands of individuals of many kinds are engaged in making characteristic noises, and one wonders, “What is the purpose of allthesesoundsif not to beheard?” And they must fulfill their greatest purpose when heard by other individuals be- longing to the same forms as do those that produce each characteristic sound. Observation and experiment show that the sounds are heard, and further study shows that, except for a few verte- brates, most of the sounds come from insects of one kind or another. Also the sounds are confined mainly to one group of insects, the Orthoptera, which includes the crickets, katydids, and g:asshoppers among other insects.

Sound-making and hearing are thus l-alized, in the main, to two general g oups of. animals, the higher verte- b: ites and certain insects, to parts of on'y two phyla out of the twelve or mre principal phyla of the animal kingdom. A few examples of sound

‘Sse however Dr. F. E. Lutz’s article entitled ‘ In- sect Sounds’’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. L 192°), pp. 333-372.

production are found among Crustacea (Palinurus) and some other forms, but no hearing has been noted. Further, hearing and sound-making are prac- tically confined to air-living and air- breathing forms, although water makes

an excellent medium for the trans-

Fig. 2.—Front and side view of the tibia of another species of Microcentrum, showing the external appearance of the ear. The openings into the outer tympanal chambers are marked in solid black

mission of the sound waves, and the final fundamental act of sound percep- tion takes place in fluid, a body fluid. Let us examine a few insects and see what we can find. In certain tabanid fly larve, stringlike bands have been observed attached to nerve cells. A hearing function has been attributed to these bands. It has also been noted that the antenna of the male mosquito vibrates to certain tones of a tuning fork, and it is thought that this

appendage functions as hearing organ. In the katydids, crickets, and

grasshoppers, however, a very beauti- ful organ of hearing has been dis- covered, and since there is proof that it is capable of audition, we shall describe this structure in a katydid and explain how it operates.

There are many kinds of katydids besides our friend that sings on August evenings in the back-yard apple tree or the street elm. Some kinds sing only at night, while others sit singing out in the hottest sun, ceasing their song as night comes on. One of the commonest

OoTC— ITC—

a rm pe 2 m rad ro) n D oO ”n m m TR2

:

Fig. 3.—Outline drawing of the upper part of the tibia of the katydid, with a diagram of the course and form of the tracheal air passage passing through the ear. indicates the mouth of the outer tympanal chamber, the extent of which is shown by a dotted line. TR is the trachea above the ear and TRethe trachea below the ear. ITC is the expanded part of the trachea that forms the inner or true tympanal chamber, while BP indicates the by-pass or branch of the trachea that begins above the ear and joins the trachea again below the ear

Natural History

of the day singers is a large green insect that lives in the vines, shrubs, and hedges of suburban homesteads in nearly all localities in our middle east- ern states. His name is Microcentruwm rhombifolium (Figure 1), and he is about an inch and a half long, not in- cluding the slender antennz more than twice the length of his body, which mark him as a katydid as compared with the ‘“short-horned”’ grasshoppers often seen in association with him. His voice is quite different from that of the evening singer of the trees, which asserts katy-did or katy-didn’t so vehe- mently. It is a long tizic-titc-tic-tic-tic sounded at intervals during the after- noon or evening, and he often may be traced and captured by this sound.

If we examine this creature under a magnifying glass as he walks about on the hand or clings to the finger, we will see that the upper end of that segment of his front leg called the tibia is enlarged, and that on each anterior edge of this swelling is a narrow cres- centic slit, usually marked in brown (Figure 2). The swelling is the ears or organ of hearing. It is not located where we naturally would look for it, because we vertebrates have our ears in the head, and we egotistically decide that the ears of other creatures should be similarly situated. But here it is, in this insect’s front leg, and it is not makeshiiv ear evolved from a static organ, asis ours. It is a new structure developed directly to fill a need, by what evolutionary processes we can only guess.

If we raise the edge of either one these slits, we can look into a cavi on the side of the enlarged portion the tibia. We then see that t!'s cavity is superficial and is covered an anteriorly directed fold of the tegument of the animal.

The Sense Of Hearing In Invertebrate Animals — 237

In order to understand the working it is necessary for know something about how

Insects breathe air through that open inward

of this ear,

breathe. tubes called trachez from a number of holes (stigmata) in the side of the body. These tubes, by. a process of branching, reach every part of the body. One main branch passes down inside of each leg to furnish air for the tissues. At the upper part of the swelling, this trachea branches into a large and a small division (Figure 3). Just below the swelling these two branches again unite to form single trunk of the usual size. We must make some careful preparations before we can see, under the microscope, how the katydid’s ear is constructed. The German scientist, Graber, only after developing great skill by long training of the hands, succeeded in dissecting out the organ with needles and tiny sharp-pointed knives ind scissors. Our modern method, however, is to cut i series of fine sections, fix ach on a glass slide, then tain and mount them rially. We can then udy them at leisure and, necessary, reconstruct

e entire mechanism in three planes

This latter is not required for

‘ purposes, however, as we can under-

nd the structure by examining one

1. nsverse section and one longitudinal sc tion taken through the “ear.”

n the plane of the transveise section

wax.

+

(Figure 4), we see that the larger divi- sion of the trachea (ITC) fills the entire middle portion of the leg. The side walls of the leg, excluding the two reflected flaps, are thin,

us to insects

extremely

Anterior Side

Posterior Side

Fig. 4.—A transverse sectionof the ear. OTC indicates the outer tympanal chambers, ITC the inner tympanal chamber. TYM shows the location of the tympanum or drum, and SH the two shields used to protect the tympana. SC the sensory cell with its nucleus (NU),style (STY) and struts for supporting the cell (STR). GC are the secondary ganglion cells that relay the message to the brain. All these are in the anterior chamber. Below is seen the pos- terior chamber containing cross sections of muscle (}1U) nerve (N), blood vessel (BL), and the tracheal by- -pass (BP). The outer chitinous layer is composed of a harder outer part and a softer inner part. The ragged ends pro- jecting from the walls into the inner tympanal chamber represent the displaced ends of the rings of chitin or teenidia that are used to support the walls just as wire is aon to strengthen the walls of a length of rubber garden 108e

although they retain the usual elements of insect integument, a single layer of cells with an outer chitinous cuticle. Pressed closely against these side walls of the leg are the side walls of the trachea (TYM). Since this trachea was formed by a “pushing in” or

invagination of the outer integument of theanimal, its side walls are constructed in the same manner as the side walls of the leg,—an inner layer of cells with an outer cuticle, but these lie in an

Natural History

(N), and some connective tissue and blood vessels (BL). All these lie in a body fluid which fills this channel-like division. The tissues (muscle, nerve, blood vessel, etc.), must be able to

inverse position on account of the invagination, so that the layer of cells (hypodermis) of the side of the trachea now lies against the layer of cells (hypoder- mis) of the leg; both layers are so attenuated and so closely pressed to- gether that they really form one layer of remark- able thinness and strength. This structure is called the tympanum or “drum” (TYM) and corresponds functionally with our own eardrum. But the ear in each leg of the katydid has two ear-drums_ while our ears each have only one.

Because its two side walls are at- tached so closely to the side walls of the leg, the

Fig. 5.—Photograph of a stained and mounted longitudinal (antero-posterior) sec- tion of the ear of a katydid (Microcentrum). Only a part of the anterior chamber (AC) and inner tympanal chamber (ITC) areshown. In the anterior chamber, laying in the animal’s lymph fluid (stained dark gray) isseen the row of sensory cells (SC), largest at the top and grow- ing smaller below, and a few of the secondary ganglion cells (GC) each of which contains a large vacuole. The outer chitin is missing from its epithelium but is indicated by an ink line. The anterior wall (AW) of the tympanal chamber shows fine serrations due to cross sections of the tznidia or supporting ridges which line it. A bit of one of the valves (V) is also shown in the tympanal chamber

pass the ear, be- vause the opera- tion of the whole lower leg depends on their presence and continuity. Also we find in this same posterior chamber a cross section of the smaller branch of the trachea (B P), the function of which is to carry air down into the leg, for two valves, an upper and a lower, cut off the passage of alr through the swollen tympanic chamber when the ear is in operation.

Interesting as is the posterior chamber or pass- ageway of the leg, the anterior chamber (AC) is more so, for here we find the nerv- ous and principal mechanical appa- ratus of the ear. In the

cross

large trachea or tympanic chamber (ITC) conforms to the more or less square shape of the leg. The other necessary contents of the leg lie either anterior or posterior to it. In the posterior area (PC) we find large muscle cells (MU), two or more nerves

section, at a favorable level, we find that this space like that in the posterior chamber, is filled wit 1 body fluid. Lying in this fluid at 1 fairly short distance from the anteri

wall of the tympanic chamber, is very large somewhat flattened ner

The Sense Of Hearing In Invertebrate Animals

cell (SC). Like all nerve cells, it has a nucleus (NU) which lies far to one side. Unlike nearly all other nerve cells, however, it possesses a remarkable structure of dark-staining nature and apparently chitinous substance called the style (STY). This style is very large, and its blunt end is embedded in the cell body, while its long tapering end reaches out of the cell and rests its tip upon the posterior wall of the tympanic chamber, where it is fastened among the hypodermal cells of that wall. The remarkable structure of this style is indicated in Figure 4.

Now we begin to have some inkling of the operation of this ear. The waves of sound in the air enter the two crescentic slits (C 8) and beat upon the big wide thin tympana on each side from without. This motion is, of course, communicated to the air in the tympanic chamber (ITC), which is made to vibrate in turn and to beat upon the anterior and posterior walls of this same chamber from within. When it beats on the posterior surface, nothing happens, for on the other side there is nothing but blood, muscle, and nerve, and these cannot feel. But where it beats on the anterior wall, it strikes on the tip of the style (STY) which is imbedded in the nerve cell. This action starts up processes in the nerve cell, which send a message to the brain.. This we call “hearing,’’ just as when our tectorial membrane rattles against the little “‘bristles”’ projecting ‘rom the nerve cells in our inner ear.

And we find a further refinement of

he process. When the surface of the ympanic chamber beats on the end of the style, its tendency is to move the whole nerve cell. This of course would tend to lessen the effect of the mechani- cil reaction between the nerve cell and te end of the style which is imbedded

in it. Hence a mechanism is required by means of which the nerve cell may be held firmly, independently of the style, and thus bring about an im- proved mechanical reaction between style and nerve cell, and, in conse- quence, a better stimulation of the processes (probably chemical) that result in hearing impulses.

Such a condition actually is found in our specimen. A straight, firm, thin brace (STR) of some hard material, probably chitin, extends at an angle from each of the lateral ends of the flattened nerve cell. Its other end is

Fig. 6. Leg of cricket showing ear. From

model in Insect Hall of the Museum

fastened in the tissues where the anterior wall of the tympanic chamber joins the outer wall of the leg. A glance at the diagram will show the mechanical relationship of the braces to the cell, style, and anterior wall of the tympanic chamber. It undoubtedly holds the cell quite firmly, so that the vibrations of the anterior wall of the tympanic chamber and the consequent mechanical movements of the style give the reaction between style and nerve cell.

If now we cut another section of the ar in a plane that passes longitudinally through it in an antero-posterior direc- tion, through the middle of the style in the nerve cell, we find the interesting fact that there is actually a whole row of these cells extending lengthwise on the median line of the tympanic cavity. Figure 5 is a photograph of an actual section of this kind, showing the line of cells (SC). Since the closes but a single plane, we can see in some instances only the nucleus in a nerve cell, and in other instances only the style, or sometimes both if the section is thick enough. There is another interesting fact shown by this view. The nerve cells and their styles are much larger at one end of the row (upper) than at the lower. It has been suggested that the larger cells ‘‘hear”’ only lower sounds or longer wave lengths, and vice versa, the shorter ones the higher sounds.

Let us attempt to trace this sound path from the nerve cells toward the The nerve fibers that come off, one from each auditory nerve cell, do not run directly to the brain. In no ear do they do this, not even in the vertebrates. It seems necessary, for some reason we have not fathomed, for the message to be relayed through another nerve cell that lies fairly close

greatest possible

section dis-

brain.

Natural History

to the auditory cell. Such secondary nerve cells are called “auditory gang- lion cells,’ and, while in man they lie in the core of the cochlea, in the katy- did they form a loosely arranged row in the extreme anterior corner of the anterior space of the leg, as shown in the cross-section (Figure 4, GC). Their arrangement is still better shown in the longitudinal section (Figure 5). They are large, and the efferent fiber from each auditory sensory cell joins the afferent fiber of one of these auditory ganglion cells. The nerve pathway is completed by the efferent fiber of each of the ganglion cells form- ing a member of the small nerve which conveys the sound impulse to the brain. These fibers do not show completely in the sections, as they pass out of the planes in which they are cut. The sars of all katydids and crickets are built on this plan, with interesting but minor variations. For example, in the crickets (Figure 6) there are no over- hanging folds to protect the delicate tvmpana. These are silvery-gray in color and stand out boldly against the black integument.

The grasshoppers have ears built somewhat on the same plan. But in- stead of being carried on the leg, they are on the side of the body, where the large unprotected tympanum is plainly visible.

An excellent study in connection with these insects, is to follow them up in the evening (or daytime, in some vases), and learn to recognize the char- acteristic and widely different notes or sounds made by the different species, from the song of the katydid of well- known fame to the singing, whirring. clicking, whistling sounds made by the various grass-katydids, tree-crickets, and true crickets. In this way w learn to regard them as interestins friends instead of merely stupid “"bugs.’

Animals of the Seashore

AS ILLUSTRATED BY INVERTEBRATE GROUPS IN THE DARWIN HALL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

These exhibits, prepared in the Museum laboratories, faithfully depict typical sea-anima! and plant communities as they actually exist in the shallow waters of the New England coast

By ROY WALDO MINER

The Horseshoe Crab (Limulus Polyphemus)

This remarkable crustacean is common on sandy, muddy, and rocky bottoms along our shores. practically a “‘living fossil,” for the fossilized remains of its ancestors are found imbedded in rocks, the earliest of which date back to Middle Cambrian times, at least 70,000,000 years ago. In spite of its name, it is not a true crab, but is more nearly related to the stock from which the spiders and scorpions have descended. This photograph is a detail from the Gay Head Sound Bottom Group, shown on the following page

It is

Fj

by . “ans a RS

Animals And Plants Of A Sound Bottom

An accurate reproduction of a portion of the sea bottom in Vineyard Sound, off the coast of Marthas Vineyard Island, Massachusetts. Here the sea has undermined the clay cliffs at Gay Head, washing out huge granite bow!l- ders, which have rolled into the sea to form a reef known as the Devil’s Bridge, the scene of many wrecks. On the sandy sea bottom lobsters lurk in the crevices between the bowlders, while crabs, shrimp, and other crustaceans are abundant. The rocks are luxuriantly overgrown with seaweeds, among which the Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), is conspicuous, while here and there are visible spreading colonies of the northern star eoral (Astrangia danaé) and of rose-pink soft coral (Alcyonium digitatum)

The Sargassum Weed (Sargassum Bacciferum)

This seaweed, famous as forming the bulk of the vegetation of the Sargasso Sea, is also found attached to sub- merged bowlders as far north as Vineyard Sound. Its narrow, tapering leaflets are buoyed upward toward the sunlight by hundreds of berry-shaped floats about the size of a pea. As shown in the group this weed is delicately modeled in glass

The Struggle For Existence At The Sea Bottom

An unwary lady crab (Ovalipes ocellatus) has ventured out of the sand, where it usually lies buried up to its pro- jecting eyes and feelers, and is immediately pounced upon by a lurking lobster. The crab frantically endeavors to escape by vigorously paddling its oar-shaped hind limbs.

The above photographs are details from the Gay Head Sound Bottom Group, illustrated on the opposite page

A Typical Rock Tide Pool On ™

An accurate reproduction of the famous Bridge Pool at Nahant, Massachusetts, situated at the base of a sixty-

foot cliff bounding the shore of Eastern Point. Here the tide rises and falls a vertical distance of nine feet. At low water a natural bridge is disclosed, spanning a tidal basin twenty feet in length, within the quiet waters of which wonderful display of marine animals and plants is visible. The arch itself is covered with thousands of barnacles (Balanus balanoides) reaching to the high-tide mark

“Sag wey Xe e & nS

¢

—

Rth Shore Of New England

Below the barnacle zone the rocks are draped with rockweed, the fronds of which conceal clustering groups of purple snails (Thais papillus) The rocks within the pool are gay with varicolored sea anemones (Metridium marginatum), sea stars (Asterias vulgaris), pink-hearted hydroids, finger sponges, and ascidians, while the velvety brown kelp, green sea lettuce, and red dulse float out over bowlders covered with brilliantly iridescent Irish moss pink coralline, and mottled patches of calcareous alge

A Pugilistic Encounter Between Crabs

A detail from the Tide Pool Group.—The green crab (Carcinides minas) is one of the most active and pugnacious Beneath an overhanging ledge the claws of the more peaceful Jonah crab (Cancer borealis) may be dimly seen. In the foreground a blue sea star (Aséerias vulgaris) clings to the rock surface neara group of green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droehbachiensis), the latter almost too insignificant to merit their long scientific

of the inhabitants of the tide pools.

name

A Picturesque Corner Of The Tide Pool

A cclony of sea anemones (Metridium marginatum), is clustered together on a rocky shelf. At the right, one or two anemones, sheltered beneath the floating rockweed, have ventured to expand their fluffy circlets of tentacles. Though of flower-like beauty in color and form, they are nevertheless voracious creatures, armed not only with the tentacles but also with sting cells, with which they slay and capture small creatures and even fishes which form their food. A number of the anemones have contracted, withdrawing mouth and tentacles within their bodies

ysygAl[ef Suru1wWiMs-9o1j ‘Aul} OJUI GOpaasp 1938] [Is Gory ayI[-uOO|[eqG purdue yor jo sapis ay} UIOIY *(uzisspbp s171uhsoD) sproapAy *(slusooiun pDjjasodozt ys’) so1veds deyyoue jo sjenpraAipul ayt]-1aMOVy UMOYUS BIB WI} MO[AG ayrys “( apioDsb piyUuDg1anog ) BOZOAIG ‘10 s]BulTue-ssoul jo Auojoo 8 81 *q4UF11 BY OF saoqy uoTyIpuoD z Nps A[MO] B10UI BY} OFUT sisoydioulszeul jO e3eys [erziut repnqo[a ay} Ysno1y} 04 SSB1Z]90 9Y} UI UMOP BZul][}}e8 Uses 91T AdyL “P1INzoNIysS Poouvaps AJ@ATPBIBAUIOD jo pus pedvys-ajodpe ai8 assay, ‘“AUOjOo ay} JO JaquUIBYS [BI}JUGO OY} WU qnO WMS BAI] payozey A[MAN SSBIZJV9 BY} UO SassBUl ayty-Ayjat sursoy yorym ‘(22pjn0b snpjjijog) UBIPIOSse UB JO SaTUO[OD podt In4S a7 BIB 4J9] aq7 OY, “U10770q Bas JO Satpout OMY Ajuo jo vale ue Ut yQqed pux ‘syussBsj-[]94s peep ‘spooMmBas I

dQOUD VOZOAUH AHL AO STIVIAG

9A0 Autmois puno}j sjettae aynuimi ayy ‘peyiusent Ayyneia ‘UMOUS BIR Ok

ajoym ve se dnoad . SOSBA ssB[s PBIUIUT WOT; SOIT]

udeul oy] ; . ; AIG YIM ‘uUMOYsS d 4u90 U9} 8 UBY} 190318] 1S OMY . ry B ' , c 99.1} [Bids B JO SaYDUBIG 94} 9q 03 ) [IEIap Bs , hate bs - J ! 9[qnop 8 ur J9430UB BuO 03 payoEzzE yONI} 9 YOM jo S[BNPIAIpul 3y3

*(stusoo1g =) sateds [HyIgnBveq ysour 9y3 JO sug

Vozoaua Ao Anoioo Amitarul V

Animals Of The Wharf Piles

Thepiles of abandoned wharves are often completely covered with luxuriant growths of sea-animal colonies which here find a convenient vantage ground for securing their food. The sea water abounds in microscopic crea- tures, which are filtered out of it by the pile-dwellers, as it is pumped through their small bodies

The Broken Wharf Pile

Another detail of the Wharf Pile Group. The broken pile has become completely capped with edible mussels

(Mytilus edulis), which in turn are overgrown with feathery colonies of pink-hearted hydroids (Tubularia crocea). Near by swims a jellyfish (Dactylometra quinquecirra)

Burrowing Sea Worms.—A detail from the Sea Worm Group, showing the burrows of the plumed worm (Diopatra cuprza), and the trumpet-shaped shells of the trumpet worm (Pectinaria belgica). The head and shoul- ders of the plumed worm are shown in theinsert, displaying the plumelike gills which give it its name. The trumpet worm constructs a tube of sand grains. Above to the left is a colony of acorn “‘worms”’ (Balanoglossus kowalevskit)

Animals of a Sand Spit.—The sand spit at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, is completely overgrown with ribbed mussels (Modiola plicatula), between which fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator) have dug their burrows. The Mollusk Group in the Darwin Hall shows this association, including a bit of the sea bottom at low tide where a starfish is engaged in opening an oyster

An Instance Where Evolution Has Turned Backward

Ascidians, Degenerate Relatives Of The

By

Vertebrates

Willard G. Van Name

Assistant Curator, Department of Lower Invertebrates, Ame:ican Museum

E generally think of evolution as a process of advancement and of development from

simple to complex forms of life,—as the elaboration of creatures of the kind we describe as higher from those we call lower, but there are also cases, though they are much less numerous, where the process has been apparently a back- ward one, and lower and simpler animals have been derived from higher and more complex ancestors.

In animals leading a parasitic life upon or within the body of some other animal and obtaining their nourishment at the expense of their host, such back- ward evolution is very common, be- cause the disuse of many of the parts and organs of the body incidental to such an existence is accompanied by their gradual degeneration and loss, until the creature would be unable to exist in any other way than as a para- site.

There are, however, some cases of retrograde evolution in which parasit- ism is not a factor. Among the com- mon marine animals, for instance, there are two striking examples of

‘is kind, the barnacles, which are iescendants of shrimplike crustaceans

le to swim about freely, and the

‘idians. The ascidians are regarded

having descended from the same cestors as the vertebrates, but as ‘ing gone backward in their evolu- 1 instead of having advanced, 1ough, among all the great variety

of forms of animal life that are to be found in favorable situations along the seashore, growing or clinging to the rocks or other objects uncovered at low tide, there are few that at first sight show so little relationship to any of the higher animals.

The ascidians, like the barnacles, permanently attach themselves to rocks, shells, the piles of wharves, and other objects under water, and live upon the minute organisms that the waves and tides carry to them. The typical ascidians are saclike objects of oval or irregular form, usually from half an inch to a couple of inches in diameter, rarely much more, and are covered with a more or less tough though somewhat flexible outer tunic called the test, which protects the delicate internal parts as does the shell of amollusk. By the older naturalists the ascidians were in fact classed as soft-shelled mollusks. The test not only serves to protect the body from injuries, but also to fix it in place, since it attaches itself firmly to solid objects, or, if the animal lies buried in the sand or mud of the sea bottom, as many species do, it often develops hairlike or rootlike extensions to anchor the body in place. It entirely encloses the body except for two small openings which are commonly situated at the tips of conical protuberances or short projecting tubes. One of these, the mouth or incurrent siphon, is the entrance to the body. Through it

Internal Anatomy Of The. Adult Ascidian Or Sea Squirt

The upper incurrent siphon brings the stream of sea water into the large pharynx or branch al

sac through the meshes of which the water is strained to pass out of the excurrent siphon, le: ing behind it the minute organisms which form the ascidians’ food. The latter are then pas into the stomach and intestine and digested. Blood vessels in the walls of the branchial

absorb the oxygen from the water. It is not in this simple and degenerate adult state but in the early or larval stages of development that the relationships of the ascidians to the vertebrates are apparent.

d

Where Evolution Has Turned Backward 243

passes a continuous current of sea water bearing the minute organisms on which the creature feeds, as well as the oxygen utilized in respiration. The other, called the excurrent siphon, allows this water, as well as the waste products of the body, to pass out, and also serves for the escape of the eggs or young.

The ascidians have very poorly de- veloped organs of sense, but when the animal is touched or otherwise alarmed by any sudden movement of the water, its muscles contract, and the water con- tained in the body is forced out through these apertures in small jets, hence the name “‘sea squirts.”’

If we cut one of these animals open, we find that the tough external test is lined with a layer containing muscles and blood vessels, while the remainder of the body is largely hollow, the in- ternal organs being of small bulk com- pared to the space in which they lie. An exception to this is a very large, though delicate, membranous sac lying rather loosely in the cavity of the body, but so attached to the inner:side of the body wall at its front end that the mouth opens directly into it. Its walls are pierced with such vast numbers of minute clefts that it is in fact a net or sieve. This is known as the gill sac or branchial sac. It serves not only for respiration (its walls being full of blood .vessels) but also for straining out the minute organisms which form he food supply of the ascidian. As 1e water taken in at the mouth passes ‘rough the minute clefts, called stig-

ata, into the outer cavity, and then it through the excurrent siphon, it ives the food within the gill sac, iich opens at its rear end into the mach and intestine.

Now if the reader will pardon the ii roduction of these anatomical details

— — oh

“A

Tt

and think for a moment about the sig- nificance of them, it will be seen that this is really the way a fish breathes.

The fish also takes in the water through its mouth; the water passes in- to the cavity of the throat, or pharynx (corresponding to the gill sac of the ascidian), and from there it through gill clefts in the sides of the pharynx (corresponding to the stigmata in the ascidian). The walls of these clefts bear the true gills or structures containing the blood vessels by which the oxygen in the water is absorbed, just as it is by the blood vessels in the walls of the gill sac of the ascidian. Even. in their feeding, many fishes, as the herrings, which live on minute swimming organisms, use a method similar to that of the ascidian, the gill apparatus straining the food from the water as it passes out through the gill clefts.

Here in spite of the low, simple organization of the ascidians, we have a distinct point of resemblance to the fishes, members of the vertebrate group, the highest primary division of the animal kingdom, of which man himself is a member. of these structures by the ascidians might not be significant if we found them in other invertebrates, but when we consider that, in all the vast and infinitely varied assemblage of inver- tebrate animals of the land and sea, we find the above correspondence to the vertebrate type only intheascidians and a very.few forms evidently closely related to them, its importance becomes obvious.

If we study only the adult ascidian we find little else to suggest relation- ship to the vertebrates, and many things that seem to argue against it. One of these may be mentioned because of its strangeness. This is that the

passes

The possession

heart of the ascidians, after beating for a number of seconds in one direction, stops and reverses its action, so that the which at one moment function as veins leading blood to the heart, the next moment function as arteries carrying blood from the heart.

vessels

Typical ascidians (Ciona sociabilis)

attached to a wharf pile. A stream of sea water enters and leaves the crea- ture’s saclike body, by means of the apertures on the ends of the siphons. When the young aseidian has once attached itself, it remains permanently fixed, depending for its nourishment on the small organisms and other food carried in the water

This remarkable process, which can be watched easily through the microscope in some small and transparent species of ascidians, certainly does not argue for relationship to the vertebrates, but on the other hand it does not indicate relationship to the other invertebrates either, for it is quite unique.

As soon, however, as we study the life history of the ascidians, we find very strong evidence, first, that the ascidians are degenerate animals which have had ancestors more highly organ- ized than themselves, and second, that

Natural History

these ancestors had the general type of structure that is possessed by the vertebrates and by the vertebratesonly. Each additional point of similarity makes it less probable that we are dealing with mere coincidences and confirms more strongly the conclusion that a real relationship exists, due to descent from common ancestors.

No species of animal or plant can survive the vicissitudes and changes that occur around it if its individuals remain fixed in one place throughout their life span. Sooner or later failure of food supply or other unfavorable changes will destroy it, and if nature fails to provide a means of dispersing its offspring into other localities, where some may survive, the species becomes extinct. Plants, for instance, (even the largest trees) produce small seeds sasily blown about by the wind, floated by water, or carried by birds or ani- mals to establish the species in new localities; animals such as the oyster, the barnacle, and the ascidian, that in the adult stage are permanently at- tached to some object, usually pass through a free-swimming larval stage immediately after hatching. This larval stage is, as a rule, quite different from that of the adult. In the asci- dians the larve have a form and appearance very similar to the larval stage or tadpole of the frog, though of comparatively minute size, the largest being only a few millimeters long. The larve of the ascidians were known to zoélogists in the first ha!f of the last century, but the resemblan¢ to tadpoles was then regarded as on! accidental and more or less superfici: At that period, when the theory pr railed that each species of animal a1 plant was the result of a special act creation by God, such resemblances d not have the importance that thi v

Tt al

rh

— —

acquired when the publication of Dar- win’s Origin of Species in 1859 raised the theory of evolution into promi- nence, and gave them significance as possible indications of lines of descent.

A very few years after that date (in 1866) the Russian naturalist Kowalevs- ky created a sensation among zoélogists by publishing an article in which he described in detail the ascidian larva, and demonstrated clearly several re- markable points of resemblance to the vertebrates both in structure and development. He also called attention to the bearing of this on the question of the origin and descent of the verte- brates, which he hinted might be derived from the larval stage of the ascidian, if it were able to reproduce in that stage, as some animals are known to do. Kowalevsky’s admirably illus- trated article, though of no great length, remains to this day one of the classics of zoélogical literature, and most of his observations and conclu- sions have stood the test of time and later investigations.

Though there is room for important difference of opinion with regard to certain points, few zoélogists now ques- tion the comparatively near relation- ship of the ascidians and vertebrates. Coming at a time when Darwin’s views were still the subject of the keenest debate, and many zodélogists of distinc- tien, particularly some of the older ones, were still opposing the new th-ory, Kowalevsky’s clear and con- vi cing account of his surprising dis- co erles was an important factor in ai’ ining the remarkably prompt ac- ce ance that the theory of evolution se red among the scientific men of th: period.

ie main characters of structure and de lopment on which these conclu- sic’ were based, needs to be made

Where Evolution Has Turned Backward 245

clear, even though a few more anatomi-

cal details must be given to do this. The first of these is that the tadpole-

like larval ascidian possesses, just as

Another species of ascidian (Molgula manhattensis) growing in masses on a wharf pile. Many of the individuals have the siphon apertures open. This species is popularly known as the sea grape, a name suggested by the clustered mass of individuals

does the tadpole of the frog, a eylindri- ‘al _rodlike stiffening or supporting structure extending nearly the length of the body. This structure, called the notochord, represents in position and in function the backbone of the verte- brates. It is found in the early stages of development of all vertebrates, including man, and, in the higher vertebrates, the bony segments or vertebree forming the backbone or spinal column develop around it. In many of the lower vertebrates it persists throughout life, running through the center or body of each vertebra. Here again we have a char- acter not found among invertebrates, but common to the vertebrates and ascidians. Moreover, if we study the process of its development in the early stages of the embryo, we find it to be the same in these two groups.

Another important character com- mon to the vertebrates and the ascidian larva is the possession of a central nervous system of elongate tubular form lying dorsal to the notochord. In the vertebrates this is called the spinal cord, and both in the ascidians and in the vertebrates it develops in the embryo in the same way, by a pair of

Mouth “Ear” Eye Brain

Excurrent Opening

Intestine Stomach Eart

Brain

Eye Ear

Excurrent Opening

Intestine Llclefts Stomach

Sucker

Mouth Heart

Notochord

Dorsal Nerve

Natural History

the back or dorsal region as in the vertebrates.

The mode of respiration by means of gill clefts in the wall of the pharynx, the notochord, representing the first step toward the development of a back- bone, the dorsally situated and tubular central nervous system or spinal cord, all separate the ascidian larva from in-

Dorsal Nerve Cord Fin

Fin

Notochord

Comparative diagrams of the tadpoles or larval stage of an ascidian (upper figure), and of a

frog (lower figure), to show their correspondence in many points of structure, especially in hav- ing gill clefts in the walls of the pharynx or throat, and a rodlike notochord corresponding to the backbone in the higher animals, above which is the main part of the nervous system, corres- ponding to the brain and spinal cord

vertebrates and ally it to the verte- brates. There are several other struc tures regarded by many as confirming this relationship, but space will not permit of their discussion here.

All these resemblances are for t!e most part recognizable only in t!e larva of the ascidian, being lost obscured in the adult by degenerati ‘e changes that begin to take place aftr the larva permanently attaches its f. This it does after swimming about fo a few hours or at most a day or two. t

folds growing up on each side of the middle line of the back to form a troughlike area. The edges of this trough soon arch inward and join together, thus forming a tubular pas- sage which becomes the central canal of the spinal cord. Here again we find that this character is not possessed by invertebrates. In them the usual type of central nervous system is a pair of parallel nerve cords which are solid, not tubular, and which usually lie in the ventral part of the body, and not in

fa he

eS-

fixes itself to some solid object by means of adhesive organs developed for that purpose on the front end of the body, and the tail is soon drawn in and absorbed. The notochord and most of the nervous system degenerate, as do also the single eye and an organ supposed to serve either for hearing or for balancing the body. The ani- mal grows in size and relapses into the almost mechanical and vegetative ex- istence characteristic of the adult ascidian.

We should not leave the subject of the ascidians without mention of one other important character which seems at first sight to separate them from the

Notochord Stomach Gill Clefts

Where Evolution Has Turned Backward 24

Dorsal Nerve Cord

Excurrent Opening

vertebrates and to connect them with the lower forms of animal life. This is that many of them (distinguished as compound ascidians), in addition to laving eggs developing into the tadpole- like larve, can reproduce their kind by a process of budding, that is by direct outgrowth of a new individual from the body of the parent, just as a plant buds out branches, leaves, or flowers. It is easy to see that very complex vital and mechanical processes are involved in this, and it is not sur- prising that it is found only in the smaller and more simply organized animals. It is commonly assumed that the compound ascidians “acquired”

METAMORPHOSIS OF AN ASCIDIAN Four stages in the metamorphosis or change by which the tadpole-like larval ascidian assumes the degenerate adult orm. The larva attaches itself by the suckers on the front end of the body; the tail is gradually drawn in and absorbed, most of the nervous system including the eye and ear degenerating and disappearing, leaving only a small ganglion for the brain of the adult. (Adapted from Herdman)

Mouth

Brain Ganglion—

Excurrent Opening

Gill Clefts

Irish Moss (Chondrus Crispus) Overgrown By A Colonial Ascidian

the power of re- production by bud- ding when their or- ganization had degen- erated into a sufficiently simple and low type. But how could they do it? There are immense difficul-

ties in the way of explaining how they could acquire such a wonderful power as to bud out a new individual like themselves and capable of the fune- tions of, life, especially while their own race was degenerating. We cannot as- sume that the power of producing these buds was acquired otherwise than by a gradual evolutionary pro- cess, and if so, what caused the con-

Rae is b SS EAA? Qt owe

Natural History

Some of the com- pound ascidians, by continued budding, produce colonies consisting of an im- mense number of connected individuals of very small size. Here are shown the small round individuals of a large colony of the ascidian, Pero- phora viridis, connected by vinelike stems growing over a common seaweed

tinued production of use- less buds for many gener- ations that must have taken place before perfect ones capable of functioning as com- plete animals could have been produced? It seems much more reasonable to suppose that all ascid- ians originally had the power of bud- ding, having elaborated it during their descent from invertebrate an- cestors so simple that budding wa: merely a process of growth, and tha some of the ascidians lost that powe! did as the vertebrate branch, whic! has descended from the same ancestr\ If we accept the relationship of tl ascidians and vertebrates as an estal - lished fact, and it seems we can hard! refuse to do ‘se, the question aris when did the twe, branches separat: This cannot be answered definitel

Where Evolution Has Turned Backward 249

No fossils have been discovered that can be recognized as ascidians, nor is there much expectation that any will be found, since soft-bodied creatures without bones, teeth, or other hard parts, are preserved as fossils only in exceptional instances. We may feel sure, however, that the separation occurred at a geological period very remote, perhaps even in pre-Cambrian time. Among many indications of the great antiquity of the separation is the fact that the ascidian larva lacks the paired eyes which are a conspicuousand universal character of the vertebrates. It lacks also all trace of the two pairs of limbs, which, whether modified into fins, legs, or wings, are found in nearly all higher types. Such important and fundamental characters as these must have evolved entirely subsequent to the separation of the ascidians and verte- brates. Just what the common ances- tors of the two groups were like at that remote time we do not know, but we can safely assert that they had the gill clefts in the wall of the pharynx, the notochord, and the dorsally situated central nervous system of tubular form.

In the whole animal kingdom there

is no stranger contrast than is shown by the subsequent history of these two groups, endowed at the start with the same physical structure. The verte- brates. were destined to make con-

Mouth

Gill Clefts Brain Ganglion

Excurrent Opening

j

seal PRN

Ovary Z % — Stomach

An individual, enlarged eighteen times, from the colony of compound ascidians shown on the opposite page. Such individuals develop from buds formed on the branching stems of the colony, as shown below

Intestine->

tinued progress, advancing beyond any other group and .culminating in the evolution of man. The ascidians have sunk into insignificance and a state of apparent degeneracy out of which there appears no prospect of their ever rising.

detail of the compound ascidian colony figured on the opposite page, showing more cles ly the branching stems which produce the buds that grow into the individual ascidians, The .c remain permanently attached to the stems throughout their life

A SUBMARINE CORAL FOREST ON THE ANDROS REEF _Treelike growths (Acropora palmata). These massive coral formations are construct 1 by millions of minute polyps. The under side of the water surface shows at the top of t © picture

structures are visible

Typical coral polyps (Astrangia danaé). on our coast as Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Through the transparent body, the internal

This is the only species found as far north

The Reef Builders of the Tropic Seas’

By ROY WALDO MINER

Curator of Lower Invertebrates, American M useum

HE Island of Andres in the Bahamas extends for a distance of about 130 miles opposite the

coast of Florida. Its eastern shore is bounded by a long line of coral reefs parallel to the coast at a distance of about one to two miles for its entire extent. The lagoon thus enclosed between the reef and the shore is navigable for vessels of moderate draft, while the inner side of the cays or small islets which dot the line of reefs at intervals provides shelter and safe anchorage against most storms not of hurricane velocity.

Outside the reef, the platform on wich it is situated shelves rapidly off ir'o deep waters descending precipi- tc isly into the profound depths of the T ngue of the Ocean, an abyss measur- in a thousand fathoms, which extends as an arm of the sea, curving between th eastern and western banks on

which the Bahama Islands are situated.

The steady trade winds blowing always from the east are favorable to the growth of the coral formations on the edge of the submerged platform. At low tide the tips of their interlacing branches break the surface of the sea.

The dominant character of this reef is that of a forest of branching coral trees (Acropora palmata). Their orange- brown fronds are tipped with snowy white. These seem to form the bulk of the reef, with huge trunks and zig- zagging branches towering up to the water surface from a depth of fifteen to twenty feet.

Just in front of this forest the sea floor is covered with bristling staghorn and fan corals (Acropora cervicornis and Acropora prolifera), while posts capped with orb corals (Orbicella annularis), grow like huge mushrooms in a clearing extending between the

Submarine photographs in this article were taken by the author and Mr. J. E. Williamson through the

Wi iamson Submarine Tube, by the courtesy of the Submarine Film Corporation.

The reef at Andros, Bahamas, seen at close range from the water surface. The tops of the branching corals extend above the water at low tide

A submarine view through a weird tangle of coral forest, giving the impression of 4 strange world

The Reef Builders Of The Tropic Seas

Coral posts capped with living Orbicella. down through the over-arching coral trees

coral groves like a forest aisle. This clearing is floored with nodules of golden yellow Porites, with velvety brown foliate masses of stinging coral (Millepora alcicornis) rising between thm. Magenta sea plumes (Gorgonia ac. -osa) and purple sea whips (Ptero- go, ia anceps) wave back and forth bet veen ranks of vari-colored sea fans (G gonia flabellum) all bending in un: on before the tidal currents.

/ rese living growths rise from a sea flo apparently composed entirely of pro rate trunks, branches, and nodules of ad corals, fragments of a reef life of gone days. How deep this tangle

Reef fishes play in the sunbeams which filter

of coral limestone may be, it is impos- sible to say.

The creatures responsible for the immense coral growths on this reef and on countless others in all parts of the tropic seas are the animals known as coral polyps. These are quite lowly in organization and range in size from a pin head to more than a foot in diameter. They are typically cylindri- cal creatures with a mouth opening at the top, surrounded by a circle of tentacles armed with sting-cells. By means of the latter they sting to death the still tinier microscopic animals which form their chief food, and which

254 NATURAL are passed by the tentacles into the mouth. This opens into a short tube or “‘cesophagus” which hangs down within the cavity of the saclike body, and is anchored in place by a series of delicate fleshy partitions, the mesen-

Tentacles. Mesenteries

(A).— Diagram of a typical calyx—the skeleton of a single coral polyp. ace

(B).—A sectioned polyp, showing its inter- nal structure and its relation to the calyx pictured above. See accompanying text for details. Modified from Delage and Herouard teries, the inner edges of which are attached to the cescphagus and radiate to the wall of the hollow body where their outer edges are attached. The lower end of the cesophagus opens about halfway down into the cavity of the polyp, but the mesenteries con- tinue below it, their inner edges here becoming free, so that a series of pocket-like alcoves is formed around a central rotunda. The inner edges of the mesenteries secrete the digestive fluid by means of which the food is

History

prepared for assimilation, while their sides are supplied with contractile muscles and reproductive cells, from which latter the polyp’s eggs emerge. This very simple anatomical arrange- ment is practically identical with that of the sea anemone of our coasts, and thus the two animals are closely re- lated. The coral polyp has one remark- able peculiarity, however, not pos- sessed by the sea anemone. The base and sides of the cylinder are covered with cells (calicoblasts) which have the power of seizing the carbonate of lime abundantly dissolved in tropical sea water and of depcesiting it in solid form beneath the base and around the sides of the cylindrical polyp body, thus forming a limestone cup (the sxalyx) to hold the coral animal. When the polyp is hatched from the egg, it is a little pear-shaped larva that

swims freely about by means of the coating of moving hairs (cilia) covering

its body. After a time it settles down on some solid substance, its becomes flattened, and it assumes a more or less cylindrical form. Six little tentacles now grow out sym- metrically around its mouth, and in the spaces between them, another six. A third cycle of tentacles then appears in the interspaces thus formed, and so on until a large series surrounds the mouth. If perfectly developed, it is evident that the total number must be a mul- tiple of six. Hence the coral pol and sea anemones are sometin grouped together as the Hexactin:: Each of the tentacles is hollow and cavity is a prolongation of one of ‘ above mentioned alcoves. The mes teries bounding them develop sim taneously with the tentacles and the same in number as the spa between them.

In the case of the coral polyp

base

The Reef Builders

other feature must be noticed. As the polyp lays down its coral cup or valyx to act as a shell or “‘house”’ to live in, it elaborates it by making a series of radiating limestone partitions (septa) which, as they grow inward, push in the sides and bottom of the animal’s body so as to throw it into pleated folds. These partitions are so located that they alternate with the fleshy mesenteries, and hence they push the folds of the polyp body into the spaces of the aleoves between the mesenteries. Since they are parts of the calyx, they are obviously located outside the polyp body which is thus seated upon them, and folded down between them. When the polyp dies, the calyx with its star-shaped pattern of radiating septa is left behind. In “ach species of coral there is a charac- teristic pattern for the calyx. There are several other details of the structure of this coral “skeleton” which need not be mentioned here.

The coral polyp has two ways of reproducing its kind. One of these is sexual and involves the production of eggs which are fertilized and develop into the free-swimming larva already described. The other is asexual, and involves in some cases a process of budding, in others a division of the entire polyp into two equal halves.

the coral polyp grows, it keeps adling to the top of its calyx, so that th: latter elongates and becomes stalk- sh: ped. The upper part of the polyp boy “overflows” the rim of the calyx an: forms a fold of living flesh over the ou: <ide ef the stalk. From this fold a ne’ polyp may bud out, like the parent in ery way, and proceed to lay down its wn skeletal calyx, diverging from the .ide of the parent stalk. The repe- titi n of this process produces a branch- ing olony.

Of The Tropic Seas 255

Reproduction by the division of an entire polyp begins with a tion in the middle of the mouth and the production of additional mesenteries within the polyp, according to a certain pattern. Soon the polyp has two mouths and the body becomes oval in ground plan instead of circular. Addi- tions to the top of the skeleton now conform to the oval shape of the

constric-

Diagram illustrating the reproduction of coral polyps by division (upper left of figure), and reproduction by budding (right of figure). The skeletal part of the colony is shown by heavy black lines. Modified from Delage and Herouard

extended polyp base. This becomes pinched in as the process of division continues, the crown of the skeleton becoming hourglass-shaped. Soon the top of the animal entirely divides, the separation, gradually proceeding down the cylindrical body, finally results in two polyps, each of which has a separate calyx, so that the skeleton now assumes the form of a Y. In some species, new divisions of the polyps occur before the eld divisions are completed, so that the polyps never entirely separate, and form long strips, each with a row of separate mouths but with continuously connecting body cavities. These strips of polyps wind around other strips in the same colony in a sinuous pattern, thus forming the so-called brain (Meandra).

When forward growth of the skele-

corals

Natural History

ton becomes more rapid than the bud- ding from the sides, finger-like skeletal stalks are produced with polyps housed in bracket-shaped calyces on the sides. These stalks branch at intervals, as in staghorn and fan corals.

The brain coral is a massive dome- shaped colony, as is also the orb coral (Orbicella) and the starry coral (Sider- astrea). In the two latter the polyps are completely separated and their valyces star-shaped, but crowded close together in a dense compact dome of solid limestone of considerable weight.

The fungus coral of eastern seas (Fungia) is a single polyp sometimes a foot in diameter. This grows on a narrow stalk and expands like the top of a mushroom, becoming flat and disc- shaped or oval. After it reaches a certain size it detaches itself from the top of the stalk and lies loosely on the sea bottom, while a new polyp grows in its place. The flexible gorgonian

To the left is a typical branching coral skeleton (Lophohelia prolifera) showing bud- ding calyces on sides of branches. Above, a coral (Eusmilia fastigiata) with polyps in vari- ous stages of division. A part of this speci- men shows a modeled restoration of the living polyps with their mouths and tentacles

corals such as the sea fans, sea plumes, sea bushes and sea whips have skeletons made up of small, limy spicules or

needles of irregular shape. These are cemented together by a horny sub- stance which renders the entire colony flexible so that it bends to the ocean currents as already described. Gorgon- ian polyps always have eight tentacles with toothlike side branches as shown on page 258. The precious coral of the Mediterranean and the Sea of Japan belongs to this group, but is peculiar in having so little of the horny substance that its rosy spicules are welded like : rigid solid mass capable of taking high polish, and hence it is prized jewelry.

The coral polyps and their ki together with certain calcareous a’ known as nullipores, and the calc ous shells of tropical mollusks, responsible for much of the coral li stone forming the reefs of the w:

The Reef Builders

Mayor observed the growth rate of various species of corals in Pago-Pago Harbor, American Samoa, occurring in a reef area of about two and a half millions of square feet, and estimated that they added about 800,000 pounds of limestone to the reef each year. Much of this limestone is ground up by wave action to form coral mud. All these substances eventually become compressed and solidified to produce the coral rock and limestones of many oceanic islands like the Bahamas, and even parts of continents, such as the southern part of Florida. Thus the reef builders of tropical waters become world builders as well, within the regions where they flourish.

Their remarkable formations are found extensively developed in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic oceans in the zone included between latitudes 30° N. and 30° 8., that is to say for about 2000 miles north and south of the equator. In the Atlantic, their northernmost limit is the island of Bermuda, and their southern, the lati- tude of Rio de Janeiro. In the Pacific, they range from southern Japan to Queensland, Australia. They flourish in shallow seas from low tide toadepth of 120 to 200 feet. They cannot exist

At ie left is shown the magnified tip

of a b

: neh of precious red coral (Coralliwm ruoru?

with polyps expanded. At the right the st k is dissected to show the hard inner core, p ‘ished by jewelersfor ornaments. Mod- ified fr.m Delage and Herouard

Of The Tropic Seas

Skeleton of mushroom coral (Fungia) of eastern seas. This is a single polyp, often of large size

Specimen of brain coral (Meandra cerebri-

formis) showing the coiled strips of incompletely

divided polyps resembling the cortical layer of the human brain

in waters having a winter temperature of less than 68° Fahr. few species grow in isolated patches in colder seas, one even being found so far north as Archangel, while the star coral (Astrangia danaé), illustrated on page 251, spreads in small colonies on rocks in New England coastal waters. These, however, are not prolific enough to be reef-forming, are the various species of deep-sea corals which have been dredged from all depths down to 1500 fathoms. The true reef-forming corals grow on the borders of continen-

nor

tal masses in the tropics, surround oceanic islands, or spread over sub- merged banks, where the stony skele- tons of the living colonies rise in tree- like growths or dome-shaped masses to the water’s surface. The tropical Atlantic is comparatively free from

Natural History

At lower right, the sea whip (Pterogorgia anceps) growing in a coral reef. a magnified branch with rows of polyps. individual gorgonian polyps

coral reefs, except in the West Indies and along the coasts of South America and Africa; but the southern Pacific with its hundreds of small, volcanic islands, some rising from extensive submerged banks and others directly from profound depths, is dotted.with coral reefs.

Coral reefs are usually classified into three types of growth, fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.

Fringing reefs are submerged coral flats bordering directly on the shore of an island or continental mass. As

At the left,

Above at right, enlarged tip of branch showing the

they grow out into the open sea they form a bank of which the outer edge tends to be more elevated than the inner portion. The windward location of this ridge is favorable for the prolific growth of new, living corals, as the incoming waves are loaded with the minute floating creatures that are the food of the polyps. The inner par the coral platform grows more slow! and large portions of it become floored with disintegrating fragments of ¢ ral and shells brought in by the sea. C ral growth is suffocated by this pulver zed

The Reef Builders Of The Tropic Seas

Skeleton of a branching staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis). At the right, the tip of a single branch on a larger scale shows the bracket-like calyces formed by the individual polyps

left, the

chey alge the tion slific the the

the

on the side of the central stem

material, while much of the lime passes into solution. This lower part of the platform forms a channel or lagoon between the mainland and the living outer edge of the reef. Parts of the latter grow until they reach the surface when the branching corals are broken up by the waves and even the dome- shaped growths are heaped up by storms. The crevices become filled with small fragments, and the whole mass is gradually compacted into coral rock rising above the waves to form low-lying reefs parallel with the main- land but separated from it by the lagoon, from one to several miles in width. Such a reef is a barrier reef, the second type mentioned above.

The outer face of the barrier reef slones steeply into deep water and is covered with flourishing living corals. Ba rier reefs often entirely surround islands, with here and there a break for iing a channel into the lagoon. Th ve is always a channel opposite the mo th of a stream, as the silt eroded by waters kills the living corals.

( oral atolls are ring-shaped reefs sw) unding a central lagoon with no

island enclosed. They are usually oval rather than round, and there are always channel-like openings on the side away from the wind. The lagoon within is floored with dead coral, though living clumps rise here and there. The steadily blowing trade winds cause a more prolific growth of coral on the outer windward side of the atoll, and here the waves, especially during storms, have built up the reef more continu- ously and, rushing over the top, find an outlet on the leeward side, which is soon deepened into a tidal channel. Many atolls are composed of discon- tinuous reefs forming a broken rinz with several channels.

Darwin believed that atolls were originally barrier reefs surrounding vol- canic islands, and that in the course of time, through a general subsidence of the ocean floor, these islands slowly sank beneath the waves, but so gradual- ly that the barrier reefs surrounding them were built up by the coral animals at the same rate, so that their tops always broke the surface of the sea. After a time the enclosed volcanic peak entirely disappeared and continued to

Natural History

After Saville-Kent

The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, showing prolific coral growths exposed at low tide. In the middle distance may be seen the lagoon separating the Barrier Reef from the distant

shore.

sink until its summit was covered by the corals flooring the lagoon. The barrier thus became transformed into an atoll. Darwin’s time this view has been disputed by many ob- servers, but there are strong evidences in its favor. Many of the islands in the Pacific are apparently sinking, as shown by the flooded valleys surround- ing their central mountain peaks, while the barrier ree‘s ringed about them re- main at the sea level. The logical out- come of this process would produce atolls.

An alternative view is that the sea has risen since the last ice age as the result of the melting of the great polar ice caps of that period. This would produce practically the same result. A recent view embody- ing both theories is based on geological evidence indicating that the time elapsed since the last ice age is not sufficient to account for all the changes,

Since

This great reef extends for more than 1200 miles along the Australian coast

and that the character of thesubmerged valleys shows that subsidence must have occurred in a preglacial period as well. The flooding of the oceanic islands caused by this subsidence would be halted temporarily during the ice age, counteracted by the loss of the water evaporated out of the seas and imprisoned in the immense quanti- ties of ice then capping the continents from the polar regions far into the temperate zones. When this was re- leased after the melting of the ic sheet, the resulting rise of the ocear flooded what is now the submerged continental shelf of the greater lan masses, and also the oceanic island Wherever subsidence of the sea botto1 took place at the same time, their sul mergence would proceed at an accc erated rate. It is believed by varioi scientists that both these processes ha‘ been important factors in the produ tion of atolls.

Spiders as Fishermen and Hunters By E. W. GUDGER

Associate in Ichthyology, American Museum

BOUT three years ago I pub- lished in this journal an article entitled ‘Spiders as_ Fisher-

men” in which I brought together what I fondly believed to be all the known data relating to the peculiar habit in spiders of catching and eating fishes. One case of the trapping and devouring of tadpoles was also in- cluded. However, no sooner had that particular number of Naruraut His- TORY appeared, than my attention was

‘alled to an overlooked article. In addition, two first-hand accounts came to me by letter, together with a newly published article on spiders as fisher- men. All these new data are presented in this article, as well as a number of interesting accounts of spiders as hunters. In all these accounts save two, the spiders not only catch their prey but eat it.

Spiders Catching And Eating Fishes

In no one of the five accounts con- tained in my earlier article is there a reference to actual observation of spiders devouring the fish, and serious doubts have been expressed on the part of those best acquainted with the habits of arachnids, whether they do so. When all the evidence is in as to spiders catching vertebrates, this subject will be discussed. A presentation of the facts now follows.

“he Rev. Nendick Abraham, long bown to me as a keen observer and ac irate recorder of the habits of fis’ es, on November 22, 1911, delivered a cture before the Natal Scientific So ety in which he described the

dger, E. W. ‘“‘Spiders as Fishermen,’”’ NATURAL His: .ry, 1922, Vol. 22, pp. 565-68.

—

habits of a spider he had observed in the act of catching and devouring fishes. This lecture seems to have been reported in The Natal Advertiser and reprinted in The Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa. Mr. Abraham also published some_ brief notes from his article in the Trans- actions and Proceedings of the Natal Scientific Society, 1911, Vol. 2, No. 2. I have not been able to lay my hands on any of these journals. Fortunately, however, Mr. E. C. Chubb, of the Durban Museum, Natal. feeling that this interesting phenomenon ought to be more widely known, published in Nature? the extracts quoted below, from the newspaper accounts of Mr. Abraham’s article.

In the year 1905 I was living in Greytown, Natal. One day I was catching small fish and aquatic insects for an aquarium. I was using a small net in a shallow stream. I happened to see on the edge of the water a fine spider, which I captured. On reaching home I placed my specimen in a large aqua- rium, where I had a number of small fish. The spider measured about three inches when its legs were extended; the body is small, but the legs are long. After being on the rockwork of the aquarium for some time, it took up a very interesting position. It rested two legs on a stone, the other six rested on the water, well spread out, the ends of the six legs commanding a definite and well- defined area of water.

Being busy, I merely took a note of its at- titude, and left it to its devices. After a few minutes my servant boy came into my study to say that the spider I had put into the aquarium was eating one of my pet fish. I at, once went to see what had happened, and soon saw the spider on top of the rockwork, hold- ing in its grip a beautiful little fish about four times the weight of its captor. For a moment I was startled into a strange surprise. How could this spider, which has no power to swim, catch a lively, quick-swimming fish? I looked at it in wonder, as it seemed to clutch the fish as a cat clutches a mouse. It soon began to devour its catch, and after some time had

2Chubb, E. C. ‘‘Fish-eating Habits of a Spider.’’ Nature, 1913, Vol. 91, p. 136.

Natural History

Photograph of a spider (Thalassius spenceri) in an aquarium, hooked on to a A small fish is seen

in the fishing attitude. Its hindmost legs are stone while the others rest on the water. approaching below. After Abraham

passed nothing was left of the fish but its backbone. The spider had eaten it as surely as an otter eats its trout.

I was now anxious to find out how the spider caught the fish. That night, about 11. o’clock, when I had finished my day’s work, I sat down by the aquarium to watch the spider, with the hope that I might see how the fisher- man caught his fish. The spider had taken up a position on a piece of stone, where the water was not deep, and had thrown out its long legs over the water, upon which their extremities rested, making little depressions on the surface, but not breaking the ‘‘water skin.” The tarsi of two posterior legs firmly held on to a piece of rock just above water-level, the whole of the body was well over the water, the head being in about the center of the cordon of legs, and very near to the surface of the water.

After watching for some little time, I saw a small fish swim towards the stone and pass un- der the outstretched legs of the spider. The spider made a swift and sudden plunge. Its long legs, head, and body went entirely under the water, the legs were thrown round the fish with wonderful rapidity and in a moment the powerful fangs were piercing the body of the fish. The spider at once brought its catch to the rocks, and began without delay to eat it. Slowly, but surely, the fish began to disappear, and after the lapse of some time the repast was over.

This

obser

very definite and clear-cut ration and description was cor-

roborated by evidence which came

The spider in the act of catching the fish. legs anchor it to the stone, the remainder of the body, cmepting te posterior part of the abdomen, is submerged. the Reverend Smit.

later to Mr. Chubb, and which he adduces in the words:

Recently the Rev. Father Pascalis Boneberg, of the Marianhill Monas- tery, Natal, has added to Mr. Abra- ham’s observations. Father Bone- berg has seen examples of this same spider catching and devouring tad- poles of the toad Bufo carens, and adults of the little frog Rappia mar- morata. It is his intention, I under- stand, to communicate an account of his observations to a German scientific publication shortly.

following

This was done, and the ac- count may be found quoted in full in the section of this article

The fourth pair o

From a drawing b) After Abraham

dealing with the catching and eating of tadpoles and frogs. The spider in question was Thalassius spencer.

The next account is in the form of communication from Mr. D. R. Craw- ford, an instructor in fish culture i the College of Fisheries of the Unive sity of Washington. The observatior : were made and the report writte. when Mr. Crawford was a scientif ° assistant in the trout hatchery of t!

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries at Erwin, Tenn. Here follows his report to the Bureau, under date of May 6, 1922:

To the long list of fish enemies we can now add spiders. This morning I observed a very large aquatic spider clinging to the side of one of the concrete ponds entirely under water with a trout fingerling held in its mandibles. Spider and fish were removed from the water and placed in formalin. The fish was evidently freshly caught since the delicate coloration of life was still evident and blood was flowing freely from some lacerations. This fact is very interesting because it would have been necessary for the spider to actually swim in the water or for the fish to have been practically exposed above the surface for the capture to take place. In any case, the fish was evidently caught alive and killed sub- sequently. The victim was about inches long and judging from its rotundity and coloration it was by no means a weakling, which indicates the activity and power of the spider.

Several days previously this spider or a similar one was observed lurking in a crevice between the outlet screen and the concrete wall above the water.

Mr. Keesecker [superintendent of the station] said that he had observed similar large spiders eating trout fry. He also men- tioned the fact that these spiders catch their prey in the water, attacking active fish rather than picking up dead or nearly dead ones.

No doubt such a spider is capable of ac- counting for a considerable number of trout fry, which fact is of value in the final checking up of results from the experiments now under way in the ponds. Of course, the larger aquatic beetles and bugs (Dytiscus, Hydro- philus, Bellostoma, ete.) prey upon the young fish also.

FPR RF eS

hotograph from life, of spider eating the fish whi. it has dragged out on land. After Abraham

Mr. Crawford has kindly added the following data in a personal communi- ‘ation to the present writer:

On May 6, 1922, I observed a large aquatic spider below the water clinging to the con- crete wall of a small trout pond at Erwin, Tenn., station. This spider was holding a trout fingerling by means of its fore legs. Length of fish inches or 57.15 mm. Length of body of spider, of an inch or 19.05 mm. Length of legs of spider, 14 inches or 27.78 mm. Species unknown. Species of trout, Salmo irideus, (or shasta according to Dr. W. C. Kendall).

There is no doubt that the spider caught the fish, since the victim was bleeding at the wounds caused by the spider’s suction, and the colors were still life-like.

Mr. A. G. Keesecker, superintendent at the station, has seen these spiders swim out and capture young fish.”’

Early in 1924, Mr. C. M. Breder, Jr., went to Panama as a member of the Marsh-Darien Expedition, charged with the task of collecting fishes, amphibians, and reptiles for the Ameri- ‘an Museum. Early in February I had a letter from him containing the following interesting account:

While collecting frogs along the Rio Tapia on February 1st, I found one of your fishing spiders. I was wading in the stream, turn- ing over brush on its rather steep shores, when my eyes were caught by an unusually large blackish spider with its two forward pairs of legs resting on the water, the other two holding the animal securely on the shore. The fore and aft reach of the spider’s out- stretched front and hind legs was about 33 inches and the right and left spread of the third pair of legs (the longest) about 2 inches. Below it (i.e., down stream) in rather swift water a number of small Characins were dis- porting themselves. On perceiving the spider, I stopped dead still only about 12 feet away from it, while it appeared entirely oblivious of my presence. All of a sudden it lunged slightly forward, too rapidly for the eye to fol- low readily, and then bobbed back to the same position on the bank, holding in its palps a lit- tle fish about an inch long which hardly wriggled at all. It “mouthed” its prey con- siderably and probably began withdrawing its Juices at once. Being in a cramped posi- tiou, my foot slipped and the slight ripple created thereby caused the spider to relinquish its prey. I attempted to capture the spider but was prevented by the proximity of a deep hole in the stream. In the meantime the little fish turned over on its side, was quickly carried away by the very rapid current and was lost sight of while I was trying to catch the spider, which appeared to be one of the so-called ‘wolf’ spiders.

When a copy of NaturaL History containing my article on “Spiders as Fishermen” reached the Natal Mu- seum, Mr. Abraham’s attention was called to it by Dr. Ernest Warren, the director. Mr. Abraham, desirous of making his observations more widely known, rewrote them and added further details, illustrating his paper with three figures which are reproduced on pp. 262 and 263 through his kind permission and that of Doctor Warren.!

The first figure is a photograph of a living spider (Thalassius spenceri) and a small live fish in an aquarium. The

spider is shown in its characteristic fishing attitude, its body supported on the surface of the water on three pairs of legs but anchored to a projecting stone by the hindmost pair. Just here it should be recalled that the spider

observed by Mr. Breder also anchored itself to the bank by its two hinder pairs of legs. In the figure one sees the little fish approaching the spider only an inch or two below the surface.

The next figure is a photograph of a colored sketch of Mr. Abraham’s observations. The hind legs still hold fast to the stone but all the body except the extreme hinder part of the abdomen is submerged. The first three pairs of legs hold the fish firmly. The next figure is a photograph of the spider in the act of devouring the little fish, which it has dragged out on the land. These photographs—two of which are of the spider and its living prey—are invaluable in making clear this most interesting and unusual phenomenon.

Spiders Catching Tadpoles And Frogs

In my previous paper I quoted a statement by Berg that in Argentina a spider of the genus Diapontia was

1Abraham, Nendick. ‘‘Observations on Fishand Frog-

eating Spiders of Natal’? Annals Natal. Museum, 1923, Vol. 5, pp. 89-94, pl. with 9 figs.

Natural History

observed to catch tadpoles, which pre- sumably it devoured. This spider constructed a funnel-shaped net just at the surface of the water and into this literally drove the tadpoles. The con- jecture that she ate them is based on Berg’s statement that ‘‘The shrivelled- up tadpole-skins surrounding the net convinced me of the skillfulness of the spider as a fisherman.”

Let us here recall Chubb’s account previously referred to of observations by Father Boneberg. These were pub- lished in 1914 and refer to the activities of two predacious spiders, Thalassius fimbriatus and His account is too long to be quoted here but will be put in epitomized form. His observations in full may be found in the reference cited below.?

In January, 1913, Boneberg collected a large water spider in a iuttle pond near Marianhill. Having no other place to keep it, he put it temporarily in a glass dish 15 em. wide, in which were twenty full-grown tadpoles of Bufo carens, and three full-grown tree frogs (Rappia marmorata). Some days later, on examining this improvised aquarium, Boneberg was surprised to find that apparently the number of tadpoles had been considerably dimin- ished. Recalling his friend Abraham's experience with fish-catching spiders, Boneberg at once suspected the spider as the culprit. To make sure, he put twelve tadpoles in the jar with the spider and the frogs. Three days later inspection showed only three tadpoles left, and as the jar had been kept covered all the time, he assured that the missing tadpoles /iad been eaten by the spider. This spi ler later killed and ate one of the frogs. as

Thalassius sp.

was how

2Boneberg, Father Pascalis. ‘‘ Notizen iiber di Le bensweise einiger siidafrikanischer Wolfspinnen (7 sius fimbriatus Walck, und Thalassius sp.)’’ Entomologica, Stuttgart, 1914. Jahrg. 29. pp. 4 49-51; 53-54.

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

will be described presently, and was itself then killed and preserved.

Later Boneberg brought in from the same pond a Thalassius of an un- determined species, and put it in an aquarium with six tadpoles of Xenopus levis. He described what happened in the following words: ‘‘The above mentioned specimen only 10 minutes in the small aquarium when it leaped from the stone projecting from the water on which it had established itself, seized a Xenopus larva swimming about in the water, dragged it out of the water, and in the course of half an hour ate it all up beginning at the tail.’ Twice during the afternoon he saw this repeated. Next morning only two of the tadpoles were left, while the spider had greatly increased in girth. The

was

size of these tadpoles is not given, but it is evident that they were small.

Another experiment was then tried. Three specimens of Thalassius (one a female caring for a brood) were placed ach in a jar containing twelve Bufo carens tadpoles. The next morning there were but two tadpoles in one of the jars, and three in the second, while the spider with the cocoon had touched none of those in her jar. These were left with her for a week but were un- touched. This was also found true of another female with a cocoon, but shortly after her young were hatched, she devoured in one night five full- grown tadpoles of Bufo carens.

It will be recalled that during Bone- berg’s first experiment he placed a spider in a jar containing both tadpoles ind tree frogs (Rappia marmorata). Che spider first ate nine of the twelve

adpoles, and then caught and ate one f the frogs. Boneberg’s own words re: “When on the following morning

I again looked for the spider, I found it sitting among the twigs of

the branch in the jar holding in its palps not a larva of Bufo carens but a full-grown tree Rappia morata, which still convulsively twitched its hind legs and now and then made a feeble effort to escape.”’ The branch

frog, mar-

Photograph from life by P. Boneberg of a spider which has caught and is eating a small tree frog, Rappia marmorata. After Abraham

with the spider and its prey was then taken out of the aquarium and photo- graphed, the spider remaining un- disturbed all the while. The spider was then killed and it and the frog preserved. The body length of the spider was 18 mm., that of the frog 30 mm. duced in Abraham’s paper (1923) and is refigured herewith.

Two weeks later Boneberg put into

This photograph was repro-

a jar a Thalassius fimbriatus and a 30 mm. long Phrynobatrachus natalensis. The frog weighed 2 g. 390 mg., the spider 435 mg. Some days earlier, this spider had eaten a Bufo regularis 22 mm. long and 820 mg. in weight. It now proceeded, however, kill and partly eat the Phrynobatrachus. Later Boneberg put into the jar with one of the spiders a 30 mm. Bufo regularis, and on the following morning all that could be found of it were the bones and pieces of skin. This spider ‘aught another toad of the same species but, while under observation, the toad got away. Several days later it was found dead. Still later this same spider caught and carried up into the net- work of twigs at the top of the jar a Rana fasciata measuring (body only) 30 mm., with legs extended 120 mm. This was taken from the spider and preserved, but that night she killed and ate a 30 mm. specimen of Phryno- batrachus natalensis.

Boneberg collected thirty specimens of Thalassius at the small pools wherein he found in great numbers the tadpoles of the various frogs and toads named above. These spiders were found there only at the beginning of and during the spring rains, when the frogs were spawning and the eggs hatching. During the dry season, when the ponds had dried up and the tadpoles and fishes were absent, no spiders were seen, although diligent and repeated search was made. From these facts Boneberg believes that they collect at the pools at those times when tadpoles abound, to find in these an abundant food; that the spiders disperse after the frog larve metamorphose, and scatter widely as the ponds dry up; and finally, that full-grown frogs of these small species not infrequently fall a prey to the “bandit arachnids.”

some

Natural History

In this connection attention is called to a recent article, footnote p. 271). in which I quoted a letter from Mr. Charles H. Baker, of Zellwood, Florida, concerning the very strong webs made by Nephila plumipes. After speaking of the large insects caught in so strong a web, he says, “I have also found it holding one of our small green tree-frogs, on which the female was feeding.” Here, then, is evidence from a place thousands miles distant, corroborative of the same peculiar habit of spiders observed in South Africa.

(see

Spiders Catching And Eating Snakes And Lizards

In addition to fishes, tadpoles, and frogs, animals as strong and active as lizards and snakes have been caught by spiders. McCook, in his delightful says that he has made strenuous efforts to run down all accounts of spiders catching small vertebrates, and then to separate the wheat from the chaff. The first of these incidents which McCook gives is from the pen of 8. Cummings,? whose account is reproduced herewith:

On the evening of the 13th inst. a gentle- man in this village, [Batavia, N. Y.] found in his wine cellar, a live striped snake, nine inches long, suspended between two shelves, by the tail, by spiders’ web. The snake hung so that his head could not reach the shelf below him by about an inch; and several large spiders were then upon him, sucking his juices. The shelves were about two feet apart; and the lower one was just below the bottom of a cellar window, through which the snake probably passed into it. From the shelf above it, there was a web in the shape of an inverted cone, eight or ten inches in diameter at the top, and concentrated to a focus, about six or eight inches from the under side of this shelf. From this focus, there was a strong cord made of the multiplied threads of the spiders’ web, apparently as large as common sewing silk; and by this cord, the snake was suspended. tes

Upon a critical examination through a

1McCook, Henry. American Spiders and their Spin- ning-work, Philadelphia, 1889, Vol. 1, pp. 233-46. 3 figs.

2Cummings, 8. ‘‘A Live Snake Suspended by Spi-

ders.”” American Journal of Arts & Sciences, 1835, Vol. 27, pp. 307-08.

book on spiders!,

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

magnifying glass, the following curious facts appeared. The mouth of the snake was fast tied up, by a great number of threads, wound around it, so tight that he could not run out his tongue. His tail was tied in a knot, so as to leave a small loop, or ring, through which the cord was fastened; and the end of the tail, above the loop, to the length of something over half an inch, was lashed fast to the cord, to keep it from slipping. As the snake hung, the length of the cord, from his tail, to the focus to which it was fastened, was about six inches; and a little above the tail, there was observed

Next they proceeded to wind a web around his head and mouth, very effectually muzzling him. And finally they proceeded to suspend him by the tail as described by Cummings. Cum- mings gives the names of various reput- able citizens of Batavia who attest the accuracy of his account. Beecher in

his turn gives a figure

a round ball, about the size of a pea. Upon inspection, this appeared to be a green fly, around which the cord had been wound as the windlass, with which the snake had been hauled up; and a great number of threads were fastened to the cord above, and to the rolling side of this ball to keep it from unwinding, and letting the snake down. The cord, therefore must have been extended from the focus of the web, to the shelf below, where the snake was lying when first captured; and, being made fast to the loop in his tail, the fly was carried and fastened about midway, to the side of the cord. And then, by rolling this fly over and over, it wound the cord around it, both from above and below, until the snake was raised to the proper height, and then was fastened, as be- fore mentioned.

In this situation the suffering snake hung, alive, and furnished a continued feast for several large spiders, until Saturday forenoon, the 16th, when some persons, by playing with him broke the web above the focus, so as to let part of his body rest upon the shelf below. In this situation he lingered; the spiders taking no notice of him, until Thursday last, eight days after he was discovered; when some large ants were found devouring his dead body.

In the same issue of this journal is

included another account of this phenomenon by D. Lyman Beecher.! “his differs in some details but in all ssential points corroborates Mr. Cum- ‘ings’ account. Beecher says that ‘ree spiders were concerned, that

hen first seen the snake was entangled, ‘iat the spiders then came down the \cb and. fastened threads to the body aud braced these in every direction. Beecher, D. Lyman. “A Live Snake Suspended by

lers.’’ American Journal of Arts and Sciences, 1835, Vol. 27, pp. 309-10.

A snake snared in a spider’s web. The spider has made a loop around the snake’s tail by which it has raised it off the floor. After McCook, from Beecher

showing how thes nake was suspended. Me- Cook has had this figure re- drawn, and as his figure is better for reproduction, it is copied herein. Absolutely the only dif- ference in the figures is that McCook’s drawing is less me- chanical.

McCook gave this account full credence, not only because it was attested by credible witnesses, but also because he made experi- ments on webs of the medicinal spider of a size similar to that described. He placed on the webs alcoholic specimens of snakes of the exact size of that in the origi- nal observations, from the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. He found that one of these webs could support six or seven of the snakes with- out tearing. This seemed so satisfac- tory a demonstration, that he included the full account in his book, as quite dependable. He thought that the spider concerned was the medicinal spider, Tegenaria medicinalis.

There is, however, another similar account extant, one from the pen of Dr. Asa Fitch, a well-known American entomologist. The article has been republished, without any indication of the source of its original publication, in the Annual of Scientific Discovery,

1862, pp. 334-35. It may be remarked here, in passing, that McCook seems to have been perfectly satisfied of the authenticity of this phenomenon also, which occurred at Havana, Chemung County, New York.

This account of Dr. Fitch’s, which is written in very flowery fashion, may be “boiled down” to something like the following: An ordinary spider had built her web on the under side of a shelf beneath a counter in a store at Havana. A “common silk snake” (whatever that may be) about a foot long had taken up its residence on the floor underneath the shelf. The spider eventually captured the snake in her web, just how is not known, for when first discovered it was found that the spider had managed to get a loop of her silk around the snake’s neck, and from this loop had carried up and attached to the under side of the shelf a single strand which just lifted the head of the little snake about two inches off the floor. This was done in spite of the frantic efforts of the snake, which was moving around in a circle as large as its tether would allow, and seeking to get its head down to the floor and out of the noose.

In the meantime the spider, avoiding the lunges of the snake, was passing up and down between the shelf and loop, and at every trip she was adding an- other line to that holding her prey. Each line, as it was drawn tight, lifted the head of the snake a little higher. Doctor Fitch’s informant told him that at first only the neck of the serpent was surrounded with the loop but that later the head became covered with a network of threads, some placed verti- cally (these first probably) and others horizontally, until the head of the snake was enveloped in a veritable muzzle. “No muzzle or wickerwork for the

Natural History

mouth of an animal could be woven with more artistic regularity and per- fection. . And the snake occasionally making a desperate effort to open its mouth would merely put these threads upon a stretch.”

The snake continued its efforts to break away, but the spider went on adding threads and shortening them un- til at length only two or three inches of the snake’s tail remained on the floor. The snake finally died about six days after the situation had been discovered. There is nothing in the statement to indicate whether the spider feasted on the snake.

McCook, who probably knew Fitch personally, gives full credence to this account. He thinks that, from all the data at hand, the spider was probably Theridium tepidariorum. He found that this spider weaves a large web and one strong enough to catch and support a small snake of the size men- tioned. Furthermore, Theridium is a very bold spider, courageously catching and killing large beetles and raising them relatively long distances to the center of her snare.

The similarity of action pursued by the two spiders in catching the snakes is marked. In both instances the snake is muzzled, a loop is formed and strengthened by the formation of other threads, and the victim is finally raised from the floor, in one case by the tail, in the other by the head. How the snakes became entangled at the begin- ning is not clear, but it seems reason- able to suppose that they glided int the web, or more probably fel into it, and became entangled. Th spider then secured the intruder be yond hope of escape as described i the various accounts. There is n reason to believe that the second ac count is a plagiarism of the firs‘

Fitch’s standing as attested by Me- Cook ferbids such a belief.

In the same journal which contained Abraham’s article previously quoted, there is an interesting account by the

director, Dr. Ernest Warren, of a South African spider which vatches and eats lizards. Here is Warren’s account in his own words.!

At the beginning of July, 1923, Mr. W. G. Rump, caretaker of the Natal Museum, noticed on a sunny morning at about 10 a.m. in a garden in Pietermaritzburg two large spiders on the wood- work of a fence, at a height of about 4 ft. above the ground. The two spiders, with a leg span when walking of about 3 in., were seen close together clinging to some large, dark object. One spider was killed, while the other escaped, and the object to which both spiders had been attached proved to be the body of a re- cently killed lizard, Lygodactylus capensis (A. Smith), which, when straightened out, was about 23 inches in length. The spider which had. been secured was a female, and probably the one that had escaped was of the same sex.

The lizard was dead. One side of the neck had been considerably chewed, and the sur- rounding muscles and tissues were in an ex- cessively soft condition. Also, all the muscles and tendons of the front portion of the body had been rendered so flaccid that the head and both fore-limbs had been doubled up and forced into the semi-fluid region at the side of the neck. The rémainder of the body of the lizard was in normal condition and the tissues were perfectly fresh. Subsequent ex- periences render it probable that the lizard had been killed by the spider, or spiders, less than an hour previously. The tail was entire, and it may be concluded that death had been ex'remely rapid, with no appreciabie struggle.

in order that this phenomenon might be observed more carefully, two living specimens (female and male) of this sp. ler were obtained and placed in se} arate glass receptacles, with several lizards about one and three qu. rter inches long. At the end of tw and one half hours it was found

ry irren, Ernest. ‘‘Note on a Lizard-eating S. Afri n Spider.” Annals Natal Museum, 1923, Vol. 2%, p; 95-100.

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

that the female spider had captured one of the lizards and had eaten practically all of it. There remained only “the

terminal portion of the tail adhering to the glass side of the receptacle and a somewhat large, globular, pulpy, semi-

A South African spider (Palystes natalius) and its prey, the lizard (Lygodactalus capensis). C. Akerman.

Photograph (natural size) by Dr. After Warren

fluid mass held by the pedipalps against the chelicere while these powerful toothed appendages were continuously chewing it.’”’ How the feeding is done is more explicitly described as follows:

A lizard of about one and three quarter inches in length had been caught by the spider a few minutes previously on the floor of the cage and had been carried by it on to the vertical glass side. The lizard had been seized on one side of the neck close to the shoulder and was hanging down limp and dead, with the claws of the chelicerw of the spider implanted in the flesh. The tail had not been snapped. The pedipalps now came into play, and with their finger-like, flexible tarsi the body of the lizard was pressed against the chelicere. The chelicere main- tained a very constant chewing movement, and each time they were divaricated the terminal claws were raised, and on the cheli- cere beginning to close together again these raised claws were thrust into the flesh of the prey. The inner sharp edge of the claw lacerated the tissues very effectively, owing to the fact that the hinged claw closed down on the inner toothed edge of the chelicera while the two appendages were approaching each

Natural History

A giant spider (Mygale) feeding on a humming bird which it has just dragged from her nest. After Merian

other to meet in the middle line. The break- ing up of the tissues of the prey seemed to be assisted to some extent by the wounded surface of the lizard being pressed against the scopulz of the endites of the pedipalps.

The only other scientist, so far as I know, to assert that spiders catch and

feed on reptiles is Perty.!. In describ-

ing the articulated animals collected in Brazil by Spix and Martius, he says definitely that Mygale blondii of South America feeds on smail reptiles, espe- cially lizards of the genus Anolis.

Spiders Which Hunt Birds

It is a well known fact that Mygale (Avicularia), the bird spider of South America, catches and eats small birds, but it was a great surprise to find that scientific accounts of this phenomenon go back to 1705. In this year appeared at Amsterdam a large folio in Latin by Madame Merian on the insects of Surinam.? On page 18 of this work she says that certain great spiders will take little birds (called Colobritigens|Colibris, humming birds] by the Belgians) from their nests and suck their blood. On her plate 18 this phenomenon (among

1Perty, Maximilianus. Delectus Animalium Articu- latorum qux in Itinere per Brasiliam , . . Collegerunt Dr. J. B. de Spiz et Dr. C. F. Ph. de Martius. Monachii, 1830, p. 37.

2Merian, Sybilla Maria. Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium, etc. Amstelodami, 1705, p. 18, pl. 18. There is a Dutch edition of the same date, and others

appeared in 1719 and 1730. Auother Latin edition ap- peared in 1726.

others) is shown, and that part of her plate is reproduced herein. So far as know this is the earliest known account of this habit of Myqale.

Madame Merian’s observations were discounted by MacLeay,*? who clared that the food of Mugale consists solely of invertebrates, largely insects. Mygale, he asserted was a ground- dweller, and the humming bird arboreal. Further, he tried the experi- ment of placing a living humming bird and an Anolis lizard in the bur- row opening of one of these spiders. These “were not only not eaten by the spider, but the latter actually quitted its hole, which it left in possession of the intruders.”” One cannot doubt MaclLeay’s statement of the results of his experiment, but, that the alleged phenomenon is an actual fact seems to be proved by the weight of evidence now to be presented, and further by an eyewitness, H. W. Bates.

This same phenomenon is attest by other writers. <A. M. F. Palisot de Beauvois, in his Jnsect Recueilles en Afrique et in Ameriq: ete., Paris, 1805, (p. 135), says th

de-

3MacLeay, W. S. ‘*A Few Remarks Tending Illustrate the Natural History of . . . Mygale of Wa! enaer.’’ Proceedings Zoological Society of London, 1% (Pt. 2), pp. 11-12.

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

Mygale blondii of Santo Domingo climbs trees, takes the newly hatched birds out of the nest, and feeds on them; that it even breaks the eggs to get at those still unhatched. The same fact is alleged by Perty, to whose work previous reference has been made. Nearly all modern travelers in Brazil and the adjoining countries repeat the story, probably at second hand. Not so, however, H. W. Bates in his classic book The Naturalist on the River Amazons, London, 1863. He describes and figures (p. 161) two birds ‘aught and killed by one of these great spiders. One of the birds was d ad, but the other, which lay under the body of the spider, was not quite dead, though it was smeared “with the filthy liquor or saliva exuded by the spider.”” Bates expressly says that he saw this capture taking place, and that he drove the spider off and secured both birds (the second of which soon died). He adds that this thing was “quitea novelty to the residents hereabouts”’ |\Comité on the Tocantins]. Bates’s figure is herewith reproduced. Presum- ably it was drawn under his direction. In a series of papers published else- where,| I have brought together a number of accounts of spiders’ webs so large and strong that birds were caught in them. In none of these accounts vas any direct reference made to the cating of the bird by the spider. ndeed, there is reason to believe that ie orb-weaving spiders in all likeli- od cut the net and let the bulky 1 feather-protected bird fall to the ound. This actually took place in an eriment conducted by MacLeay eviously referred to) when he in-

‘udger, E.

“The Most Remarkab le Fishing- fn hee ed Spiders’ Web Net.”’ Bull. A

gical Society, 1918, Vol. 21, 1588-90. 2 figs.—‘* On

cr Webs and Spider Web Fish Nets.” Ibid, 1918,

21, 1687-89.—‘‘ More About Spider Webs and — Fish Nets.” Ibid, 1924, Vol. 27, pp. 94- Zs.

serted a bird in such a web. None of these articles was illustrated. However, a popular book by C. A. Ealand (Animal Ingenuity of To-day) contains a picture of a bird caught in the web of a huge Madagascar spider. The original refer- ence to this I have been unable to run down. The figure (entirely the concept of the artist) is very defective. The web is too weak to prove a snare for a

This huge South American spider has just caught a bird and is now covering it with saliva After Bates

bird of the size shown, and the spider is larger and heavier than the bird. It does not seem necessary to reproduce this inadequate figure.

There is, however, one authertic account of a bird caught in a spider’s web and devoured. In 1850, Capt. W.S. Sherwill,? when traveling in the Karrakpur hills near Monghyr on the Ganges, chanced upon a number of gigantic webs made by a large red and blaek spider. A captured spider, when set up, measured six inches across the legs, while the nets measured about

2Sherwill, W. S. ‘‘Note on the Bird-devouring Habit of a Svider.’’ Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal 1850, Vol. 19, 474-75.—Annals and Magazine of Natu- ral History, 1851, 2. ser. Vol. 7, pp. 427-28.

Natural History

five feet across the orb proper, though the guys had a spread of from 10 to 20 feet. Captain Sherwill says:

It was in the web of this very spider that I found the bird entangled, and the young spiders (about eight innumber . . . ) feeding upon the carcass. The bird was much decom- posed and enveloped in the web. . . The bird hung with its head downwards, its wings were closely pinioned to its sides by the en- twined web, and it was nearly in the center of the web. The old spider which I secured was above the bird about a foot removed.

Spiders That Catch Small Mammals

Mammals, even small ones, are such strong and active animals, that accounts of their capture are few and far be- tween. The best and most definite data that we have comes from Mce- Cook, who investigated the matter at considerable expenditure of time and effort, and absolutely satisfied himself of its authenticity. The phenomenon

happened at Lebanon, Kentucky, in 1881, and was written up by Mr. J. W. Hopper, editor of the Standard and

Times. His account follows:

A very curious and interesting spectacle was to be seen Monday afternoon in the office of Mr. P. C. Cleaver’s livery stable in this city. Against the wall of the room stands a tolerably tall desk, and under this a small spider, not larger than a common pea, had constructed an extensive web reaching to the floor. About half past eleven o’clock, Monday forenoon, it was observed that the spider had ensnared a young mouse by passing filaments of her web around its tail. When first seen the mouse had its fore feet on the floor and could barely touch the floor with its hind feet. The spider was full of business, running up and down the line and occasionally biting the mouse’s tail, making it struggle desperately.

Its efforts to escape were all unavailing, as the slender filaments about its tail were too strong for it to break. In a short time it was seen that the spider was slowly hoisting its victim into the air. By two o’clock in the afternoon the mouse could barely touch the floor with its fore feet; by dark the point of its nose was an inch above the floor. At nine o’clock at night the mouse was still alive, but made no sign except when the spider descended and bit its tail. At this time it was an inch and a half from the floor.

Yesterday morning the mouse was dead, and hung three inches from the floor. The

news of the novel sight soon became circulated and hundreds of people visited the stable to witness it. The mouse was a small one measur- ing about one and a half inches from the point of its nose to the root of the tail.

Mr. Hopper not only sent Doctor McCook his printed account as noted above, but in answer to a letter added the following additional note:

As you will see from this account, no one observed the actual entanglement of the mouse. In a very short time after it was first observed, I myself was informed of it, and went to the stable to examine it. This was Monday, August 22d,1881. The office of the stable isa small room. The desk referred to is something over three feet high, four feet four inches long, and something over two feet wide. From the bottom of the desk to the floor the distance is two feet ten inches. The spider’s web extended perhaps three- fourths the length of the desk next to the’ wall, and covered the bottom of the desk to the width of about fifteen or sixteen inches. It. about three feet long by sixteen inches wide.

You will observe that the narrative in the news slip ends with Tuesday morning, August 23d. My paper, which is a weekly, went to press late Tuesday afternoon. The hoisting process continued all day Tuesday, and em- ployés about the stable say that by dark Tuesday night the mouse was four or four and a half inches from the floor. Tuesday night a meddlesome boy entered the room in the dark and accidentally broke the web, and the mouse fell. Next morning, according to my recollection, the web was brushed away. I greatly regret that the spider was not allowed to complete his work, and that he was not captured and preserved. I was greatly morti- fied when I found how the affair had terminated.

The sketch here introduced made to illustrate Mr. Hopper’s second definite account. Both these accounts are in turn corroborated by a letter to Doctor McCook from Mr. P. C. Cleaver, in whose office the incident in question occurred. He writes that when he first saw the mouse it was suspended by the tail from the spider’s web under the desk, with its toes barely touching the floor, while the spider was in the web about eighteen inches abov it. The spider kept working at th mouse until it was raised three oi four inches from the floor and it was still alive when Mr. Cleaver went hom

was

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

at night. He concludes his account as

follows:

I left the spider at work that evening at sunset, with orders that it should not ’*be touched. But the web was knocked down that night—by some boys, I think, as a great many were there to see the sight, and my clerk thinks it was lost in that way. The spider, mouse, and web were all gone when I returned to the stable the following morning. ... IT am as sure that the spider caught and raised the mouse three or four inches from the floor by himself without the aid of man, as though I had been present from first to last.

a ‘NA

Ay

Wtr

Wk

t

a

Sy ie

ert

U )

q

iN 4 q

——— orm n

etch of a mouse caught in a spider’s snare and lifted e the floor by threads attached to its tail. After 0k

‘he Hon. J. Proctor Knott, a repre- ative in Congress from Kentucky iat time, also saw this phenomenon, confirmed the preceding accounts letter to McCook accompanied by memory” sketch shown on p. 274. ‘rites:

‘hen my attention was first called to the r—about ten or eleven o’clock in the

forenoon—the spider having made its thread fast to the end of the tail of the mouse, of perhaps fifty times its own weight, gradually hoisted its prey so that it could barely touch the floor with its front paws, and was still busily “hoisting away” while the mouse was no less vigorously endeavoring to break loose. That afternoon, perhaps near five o'clock, in company with Mr. Hopper, the editor of the Standard, I again visited the scene of the singular capture, and found that the mouse had been raised so that the top of its nose was precisely four inches from the floor, as I ascertained by actual measurement with a pocket rule. The spider was still actively at work and the mouse still struggling. The next morning I found the mouse dead, its nose about six inches from the floor, and the spider still at work. The thread was attached to the end of the tail.

McCook was satisfied as to the facts set forth, but sought to obtain speci- mens of spiders supposed to be identical with the one whose exploits were chronicled above. Some spiders were sent to him from Lebanon. proved to be Theridium tepidariorum and he believed that the spider which ‘aught themouse was of thesame species. Furthermore, MeCook experimented with spider webs similar to the above and with mice of various weights and found that the webs would support mice of weights even greater than that cited above. Whether the spider would have eaten the mouse is a mat- ter of conjecture, since the phenomenon unfortunately did not go forward to that point. It is recorded, however, that the spider repeatedly bit the mouse on the tail.

But one other account of the catch- ing of a mammal byaspider has come to light. This is in an interesting book by the Australian writer, E. J. Ban- field (Tropic Days, London, 1918, p. 36). He found a bat that, having flown into a spider’s web during the night, had become so entangled that escape was out of the question. As he came on the scene, the spider (a large one) pounced upon and sunk its fangs in its feebly struggling victim. Not a

These

274 NATURAL minute elapsed before the bat was re- leased but it was too late, for it expired immediately. From this account it may be inferred that, if given time, the spider would prob- ably have eaten its victim.

How Spiders Consume The

Flesh Of Their Ver- Tebrate Prey

Seeking information on this subject at the time I published my first article, I wrote to Dr Alex- ander Petrunkevitch, the eminent student of the Arachnida in America. He did not doubt that spiders caught fish, but hesi- tated to believe that so small an insectivorous animal could eat a fish. As I stated earlier in this article, none of the accounts in my first paper described the eating of

most

the fish by the spiders, though in the statement about spiders catch- ing tadpoles this was inferred. Doctor Petrunkevitch’s reply was published in my first article, but I think it will bear repeating here:

May I add that I am a little in doubt of the possi- bility of spiders using fish as food for the reason that spiders pre-digest their

History

it? Few men have had the opportunity

to witness this phenomenon, and of the

few, but one had the requisite training

to enable him to work out the answer.

This fortunate scientist

was Dr. Ernest Warren,

whose note on a lizard-

ating spider is quoted on page

269. Attention is again called

to his photograph of the spider

and the lizard. Here is Warren’s account of the feeding process:

While the chewing action was pro- ceeding a copious fluid was spread over the issues of the prey. The fluid was clear and slightly-yellowish in color, and seemed to have the consistency of thin syrup. It gushed out of the mouth in such volume that I noticed a good-sized drop run down over the surface of the body of the lizard. This fluid had a powerful digestive effect; it acted im- mediately on the tissues and rapidly softened them, and the chewing action of the chelicere and pedipalp-endites was greatly assisted thereby. The digestive fluid was gradually sucked back into the mouth and then gushed out again suddenly over the chewed tissues. This slow in-sucking and sud- den expulsion of the digestive fluid from the mouth was maintained as a regular pulsating action during the whole time of feeding. There were about two systoles per minute. The divarication

and closing together of the chelicerze were much more fre- quent, but it was noticed that the out-gushing of the digestive fluid seemed to occur just as a divarication was on the point of

food by injecting the secre- tion of the maxillary glands into the wound inflicted by the fangs. This fact has been demonstrated by various observers and is beyond any doubt, at least in the case of spiders feeding on insects. It has been sug- gested that Tarantulze may at times feed on small birds but even that is considered to be doubtful. This does not mean that a spider cannot kill a bird or a mouse or a fish, as it has been observed on various occasions, but it is not likely that any vertebrate is ever used by spiders as food.

picted on p. 273.

Now, however, we have definite data to prove that spiders do feed on verte- brates—on fishes, tadpoles, frogs, snakes, lizards, and birds; and inferen- tially on mammals. But how do they do

A “‘memory”’ sketch (by Proctor Knott) of the ensnared mouse de- After McCook

commencing. The continuous flow of digestive fluid over and through the tissues of the prey must accelerate very greatly the processes of digestion. The fluid in the course of time seemed to become heavier and thicker throug! the solution of the food. In the course of a1 hour the whole body of the lizard, with head, limbs and tail, had been kneaded into a roun: wet mass permeated with the digestive flu and continuously being chewed by the cheliceree. The singularly flexible and sen tive tarsi of the pedipalps served admiral as hands for pressing the softened body of t prey against the chelicere.

Spiders have poison glands and si glands, and it is said there is a sm: gland in the region of the rostru: This, even if present, Warren thin

Spiders As Fishermen And Hunters

would be too small to produce the large amount of fluid vomited forth; he believes that this comes from the in- testinal tract, and that its quantity is fairly constant because of the rhythmical sucking-in and vomiting-forth action of the sucking-stomach. The biting and chewing action of the chelicerz he thinks is merely for the purpose of breaking up the flesh into fragments small enough for the digestive juice to have thorough access. No. small pieces are swallowed. As to the action of this digestive fluid on solid flesh, let us hear Doctor Warren.

All the ordinary tissues, including tendons and cartilages, were rapidly softened, and the body became plastic, while the bones were

_completely disarticulated. The voluntary muscle and all the softer tissues dissolved with great rapidity when the out-flowing and in-flowing currents of digestive fluid gained access to them. After a period of about two and a half hours the body (about 1 in. long) of the lizard had been reduced to a small, blackish, rounded and somewhat dry mass about + 1n. in diameter. This mass the spider allowed to drop to the ground. On examina- tion some naked limb-bones could be seen projecting from the mass. The mass was steeped in about 13 c.c. of tepid, distilled water for a couple of houis and was then care- fully pulled apart in order to ascertain what tissues had remained undissolved by the digestive fluid. I could detect no trace of voluntary muscle and no epithelial elements whatever, with the exception of remnants of scales. The residue of the body-tissues con- sisted of shreds of fibrous connective-tissue and of soft sheets of homogeneous substance, which were doubtless the remains of peri- chondrium and other connective-tissue mem- branes. There were traces of separate verte- bral centra, some isolated long-bones of the

libs, isolated maxille with teeth, and pos- sibly, angular bones from the lower jaw. The rest of the skeleton was apparently broken up i disintegrated. The bones that were left cre entirely clean, and not a vestige of the indant marrow remained, and the same the case with the pulp of the teeth.

Varren took some of the flesh cover- with the fluid and steeped it in illed water. He then tested with us but found no acid present. It

seemed to be neutral or very slightly alkaline. At any rate, the bones showed no chemical reaction, as they were still firm and entire—undecalcified. As he suggests, the matter is one worthy of further investigation.

On the basis of the data set forth herein, there is ample justification for the following quotation from a letter from Mr. Abraham: “It may interest you to know that some years ago I sent my observations on the _fish- ating spider to a spider specialist in the U.S. A. and he declined to publish them until my observations had been confirmed.” Surely that confirmation has come in ample measure.

Families Of Vertebrate-Eating Spiders

Looking at the matter from the standpoint of the systematique, we have evidence that four families of spiders eat vertebrate food. Longest known is this habit in the bird-eating spider, Mygale or Avicularia of South America, belonging to the family Avicularide. Next come Dolomedes (possibly several species) in North America and Thalas- sius (at least two species) in South Africa, both belonging to the Pisauri- de. Then there is a Diapontia of the family Lycoside in South America, which practices the same habit. And latest of all we have the South African Palystes belonging to the Heteropide. In time and space these families genera, and species of vertebrate- feeding spiders are widely separated, and this habit is evidently one acquired independently in the different families, in the different species, and possibly in the various individuals.

The Pronuba moth is white above and dark underneath. The female may be seen grasping a stamen in a somewhat similar position to the one she assumes when gathering pollen from the

anthers.

The other moth, slightly smaller, is the male

A Remarkable Partnership

BETWEEN THE SPANISH BAYONET AND THE YUCCA MOTH AS SHOWN IN ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS

By WILLIAM M. SAVIN

HE striking interrelationship be- tween the moth Pronuba yucca- sella and the lily known as the

Spanish bayonet, (Yucca filamentosa), was discovered more than fifty years ago by ProfessorC. V. Riley, and studied by him for twenty years. It is oneof the most interesting illustrations in nature

of that absolute mutual dependence of plant and an animal organism, whic occasionally comes to the notice naturalists. The moth owes tl! perpetuation of its species to the lil and the Yucca looks to the moth its continued existence. Unless Yuc is pollinated by Pronuba it produces 1

Yucca Lily In Full Bloom

Though Yucca filamentosa is a favorite garden plant because of its beauty, to natur- ali-ts its chief interest lies in the interrelation existing between the plant and the Pronuba yu casella moth. These are reciprocally dependent. Pronuba is the only insect that visits Y:cca, and it visits no other plant

Natural History

seed. The chance of self-fertilization by the plantis remote. The six stamens surrounding the pistil reach only two thirds of its length and are recurved, so that the wind is not likely to bear the pollen to the stigma.

To show that the presence of Pronuba is necessary for the production of Yucca’s seed, I excluded the moth from the plant just before and during the time of its flowering. The scape had nine branches, the lower five of which were covered with netting. In due course the flowers on the five branches withered away, producing no seed and leaving only bare stems. The flowers on the upper four were visited by Pronuba and they functioned normally.

I also artificially pollinated Yucca by selecting a small plant on which grew a number of flowers. Before they un- folded, they were covered with netting, as were also three flowers on another plant. The day following their open- ing, the netting was removed, and the

glutinous pollen gathered with the blunt end of a needle from some of the stamens on the first plant, and then pushed

down into the pistil

of each. of the

Yucca Plant Before The Experiment. Not Yet In Bloom

ne

ed til he

— - - &

oo

A Remarkable

three flowers on the second plant. These three flowers were again covered with netting. This pollination was not so skillful as that of the moth’s, for only one of the three produced seed. The pod also differed somewhat in shape from those produced by normal pollination, for there was missing the constriction at the middle which is always present when the moth has ovi- posited in the flower. The female visits the flower simply to perform her mission of ovipositing. She can paz-=

take of no nourishment, for her alimen-~

tary canal is aborted. She aims solely

to perpetuate her species. Most moths lay their eggs externall

on the food plant. Pronuba, however,

inserts them into the tissue somewhat —

Partnership

as the ichneumon fly does. Shortly 4 ¢

after oviposition the pistil turns to darker greenish hue and soon the poe formed. .This is three-lobed and ¢ lobe is divided into two compartmef filled with a row of disc-shaped se usually numbering between forty=— five and sixty. These ripen as the larva develops. Thus the larve that hatch from the eggs are found in these compartments with

we

oN

a

ris S :

During The Experiment.

Five Branches Protected By Netting

Yucca Plant After The Experiment

The flowers on the five lower branches of the scape, which were covered with netting and not pollinized by Pronuba, withered away and produced no seed. Those on the upper part of the plant were visited by Pronuba and functioned normally

A Remarkable Partnership

Three Yucca seed pods are shown above, of which the first developed from an artificially pollinated flower, and differs in shape from the other two, which are pollinated by Pronuba.

The pod to the right is cut to show a row of seeds.

made by escaping larve.

Below, to the left, is a pod with openings

Many of the seeds shown have been eaten through the center.

At the right is a full-grown larva and below it a larva still partly within its tunnel of seeds

supply of seed food at hand. As they eat only the tender center of the seed, leaving a periphery, they ‘orm a tunnel continuing from seed ‘o seed throughout the entire line. They then work their way out of the od and drop to the ground. Some- hat more than half the seeds in a (ompartment are disposed of bya single lirva. On the seed pods there merous holes through which rve have emerged. As there any pods on the plant, and as

soon

are the are the

Yuccas are likely to grow in groups, it is easy to see that many hundreds of larve may emerge to appear in that location as moths the following year. For various reasons they, however, do not appear in such numbers.

After dropping to the ground, the rose-colored or greenish larva spins : cocoon in which it passes the winter, becoming a chrysalis about a week be- fore the flowering season of the Yucca. It then issues as a moth to continue the work of its ancestors.

pageant oe TES,

ke

i ee

a oy ms

nae ae 7 Pe thal t Aadi ot, ST cae ste hen RS

ndhows

A Canon In The

DESERT MOUNTAINS OF ARIZONA. SUJUARO CACTUS IS SHOWN IN THE FOREGROUND

A Typical Specimen Of

A Sujuaro Desert in Arizona By DeELANCEY VERPLANCK

OTTED with bushes, burrowed by rodents, aflutter with birds, this wide expanse of yellowish-

gray ground is no mere waste of sand. The ants that make it their home gather seeds in season, but men call it a desert because far too little rain falls there to support any crops of theirs. Its plants challenge the curiosity of a traveler from the rainy parts of the world, for few of them seem even third cousins of the plants he has left behind him. The dark, evergreen, glossy little leaves of the creosote bush, and in a few places the pale leaves of small sage, are the only foliage visible except after rains, and at no season does nature attempt broad thin leaves of any sort in this land of thirst. Apart from the creosote, the general color of the desert growth is dull and grayish; the ocotillo stretches up long gaunt arms, gray and bare, covered with strong thorns; and the many kinds of cactus at their brightest are merely greenish. Thorns so abound that the creosote and the sage are again exceptional in bearing none.

The buckhorn cactus is everywhere. Here and there is the cholla cactus, ready to detach whole sections of its ‘urry-looking, close-thorned stem, which ollow its victim—man or beast—and lant new chollas at a distance. More videly separated are large barrel

ictus plants, rightly named from their orm, bristling with fierce-looking

0ks, but too conspicuous to be a real remy. The slender spider cactus, irking beside a bush, escapes notice itil its long thin thorns are felt. The nall paraboloid thumb cactus and the sill smaller fishhook cactus, low to the

ground, demand wary steps. The prickly pear, here growing erect, is sometimes, though rarely, as tall as a man, its flat upright segments meeting the light at varied angles with a pretty mottled effect.

Each has its own beauty. King of them all is the sujuaro cactus, a tall fleshy trunk, the few branches, if any, of nearly equal bulk with the main trunk, the whole very heavy with stored water. Though this cactus has the stature of a tree, it is woody only with respect to the slender reénforcing rods within.

To one bringing with him the memory of the graceful elm of wide- spreading shade, the sujuaro seems grotesque at first, but let him live near it for a time and its charm as a tree will penetrate the mind, the sujuaro deserts will seem finished and beautiful, other bushy deserts unmeaning,—as would the dreary flats of France without the cathedral spires. The simple, striking, unforgetable forms it takes might be letters of some quaintalphabet. With- in its trunk woodpeckers nest, on its top the mocking bird perches for his morning song, and in its narrow but solid shadow a man is glad to rest in the scorching heat of summer, though he must follow the shadow on its dial of sand as if he were seeking shelter from a telegraph pole.

Bushes are wide apart, the sujuaro at wider intervals, for here a permanent plant of any kind requires much soil from which to draw a little precious moisture. The paloverde is a tree on a small scale, and western people, who have forgotten what a tree is, ¢ ll groups of paloverde or of the scrubby

Natural History

White prickly poppy

Between the barren earth, A rising ground swept by

mesquite ‘‘the woods.”’ bushes, stretch sand, or pebbles. winds is often covered with the pebbles in many colors fitted together like a tessellated pavement.

Now watch the magic of the spring rains, if any fall. These may be only light showers, but they “make the desert to the Suddenly little green herbs spring up, and soon the ground is starry with The

ocotillo is clothed for a brief time with

blossom as rose.”

flowers—Terrestria sidera flores.

small green leaves, and the ends of its branches put out tassels of red blos- soms. A little later poppies appear,

making great patches of flame; the

Small desert poppy, ‘cream cup”’

A branch of the creosote bush

new thorns of the cholla frost it over with white; and every cactus after its kind begins to display its own blossoms, transmitting the sunlight in stained- glass effects. The flowers of the prickly pear are vellow, those of the thumb actus purple, those of the buckhorn vary from yellow to red and from red to brown, according to the individual plant. If the traveler wishes to see this-new glory of the desert, he

almost

must endure the blazing heat of spring until the paloverde is a mass of yellow bloom humming with pretty brown bumblebees, and the sujuaro bears, on its tiptop, creamy white flowers as big as saucers.

Soon the small annuals will be dry

Blue flowers of the desert (Gilia)

b

ee ee ee a ae

A Sujuaro Desert In Arizona 285

Ocotillo flower

and prickly to walk through, because of sharp hairs, sharp angles, and chaffy projections on the seed vessels. They will shed their seeds and be ready to crumble under the feet, and in course of time the wind will sweep away their brittle stalks.

No one of our party of travelers can now remember where he first heard the barking and howling of the prairie wolves or coyotes at night. It is everywhere in the untamed West, in mountain, in forest, and in desert, one of the soothing sounds of the night, rising and falling, coming near and dying away. Then, out of the deep silence, comes the soft patter of the little fect of the small furtive desert creatures.

Flowers of the ultra thorny cactus

It is a wonder how so many animals ‘an exist in this dry land. Birds, it is said, fly to water, reptiles wait for rain, and the small rodents chew the flesh of the cactus,—but we never saw them do any of these things. A very small river crossed this desert only a few miles from our post of observation. All the creatures were thirsty enough. Even the cottontail rabbit, popularly supposed to be indifferent to water, ‘ame to partake of that element placed in a pan within its reach, and of course the spermophiles found it. Every evening at the same hour the Palmer thrasher would say slowly and softly in a fluty voice, reminding one of the preliminary notes of the thrushes—

Yellow flower of the desert (Gilia)

Rocky hills in bloom after rain

Natural History

Unstriped, smooth-tailed spermophiles coming at early evening to get a drink from

a pan under the creosote bushes

Pretty. Pretty. Pretty quick. Pretty quick—and then timidly fly down to the pan. Alarge tortoise that we had picked up in a dry hollow, stretched its neck gratefully to feel the water we poured over it, then drank copiously. Our own water cask was well known to some brown lizards, rather slow, with very long tails trailing behind them, that came out from under our tent-house to drink the spilled drops when they heard us dipping; and one of them even learned to drink from a cup held in the human hand, prettily flashing its vermilion tongue over the white china. Another species of lizard, smaller and more sun-loving, well deserving its name of “swift,” or “silver swift,’ emitted in the heat of the day a faint, birdlike chirp that was very hard to locate. A third member

Horned lizard photographed in a tin basin

of the lizard family was the so-called “horned toad.””’ We were amused to see a little girl bestow unwelcome kisses upon one she kept as a pet, turning it over to kiss the throat, the only soft place. A fourth lizard called the “Gila monster,’ much larger than the others, thick in figure and yellow and black in color, is the only poisonous lizard known. We met no one who had known the bite to cause death but we were told by an eye witness how on one occasion the monster’s jaws held his victim with such a bull-dog grip that they had to be pried away with irons. {xtreme illness resulted from the bite. We ourselves never saw the creature alive, but we were shown by a man and his wife wintering in the neighboring hills the fourth Gila monster they had shot that season.

People from. the eastern United States naturally think of the ratt! snake as living in mountainous places where there are piles of broken rox but the Arizona desert species ‘s found also in level deserts. Here + makes its home in the holes of rabbi spermophiles, etc., having, perha first eaten the architect. Miners a ( others who live in the habitat of t e

rattlesnake, speak of it with a fine air of careless contempt. ‘Oh, rattlers!— they always give warning before they strike. You better not step on one; and sometimes, in digging out rabbits, you're liable to get bitten, but rattlers don’t go hunting trouble.”” On one occasion we found one of the large southwestern rattlesnakes sleeping its heavy postprandial sleep, inconspicu-

A Sujuaro Desert In Arizona 287

lantern appeared desert rats and mice —pretty yellow things with remark- ably large eyes. The “trade rat’’ is an interesting animal. It builds over its burrow a superstructure sometimes several stories high, apparently not used, of sticks, old horns, segments of cactus, including the fearful cholla, also bits of bright tin, and what not. A striking feature of the landscape

Rattlesnake in a cactus desert.—Puzzle picture: find the snake. It lies slightly behind the slender upright growth and has put its head into a hole

ous in the mottled shadow of a bush. When pelted with pebbles it at length awoke just enough to creep to a hole an put its head in, but refused to coil for the benefit of the camera. It was fin lly shot. Within the snake were tw. quadrupeds without their skins, pr vably “gophers.”

1e spermophile shares the popular na: e of gopher with other burrowing ani ials in various parts of the con- tin it, including another rodent in Ari ona. At night in the light of our

is the large western jack rabbit— more properly a hare—sitting up to reconnoiter, with long dark ears erect, then bounding with its long legs over the bushes and far away. The wild- cat so closely matches the ground in color as to escape notice so long as it remains quiet. However, from some elevation, as a wagon or the back of a horse, the traveler may chance to obtain a glimpse of the cat as it flees across the open, his attention being first directed to it by the sight of cottontails scat-

Natural History

Our camp in the cactus desert—Numerous awnings failed to subdue the glare of the

sunlight. is a barrel cactus. are the plants of the buckhorn cactus

tering in all directions before their enemy.

Close to our camp a tarantula had its den in a hole in the ground. We could peer down and see the creature’s eyes flaming out of the darkness like jewels, as it awaited its prey at the bottom. Around the top of the hole it had made a neat fence of fine stalks, into which it wove a bit of thread that we presented. It did not concern itself with us nor did we meet disagreeable insects of any kind.

A desert is a very convenient place in which to study birds, because it affords them little concealment as they hunt about for the manifold species of insects abounding in this region. The flicker and other woodpeckers are con- spicuous as they go in and out of their holes high in the sujuaro. Other birds build or perch, perforce, in isolated

bushes. The black-throated sparrow’s

In the foreground stands a creosote bush dotted with seed pods. The tallest bush or small tree is a paloverde, while scatttered between

Close beside it

nest is but slightly concealed by the light foliage of the creosote. The wren, the thrasher, and the dove, build in cactus bushes in plain sight, their feet surprisingly indifferent to the thorns, which are doubtless useful in protecting the eggs and young from snakes. The poorwill is scarcely hidden as it sits on the ground in the daytime on the steep side of a stony gully. Flocks of valley quail walk about in the open, conversing at ease in their peculiar way, the narrow loose plun on the top of the head nodding to the brisk steps. Thanks to the sparsene: of vegetation, one may reasonably ho} to see a hen of this species leading h brood of dainty chicks.

In the spring the nest of the cact wren, a bird larger than most wrens, is be seen every few rods in a buckhorn prickly pear, by means of a long horizontal passa:

a covered nest ente!

The photographer placed a camera be- fore one of these nests, and then retired to a discreet distance at the end of the long tube. The parent birds flew about in wild anxiety, scolding in vain at the strange black object and afraid to pass it even to carry food to the crying young within. At length a stuffed bird of their species was placed on their own bush, angering them so much that they forgot the camera, defied the invader from all sides, flew underneath and pecked its feet, poked it warily with their bills, and at last, finding it a humbug, passed boldly in and out of the nest while both camera and man were beside it.

In a thick bunch of mistletoe vine on apaloverde tree nested a pair of plumbe- ous gnat catchers—prosaic name for a charming bird, songless though it is, a tiny sprite of a creature. The male of this species is clearly distinguished by his black cap. The pair take turns in the weary work of sitting upon the eggs.

a7

© nest of the cactus wren is a long bag- like structure of slender weed stems that spre - out beyond the bag. The young birds are me. The old bird holds a bee

A Sujuaro Desert In Arizona

Nest of the plumbeous gnatcatcher in a paloverde tree. The bird’s black cap shows

it to be a male; that it is a “plumbeous” gnat catcher is shown by the form of the white tip on one of the tail feathers

The female of this pair would retreat from the nest at our close approach, but the male would hold his ground if we moved softly. He would even accept a fly offered by human fingers or drink a few drops of from lady’s thimble. Several times we found Mrs. Gnat Catcher in the nest, and halted a few yards away. On these occasions Mr. Gnat Catcher returned, perched on a certain twig, softly called his timid spouse from the nest, and took her place to face the danger as a true knight should.

If part of the natural screen of twigs, which ordinarily protects the nest from marauders and desert heat, is re- moved for the purpose of photography, it is needful to restore both shade and concealment afterward. In this case

water

soon

Nest of a dove in an old buckhorn cactus.—Observe how the dove has taken advantage of the curves of the cactus branches to support the nest

Nest of a Palmer thrasher in cholla cactus

A Sujuaro Desert In

we were careful to restore the shade but neglected to provide sufficient con- cealment, and the nest was soon rifled by the bird’s foes. To requite the bird’s confidence by revealing his citadel to some enemy is rather too bad.

The desert variety of our song spar- row, as well as the chipping sparrow, black-throated sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, and Gambel sparrow, was the evident of that sweet-voiced company, the American sparrows. The white-crowned sparrow only visits the desert on its way to the uplands. Hawks, shrikes, Say’s phoebes, black phoebes, roadrunners, and ash-throated fly catchers were to be seen. Flocks of lark bunting made a brief stay, their black and white plumage very showy against the dun tints of the desert. At twilight the poorwill flew so low over our heads as to seem to threaten us, or it perched close at hand, repeating the ery poorwill! poorwill! poorwill! much as if a whippoorwill had omitted the whip. At dawn the Gila woodpeckers began to shout from the sujuaro directly over our camp.

Leaving the level, the traveler may drive across a sea of desert hills, then down the bed of a stream into a narrow defile between crags, and suddenly out into a small triangular oasis, containing cottonwood trees, a garden, and a lawn of zreen grass, the verdure contrasting sharply with the barren hills that hem it in, and made possible by an unfailing st: eam of warm water that flows from a ro: k—Castle Hot Springs.

n parched and glaring Arizona, this lit 'e piece of shaded ground, with its ri!’ of pleasant water, is a paradise for bi 's. In spring the trees are brimful of ings and song. Birds are not much dis urbed by a luxurious hotel amid pa’ 1s planted by the hand of man, or pe ile bathing out of doors in a pool

most

Arizona 291

Gila woodpecker at its nest hole in the

trunk of a sujuaro cactus. moth to feed its young

It is bringing a of very hot water to cure their rheuma- tism, if predatory man can be convinced that “Citizen Bird” is not to be shot. Associated here, side by side, are the brown birds of the desert and the bril- liant species belonging to leafy regions.

They

Flowers of the tall cactus—sujuaro. are often as big as saucers

Now some bright warbler is seen, now one of the several western goldfinches, now that quintessence of fire, the scarlet flycatcher. The hooded oriole will ‘pour a note rich as the orange of his throat”; then we hear ‘a voice from out that green retreat, at once so loud, so wild, so sweet’ that there is no mistaking an old friend, and we are back in a moment across these broad United States to a swampy place in Virginia, where something deep red moves about in a tree near a tangle of cat brier. As we see him here in the field, he might well be that same cardinal. Even when he whistles afterward, outside the oasis, he looks strangely out of place on top of a su- juaro, Arizona cardinal though he is. The differences are slight.

The oriole, at home in the palms, pulls the long fibers fraying from the leaves and sews them through small holes that he makes in the leaves, so that they dangle in a sort of curtain. Then he loops this up, and by further weaving produces a nest, sheltered from sun and rain by the broad roof of the palm leaf. A pair watched by

Natural History

the camera man nearly all day for several days, seemed never to appear, vet somehow the interior of their nest was finished for use, though on the outside, through lack of time, many threads were left dangling.

Before the arrival of the migratory oriole, its last year’s nest was regularly appropriated by the house finch, a familiar neighbor of man, common in the streets of Arizona towns. The wide miles of desert have thus far pro- tected Arizona from the English spar- row. Alas, that some day those vulgar, harsh-spoken fellows, accidentally shut in a freight car, will successfully cross the desert and, multiplying, will drive the finches with their pleasant song from the neighborhood of men.

A cafion wren—a small perky bird, asa wrenshould be—very different from the cactus wren, would sit on an electric light wire directly over a balcony of the hotel, and sing his clear, sweet song that ‘‘trips down the scale,” then go to his nest built in the hole where the wire entered the house. The was more effective over in a neighboring

song

A

; 2

The wild spineless cactus, the origins of Burbank’s spineless variety

ir. st he

af” eh

k :

of

A Sujuaro Desert In Arizona 293

“a

'

Nest of Arizona hooded oriole under a palm leaf. The bird weaves its nest with long fibers frayed frayed from the leaves. A detail of the stitches is shown in the insert

high-walled cafion when, perched high overhead, the tiny musician filled with his piping the great cathedral of rocks.

In this cafion grew the wild spine- less cactus,—the species that was the original of Burbank’s spineless variety.

In the same cafion a humming bird had built her nest, secure from snake and quadruped, ina vinelike bush that dan- gied from an overhanging portion of the cafion wall and swayed with the breeze produced by a slender waterfall below. N and then she would leave the nest fo’ a moment, and it was pretty to see (.", suspended motionless on her wings, nking the thin water that crept vn the overhanging rock. The male ( nming bird is a deserter.

Chis desert is not after all a lonely

as

a

place, not uninhabited. Some one has said that the animal world is the true world and man an interloper. Usually in the sunsets over the desert, the clouds are very few, very small, and very bright, floating in a wide, clear glow. Sunset. is followed by a beautiful upright streak of white in the west, the zodiacal light. Night brings stars multitudinous and splen- did, as dwellers in moist lands never see them. Except after a rain, there is no dew, no need of waterproof covering when one sleeps outdoors. It is a joy anywhere to sleep in the open, but especially here,—to lie gazing at those undimmed stars, and then to be wafted into the Land of Nod on a gentle current of air blowing over endless miles of dry, clean desert.

vou

ut ‘suain ppohung ‘surped Appo}y oy, “SHOoT[NG

syUBIGquyUl oy4 Aq posn resns oy} Jo ysour sonpoad uoT}O0sS STUy ‘spunod 99g AdiBo 04 ysnoud oSavy] yn ‘Ul Opld OF O[GBIAOJUIOOUN) *‘punoiZa10j oy} Ul ‘ssoq] puBgsny Joy pue Arvyy ‘syUBAdos Asvapeyy INO

fosTno0-DU 4 rel 3

OHI OY} AOJ pRo] AABOY B SGA YOIUM S}Ivd OULL ‘Cousnol sy} UO pozJoBsZUOD BIAB/CUT JO perp ALBIN

VMANOW UVAN ADVTTIIA NVHS V NI NVAVUV)O WHO unosg unit fig ydvubojoyd

Byways and Highways in Burma

By BARNUM BROWN

Associate Curator of Fossil Reptiles, American Museum

1a tor the little

URMA was completely annexed widespread. Mogok supplies the world to the British Empire.at a com- with rubies and many fine sapphires, paratively recent date (1886). In while much of the amber and jade that

size it equals the state of Texas, an is manufactured in China comes from area of 262,000 square miles with a Burma. population of 12,000,000 people in 1911. The physiography is controlled The native inhabitants represent four largely by its geology, the great distinct cultural stocks,Shans, Kachins, featural unitsof which may be described Karens, Talaings, and several linguistic as follows: divisions, the Shans being dominant (1) The Shan plateau, which occu- and most numerous. pies all of the eastern part of the There are still extensive areas un- country and is a continuation of the administered, and entire regions are Yunnan plateau of China, is composed thickly overgrown with jungle, where, chiefly of Paleozoic rocks and some off the traveled thoroughfares, trans- early Mesozoic strata, with local port of impedimenta must be accom-_ Tertiary and Pleistocene basins. Fold- plished by bullock carts, coolies, or ing iscomplicated but not so pronounced elephants, for horses are a luxury rarely as in the Himalayan region, and in its seen. stable nature the plateau is comparable The country does not offer the with the peninsula of India. This attraction of such rich deposits of plateau averages from 3000 to 4000 vertebrate fossils as are found in India, feet above sea level and terminates but those of Eocene age and Pleistocene abruptly on the west in a well-defined age already known are of unusual fault that has been traced several interest, alluring to the explorer who hundred miles in a generally north- may be fortunate in making new dis- south direction. coveries in unmapped, little-traveled (2) A Central Tertiary series of rocks, sections. Fossil invertebrates, on the bounded by the Shan plateau on the

s

OUL taree Cnougn to Carry OVY pounds, Which WAS a Nneavy lo

The toddy palms, Caryota urens, in this section produce most of the sugar used by the inhabitants

MHCOMLMOPUAMIO tO Fide ifh,

f other hand, are abundant in parts, east and the Arakan Yoma on the

i an of inestimable importance as_ west. This area, now marked by the

; dei erminant factors in thesearch for oil. course of the Irrawaddy River and its

The economic importance of locating tributaries, is 130 miles wide and 600

; petroleum, minerals, and’ gems, has miles in length. Invertebrate fossils

be-n the main incentive for the major and the strata containing them show

potion of the geological work so far conclusively that it was formerly a

ac omplished but much of the data great narrow gulf or embayment filled

; se ured is of a private nature and_ in since the Eocene period by alternat-

un oublished. ing marine and fresh-water sediments

. he country is rich in minerals. in which there is little folding, and that Pr bably the richest silver-lead-zine of minor character.

es or bodies in the world are those of the (3) The Arakan-Yoma range and

Ba edwin mines in the Northern Shan subsidiary folds, of which the geology sts es. Tin and wolfram deposits are is little known. Trias-Cretaceous rocks

1,9° 2,0°

a

20 ee serene III Litt Li

Natural History

a8

(Upper)|

INIIOZF . INIIQHTO ‘O17d-0/W Q aT

aungshe Shales e: 09,2 PAUng- rung -FY & 33S

Thousands Of Feet

é §

rate £.2.: conglomerate fer

LT UVidthas RE -TE RTIAR YUM.

OF MILES 20c

O Scale

Diagram of the Tertiary strata deposited in the ancient Burmese Gulf, showing the inter-

fingering of marine, brackish, and fresh-water beds in a north-south section.

ow, ‘y

¥

Plateau

”n

Left.—The present natural regions of Burma with clearly defined border of ancient gulf. Right.—The same area in early Tertiary times. After L. D. Stamp

form their base and they Tertiary strata.

The history of the Tertiary period in Burma is largely that of the infilling of the Burmese gulf by sediments of con- tinental and marine radual filling in by river deposits, with retreat of the sea southward. Recurrent inva- sions of the sea northward took place

are flanked by

After L. D. Stamp

when folding occurred in the Arakan- Yoma mountains on the west.

Many subdivisions or stages have been determined by the invertebrate faunas, but beds that are distinctly marine in the south become brackish farther north, and finally are of purely fresh-water origin in the north.

A north-south cross section of the entire series of beds would show an interfingering of marine, brackish, and fresh-water beds. (See above figure.)

Rangoon, two days’ journey by steamer from Calcutta, is the chief port and the commercial heart of Burma. It is essentially a shipping port and administrative city, con- nected with the interior by a single railway and a line of steamers. Its chief exports are rice and teakwood, th: latter worked at the mills by elephant and water buffaloes.

The government is classed under th Indian Bureau, but the officials ai semi-independent and happy in the! administration, for the wave of popul: unrest that broods over India _h: not to any extent permeated th country.

Si

— a

—

Byways And Highways In Burma 297

—

Photograph by Lilian Brown

The great Shwe Dagon pagoda, at Rangoon,most sacred Buddhist edifice, seen through a latticed arch. It is 370 feet in height and covered with gold leaf, and

resembles a huge gold bell

rowning a suburban hill, the great e Dagon pagoda dominates the scape, its base surrounded by iads of minor pagodas. En- ning, as it does, relics of all the dhas, it is the most sacred edifice he Buddhists, and attracts pil-

grims from all countries of the faith.

Survey officials were very helpful to me, and provided all data and creden- tials necessary for a trip to the interior where vertebrate fossils are found, but they were doubtful of the success of my expedition.

Photograph by Barnum Brown Some of the myriad individual pagodas that surround the base of the Shwe Dagon, each containing a statue of Buddha

Photograph by Barnum Bro

Miniature gongs suspended from the umbrella-like crown of the temples tinkle in ea zephyr breeze, and the spirits that ride the winds rest on the ornate “ Nat” poles placed fi them near the temples

Byways And Highways In Burma 299

Photograph by Lilian Brown

Anornate pagoda witha part of Shwe Dagon

seen on the right. The bamboo frame at the left surrounds a pagoda under construction

Leaving Rangoon by rail one night, we arrived in Prome the next morning in time for the daily steamer up the Irrawaddy. In the early days the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company had a monopoly of transportation, and its comfortable steamers still ply all the waterways offering the only connection between many parts. In aggregate tonnage it equals many of the Atlantic lives. Its steamers were transferred to th. Persian Gulf during the late war, ant did great service in the Meso- po'amian campaign.

cenically the river journey offers little of interest,—low-lying banks ©: either side, occasional villages, ju gle, and Buddhist temples crowning th. few visible hills.

ops are made at the chief villages, wre the Burmese deck passengers—

la. ching, chattering crowds in brilliant, ve :-colored two-piece garments—are lo: ‘ed and unloaded. Coming directly

from India to Burma, one is impressed with the contrast between the people of the two countries. In India general somberness in dress and soberness of manner and character prevail. Life in ail its aspects is serious. In Burma one is immediately struck by the general air of happiness and indolence reflected in the disposition of the people and in their bright-colored garments. Even the monks and nuns in their yellow robes look like canaries. Truly the Burmese are called the happiest people in the world.

As we proceed up the Irrawaddy, rice fields decrease, but an occasional oil derrick is seen on the higher ground at Thayet Myo, at Magwe, at Minbu, and at Yenangyaung a whole forest of them comes into view, for this is the great center of Burma’s oil production. A considerable colony of Americans operate the oil fields, which, though

Photograph by Lilian Brown

An unusual grotto pagoda, probably a family shrine, at the base of Shwe Dagon. Each niche, large and small, contains a sitting

Buddha

oor

AGGVMVUUI AHL NO AOVId ONIGNV'T V LV UANVALS AHL GUVOAV OD OL ONILIVAM SHAONS unosg wnusog fig ydvibej0Y4d

jo [njuoods & SaA1Z asnoy oy} JO UBUIOM ay} ‘Aq sessed out]

OJ poo} JO JUNOUI UTB}100 B soredoid oyitmosnoy AloAq

vy? SY ‘oOp Atey} 40J Ajavo oUIOD PUB Aep @ gou0 ynq 79 OYA ‘sunu 10 SyUuoOU 94} aor ‘ASVO SIHL NI—,,advaud ATivd uno Avda SIHL 8O GAID,,

unosg upir7y fig ydvsboj01 +s wey "a 4 104d

‘

oor

aFeloy use1s [wordosy oY} jsurese oanjord praia B ‘syoHOV! OFIYM PUB SPIPAS ALIS potopoo-wBea JUBT]][MIG ul omITS

- sare v9 y rvoir Yor em or Anns

poessoip e1B UsTIOM pus usfy

Natural History

Xa

Dg

Photograph by Lilian Brown

A Twinza, or Burman hand-dug oil well at Yenangyaung. The Burman, protected from gases by a kerosene-can helmet with air tube attached, goes

down 300 feet to dip up oil in buckets

they have passed the zenith of their production, still supply the largest quantity of oil in the Far East.

This is the most arid section of Burma, with an annual rainfall of less than twenty inches, and scanty desert vegetation; a marked contrast to the luxuriant jungles that border the upper and lower reaches of the river.

A few hours’ journey above Yenang- yaung one comes to Pagan, an ancient city with thousands of ruins extending

for twenty miles along the river. It is said that in the day of Pagan’s glory 3000 pagodas and monasteries could be counted. Some of the ancient pagodas were enormous structures built in vari- ous styles of architecture. Hindu influence

Traces of

were apparent in

some of the pictorial decorations. The most notable examples are kept in repair by the government.

Decay in a Buddhist structure does not necessarily imply great age, for, according to Buddhistic belief, every- thing is transient, and no individual may obtain merit by repairing a temple built by someone else; hen the most elaborate building soon g to pieces. The modern city of Pag is celebrated for its lacquer industry

A short distance up the river Pakokku, headquarters of the dist: of that name. From this point started into the jungle. The Comn sioner gave me a unique docum calling upon all headmen to sup carts, coolies, eggs, chickens, etc.

Byways And Highways In Burma

fixed rates, an open sesame that was of great assistance, extending to the remotest part of his district. Equip- ment and supplies were rigidly reduced to minimum necessities, for this was to be an arduous journey through jungle and over mountains with and without trails.

Plump little bullocks pulled the tiny carts with a maximum load of from four to six hundred pounds, while a day’s journey was eight or ten miles, usually to the next village, where other carts were secured, nor could the jungle people be induced to go beyond a short fixed distance. inducement, a contrast to my experi- ence in India. They require little from the outside world. material for their houses and enters

To them money is no

Bamboo furnishes

into a variety of uses; the soil produces

Photograph by Barnum Brown

A “Nat” house in the jungle. The Burmans are Buddhists but them “Nats,” good or bad spirits of the trees mountains, The propitiated by food offerings placed in these

most of revere

homes, ete. spirits are

miniature houses each morning

peanuts and rice in favorable places, and the toddy palm vields sugar. In almost every village there is a Pungyi

Photograph by Lilian Brown

A traveling store in the jungle. The merchant walks from village to village, followed by

ies carrying his wares.

Near the zihat building on the left is a tall “‘ Nat” pole surmounted

he Brahmany goose, sacred bird of the Burmese

Kyaung (monastery) with a zihat (shelter) alongside for travelers.

For several miles beyond Pakokku the strata are of the Irrawaddy and fresh-water series, lacking vertebrates and with but few invertebrate remains. Near Myaing, however, a new system of rocks appears, the Pondaung Eocene beds. They are sandstones and aggre- gate several hundred feet in thickness, with intercalated clays near the top. Conformably overlying them is a bed of clays fifty feet thick, brilliantly colored red, blue, and yellowish-white. Where continuous and on edge, the color blends into a purplish “‘rainbow” streak, but to the westward it is soon lost to view in the jungle. Vertebrate fos- sils were found exclusively in this layer.

Near Bahin a complete skull and rare little anthracothere were found, sufficient incentive to follow this elusive ‘‘rainbow” through seventy-five miles of increasingly thick teak-bamboo jungle, where the beds would appear here and there, but rarely continuous for a hundred yards. Due to erosion and earth movement, the layer would appear sometimes on the right, sometimes on the left of where it was expected, my only guide a faithful continuation of characters in the under-

jaws of a

lying sandstones.

This horizon corresponds in age to the Uinta beds of the western United States and to the Irdin Manha of Mongolia, but its fauna, so far as known, is much more limited than either. Anthracotheres (piglike ani- mals), titanotheres (aberrant rhinoc- eros-like animals) and rhinoceroses comprise the mammals. Alligator vertebree were most numerous, but often many days’ search went un- rewarded by even fragments of bone.

As we approached the higher Pon- daung hills, spring was advancing with

Natural History

riotous colors. The bamboo was not vet in leaf; but many trees were covered with sweet-scented blossoms, while others were festooned with varie- ties of brilliant orchids. More shades of green, brown, and red may be seen in these woods than have ever been produced by the art of man. In north temperate zones foliage is most. brilliant at the end of the season, but in Burma the leaves pass through all gradating colors in the spring. The enormous teak leaves, two feet in length when fully open, first appear on the young trees as waxy, brilliant red_ spikes, changing in color to bright green as they open to full size.

Often at first in the dense bamboo I searched for human habitations, led on by the crowing of a rooster, but, when I drew nearer to the sound, a bright-colored cock would scuttle into the underbrush, while the drab-colored hens flew away—wild jungle fowl, some species of which it is believed were ancestral to our domestic fowl. Few other birds, rarely a rabbit, and occasionally a barking deer, were seen.

. North of Myin the rare tsine are fairly

numerous. Night is heralded by Tuc tuc, tuc,tuc; Tuc’-tu, Tuc’-tu, Tuc’-tu, the vall of a large tree gecko, easily heard a quarter of a mile away.

Few villages are seen in the hill districts, but in the lowlands the popu- lation increases, although never so numerous as on an equal area in any part of India. The village life, custom and costumes of the different races ar quite distinct, but everywhere on remarks the fat, healthy babies, an the fact that women are dominant in a’ phases of society. They are th merchants as well as the managers the household.

Monywa, on the railway, was tl! end of our 150-mile bullock-cart jou

coe s[vasozul Juonbosyur ye Sursvedde ‘ojsunfl vo} ‘ozIS SITY} Jos I 9 AJoIVI yng pesojoo APyUBIT]IIq oIOM “YOIYy 39q-[ISSO} oUDD0T] Sunvpuog jo yoyed y

-VOqUIBG JO pnoyjo oq} ysnoiy} dAIN9O Spoq oy} yBo1}s MOT yooy AVY ‘spaq ABpo UTY} Oso],

unoug wnusvg fq ydvs60j04d

as re ’ oor oT te : uanosgy mnusng HG YADsBOJOYN Eg,

qUOUIUIOAOY) q[inq st vpoSed v dnois yous IOAQ “TIT H ystjiig oy} Aq poasosoid ore soeyed s,Sury oy} puBw yO} SIYT, ‘ABT Avlepuvyy Ivo SjoTqe} 9U0}s GZZ UO poAvASUO SoINydiJos sIYppNg -epuvyy 38 JO} oY} Ul ‘UIP UOPUIFY Suryy Jo quio} ssv[s oresopy

unoug uvyvyT fig ydvsbojoyg

unosg uniyvtT fig ydvsbo,0Yyd

39]10} oq} 930];dUI100

aseyoind aq Avur yoyoul ayy, sdooy ooquieq uly} asoo] jo suezop xd piu} & pues ‘poinzeej-1ouy ‘suByg 94} UBY} JoJIOYs YonuUT *u10 Aq p2e100p SSULI [BJU JO

suo

U0}jNG JOATIS ISUIUTUTT YIM posusOps Ajyensn ‘q}0]9 p ‘uBUIOM Yous Aq UIAOM ST JALAS AAvoy yloys oy, ‘apdo are Ady} 91N}BYS UL ‘9UIN}SOD BAT}BU UT sys unpey— yqsny ‘peusope A]reUIs ale SooUy puB ‘SoTYUB ‘SSL sosseur oy} Aq poyeSuoje ov syoou Joy], “suUBYg 94} JO 90813 PUB WIOPIeJJ oY} Buryoey] ynq “soinywoy Ul proposuoyy ‘s[us uorwy ‘1oyueD “UBTTO Sop[Noys pBolg Y}IM yoode puw j10Ys ‘uopreu ojsunt ueyg Y—3Jo'T

NI SadAL GASANWOE

s3ull you JOApIs oF1vT ‘Ss aIe o19} }STEM oy} punory

A]popwop ore saINywoy OY], “ETVLLTEd Jo [NJoowsd ATOUTII}Xo ‘sdiy Japuefs pus ANWOALSOOD OLLSIUALOVUVHO

unosg uniuT fig sydvsbojoyd

— F Ege

6 ae REPU MI TOUR Fre ly ata 2 REE

"se the SO . unougy mnuspg, gq YAVADOION

ee anwusogy gq

unos,

yan ed ; , ‘ : Fe eS on ae A .

ney, where I received news of verte- brate finds near Mandalay. For several miles above and below Mingun, opposite Mandalay, are seen the most typical exposures of the Irrawaddy beds in Burma, and here I found rare elephant jaws and palates.

In this vicinity all the prominent mountain peaks are crowned with pagodas, while nestled among the hills are innumerable ornately carved Pun- gyi Kyaungs (pronounced Poongi Chaungs), the homes of monks and nuns, fittingly secluded for meditation. Bamboo and teak-log rafts float past on the way to the mills; occasionally one goes by loaded with rice, while countless native boats with elaborately carved sterns sail up and down. On the banks are enormous mango trees, and at Mingun one sees the ruins of a mam-

moth pagoda, planned to be the largest in the world, but discontinued at a height of 250 feet because of faulty construction.

The sites of several ancient capitals

border the river in this vicinity. Mandalay, the last, was surrendered by King Thibaw to the British in 1885 without firing a gun. The fort and the

Natural History

quaint wood palace of the former king, with its seven-storied entrance denot- ing royalty, are preserved by the govern- ment. The huge market and many silk bazaars are places of attraction in the city. On Mandalay Hill there are celebrated pagodas, and near by is an interesting enclosure containing sev- eral hundred stone tablets resembling gravestones, on each ‘of which is carved one of the precepts of Gautama Buddha.

A few miles above Mingun the sand- stones of the Irrawaddy beds are eroded away and are again seen in only a few limited patches below the second defile, from which point northward the river trenches the harder ancient lime- stones. The scenery becomes more rugged and, at the first defile, quite picturesque.

From Bhamo several trails lead up to the Yunnan plateau of China. It was my purpose to search there for a possible continuation of the Eocene beds to the north, but the second day out, malarial fever compelled me to return to a hospital in Mandalay, thus terminating further work for the season in Burma.

East meets West on the Shan border. Barnum Brown at the hot spring, Momauk

The Born Naturalist

By HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN

President of The American Museum of Natural History

HE Naturalist, like the Poet, is born, not made. One of the first of the many lines of inquiry

before the aspirant to a scientific career is the self-examination: ‘‘Am I really a born naturalist? Am I so endowed by nature that I can follow in the foot- steps of the men, great and small, who have made Science what it is?” At best the path is long and very arduous. If we read the biographies of Faraday, of Maxwell, of Agassiz, of Huxley, of Pasteur—in brief, of any of the great physicists, chemists, geologists, or biologists whose names adorn the literature of Science—the early path-

way is ever seen to be a hard one; yet, as Huxley observed of his voyage

on the “Rattlesnake,” it is a good thing to be on the bare bones of existence.

There must be within the aspirant, therefore, not only the will to conquer, but also a belief, through a kind of spiritual and intellectual impulse, as well as of self-confidence, that he can conquer in the end. Even with this will-power and self-confidence a long period of apprenticeship and self- experiment is necessary before the novitiate can positively ascertain whether he has the natural gifts that wil! enable him to achieve even a rea- son ibly successful career in Science.

teacher of forty years’ experience, ve watched some of my students 1any months, and in some cases vo or three years, before I could y myself that they possessed the ‘ombination of powers which makes n of Science. st of these essential qualifications en sense of truth; the second isa

keen power of observation; the third is the rare power of creative imagina- tion; the fourth is indomitable will, energy, and determination—the spirit that delights in difficulties, that loves obstacles, that is not dismayed by any scientific ascent, however lofty, or by

any scientific descent, however deep. Once satisfied that he has his fair share of these four absolutely neces- sary endowments, the student may enter his career with real confidence, and if he maintains his health and keeps alert his moral and his spiritual senses, his chances of ultimate success are more than reasonable—they are bright. There is very little room at the bottom of a scientific career, be- cause every profession is crowded with men and women who have made a wrong choice, who should have been content with some other walk in life. Halfway up, however, there is plenty of room in every scientific profession, room for extremely useful lives as teachers, if not as investigators. As one approaches the top he becomes more and more isolated and may finally stand alone, like the great Spanish neurologist, Ramon Y. Cajal, who has lately retired loaded with honors. The career of Cajal is typical. As a student he did not discover in all medica! literature one Spanish name of note, and he made a vow to place his own there, if possible. Entering a most difficult field of research, he pursued it with ardent determination, his imagination suggesting hundreds of new applications of the scientific method discovered but only partially employed by the Italian, Golgi. Now every medical work in every language

310 Natural History

in the world gives page after page to the work of Cajal.

To attain this end the student, if he is destined for research, must be born with an intense interest in one certain aspect of science; his tastes must not be too diffuse; he must especially love either the rocks, the fossils, the plants, the insects, mathematical problems, psychology, chemistry, astronomy— the one special form of scientific in- quiry that attracts him most is that in which he will best succeed. This dis- crimination may not come at first; it may come after many trials, as in the case of Pasteur, who started as a crys- tallographer, continued as the discov- erer of a new universe of ultra-micro-

scopic life, and ended his life as founder

of the great science of Bacteriology. Finally, the student must be en- dowed with the stimulus of ambition. Many young men are gifted in all the other essential qualities but are totally devoid of ambition. In many cases the professor in charge of their work has to supply the ambition, to spur, to stimu- late, even to threaten the student in order to compel him to continue a certain piece of research and push it through to the point of publication. May I therefore close this informal disquisition on ‘The Born Naturalist” with the lines from Milton’s Lycidas:

Ambition is the spur

That doth the clear spirit raise To shun delights

And live laborious days.

LR, ae

: , ¢

Courtesy of Charles Scr*bne*’s Sons

Louis Pasteur in his laboratory

“Impressions of Great Naturalists’: A Review’ By WILLIAM K. GREGORY

Curator, Comparative and Human Anatomy, American Museum

HE great naturalists of the Vic- torian age, Lyell, Darwin, and the astronomers, revealed to

mankind a new earth and a more spacious universe, and freed the human spirit from the shackles of the old Semitic cosmology. Then Pasteur and his successors opened the way of salva- tion for the human body and mind through the discovery of nature’s laws and the mastery of her forces. These and other great leaders still speak to us through their imperishable writings, but inexorable Time has removed them from the stage, and the great inspira- tion that came from personal contact with them is no longer possible. Fovr- tunately for us, the author of Impres- sions of Great Naturalists is not t young to have sat at the feet of Hux!-y, or to have lived in the stirring 17 when Darwin’s works were winmog recognition and acceptance; nor is he too old to infuse the learning of the fathers with the ever new spirit of a growing science. Fortunately, too, he has had the most intimate acquaintance with leading representatives of all the special fields of Natural History in its broadest sense, and in this book he makes them live again before us, letting us behold the men themselves, the forces and circumstances that de- termined their careers, and the broad results of their life work.

In the essay on Alfred Russell Wallace the author shows how nature and nurture conspire to make a natural- ist, ond what a fortunate combination of h redity and environment produced the -o-disecoverer of the principle of Nat val Selection. We follow Wallace on is wanderings in the tropical

forests, and observe him absorbing rast accumulations of facts, which were afterward discharged in the form of great generalizations: on the sig- nificance of colors in nature, on the origin of adaptations through natural selection, and the like. The excellent personal relations of Darwin and Wallace, each recognizing the other’s independent discovery of the prin- ciple of natural selection, make pleasant reading.

The essay on Darwin traces the formative influences at Cambridge and on the voyage of the Beagle around the world, which prepared Darwin for his truly sublime discoveries. A quotation is necessary to do justice to the subject: “Where his great predecessors Buffon and Lamarck had failed, Darwin won through his unparalleled genius as an observer and reasoner, through the absolutely irresistible force of the facts he had assembled, and through the simplicity of his presentation. Lacking the literary graces of his grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, and the obscurity of Spencer, Darwin was understood by every one as every one could under- stand Lincoln. It is true the cause was immediately championed by able men, but victory was gained, not by the vehement and radical Heckel nor yet by the masterly fighter Huxley, but through the resistless power of the truth as Darwin saw it and presented it. It was not a denial, as had been the great skeptical movement of the end of the eighteenth century, but an affirma- tion. Darwin was not destroying, but building; yet at the time good and honest men trembled as if passing through an earthquake, for in the whole

Osbor, Henry Fairfield. Impressions of Great Naturalists. Published October, 1924, by Charles Scribner’s Sons.

history of human thought there had been no such cataclysm.” The author shows that Darwin’s achievements are so unique that his place in the history of ideas is next to Aristotle, who preceded him by more than two thousand years.

In the addresses on Joseph Leidy and Edward Drinker Cope the author presents a vivid contrast between these two American naturalists of the highest rank, whose very names are unknown to the great majority of Americans today, notwithstanding their far-reach- ing discoveries in the vertebrate fossils and vertebrate evolution. Leidy, who patiently described and accurately figured many of the first fragmentary mammalian fossils from the ancient deposits of the West, is described as a master of details, of accurate descrip- tion, of finished workmanship, cautious and sure, rarely venturing generaliza- tions, but leaving a treasure house of splendidly collected evidence for evolu- tion. Cope, on the other hand, was brilliant, daring, combative, highly original, wandering at will over the rast fields of vertebrate zoélogy and vertebrate paleontology, incautious, often hasty and inaccurate, but a great organizer and innovator in classification.

In his accounts of John Burroughs and John Muir the author attempts to harmonize with his favorite doctrine of the ‘‘racial soul” the striking differ- ences between these two distinguished nature lovers. This doctrine is in brief that the human soul is full of reminis- cences, responding to past conditions and experiences, and especially that it differs widely in different strains and races. Though the tribes of psycholo- gists and anthropologists may sneer, the author thinks it well supported by direct evidence, and an inevitable in- ference from what is known of the hered- itary and physiological bases of behavior in different races of animals.

Natural History

In “The New Order of Sainthood” the author, almost unintentionally, answers those who preach that modern biology is hostile to the religious spirit. He traces the rise of two great lines of thought: the Oriental movement, con- cerned only with man’s relation to God and lacking curiosity about natural law, and the Western movement of the search for natural law. The latter movement after deploying widely among the Greeks, subsided for a long period; then, regaining power in Coper- nicus and Galileo, it culminated in Darwin. Here man is again perceived as a part of nature; in the study of nature man finds his physical well- being; man through nature becomes the redeemer of physical man. The author argues that, if the laws of nature are manifestations of the divine power and wisdom, the attitude of the Church toward these laws should not

be hesitant, defensive or apologetic, but active, receptive and aggressive.

Considered in this way, the great scien- tific inquiry of the latter half of the nineteenth century is not destructive, but constructive, purifying, and regen- erating; it takes us back to the lost faith of Saint Augustine, which found in nature a manifestation of the divine order of things. The author conse- quently regards Pasteur, the devout

‘and humble investigator, as the great-

est benefactor of mankind since the time of Jesus Christ, and, how Pasteur was inspired by religious sentiment, pleads that he be enro'led among the saints and enshrined in our ‘athedrals.

At this time, when many deny ‘he very fact of evolution and wuld gladly erase the names of Darwin ind his successors from the memor: of mankind, Professor Osborn’s 0k comes as a fresh revelation of © veil sublime version of man and of na_ ire.

showing

od” lly, lern init. Ss of eon- God ural

of tter lely long per- in ved y of vell- mes The of vine the not tie, ive. ien- the ive, ren- lost und vine nse- ‘out pat- the ing ous led

our

he ld ind of 10k ire.

In Memoriam

The American Museum of Natural History has recently suffered a severe loss in the death of Dr. Louis Robert Sullivan, associate curator of physical anthropology, who passed away April 23, 1925, in Tucson, Arizona, where he had taken up temporary residence in the hope that his health might be restored.

At a joint meeting of the Scientific and Administrative Staffs of the Museum held April 27, 1925, minutes and resolutions were adopted from which the following is quoted:

“During the early years of Dr. Sullivan’s service he laid the foundations for a career in human biology, seeking training in general anatomy with Doctor Gregory at the Museum, with Professor Huntington in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and in general anthropology with Professor Boas at Columbia University, receiving the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1922. But from the first, his genius for research was evident, there appear- ing at short intervals seven important studies in racial anatomy, each of which made a worthy contribution. The war interrupted these investigations, Doctor Sullivan entering the army in 1918 and serving until general demobilization.

“His first important field undertaking was a study of races in the Hawaiian Islands, an investigation in which the Bishop Museum of Honolulu coéperated with the American Mu- seum. In all, eighteen months were spent in the Islands, during which time a careful study of the native Hawaiian type was made and practically ali the children in the public schools of Honolulu examined. For the most part these data remain unpublished, yet two me- moirs, dealing with the anthropology of the Polynesians, have been completed.

“Soon after Doctor Sullivan returned from Hawaii, a severe illness confined him to his ho se for many months. The nature of this

il ess ealled for a change of climate, so as soon as he was able to travel he set out for the “. wthwest, taking up temporary residence in T. son, Arizona. There his health improved so narkedly, that within a few months he to. up active field-work, making studies of Mcxieans and Indians in the vicinity. Later he varried on archxological explorations in N: Mexico and finally set out on an exhaus-

tiv racial survey of the western Indian tribes, fol ving up new character determinations of his .wn devising. With a wealth of new data he : turned to the Museum, May, 1924.

Notes

“Unfortunately, shortly after his arrival in New York, his health took a more serious turn, necessitating his return to Tucson, where after a lingering illness he passed away.

“BE it therefore resolved, that

“WE, the Scientific and Administrative Staffs of the Museum, record with sorrow the death of our colleague, Doctor Louis Robert Sullivan, a man of sterling character, of fine personal qualities, and a scientist of unusual promise. His field technique was admirable; no one was ever more successful with native peoples than he. In the exhibition work of the Museum he showed not merely skill and originality, but positive genius. Thus, it is, that though still young in years, he leaves with us in passing, the impress of a great life.

(Signed) Roy Watpo MINER, Secretary, Scientific Staff. (Signed) Henry J. LANGHAM, Secretary, Administrative Staff.”

THe Gratacap Memorrat TaBLet.—A marble tablet, a memorial to Louis Pope Gratacap, the first curator of mineralogy in this Museum has been placed upon the north wall of the Morgan Memorial Hall by the New York Mineralogical Club. The tablet which measures 24x18 inches, carries a bas- relief portrait of Doctor Gratacap, and is inscribed with the following words:—

In memory of Louis Pope Gratacap,

Scientist, Author, Educator, for forty-

one years in charge of the Minevais of this

Museum, and for sixteen years Curator.

Erected by the New York Mineralogical

Club.

The tablet was dedicated on the evening of May 13, Dr. George F. Kunz, president of the Mineralogical Club making the presenta- tion address. President Henry Fairfield Osborn accepted the tablet on behalf of the Trustees of the Museum.

The Rev. Henry Mottet, a classmate of Doctor Gratacap, spoke eloquently of his personality and magnetism.

Mr. Lewis Sayre Burchard, praised his gifts as a writer and a public speaker.

Mr. Herbert P. Whitlock paid a tribute to his scientific and curatorial work.

Other speakers were Mr. Julius Hyman, Mr. Joseph L. Buttenweiser, Mr. George C. Lay, and Mr. Gilman 8. Stanton, treasurer of the New York Mineralogical Club.

Asia

ARCH OLOGICAL RESEARCH IN Asta.—The archeological reconnaissance work contem- plated by the American Museum this season in connection with the Third Asiatic Expedition under the leadership of Roy Chapman Andrews, promises sure rewards. The region to be investigated is the Gobi Desert and the adjacent foothill country bordering the south- eastern base of the Altai Mountains, fully 1000 miles inland from the nearest Pacific shore. It is true no actual proofs are avail- able that either our human precursors or even any very early man ever roamed these now partially desiccated regions; nevertheless, a number of circumstances contribute to the fair prospects.

The first occasion for faith in this new ven- ture is that Walter Granger and other mem- bers of the previous expedition into the Gobi in 1922-23 have already found in two or three places traces of a Neolithic culture.

A second and very weighty circumstance 1s that considerable collections of both Paleo- lithic and Neolithic data have been excavated in recent years by a number of investigators, Russian, Swedish, French, and American, in

several of the regions bordering on Mongolia. ©

Thus the American Museum possesses a good Neoli.aie series from the headwater district of the Obi River, acrossthe Altai Mountains to the northwest. Professor Petrie of Vladivos- stock University is reported to have found, in the Lake Baikal district to the north, a cul- ture deposit containing no less than nine different levels. Dr. S. M. Shirokogoroff, whom I had the pleasure to meet in Shanghai, tells me of having found several Neolithic deposits along the banks of the Amur River to the north and northeast. In Manchuria, to the east, it is well known that Dr. Torii of Japan for a number of years has made extensive Neolithic discoveries. To the southeast, south, and southwest, in China proper, Dr. J. G. Andersson, mining adviser to the Chinese Government and a most en- thusiastic archeologist now for all of seven years, has made numerous exceedingly im- portant discoveries, in both caves and open sites, of what he considers a late Neolithic industry called by him the Yang-Shao culture after his first type station in Honan. In passing, it may be remarked that the ceramics of this culture, which is proto-Chinese in gen- eral character, shows definite connections with Mesopotamia and southeastern Europe and

Natural History

puts an end to the supposed complete independence and isolation of Chinese civiliza- tion. M.C. W. Bishop, of the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D. C., together with his American and Chinese associates, has likewise made discoveries bordering on the prehistoric in both northeastern and north central China. Finally, last year Teilhard de Chardin, of the Natural History Museum in Paris, together with F. Licent of the Hoang Ho-Pai Ho Mu- seum of Tientsin, made the first positive and very remarkable discovery of a Mousterian industry beneath the loess of the Ordos region, i.e., the country of the great bend of the Yellow River. Paleolithic implements asso- ciated with extinct animal remains were found here, not in one but in several different locali- ties in the Kansu and Shensi provinces of China proper, as well as in the adjacent parts of Inner Mongolia. With prehistoric finds so numerous in all directions around the territory we expect to explore, it seems certain that similar discoveries await us. Whether or not we shall find evidences of Quaternary man depends, of course, on the presence or absence in the region of actual Pleistocene deposits; but of post-Quaternary or Neolithic man we can be fairly certain.

In view of the above considerations two things stand out prominently. One is that the old traditional idea of Asia as the mother or inspirer of human culture, if not the actual cradle of the human race, seems in a fair way to be realized. The other is that scientific investigation is not dead in Asia—no, nor even asleep. We may perhaps flatter our- selves with the thought that the Third Asiatic Expedition has spurred on both local and foreign interest, for example, in archeology. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the Expedi- tion itself may contribute something to the elucidation of human prehistory in north- eastern Asia and thereby indirectly to the better understanding of the anthropologica! problem presented by pre-Columbian America

—N. C. NELson

Tue James Srmpson-RoosEvELT ExPepI- TION of the Field Museum of Natural Histor: sailed from New York May 11 for a destina- tion in southern and central Asia. Colone! Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., and his brother Kermit are in charge of this expedition, whic! has for its purpose the collecting of mamma! and other forms of animal life in a regio which hitherto has been worked very litt! These two sons of a father well known as

gifted naturalist and a keen observer have in- herited no little of his love of exploration. Kermit Roosevelt especially has hunted large game in many continents and has had in mind for a long time the possibility of this expedi- tion now under way.

Mr. James Simpson, a trustee of the Field Museum, has made it possible for the Roose- velts to undertake this expedition by provid- ing the necessary support, and the party goes well equipped for general zoélogical collecting. Mr. George K. Cherrie is a member of the party and his experience over so many years of museum collecting is a guarantee of the important results certain to be obtained by this undertaking. Additional collectors will doubtless be engaged in India or possibly in England, and no efforts will be spared to make the collections as thorough as possible.

The ultimate destination of this important expedition of the Field Museum is the Pamir region and the Thian Shan Mountains. In order to arrive at this inaccessible section of Asia the expedition must cross the Himalayas by way of Leh and the Karakoram Pass. The party will land in India at Bombay. Details of the movements of the expedition cannot be given in advance since they will be governed by local circumstances, but it is expected that work can be done in other parts of Turkestan and adjoining regions. Because of the uncertainty of local transportation and other matters which may not be foretold in advance, the duration of the trip may be prolonged beyond the present year.

The region to be worked is best known to the general public because it is the home of Marco Polo’s sheep, one of the very finest of the wild sheep with splendid curling horns. Other large game only slightly less spectacular includes the Thian Shan ibex (Capra sibirica), the horns of which are much larger than those of te European ibex; the Markhor (Capra fal xeri), most prized by sportsmen of all the wild goats; and the long-haired tiger.

hough some collections have been made ins region and papers have been published h: on these results, the area under ques- tio. is for American museums practically ter’ incognita and there remains considerable to done there for the modern zodlogical col ‘or. The results should be especially Int- sting when compared with collections ma on the north by Roy Chapman Andrews anc ne Third Asiatic Expedition and those

Notes

made on the south by the Faunthorpe-Vernay Expeditions.

The Roosevelts take with them the best wishes of all for a successful expedition, and natural science in this country is most fortu- nate in having for patrons such men as Mr. James Simpson who are so generous in the matter of financial support.

“Arcturus” Expedition

Recent letters and radio messages received from the Arcturus Expedition of the New York Zoological Society, under the leadership of Mr. William Beebe relate many interesting experiences and give a vivid idea of the re- markable progress made by this expedition.

After a fruitful voyage to the Sargasso Sea the expedition proceeded to the Galapagos Islands where, through a combination of in- shore and deep-sea collecting, as well as diving in shallow water with the aid of the submarine hood, they were fortunate in securing unique observations and unrivalled material for mu- seum exhibition. The expedition returned to Balboa in the Canal Zone early in May and is now taking on supplies for a second six weeks’ trip to Galapagos to complete their oceanographic work in the Pacific, after which they intend to make a final visit to the Sar- gasso Sea on the way home.

The readers of Natura History will be interested in the following extract from a letter received from Professor W. K. Gregory of the Museum staff who accompanied the Expedi- tion, dated S. Y. “ Arcturus,’”’ Balboa, Canal Zone, May 7, 1925:

“ As to life on the ‘Arcturus,’ we have en- joyed more sights and wonders per diem than I can digest and assimilate. The volcanic eruption was most satisfying and sky-filling as we watched it toward nightfall. Yetit was much less exciting than the Tide Rip and the swarming fishes of the shallow bays as seen from under water. The Tide Rip was a great strip of troubled waters, due to the disloca- tion of normal currents, which met and clashed before us. Myriads of small in- vertebrates were swept together in this way, and sea birds fluttered after the fish, but the most imposing item was an enormous troop of dolphins that came charging down towards us in crescent formation.

“The fishes of a volcanic island as seen under- water from our diver’s helmet would make a wonderful museum group. Background of

great volcanic blocks seen through the misty distance, float of irregular blocks carpeted with soft-hued sessile invertebrates. Center of interest, an immense flock of hundreds of ‘cowfishes’ (really surgeon fishes), mostly streaming leisurely past, but many of them browsing on the rocks. Yellow tails waving languidly—perhaps as a warning ‘keep off my spikes.’ Tiny nibbling mouths with close-set horselike teeth and extremely long horselike snout surmounted by bulging cow- like eyes. On one side the observer trying to see through a cloud of small silvery fish, swarming like gnats about his helmet—a friendly young sea lion peering curiously at him,—dozens of impudent fat-bodied poma- centrids with protruding lips and pickaninny eyes almost nibbling his legs. In the rocks a few cautious blennies (about ten inches long) slithering along the surface and diving instantly into the crevices when the observer shoots his spear at them.

“Thanks to Beebe’s many-sided and at the same time intensive interests and methods we are getting many slants on the vast, inter- connecting complexes of inshore, pelagic and deep-sea faunas. Direct observation of the fishes living in their own medium, study of fishes in aquaria, examination of stomach contents, dissection of muscles, etc. of fresh material, identification of fish, recording of many measurements and constant study of ecologic interrelationships, evolution, develop- ment, correlation of larval and post-larval stages with adult forms, keeps us all busy and leaves no time for ennui; to say nothing of exploring parties when on shore and the whole business of collecting. Oceanographic work includes sounding, taking temperatures at different levels, dredging, trawling and surface hauls, all going on almost every day when at sea. On the side of herpetology it was a great day when I first saw and photographed Conolophus and Amblyrhynchus, picking them up, watching them run or swim. Ambly. un- dulates in the water like a mosasaur. I grieve to admit that I caught a lovely garter snake and then let him escape while I was trying to put an Ambly. into the bag! I hardly dare begin to talk about the deep-sea fishes—but Isabel Cooper’s and Dwight Franklin’s excellent color drawings will give you a vivid idea of them.

“We are nowrefitting for our next trip south- ward, returning here about June 20. I hope we will take in the western end of the Sar- gasso Sea on the way home.”

Natural

History

Extinct Animals

A MAMMAL FROM THE Dinosaur BEDs oF Moncouia.—The red sandstone formation in Mongolia where the Third Asiatic Expedition found the famous dinosaur eggs has yielded another treasure. The expedition obtained besides the eggs a great series of skulls and skeletons of dinosaurs, mostly of the Proto- ceratops which laid them. Also they found a number of predacious dinosaurs and a few skulls of primitive lizards and other smaller creatures. One of these supposed small reptile skulls, when cleared from the rock, has turned out to be a mammal, belonging to one of the rare and little-known kinds that lived in the Age of Reptiles.

These Mesozoic mammals are exceedingly scarce, mostly known only from a few jaws and scattered teeth, and with one exception this is the oldest mammal skull ever found. It be- longs evidently to the order Multituberculata, a group of very primitive mammals which lived through the Age of Reptiles and became extinct at the beginning of the Age of Mam- mals. Their true relationships are in dispute, whether to the marsupials or to the mono- tremes, or neither, and it is hoped that this specimen mav help to settle the problem.

It is a point of interest that Professor Cope many years ago suggested as a possible reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs that these multituberculates developed the habit of sucking their eggs, for which purpose their teeth and jaws seemed to be very well adapted. Professor Osborn has already described a peculiar kind of dinosaur found near the eggs and strongly suspected of egg-stealing habits. Now we find that this ancient dinosaur nur- sery was infested by another marauder which, although diminutive in size, has long been under a similar suspicion.—W. D. MatrHew.

Invertebrates

A Luminous Spiner.—One day in Central Burma the trail in the jungle was exception |ly difficult. It was long past noon when I realized that the return journey would be equally long and tiring.

Camp lay on the other:side of a high raige of hills, and there was a short cut from he main trail that would save several miles, ut this trail was faint. I reached the supp: ed cut-off about dusk and followed it upw -d. Darkness came on swiftly and my pony to stumble. Somewhere we had missed ‘he trail. I dismounted, confident of reac’ ng camp without a trail, for at intervals I ¢ ld

S OP nm in ition ded ined and roto- nd a few aller otile ned the the

ngly and is is

be- lata, hich ame am- ute, yno- this

ope ison 1ese

of

ng ild

Notes 317

still glimpse the crest of the hills and I knew my general direction.

Fireflies sparkled here and there. Pres- ently, a few feet away, I saw a ball of light as large as a man’s thumb. This ball was stationary. Tying the horse, I advanced as carefully as possible toward the object, which was surrounded by thorny bushes. It did not move and I pressed the brush aside until I

Burmese never leave their houses after dark on account of their fear of spirits, so it is not surprising that the natives had never seen one, but some other traveler may be so fortunate as to capture one of these spiders.

The place where I saw the specimen was between the villages of Kyawdaw and Thit- kydaing, Pakkoku District, about 120 miles

Photograph by W. Hickle

Typical Burmese jungle like that in which the uminous spider was found. Shan beaters for a hunting

trip in the foreground

was directly over it; then I struck a match. There in full view was a spider, his large oval abdomen grayish with darker markings. Still he did not move, and as the match flame died out, his abdomen again glowed to full power, a completely oval light, similar in quality to that of the fireflies. Remembering native tales of poisonous insects and spiders, I wra; ed a handkerchief around one hand, part: the brush with the other, and when clos: enough, made a quick grab. Alas! The hanc’ -erchief caught on a stick before I could enci’. him and my treasure scurried away. I fo! owed as quickly as possible, but the light soon disappeared under stones, brush, or in ome burrow, for I never saw it again.

M: iy nights I searched in the jungle and ques: ned natives and white officers who had passe. through that district, but apparently no or else had reported a luminous spider, nor cn I find record of any known elsewhere.

west of Mandalay, Burma, in April, 1923. Three possible explanations have been ad- vanced: (1) That the spider had been eating fireflies. Dr. E. Newton Harvey on one occa- sion believed he had discovered a frog that was luminous, but on dissecting the frog, he found that it had eaten fireflies, which glowed through the belly with considerable intensity. This explanation I think could hardly apply to the case of the spider, which would not have eaten the fireflies whole, but would have sucked only the juices of the body. Moreover my examination was deliberate and the light was a perfect oval, conforming to the outline of the abdomen. Had the luminous matcrial been eaten, the light would have been diffused through the entire body. (2) An infection by luminous bacteria or fungi. Considering the habits and food of spiders, this explanation likewise seems improbable. (3) A true lumi- nous organ.—BarNuM Brown.

318 Natural

Dr. Horace W. STuNKARD, research asso- ciate in parasitology, American Museum, and this year on leave of absence from New York University, has returned from Europe, where he has been working on the parasitic worms collected by the American Museum’s Congo Expedition. From the first of September until the first of January he was at the Molteno Institute for Research in Parasitology, Cam- bridge University, Cambridge, England, and during the months of January and February at the Laboratoire de Parasitologie, Univer- sité de Paris. These laboratories were selected as the most suitable places in which to pursue the investigation since their large collections of African forms would aid greatly in determining the classification of doubtful or poorly preserved specimens. The facilities of these two research laboratories, probably the best of their kind in the world, were freely placed at the disposal of Doctor Stunkard, and the American Museum wishes gratefully to acknowledge the kindness and courtesy of the directors, Professor Nuttall of Cambridge University and Professor Brumpt of the Faculté de Médecine, Université de Paris.

The collection was shipped to Cambridge and Paris and returned to the Museum with- out breakage or loss.

The study of these worms has progressed

favorably; all the trematodes have been identified and a good start has been made on the cestode material. A number of forms new to science have been carefully described, and certain difficult helminthological questions, notably that concerning the tape worms of the rhinoceroses, have been elucidated. The study is being continued at the Museum, and we are looking forward to the time when this large and valuable collection will be available for exhibition and use.

While in England, Doctor Stunkard pub- lished a short paper describing Oculotrema hip- popotomi n.g., n.sp., from the eye of a hip- popotomus. This is the only polystome known to infest either birds or mammals. One of the five specimens of this new form is deposited in the parasitic collection of the department.

Another paper, ‘“‘The Present Status of the Amphistome Problem,’ an outgrowth of the Congo trematodes, is soon to appear in Parasitology.

Reptiles And Amphibians

Dr. G. Kinestey Nosie; curator of herpetology in this Museum, hasrecently been

History

elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

THe AmeRICAN Society oF ZOOLOGISTS has appointed Dr. G. Kingsley Noble as one of its representatives on the Advisory Board of Biological Abstracts. Doctor Noble was recently invited to the Wistar Institute for their Twentieth Anniversary of the Organiza- tion of the Advisory Board. At this meeting “Changes in Methods of Biological Research as Pursued by Museums and the Possibilities of the Future’”’ was discussed by Doctor C. E. McClung. This address was a plea for further coéperation between museums and_ the biological research workers of America.

Mammals

At the Seventh Annual Stated Meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists held April 7-11 in the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., Mr. H. E. An- thony, associate curator of mammals of the Western Hemisphere, American Museum, presented the following addresses: ‘‘The Pleistocene Mammalia preserved in the ash- beds of Punin, Ecuador; ‘‘A Statistical Sum- mary of the Mammalia of the Antilles.”’

Science Of Man

UnverR THE TiTLteE “THe Pounin Car- VARIUM: CRANIOLOGY” by Louis R. Sullivan and Milo Hellman, there has been issued by the department of anthropology, American Museum, a report on a human skull discovered in Quebrada Chalan, Punin, near Riobamba, Ecuador, in the course of a zodlogical expedi- tion under the leadership of Associate Curator Anthony. The point of greatest interest in connection with this find is its position in the midst of Pleistocene fauna. Messrs. Sullivan and Hellman examined the skull in great detail and find that it is basically related to the Australian and Melanesian type and funda- mentally different from the prevailing Mongo- loid American Indian types.

THE von LuscHaN ANATOMICAL COLLEC TION.—In 1924 the American Museum pur chased the important osteological collect gathered together in the course of many ye by the late Professor Felix von Luschan Berlin. The collection consists of more th. 5000 human crania, some eighty comp human skeletons, a good teaching collect. of anthropoid skeletons and skulls, an: comprehensive anthropological library. human crania and skeletons have been chec

Notes

with Professor von Luschan’s original cata- logue, which has been translated and re- organized, the crania placed in individual boxes, and the entire collection classified geographically, by continents, countries, provinces, etc., and placed in storage cabinets so that it is readily accessible to students.

The Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal

THe ComMITTEE ON AWARD has recom- mended to the National Academy of Sciences that the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal and honorarium be presented to Abbé Henri Breuil for his work in collaboration with MM. Capitan and Peyrony on the volume Les Combarelles des Eyzies, as the most out- standing contribution of 1924 in this field.

Henry Breuil is the foremost living authority on the archzology of the Old Stone Age. His chief contributions are the recognition of the great Aurignacian upper palolithic stage and the monographing of the entire Stone Age art of France and Spain. Les Combarelles des Eyzies is the last and most comprehensive of a series of epoch-making monographs. It

describes and interprets every one of the 291 figures discovered in the Grotto of Combarelles. Abbé Breuil is a man of untiring endeavor, great personal courage, and deliberate and

philosophic interpretative powers. He is the

head officer of the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, which was founded by the late Prince of Monaco. This is the eighth award of the distinguished Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal, previous presen- tations having been made as follows: 1917: Frank M. Chapman—Distribution of Bird Life in Colombia.

1918: William Beebe—A Monograph of the Pheasants.

1919: Robert Ridgway—Birds of North and Middle America (Part VIII).

1920: Othenio Abel—Methoden der Palao-

biologischen Forschung.

1921: Bashford Dean—A Bibliography of

Fishes (Volume I).

1922: William Morton Wheeler—Ants of the American Museum Congo Expedi- tion.

Ferdinand Canu Later Tertiary Bryozoa.

Henry FarrFretD OsBorn, Chairman, American Museum of Natural History

CuHar.LEs D. Watcort,

Smithsonian Institution.

Freperic A. Lucas American Museum of Natural History.

1923: North American

and Quaternary

New Members

Since the last issue of Narurau History the following persons have been elected members of the American Museum, making the total membership 8234.

Patrons: Mr. Louis J. Horowirz AnD Mrs. Louis J. Horowitz.

Fellow: Mr. Harry F. Knicur.

Life Members: Mrespames HEnry J. FIsHEr, Mownrot D. Rosrnson, HENRY ALVAH Strone: Miss Craupra Lea PHELPs 2p; Pror. H. von W. Scuutte, Dr. Isatan Bow- MAN; Messrs. WiLit1AM C. AtwaTEeR, Max FarRRAND, ALBERT R. Fisu, CHARLES LeEy- LAND HotMEs, FREDERICK Hussey, E. PEN- NINGTON PEarRSON, KERMIT ROOSEVELT, Jutius RosENWALD, GrorcE B. Sr. GeorGE, D. B. Wentz, Harotp C. Wuirman, J. Macy WILLETs, AND Henry WITTMER.

Sustaining Members: Messrs. A. GRAHAM Mites, FREDERICK OSBORN, AND GEorGE I. Rockwoop.

Annual Members: Mrspames Wm. ALEXx- ANDER, NELL Boni, GEorGcE W. CHANDLER, James M. Cuarues, Epwarp K. Dunnam, Otro GERDAU, SAMUEL HEILNER, ALEXANDER IsELIN HENDERSON, WALTER R. HERSCHMAN, G. M. Hupparp, E. Mecke., GEorGE Evstis PAINE, Epwarp McCuure Perers, WALTER J. SALMON, AND 8S. Breck P. TROWBRIDGE; Tue Misses Mary A. SARGENT AND E. B. Scripps; THe Rr. Rev. Georce WInsLow PLUMMER AND THE Hon. JoHn W. Davis; Doctors WILLIAM BRANOWER, MATHER CLEVELAND, D. Bryson DeLavan, HENRY S. Dunninc, RicHarp H. Horrman, JAMES W. JosiinG, JAMES ALEXANDER MILLER, WM. Barc ay Parsons, Jr., C. WILLIAM RupsaM, AND GEORGE N. SLATTERY; Messrs. Myron ACKLAND, WiiLLIAM ARMOUR, HARRISON AT- woop, THomas T. Barr, Jr., James G. BLAINE Jr., THomas W. Bowers, Donatp F. Busa, Jr., Doucias 8S. BUSHNELL, WILLIAM Byrp, Tuomas M. CarnecIg, Jr., Henry E. Cog, Jr., Morris Cooper, Rosert H. Cory, J. CHEEVER CowpIN, Preston Davin, Davip Dows, WintHRoP E. Dwicut, ALFRED EcK- STEIN, J. HeGeEMAN Foster, Conrap G GopparD, Henry A. GOLWYNNE, Davip M Heyman, J. L. Hopkins, SaAMvEL B. Jongs, W. EvGene KimsBaui, Max Kops, Arruur B. LAWRENCE, Louis Livineston, JULIAN W. Mack, Joun J. MacKay, C. Ertc W. Mc- Donap, GEorGE A. MENDES, Ray Morris,

320 NATURAL Eart Dopce Ossporn, LeicH H. PEARSALL, Henry P. Perry, EvGens A. Rav, SHaw H. REYNOLDS, JOSEPH C. RicHarpD, Erastus T. Roserts, Mark H. Roprnson, Howarp LEC. Roome, E. H. Rosenquest, ArtHur H. ScrIBNER, ARTHUR SMADBECK, WARREN SMADBECK, ALEx. C. Soper, FREDERIC W. SPARKMAN, GALEN L. Stone, DANIEL DENT- SON STREETER, FREDERICK C. TAyYLor, NEWELL W. Titton, Ernest B. Tracy, WaLtTerR TRIMBLE, EpMUND Q. TROWBRIDGE, CHARLES H. Watnwaeianat, A. L. D. WARNER, GeorGE E. Watson, JAy A. WEBER, RALPH J. Witurams, Rocer H. WILLIAMs, AND LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE LIBRARY.

Associate Members: MrspaMEs GEorGE AL- BERT CONVERSE, EpMuND Otis Hovey, J. H. Poor, I. VorKINK, GEOFFROY WILLIAMS, AND Ertra 8S. Witson; THe Misses GERTRUDE W. Corrin, HELEN 8. Jones, Harrier Kirk, AND Lucy SUTHERLAND; Lr. Compr. H. H. J. Benson, U. 8S. N., Rear Apm. WILLARD H. Brownson, U.S.N.,Cou. 8. A. CHENEY, Cot. Witt1am WEsLEy Grsson, Cou. J. R. R. Hannay, Rear Apo. U. R. Harris, U.S. N., Rear ApMm. JoHN Husparp, U.S. N., Capr. C. L. Hussey, U. 8. N., Gent. HENry JER-

History

Rev. C. H. Brent, THE Rev. Epwarp L BuckEyY, THE Rev. RosBert Jounston, D.D., THE Rev. Hay Watson SMITH; PROFESSORS CotureR Coss, F. Crete, aND JESSE EARL Hype; THe Hon. Harry 8S. New; Doctors CuHesTER A. DaRLING, CLAUDE GAILLARD, Won. JUNGMANN, JAMES F. MITCHELL, AND GILBERT Murray; Messrs. Epwarp R. ALEXANDER, JR., José Lopez Araiza, F. L. Betin, Epw. J. BERMINGHAM, CHARLES BonNER, HENRY W. Brown, GeEorGE S. Buck, Atvert C. CarpEentTeR, Louis Car- rick, T. M. Casgy, ALEXANDER LAMAR Casparis, Geo. M. Ciemson, GEORGE CuinTon, JAMEs L. CrANnzE, JAMES CUNNING- HAM, WaLTeER R. Drury, Luis DELGaApbo- PapiLLa, ArTHUR M. Etuis, A. Rex FLINN, JoHn A. GILLESPIE, MircHeLtt Harrison, GEORGE HELLEN, GatL HAMILTON HINMAN, R. S. R. , ArcH1BALD Hopkins, JOHN G. Howarp, C. E. Jounson, Joun A. KEeatina, W. G. Kine, G. W. Kinxeap, J. BERNARD LaBovuss, H. C. Laverack, Jr., HENry W. LEEpDs, Ross L. LErrLer, Frank M. Losos, NorMAN E. Mack, R. J. Mippieton, Mon- Tacu A. Puiuurps, E. Francis Rigas, WM. McC.Letuian Ritrer, Warts L. RicumMonp, OREON E. Scort, Harry B. Spau.pine, JOHN

vEY, Rear Ap. CHar Es O’NEIL, U.S. N., Capt. CHESTER WELLS, U. S. N., THE Rr.

M. TrowsripGeE. Woxicotr TucKERMAN, Maovrice N. WatsH, AND Geo. W. WALTON.

Fish—Reptile Number July-August

The July-August number of Natural History will appear under the joint editorship of Dr. E. W. Gudger, associate in ichthyology, and Dr. G. Kingsley Noble, curator of herpetology. In this number there will be a finely illustrated article by Dr. David Starr Jordan on the giant game fishes of Santa Catalina. Professor E. Newton Harvey, of Princeton University, will describe the luminous fishes of the Banda Sea and will explain the curious mechanisms by means of which they screen off their lights at will. These remarkable organs are entirely different from those of all other luminous fishes. Mr. J. T. Nichols will figure and describe some interesting Chinese fresh-water fishes from the collections of the Third Asiatic Expedition. Professor E. C. Starks, of Stanford University will recount some personal experiences of a fish collector in Brazil. Dr. E. W. Gudger will contribute another of his series of unique articles. Mr. C. M. Breder, Jr. of the New York Aquarium, will give a vivid description of some of his experiences while studying the reptiles and amphibians of Darien, “The Tale of an Old Gator’’ will be told by Mr. Percy Viosca, Jr., Dr. C. C. Mook will recount “The Ancestry of the Alligators,” and personal experiences of Mr. W Henry Sheak, “With Big Snakes in Captivity” will take the reader behind the scenes of the traveling menagerie. For the first time the life story of the red salamander will be made known as the result of the observations of Mr. S. C. Bishop An interesting account of “The Iguanas of Bitter Guana Cay” by Mr. A. M. Bailey will be illustrated by unique photographs, and with the aid of a fine series of duotones Dr. G. Kingsley Noble will give Narurat History readers “Glimpses of the New Hall of Reptile and Amphibian Life’’ in the American Museum.