The economic geology of the non-metallic minerals, based on American examples

Name: The economic geology of the non-metallic minerals, based on American examples
Author: Kemp, James Furman

Kemp, James Furman

The economic geology of the non-metallic minerals, based on American examples

Kemp, James Furman · 1895 · Historical

The economic geology of the non-metallic minerals, based on American examples by Kemp, James Furman (1895). Full text and reference in the Mountain Man…

Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: archive.org.

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The Economic Geology Of The

Non-Metallic Minerals, Based On American Examples,

JAMS, EF, UEP, 4. Bes de.

Professor of Geology in the School of liines, Columbia College, New York City.

Table Of Contents.

Chapter I. The Carbon Series, 1-14,

Chapter II, The Carbon Minerals, continued; Peat; Lis- nite or Brown-Coal; Post-Carboniferous Coals.14-28.

ChapterlIII, General Geolosical Literature on Coal; Post

Carboniferous Coals continued. 28-49. Chapter IV, Carboniferous Coals, 50-85. Chapter V, Petroleum Seriass, 85-108. Chapter VI, Structural Materials, ineluding Building

otone, Slate, Limes and Cament, 106-139. Chapter VII,Water and Salines, 140-156. ChapterVIII,Soils, Fertilizers and Mineral Paints, 156-170,

Chapter Ix,tliscellaneous Minerals; Abrasives, Asbestos, Fluorite, Glass Sands, Lithographic Lime- stone; ilica, Precious Stones; Soapstone and Tale; Sulphur. 170-End.

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CHAPTER I. THE CARBON SERIES. THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH VEGETABLE TISSUE ACCUMULATES. The necessary conditiontthat must surround vegetable tissue in order to render ‘Ss accumulation possible are those of retarded oxidation.

S ied by a protectins sble tissue, as 3 leaves in a forest,

L If exposed on the et nsumes and passes Sass, LMEavine a smaieb manera! h d

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behind. But water as in the accumu- elta, a lake or a swamp, the increments of fresh mater-

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jal may so much exceed the ioss from oxidation that great accumulations

esult. For comparative purity of deposit, i.e., smell mineral residue or ash, much sediment must be necessarily absent. Such cecnditions are best Sapna ied by swamps in which trees and smaller srowth project above the quiet, standing water so that whenever trunks, branches, leavos,etc., fall they are preserved. Rkoots and subaqueous plants add their quota and if subsidence of the aréa accompanies and keeps pace with accumula tion the final resmtt may be very considerable. Little if any sediment ha epee the recesses of swamps because under ordinary conditions an) inflowing water as was shown many years ago fcr the inundated lands of

the lower Mississippi, is filtered of its Load in the outer margins. pevere floods are then the only afent for the introduction of Tereign material.

Inasmuch aS in this connection the subject or the accumulation of vegetable tissue is treated with a@ view of throwing light on the forma-— tion of coal seams, the followins types of deposit alone are mentioned and smaller forms are omitted.

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It is a mooted question whether the vast results of submarine, veg- etable growth in the form of algae, etc.,ever accumulate in permanent amount and notable purity. Their substance is largoly soft and readily Rona caaa age even though protected by water, and the circumstances of

Geir growth in a medium which down to great cepths is never wholly Here and whose specaitie pravity approximates their own, militate a- gainst such a result. The actual evidance from soundings

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the lana witnout necessarily requiring a preexisting lake, provided

Bai lintall is quite high and tne general sradient of frainase is Lov. Thus atone iow coastal plains, such as now exist on the Atlantic sea- board, the conditions are favorable and some very extended swamps have forned the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina is of this charecter and not a few others of smaller size are knowm. They differ from the saltwager swamps earlier referred to, in being fresh and thus letter adapted to plant life. None the less they are close

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une coast Line of a great and slishtly elevated plain and would re-

quire but Little submerge ence to bury up their vegetation beneath en- croaching sediments. Ahehoust less extended than the swamps that yiele ed the coal of Carboniferous and eee PEerieds, they douutiess iurnash our best illustration of the condittLons: prevailing in those Limes It is also to be noted that the elevation of a low and shelv- ing coast may develop on the Landward side of its former sb IDES bars and especially if mangroves are present, lagoon. of very considerable size, that vill pass from a brackish water condition orn that ef Sth eek water swamps.

TUNDRAS , The researches of Dall. Russell and others in Alaska have been fruitful in showines sti ereat extent and the rank PRE eI character of the vegetation in those child latitudes. In the interior of Alaska the surface is unglaciated, because although the ene is cold, the rainfall is insufficient. for the great se cumiu Lalor of snov. ihe short summers are hot and develop a very vigorous growth of mosses and stunted higher types of vegetation, while a foot or so below the surface the Seid is frozen in perpetual ice. Innumera ible pools of

standings water dot the fairly level surface, and with the soft mossy serowth into which the traveler on foct sinks nearly to the Knees, im- pede advance. Conditions are thus favorable for great accumulations

of fairly pure vegetable matter and may be analogous to those which

in some Localities have led in the pass. to the formation of coal seams; but the seneral character of the coal flora as yet studied, Suggests a warm rather than a cold-elimate. RUSS ell has also described very dense srowths of forests even on the moraines which rest upon the ice of the Malaspina glacier.

ar as our knowledge euished Trom marine

In surmmary it may be fairly stated that so today gives us an indication, land growths as distin are the more important sources and freshmater salts are superior to ee The most Tavorable conditions of all are met along Low coastal plains, in regions of abundant rainfall and A ee grad- font. Ey oie? Ces superadded a progressi ed periods of interuption which allow of ere:

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eat swamp development r e conditions are all present for the repeated formation of beds oF plant tissue and for their periodic burial and see in a sedimentary SGries. The application of these preliminary VS ea tO (¢he 253 terpretation of ecal formations in Har epoular areas will later follow.

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age of water is low and the tendency to air-slack much less marked than in the lignites. In anthracite tne vegetable structure is hut rarely apparent; the coal presents shining,lustrous surfaces and com- pact, homogeneous texture. The decrease in oxygen and hydrogen is very marked and the carbon has mounted to above “90 &. The nitrogen has almost diaappeared and the water in the freshly mined coal is low. The anthracites resist air-slacking much the best of all.

[he general course of the se chemical changes is shown in the sub- Wren TS Praces cally accepted by all pases Sey All sES are reckoned on an ahs-free basis, and are selected arying Series so as to he as representative as “possible. coal, etc., later on will be given many actual an-

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C H 6 N Total “oody Tissue - - - 50 6. 43 iy, BOD: Peat - 59 6 Da oe LOO. Php.eNLtS- - SS 69 ape ah ete 0.8 109.3 Bituminous Coal- 82 5 Nis Ne 100.8 Anthracite - - - - - 95 ee eS Trace 100.

The further stage in the process would be the elimination of oxy- fen and ee and the change of the carbon to graphite. In the Rhode Island-Massachusctts coals this is in part accomplished, for there aa nee erste 1S much graphite substance through the coal, and in many See ey Schists and quartzites we doubtless have the pure meta- morphosed carbon. Some close chemical analysis is necessary, however, tO gee sure that in the Rhode Island case we have not still some hy~ drocarbons, very high in carbon, for in the published analyses hydro- Ben and oxygen Still appear in considerable amount. The last stage of the cehnge leaves only the mineral residue or ash behind.

All the reactions in the alteration from plant tissue to coal we do not fully understand notwithstanding the fact that the main feat- uréssS are sketched above, The conditions that have su peace ks these ereat be ds Oot vegetable products while buried in the earth, cannot be reproduced in the laboratory although many attempts have been made. In some cases it doubtless occupied vast periods of time, yet in instances timbers buried in old, abandoned chambers of coal mines, especially if such nave been temporatily on fire, have changed in a few years to coal, anc may even be coal at one end of a stull and wood at the other.

HE. ©. Moffatt, (iM. HEH. Peb.1887)described such a case from Sc cranton, in which a stull, 10 ft.long, and somewhat crushed at the upper end was buried in refuse and gob in a burning mine fon, thirty years, On being excavated it was found to sraduatie from unchanzed wood at the base, through charcoal to a true bituminous coalliat the tor Similar cases have been met abroad-(Mietzsch. Geol. der Kohlenlager, p.234)

fhe condition of the woody tissue at the outset of the deposition may have exerised an important influence. If more fully oxidized in some deposits than others by reason of longer exposure to the air, the Subsequent result might be more or less modified Thus J, Stevenson regards such an original, specially oxidized material as the chief cause of the formation of anthracite in the coal series of Pennsylvania. It 18 conceivable also that variation in the character of vegetation might exercise some, though probably not sreat influence. The compos-

on Oa

. . — 7 Ae ’ Mn rom 1s ¥ 1 0 VT 7 Yr 4 a P ‘ noealed , a5 i etait ee -hA COM- ry : A Sy: J Att e fe wate es wid ; als has been ap Pee 4 H ompsared with a i : ; COM ‘ f coals ha shen it om Cf Stax de sec the ash of coa! sit when it ‘hanical sedi 1 tet ? doll C of the deposi ey BS ay the mechanice oa 1 t, 4 fi 2 - . m ) 4 ae ae oe a - x . my cf 4 MI ip Opel 7 ‘ 3 ; Tie . me reine q i met Ul ke G Ol T pa L Su ch om 2 al J. 9k “t a an) Ct ULit : to aes or wood-asnes it silicates of alunine “e+ he Lett out and SAG: aie oa a 13 Co ao eS ‘7 AF eal? 4 : nae. eS S moctiw Tree silic +r cal Ci te and ey Psu lijowance i My he ore nee Te s chiefly seg appl Dee tah making such allowance an in wooc- x 1 Sp: + 1 ‘@ i Bi eS aoe WJ % 5 A i F eC z t ae iP, : : : 2 € ad in i Cc t ! Va wee i - Sf ctote Uk YA ves difficulties. uncant in coal-ash ization the as involves ditt. are less abuncant i x Of earponization rn ’ i 7 sa oe a ’ i , aia) e i 4 " : m . 4 ote ; t. 5 z 2] k 1] e Cee and 2 +t in the iy wr U1} Paes © ral ; ne end S Py +, +A em an 7 Vila wu 7 os Nn a / — . m — Aa ' avvare . , TO 1 nce 28 ; open wate: . rOY re= hes, and the inferance d out by percolating 4 eEEG HS of error p am i-~ f° os vee Kt - oS & s ’ 6 , sa Cri ass tA , 7 ame be en Lleache tL ob] em an bd S Me me oJ f 4 ee . ri 2) i reach licalia ot Aave ets ea a a L + h ra) PD Deer Sr o 1 orced 3 : oe SC ar Sr de as lL LO SEL : SINnay) [, on {tem -b awry a + "Taw 4 ah] es ene tv} oe 7 FS ts SOUr Cs a aeers under the Car k Ont many vat ic that bUt Litt risus Of reolog We ete Aw” 4 tseli nt themselves, the (See Dana's 7 as: ual Cher Si oone ees +E ae es ' I - Loatitc 4 x ) bi! /- oa r f te sen ‘dable resulis. (See o 31. plants either tines ang Mining ime reraraple resu XS 4. Fossil pila shale-partines Lilie : x ; a ay) ¢ Tcemp whee pA “ Hite 7 n Nila ta 4 Fene C weg talt A ey 1 Chr eri ry “4 avy qa if OOdOY re i - t; 1é ePTrous ALE ' Of The root .and ot a 2a Or ext F 7 . x Fs a tea dQ — A Ss ae he ahs s in the snales oO 2 f five us a bette! - - form of data ee Seed Wena ae eam itself give us ; any other Torm o in the alter-— : +- 2 ee Al a Sean itu : + h EY) d 06S a2) + ; . yy ] ACP 1n DLE i slates in Geena ate vegetation, than d hich has taken place ij res from : - + Noa EC ww Vc G Trin i icL. : St an ON r & A se fon 9 h Ty VO 3) fe T a i J 4 tne z + van) q QO) c tt T V mo fl pis To) 4 a ' 2 r eC i ‘ ed a) : TT + charact t+ increase in den ec rpavitv of the hract ta Lt The great it a1(the specific eravity c 35 for anthracite. LLiiss oS ace 1 7, — al 4 — - or iit Sid bof ; + Pa at he rf) G ct ob YVilso ; ; ote” + oy ‘marian sat ly O ee. os 4. + h oO ry QO S 1 S eet th ae ag But p Cau is Tt at abhi. ane i bei ge Ri VE Bae. Oe, ee ne Jt nat aa NP petict WwW Bas . ae @ ae" . % - fF ng le A — “2s AviOll 1.45 for: bituminous, rround for CLNINKIT Ne Feat represents Leeks, RO Deb (2. Jhas eciven PAS ws mabe fr Six Peet rey to Ho) x s oa " ney “ap m7 C . J na — cee vs CO TS chit} O + a sao 7 rol Ls © b co Bg -) ()- : co> + ~hD G a COatL , wWwoaniece 420 & ae isp #.VO 101 Bs comrnact te d ana ataian Al iL: OWAICE 3 Rey a te th bal 1G have been much ¢ id ai rf fresh vegetation. and. for the ecbact: BHE Soe eae thatthatkness of 1 turing the chanze, and fo eretation. at Pais ah + 5 mes Lille & Ut +. es Gauri Na weed Ce ox iTaAYrNnIIGA Veretatic : many times rad nr UCTS GUY ; TOON erous “wane : eave Ni of a“ 4 e AV O t V e cd pr od ae e 4. - the C at Vv Ol 1 : : COwWD Ca lami c made for the eé nts indicate that ft, spongy tissue ae wes the fossii coal platte, ih and of soft. feet in diam j. 7 , t ‘ j 7 i a, + — : . ws tne TOssil coa P: - endogenous cLY1C gh 4-4%5 ¢ (ye tnree ice oh Or eal ‘ YO V sama rt Fa ss - 2) Uw WU la ba - nic 4 4 tir é 7] S ik a y & l A o . ge 1 7 oo +- cl y wy be wr tarp UF A v o2 ‘ l- mc S t an Te Ls : least, Wwé 7 Y LOSs. Chat must I sd to a thicknes . ical 1 lepidodendron log: 1 ams flattened to ‘side from chemical ANIC 2 tJ £ UL . ae S€¢ ili — a on a] ASI] AS oo 5 eo ’ . ia) a ea 3 fs + Y C oO Ce ed . T Ge tn) a i . 3 is 7 nN CA a 4. a Nn OS QO A 1 4 l + ie. os ‘S) tr ze a my \/J CA a4 n D 3 C . - - i a ul C Pi U ns hi th Di S thin Lay bs ray” ¢ (2 r many UC t ae 1 represented by th Eee eres ee Se therefore, tha lace anda re Le rat ee, ee OL F'OGKS tn vilGi © . ? ; Leow cai 3 “74. Welent Oo to iniet 3 ; ” THNhnreae hange tke overly SEG. eee T 4+ S LS ifiabl i am ertainiv two or three cs La vs — y ( a7 “ - “ O¢ UG L.- Od - + int + 7 1 rv - wy) ann [ wy he t a oO Vera i y {SY I t+ ‘ ie ik or OW th very appreciadie ur thick represents i that the origina 2 ae Ji eek a few feet) thick rey 1 peat and that the o: RS Rate A ah es 3 1 coal seam a fe £ys Fr uncompacted peat an h great thickness a Ded Sat oe Se : re eae Cy F Unc Jip US vines reach 1 Ua vu a 2 ct .+ iat Ss,that thickness of : Where seams ee Ve and in Ssatth ULI D 4 APONGINSI VY Luxurd ta in the Mammoth be e Less tt was ences C Or T e S p QO} aS i +>5 -+ J @) - Wn a V 7 V an Lc al WF sao . ae VV U nie i a Was ‘ FA stern ren 9 y+ MANA S nelly eS LS : 7 mmOec es QO T © LS Nw wry a ( O el Se Qs if Lov . “co © 7 4 thea a eee ‘MwzTth Was of Lil Ves - 4 4H So fF Y¥* ©) Wal Lhd : Ata im an & eC ne os gull am Wis ted ry ( O A r a oA O 5 LESS YT) Cy t ‘al ‘i tig QO} 4 cl OA rg — mn Cc al 1, of. Y a West Cut fe as et mt trans? Or Ued ; 5; Pa! L Seams 3 f + & Wied er: 42 trans, sented in co: ‘ate on the AA Y Metversat Ire SenTec 7 sya + ate on wine asia imcreased by mate robon represent : ny to expatiate ; 77 Lake Sr CA bt . ay + uc Carbd on r an) ae ‘oi r) C L/ Ce: “fh 4 i a 1 C — r sb aneunt 6 he Lea Many haracteristic 11. van Va S iy Ctisl 4-5 os YN) I @ x € Ma 0 a pee YN) Ci ry Se) es ee ; tracted from-the atm pice st Sa must nave be 1 early Terti- course CX LL ; : Per yrbonic LEPC VE oe Aan a £Q CeOUS and ye nin ars sAter richness-3h ca . times AS the Cre 19 AG PAA proaucers fF c S Uv AS ‘ Varh ) 7 Tt Ss O u - st ll . al. .ve N 4 Te is 'e) 1 kw CA + etineted rt ‘ os th ” a jr 3 Nn Y Af 8 onl - © S vs or 15 () the UL ai it . a s h ] im + Ob ta L Nn ani OL tne alr 2 llv inferi eye tetas mipare We aon a eh 1DLE GO : riods are hardly infe ee if it were poss ; ses composi YCY Oas +s. tye + ; Ko a ies wah at 4 assume aS Ne & om! Y Sle + + aN on L@ S ad 0 pf ee A + qd AYIC] u QO C4 ; Li an or oa) 4) e Y i @ Cc. p i yn C ry ‘a ‘ ) O i i 1G a ee 4 -— a.c m ld 1 the Same cl 5 Wii ra of coal 7 al & a L of eared Oni U : af a2 — he . 14 ¥ me ; — . aa ow amount ¢ nd wns amount ¥) Si on Ieee ae oe he CALL enond LNn2 le ¥ Om OsSl v1 estimate or ¢ 1. COrresponaings : aida Wer lat: rare hss a Line as . 4 5 + the cor hon i m aueg= AS Ft wee & Saaka 2 Y) ,O ViLed mew ecltan (Yr CLiIt¥itsS + ax “) 4 tion anc turn it int to see how great a chang mposition are very pee An, Cai -! ‘ a 7 i s 1. 7 . 8 7 ee , ; -- ee ld tren be ORE Leek at Ol present weight inc probable that the WOULC ame ES 1ere(whose present Behe is Very Drow : rs rth's atmosphere(who aid involve it is Harie oF the atmosphere, the eart )this addition woulc lost in che vast bulk o if we assume a le Own Uil J + ie a 7 re VS vu a +4 ——— ; +B a) QO 14 i Wwe CA — Tell eh ould be practically lo yee! for instance i 1, it would increment ee wot G DC DU Ns liga Ta tTHne KNOW? land ? t 4 i h Q CnNanege o¥ QO LA ict 3 + oF co Vv e is ct {my VLL® . osth ee" e O and that the so thick and 75,” C. 4 aS 1S in the atmosp F this Laver? OE meal ih wities eb S mucn carbon as sage £ a Tiith or ] 3 7 LJ L 4 de c AL A Se as fr) . a i — Y Wd ha tak + f Our iis CL Ww . . wy im £3 ha ly Nn . - ; c A aha-i+ vnre ti + ~J- vy ic LS eel Wit te. 7 tha CcO0Oa \t¢sqn ADOWTD U ox +I aD rit - 4 a ‘ L Ute CO? T rat’ Lgl Bee - & + roa '@) L ene hora We ! a. 4 ly ooo 4 Ic J ] tb iB} e ww O om aha P Ze : + 1 O S 8, Nn S pt 7 7 Done Piet aA. ain , ! he oh Lio at : ene! y te te tem 7 ia) ran oC i) F a ii J 2 ae the increase of the to Llit odes CS aie

as, would bring about no greater differences between today and of Carboniferous times, than between that country and open squares in the city, or say between

cr

ct

r

Cd

I er

a)

re Cc

re O 3 ©

cr @O Sy

ena

.055 % and .040 % Whether this slight difference would have any ap- preciable stimulus on plant growth is very problematical.

[t should be added that there are forms of coal, that we may best call asphaltic ccals, and take up under petroleum which fill fissure veins and are clearly derived from some form of hydrocarton analogous to oil or bitumen and which have been deposited by infiltration pre- cisely like a mineral vein. Coal seams have even been referred to tarry residues left by the evaporation or pelymeric chakhnsee of petrol- eum lakes; to the separation of the carbon in some extraordinary alter- ation of limestone and to various other chanse sources, but such theses nave Limited foundations in reason, and bslonz rather to the curiosi- ties of literature than to science. Many other more srotesque views have been advanced in the past a brief review of which may be found in Muck's Chemie der Steinkohle- 7.135.

t—

J, W. Bailey. On the detection of spirally dotted or scalariform ducts ind other vegetable tissuées,etc. in Anthracite Coal, A.d.S. ii

o £7 :

schrift der Zuricher Naturforschenden Gesellschaft- 1872-

0 Zz ZOz Sivoo Oe ro K

2

Baltzer On Hypothese uber die Constitution der Kohlen-Vierteljahres-

ie UG : ructure and Formation of Coal. Geol.Mas. 1.267. a mee Vegetable Origin of Anthracite. Nod a4 cde DEOL al Mors A, Cocheteux. Des diverse Theories emisses sur la mode de formation de la hoville ete. Ann. B.1. 5 ciety ceol. de Belgique- 1885-86 APT SBUET S) aes “ecige Sse.

ormation of Coal- HE & M Jour.Aug.15th

J; W. Dawson. On the vegetable Origin of Coal. Proee.Geol.Soc. London Vol. XV.626 BepUe te sd ates ye " On the Vegetable Structures in Coal Qid Gens AM, 626 " Qn,Spore Cases in Coal A.J.38 Lid DZ, 256 a EH. IT. Diumble. On the origin of coal, especially brown coal. Rept. on rown Coal and Lienite. Yexas. Geol. Surv. 1892.p.25. Ree. Bhrenverg. On the Microscopic Constituents of the Ash of Fossil Coai- Arn. Mae es HisGe AVI. PEARS 6970. Ked po, aal” We Vaz a1 ion

pontanie de la

eration et la combust SS , .de ltindust. Minerale

fiile expo sie a Ltair. Bull. de la &

cepper On the Origin of the Coal of Silesia. Prot. Brit. ASSOC: From the Athenaeum. Sept.19.1846. hury Grand. On the Origin of Coal from transported Material. Annales des Mines. 1882

(8)

VW. S. Gresley. Yormation cof Coal Seams. Amer.Geol. II. 5354. fT, os dunt, The Oriezin of Anthracite. Neat i sAead. Nov.slS3o-=

Charter on the Pyroschists in Chem. and Geol. Hssays.

GC, T. Jackson. Bituminization of Peat“and-Conversion into Coal-= ASW.) ts BE nA ioe er Ss

v7, R. Johnson. Some observations on the t'echanical structure of coal with evidences of the contemporaneous origin of its various kinds. Pritts. Neat. Seni. Vol. VEIL. (ph isktea-pere sheen:

J. Leconte. Lectures on Coal.

de t Uues Ley Manual of Coal and its Topography - Phila. 1856-<c4p. See ie Apa eoeetbin. eel. wo02.

Lb. hLesquer eux. Nn some questions concerning the coal formations of

North America. Ahi Saat o 4 SOCNAD Tile weal SEEN Oe OB ie Woe ell enh Loe, TOBA COC Tee Bie Ba os

" On tlre Vegetable Origin of Coal- Ann. Rep. end Penn. Sunvléso- 95-120. Rec

" On the origin of Lignite- Haydens Survey 1872. p. 350. J..9. Lippincott. The Hist. of Anthracite Coal in Nature and Art dn Wap Rae. ey CG. Ivelt. On the Origin of Coal fields and the tame nequired: ror tae Formation. -- A. bs ts i.e Gees. toe Strom Proc. Roy.Soec.Gr.Brit.

har. Sh Pees. ie? Pave Garena Coal Regions of the U. li Asal citon. Git Neb BAe:

ap Ke “ Co

Cj] O O

O a

0) tl

H. Mietzsch. Geolgie der Kohlenlager- Leipzig. 1875 m. Muck. Dic Chemie der Steinkohle Leipzig,1591. Rec. This work was

preceded by several related ones. Bs ipe Wathurst. Formation of Coalt Bi eeee ie. el 1 J. 5S. Newberry. On the Mode of Formation of Cannel Co Pek TUL wees " Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals- Annals N.Y.Acad.5ci ricein and-Relations of the Carbon Minsrals nnals N.Y .Acad, é Vol. the-2e82eNo.9,

7 1686 py sys. als hee x bar

" On the-PRYSical conditions under which Coal was formed— oo. of ft. Huariterly, Vol. IV. pp. leo. Geol. Survey Ohio, Voli. yelso: i tie the Raraiihe asm om oad Seams so) Vio dae Tasos C. Ochsenius. Neber Kohlenbilduns. Bia Hy. Zeit. 269s. 67 and subse=

quent numbers. Hdw. Oeton. Unfinished Prob. relating to the Geology of Coal. AAs Ass LESS, WewN. Page. The Carboniferous Age and the Origin of Coak- Ei a@ td. pept.d0-1893., p.347. Pe & Reineen. iicro- palaco-phytologia See eogeh carboniferae.etc. 2 VOls. 1800 illustrations,i108 plates. Hrlangem. 1884. " ilikrophotographien uber die otruktur oe Zusammensetzung der oteinkohle der Carbon- 75 photographs and 13 plates- Leipeie 1882. " Neue Untersuchungen uber die Mikrostruktur der Steinkohle des: Car- bon, der Dias und Trias- 94 plates. Leipzig.188l. The above works are an endeavor to prove that coals are derived from marine organisms. The conclusions and the character of the evidence cited have been severely criticised. ‘See A.J.S. iii. AA, 250. Aner. Nasbur. AV) Aor fn Roy. Origin oF Coal, Eid Mod. chide DOS 7S. Sa.

i ‘a

‘ rh iby

Mik

a : oe. Se —

a

Fava?

420 L ite

E Cruel viz.

On the alléséd parallélism of Proc. Am.

BE ee Oe ently hey MEE Dias Wier areca

Sewers On. Coal Beds.

rnil. Soc.

os

iS

" The Origin of the Pennsylvania Anthracite. Jour. of Geology. i, OW wigs cased Jd. %. Teschmacher. On the Fossil Vegetation of Anthracite Coal. - K.3.S. ii. IV. 420. See also A. A. Geol. and Nat. 1847 " On the Resinous Nature of Coal BOSht. “SOC L. i EVA SP eee A.J.S £6, SEs FO). K. Wethered, ed the Structure of English and American Carooniferous Coals- Ol.Mag.1I.515. British Assoc. !ontreal MNeeting-1884. Vaal ie fii. AXVIII. 467. C, A. White. Rep. State Geol. =towa- ist & 2nd Annual 1868. p:; 227. J. Yiesner. Neber den mikroskop.Nachweis der Kohle ete.— Sitzungsber. as) Kok; Akad. d.. Wissensich,. Wrens DPSoe; oi9. C. KF. Zincker Die Physiographie der Braunkohle- Hannover 18667. " S8#reanzung desselben. Halle 1871. y, P. Zirkel. On the microstructure of Coal- Mikroskop. Befcaf. der I"in. und €ést. 1873.p.257. , Wetreseraghre:, ILL. 2894... aay.

sHOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION, peologsical time, none dating 5 Lignite or brown wever, being as old in Jurassic Sic and Carboniferous Laramie at the clo y Tertiary. The lat the Gulf States. may yield lignite amorphism has occurred, cite coal. Coals

LvoO sreat aramie OF Jura

Peat back of coal is chiefly as the Cretace

recent Latest beds, even horizons the

limited to Quaternary , der d

4. Tf Uns

TTA 1V€é

/

J

, a)

Tria 6 th r

CoA

OSé

Me, z “se roe

t

o

e

i cr

' the ea Nn in the try and nish are Cadet bi both principal vari- strata, the Carbonitr- Cretaceous in the West. Virginia and North Caro- the Pacific Coast. An- in eastern Pennsylvania, of due to igneous intrusions ear santa Be, NM; and mn one or two less land from earlier Cretaceous Coals Archaean rocks but it may ode a cks of any age. It is also found

ig

£2 a Lt

ct

ce

— ed

but sm formation om Laramie coals and elsewhere in Co. Queen Charlottes s chiefly metamorphism in

TI Dy

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RAT Al 2h

ANALYSES and t

ieir INTERPRA LON. There are two methods practiced

h ‘ ice the complete or elementary and the he former the absolute, elementary amounts of carbon nitrogen, sulphur,etc.(all but the ash,) are deter- regard to combinations. This is the older method and gely fallen into disuse on account of its relative difficulty is@ it does not give the qatormett op about a fuel that is de- BAGELS! adaptations so well as the Seto proximate method. afford data for scientific deductions about the chemi- (10)

ty

pa ‘ j— D

O mG

t-4 re —

£ fVr+9

Ls

vYever

cal nature of coals, and about their calorific powers not given by the Vroxinate method. These eee are calculated for ash-free substance when used for general purposes of classification and comparision, and are based on material dried at 212 degrees F. The following table will

serve as a Beces ee MESS CANES OORT

Peat Wie Oh a se ee UG

‘ i. a a a a! ‘a me s ik h q 1 , t . ee ee Se eee nt te ae ES oa a i Bn ee ee ——SSSS a ee —- Se : —— ss r 1 H fj . ; pha ma

S. J Ash. z

copa i

a

l. Sphagnum (dried) 49,88 6.54| 42.421 1.16! eRe 2. Condensed Peat F BOO 4 AV 2 ao 22.9 5.0 iy 4. Morrison Col 8.20 64.05 4 80 Se OG UGE eT Se nny ; 6. Wo. Bervbtold) ToD! SoMa ei dan 5 22 BO oes 0.70! 1.88 c AB [10. Whiteside Tenn. 204) V6.8S.) 5.52) 4.000) Boies 2.61! 6.89 if

L12. Brazil Ind. 5.45 76.06 B68) 8.15} 2.57! 0.801 2.42

j14. Crested Butte Gol. 1,00} 74,.2917.49) 9.17) 1.40] 0.61; 6.04)

\15. Blossburg Pa ON ES , 61.15 pee enatetee oth 0.68 8.735

' Anthracite. Daan we :

\Lés. Spring Mountain Pa.) Loge loa} eee 0.08: 0.211 0.71) 3.04

(16. Crested Butte Gon, of7e e201 S.2bt 4.55) bre) Ol8e) 6104

(19. Santa Fe Nit. Sek FSS fb eNsS: Set de est Oa ioe coe

120. Queen Charlottes Is, 1.90 , 75.95 6.03 6.81 1.40, 0295). 1.96

‘Analyses Nos.1&2 are from Johnson's Peat and its Uses, p.24 and p.100,

To.l. is unfortunately rechoned ash-free and dry Phere) Were 2- BE ash present. No.8 3.4.5.6.14,.18.and 20, are by C. BR. Munsell, fron speci=

mens in the fuseum of the School of flines, Seouiia College. see Jour.

Amey. Ghem. Soc. XITI.No.&. Munsell aleo saves two complete aialyses

of peat, but. too Low in BH, 0 to typical. Nos oa 0. ave by ir. Da Munroe,-on specimens from the same source-and are quoted in Macfarlane'’s

Coal Pesions of Amertesa-p.557. Noyes PO, Tn ie US 2S As, ob cmc de Ur.

Lilie thal and were made in 1871 on srecimens from the Same source-

pitas ee like the ethers, by Prof: J. S. Newberry. Theyvare taken

from the records of the Geological Department of the School of Fines.

To. 6 is) from FE, fT. Dumble's Report on Brown Coals etc.-Texas Geol.

Survey. 1892. p.217. In each of these references are numerous cther

Similar analyses.

These analyses bring out strongly the general relations of the elements which were mentioned earlier. The progressive decrease in oxygen and hydrogen from peat to anthracite; the small but variable a- mounts of nitrogen and sulphur, and the inconstant quantity of ash are shown. In close comparasions allowance must be made for the variabil- ity of samples and for the position of the same whether near outcrop or well underground, as stated above.

(11)

Sa ee ee ee Ee ——— a - a ee Ee Od Fa

u) mn © wa 44 ye oO i Lea 4 cl 47 © mn ey RS ee, Owl Lo “4 es as SVT ee et Dae oe ma aes a © gies ie Ww) t 7 ™ py dp) © FONGOCoOrE THA DOS SH U ‘ ibe a : Oo tq) wn re Wee nO mO Gs oar Go md ON Hoo oO YY Lo 4 of pe C2 OD 42 2 C “4 4 te ae F oe Oo cto Poa ae hal Gps P OP Ga Ua © oreo ode owmwoettk & mre aan é OQ LG i i, 88 Gr th 24, GO) hy 2S) A SoG eB eo oe on Tei ae es - $3 or Pod ocorr U2 fa “et (GK : ‘ ae Geass . ee @ 4 42 ee G5 ta Gem oy Se Ci CQ uy SH ud Lo eS SSS amo Peet oGoH lta edn Of oes Oo © of me ooo os Ob aa eo Ps - +... any ret goo cea a in dro. 2 RS LoS CO Cy ty {OD i [-4 a) cm i x ys EN Fo aS 1 a) ) mm & oO pal ay "ar ea ie 2 © co ky a i evjld @8sG Ws es # Pra # - ‘ - i : di a Go Hey) 85 or? Oo © ao) wo 4 @ © a 9 DL © 3 al Py , 1) co. Clo Pyros Reet os we Maen Poa Soe jo it m woo Ww a fs @ SO Df Oe ard of) 2) —— : — & OF [edt Us Of a sf oa toa 4 Ge er OP ee an es Re 1 ry ee ©) o. my 4 ce) Lo 3 ti -+4 ta a Ee i a co . i : Or OPe mAaawMmdye Hood wa a . : . ed j qiSootepPprPAadA S Bae aa ro am rm oon al pes tz dP Ror tr O oud s © 2 oOo da os, oo on Ta gO + Ow a ie

O + a

oe

ee 45 wo zal

Is

a

es En en ke pe eS Ho te or ee

a] + Pee ba a a "hae! $5 nba! Chie ‘é. a

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The proximate analysis is now performed by general agreeme it, by first drying about 1 gram of the coal in a weighed platinum cruc ible at 10C-115 C.until it reaches a constant weight or begins again to Slightly increase. It is then heated in a cood bunsen burner 3 minutes and in a blast lamp 3 minutes, cooled and weighed. The loss gives the volatile hydrocarbons, and the residue indicates whether the coal cokes or not. Foreign practice requires a bunsen flame of at least L350) m7 (about 7 in.) height and that the crucible, set in a fine platinum wire triangle be placed in it with the bottom not over 5 ¢ m(1 1/5 in.) from the top of the lamp. The coal is then ignited until A eaes cease to come off- no time limit being set. After determining the loss, the remaining "fixed carbon" is entirely burned off, and the residu: is the ash. Sulphur is the most frequent clement estimated, but in metal- lurgical practice of course all the elements of the asn are needed. The proximete analysis indicates the behavior of the fuel in practice, whether rich in gases or poor, whether with a long flame or short, whether coking or non-coking etc. In the classification of coals in America we calculate the ratio of the fixed carbon to the volatile hy- drocarbons and use this as a short numerical indicatiom Of the char— acter of tre coal. ALL this will be taken up Later in speaking of the

classification of coals-but as illustrating proximate analyses the fol-

lowing table is appended-standard fuels being selected so far as possi-

bile.

— “S“Sege mk rE e lO toma Hed Px'd. O! R Pl pee ee Peat. LTH Oy Pod yd ee aye Rave aie aie ee toe, I

a - — eS —— Oo a a — : !

A ih D ismal ovamp Lignite

O 2. Vorel iline Texas tear bee a7 .40 0.99 6.20 “OLS 3. Golden Col. LS CAS See heb er 1.23 Sepsis 4. Rock Spring “yo. V0. Bevel ) Se.4e) Deze ane Sian VERSA gun Sioned oa e 2250. Aes fh SeeG: Sasser isso fy aia 6. Briar Hill 0. 3.60 S2:68 62.66 Lee: Tas vores 7. Connellsville Pa. 2226", “SO.02 BOvee BGS i Gxes. OL7S 8. Cumberland Md. BSS 1 Aeeay) WARS SL eR eno) Oa Oo. RL Uiaes Pd. Pa. Do ee PSOE 1 SBR SB MS OOe, Shee: 0.50 Wo.k: is by EB. Stillman in héayvatt on Peat-. p. 146 No.2. Dumble's Rept. on Texas Brown foals 0. 182 No.3. lTineral Resources U. SS: 126865=84.p:; 101. No.4'"Idem 26. No.8. do. 1867. 240+ Nosé.tdem-cOs Nolet de, 1665484-17 75 ce.s, he. 18857c4.%0.85 and 10, do. 1666=84y, 69: Other methods of assay are employed to determine the calor- ific power of the coal as indicat ed by ‘the amount of litharge a grain

ow

(15

Will reduce The best met that Of RWG. Brbes, tas reterred co below. It is also customary to speak oF the sum of the volatile hy- drocarbons and of the fixed carbon as indicating the fuel value-or

fuel percentage (see paper by H. M. Chance questions are metallurgical rathe essary to the true estimate of a edals is siven further on in speaking

cited below). All these peqlozical but they are nec-

ome addition nal discussion of of their classification.

Lithrature.

Note. All the standard treatises on HMetallursy and technical Chemistry discuss this subject.

H. ii. Chance. Relative Value of Goals to the Consumer-l.E. XIV. 22.

P, Mraser CLassifiication of Coals—- MR. 6. 450. Fenn. 2na. Geolioury.

Oe. SE Ee eee

ee rooch. Analyses of Coals and Lignites of the ‘lorthwest. 10th Gensus XV. 775.

Gruner. Annales des Mines- 1673. 169

RR, C. Hills. Modification of Berthier'"s Iiethod for the Assay of Fuel ete Proe,. Colo, Serentiene sacreay., Lege ry.

W. R. Johnson. The Heating Power of Various Coals- See also A.J.5S.

chenheim. Determination of Phosphorus in Coal and Coke- fk.

A. S, M'Creath. Much valuable information in Reports cf Chemist of

‘sud Penn. Geol. Surv. Mf. MS. — ar Fou otis ae ah oe a ® yi im liek, Cnenie der Sue~nkonrie= Wei " TTtr - eS i ee F rm — a 4 pO oy T “4 af F - - P, Schweitzer. True Composition of Coal and the fiethods of arriving a aig “as Ta ig a — - a la Ty 4 4 r — " tty oe rt at it,etec.- Catalogue of the Univ.of the State of Ho.1s71. ae dixa. tr. O'C, Sloane. Notes on the Analysis of Bituminous Coal. 42.J.5.. TPL. ws ae 14 a fr i qe rie! Ta iE TIF an, OU (oltAT Cc 7 Ol TTT ORAPTER LL: THH CARBON MINERALS CONTINUED

Ib a baa oO Nes ca Q Q a9 de:

Peat, Lignite or Brown Coal, and Post varboni

PRAT Peat is of greater scientific interest than practical importance in America, although in many fceoreign districts, such as Ireland, and southern Germany, it is the chief local fuel. The gener- al conditions of Hee erowth were mentioned above. It requires a cool, and fairly moist climate for its best development, and is therefore found in banoeyete to cold Latitudes. The principal peat maker is ophagnum, a moss which has a great avidity Tor moisture and grows con- tinually upward from its decaying stems. With it there occurs abroad much heather (Calluna), fhat is lacking in this country, but With us many grasses, aquatic plants, and even shrubs and trees contribute to the accumulation. The lakes of the glaciated region that are gradually filling with vesstation are prominent sources, as are beaver-meadows,

(14)

e 411 of our cen- eee Saeed S6a coast swamps. A aden he Get be - 1 Leg lations are sea -" A t abundan and for saltwater hee iag and all the provinces of apex seeds hizer> tral a 10rthern states, - fae Ata used as a fe tral and nor merican peat is principally us ba don land, or ly supplied. aoe Sh It is often advantageously spreac bea account z the an muck". M Mito AVE. wy or no practi Fe ee a under the name As a fuel it is now Te Sey it can- witk compost heaps. 2s, les\0f coad with which it ce mixed witk com} i che supplies of coa Pin 1 aa ox z Tl- a nt ana C 1e@ap 4 Aa Cc Tel eS h se L ore paren ur abunda ¢ Re of the sixti because ee bee any degree. But in the decade 5 can deal of interest IML eT Om Pk ie e - ere wac : r Seika MEAL hee aa noe "yaa? dehoneerebee so completely there ne eter of this fuel swept MSE ee St - and a mild craze for the ESSN e Ioan in its rear. if) (he subjecitean leavin 9 trail of financial es pera na eee were Fa 7 ; — Ele k pe r any el iy bk ely Be ee pire st Rieke £0 dig and compress it and m es : Machines were invent

ai) ae Sn. a oO

mM eo operty of

2 to place it on the market, but Ne a ade os ] ia : :

Ae : ount OE aU) jo which Aust be n

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co Cc IS OTls oe ae 4 Host Ser= I Li i! a.) 7OMOR, 15 be lM yn sa Wd th t 1é ogi bt Vl. J US PM -. 3 ck 5 ra 1 ig S Ppunee ae ahs PF On VS Pe aig ae pess HE a t ahh : added to which are ; fodis LQUS drawback, AGO a , ek, oe Dereentare in ask. ep eg Dew £5 1ts Treat 1ent nign ie ee To aid Coe Bae er a YAY LO Vig ne Ce burned, and ee 4 "mosses:") ar Ow Fi th EUS ee ES Ea at Fa of bee Sita 2 A Poo oe eS i Va Fel ale ts Peat bogs (English term™mosses:" years (See Geikies Textbook i ‘Ck Wy ae as a! yn eT) — a 7, ar Ss 1 a 3 7 Ais Jad oan 7ermany ee ee ey . 171 the immediate loca- being recorded in Germany lay climb beyond the immedia ft. being : 460). They may climb bey em the n2cessary "i TT Ls C Hadi i £ ion P. Lo cd "Tr T ber ] rig ka Ee ee a uweclosy [a 15 j f- ie wi tte . ' den tion of moisture (climbing boss) as they They may invade forests oe 7 7 4 a os 1 a 4 i perf “s - + in Lal sm Buel F, a 5 on Lm T, ry F ok eee ey Lic ee oe DY capillary attract ia ae ae a7 ase Gee supplies of water by cay 1 relations and from their antise; from changes an. topographical relation: iods. Such logs have frem changes an fallen timber for lone periods. Sr ey ome aan AG A371 Ter hen Vim 6:2 ated ro : fd Ibyroad L1é same roparties Preserve 2s xT see ca md BS0rosaa. Ereopertves, d 1 ¥ Soutners se 2 a ee ade rf i 4 a Alea a r by a a it —t + 7. oF . 47° 7 HS a ies 3 beer dug up and utilize 2served the remains of animals an my aaah —— aioe tr) — r Tes A x . oa a pin PLS — d “iy a 7 E itiseptic intluences have pre Orange Co..c..¥. the bones of nin anti s 2 ? rs nt comer We Let lee La, da bea : - + 1les yy In the town of ::01 oe aks within a rance of Celght Nibes. 4 ‘omni Mal qe fro “Wt + h re fh ra 5 1G 1, i ae i a te a + on CS af qd — - oh rr tee f - et ee j L mastodons have been dug ae E 3 Laei1al aritt have proved of cons [ lee on! ie r ; a ys 2 ab iw, 1 let L . sear sneLosed in depos2ts of glacia the question of one or Pe it HORS enc. eee ee 3 4 alr 708 4 FV fr eT) eB al a Ques if ded ye Oe a rea goloed eal in Lrerest ait pte ie hs soatcot et ea ‘ah 1 BxtTen E arable de ed ae 4 3 aye pai ie - et a ae Cae pete Pe hs and the advance and retrea 1 Tova rhe re glacial epochs and the these relations in Lowa. Th more glacial beds" ara known in these relation t has a’ a) ec N Tore o G ) eC — Af ae 4 7 i Lj RoW; —Ore oe Ved th pea tal Nas Ones Te Trl 7 ayvier SW é Us LF it os + iw freai fF es Soer Od Wis aS 2 a fi ry ; - atlreaay pesn menvione pact einen ; Elementary Analyses. —— — noha erga aban jmteeenisn are Fees at tT in SS nar sche @ ‘FT S Ash : Sas J mo H 4 — a. — a Sar — : a! I ——- -- ij ae 5 ay ee fy t (J 73 a . 7) ft? 19 a ) 7 SS ] i fc fu} cekac? ,oo i PP style ir ara B a a P ry Fi b, to ih Osvwe 70 N ve ) 4 Le oe O aes Q) + yy O & ‘a J — + é ee ey ery mS rf 10 2 bye isl me - 60 Ravenna O eed : : GY Be) 6 SG) SS 6 Gr fs S - - BEY ae a o 1 a 95 L6 ‘ Pol I a fall : £ "5 i i a 7 es 7 00 te t" i rsa aS es te as c 1 Le i O00 Bee a I) er Cea ee Soe a fis 2 a fo 7 qd Pa eat r a i , — ie Conaense i eS fae a re oe ALVSes., Ps OX mate Anal ee arcs nEnLatR EERE RRR: deeieesieiaiae haem ] Fe ee a ee Ee Soe ae SA Se i Aolkh a on ae TD ee etc ane el Oe eee ‘ Se a ; A ae a, BR ice a pi hen i a 9 7 malt F ‘4 hee a. rata! H =O. ‘O18: 50 o O5 ' mE LA 1 o7 ; Dig Dismal Wamp 52 59 Go. ee at: 6. 76.69 “TS Bd eG P OLaB. i" oO. Soe Cea ine. 1a ra he rt " ” a Zz © teed Ray: rod 50.82 a ee " i ; iu 5 ore) f x is W re So FO oie Pee 0.00 58.08 20.08 : , lars tt " 10.0¢ (her Ce LO , , — t hatte — — 1

j—4 es) ee

fnalysesg of Feat Ashes. . No.l.N.Gowenlock,Cultivat Ne i a a ey a RE Fife we ae Country Gentleman-1675, Vhs, No.s 2 & 3 C,3.Munsell ‘

-) a, & on P ° ats . , T f ee eae Lave Sae AL! No.4

]

. y i i ; 5. Cin 10. 51] phur is unusually high. N

1 ee r 4 & 7 ‘(Potash aS 0,80} 3.46!13.04| The water is lov for air Soda t 6.56| dried peat-and in 5,the sul-

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iChlorine O02) O74) \O;7Or 2c8Stalyvst. Wows Vis and-to- insoluble Silica 8.23) 1.40 9.02) Johnson-l.c. p.47. Novdd- Carbonic acid 119.60; 22.28 rom Poquonnock Ct. &.“.Bar- : yand-or Insoluble pie. 11) 15.04; 125.83) ker Analyst. No.12 Colebrook jlotal 1 99.15100.74)32.99)1 99.69] Ct. O.0.Spanow Analyst i i i f mI No.15 Guilford Ct-+P.Ccollier,Analyst. No.14,. Ash of Sphagnum palustre eh Vebsky Anal. from Senft Humus etc, p.136. The total tercentage of ash was 5.65. Comparatively few analyses of American samples have been mace, but many foreign ones will be found in the citations below.

Literature On Peat.

Note. extbooks of lfetallurgy and technical chemistry treat of peat

as 2 Tuel-as a general thing, with analyses of both fresh peat 44 S ety abe AZ5 9 ht Oe SD oe cL L tA w/b p a & Aare Th AS ue VY and ashes. rande. Qn. Peat.and ts Products. Proc. Kay Soc. Janvarstesr.

Atheneum Ler Acd 8. TL. 2h. 4e0.

G. H. Cock. Peat in New Jersey. N.d.Geol.Surv. 1868-698. A number of partial analyses are given

S. Lb. Dana. Muck Manual- Lowell 1842.

5S. W. Johnson. Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel=N.Y.1866. An sarlier and shorter report was published in Hartford about 1858.

Th ra TWO) on Ee) no “4 4

ay 9 ED a US i fy IT: ry — UMS LA Pp U

oO CY

Sond ry G2 f+ (T ©

7 ‘ : ‘ : , 7 1 . - ry - quite satisfactorily even to this day. Rec.

N,. Gowenlock., Peat and its Uses. The Cultivator and Country tentleman 1é IR I ao . © CRA ve is . ww {oO .

aa Ty 4 7) . 2 Ae OF hy A -~4-

Ll. nh, Leavitt. Facts about Feat.1867. A pretty complete compilation in lay ca 1) — 4 - g . oo the interest of the authors peat machine.

L. Lesquereux. Sphagnum as a Peat Maker. Haydens Rep.1872. Quoted in

A.J.S, iii, VI.S83. See also-Paper on Origin of Coal-Ann.Rsp.Penn. Geol,Surv.1885. p.109. and his classic essay Quelaques Recherches

sur les tiarais Tourbeux-Neufchatal .1844.

Sir Chas Lyell Princi niles oft ea if “aay ed: Bye Antari te ya "Ta

“3 + be . - J . am -MvM> e St 0 OS Y¥ &/ kJ Dae BO LQUL i mA @) + lan jo vy. Mc.Gee. Interglacial Peat Beds in Iowa-Nleventh Ann.Rep.Dir.U.S. reOl.curv. p.486. The same subject is treated in seneral works on - T Ae as 5 5A . a - 4

the Ice Age. For one in see A .

Ho Qo

MD Alf ”

A ealuapis biblio-

4 Cy be i re ‘ f+ bea a

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J. Roth. Chém. und Physi graphy is given. HF. Senft. Humus-,lifarsch-,Torf-, und Limonit-Bildungen Leipzi Rec. Gives a bibliography somewhat antiquated (16)

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Line clay often underlies the coal and is the result of the stage of

iet waters next preceding the svamp growth. From such beds some of pie andard fire brick of the country are manufactured, as at Yoodland,Penr and St. Louis, Mo., Where a coal seam is too thin to be worked for ie self alone, it may be taken out along with the underlying clay; With profit as a fuel, to turn the latter into brick, tile etc A growing y.ractice in Iowa. The fire clay not infrequently contains plant remains, shiet of which are the so-called stigmaria, wh;

roots of some of the earliest swamp plants that lead to the formation of the coal, Although these underlying beds are spoken of as clay, it is not to be erred that they are always soft and plastic,; on the contra-

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;

oe and if thés is a solid sandstone it is an immense aid to mining.

ith tender shales it is at times necessary te leave an upper thin bench ee cOal as a precaution. Shales in connection with coal are usually called slate, but in strict geological use a slate is a metamorphosed Shale or clay-with-a-new cleavage, induced by pressure and shearing. The coal beds are themselves sometimes called veins, and this is also contra- ry to good ge0lostcal usage, but of course in cvsery day affairs one is not over-particular tn these matters. These shales are often found ser- viceable as a-tmtvertal for vitrified brick It 18 rare that a coal seam of several feet-in thickness is devoid of thin Layers of shale, often of ereat persistoney,—tnhat divided into two or more benches. If such shales are thin and =-taender=they cannot be separated in mininz and are a zrievous sour of ashj-MmMakee the coal "bony", but if sufficiently thick and sol- id they may be-enutied out (mining slate) and thrown on the dump or used as gob. At times such a partins alon= a seam, may gradually increase in size, until it splits the seam into two with an interval of several feet between. Even thin beds of limestone have been met in thes thickest por- tions Of stech a parting and ciay tronstona mey do the same.

Coal seams are sometimes cut abruptly by bodies of shale or sand-

stone thet the workings show to vce somewhat sinuous and of sreat length

ct

mS

eo) Get re ey) ry ™

;

D K Or em) j t le .—

— Ss OO cy’ a @?) eu, eo:

a ,

) A ! ; D

D

yy Pi — $=4 Sl be oo ‘oe

¥

7Y APS / v u . ss Lik J aan & 4 w X ets. Bev] BO be Old stream channels through the original swamn. Such a one has been des- & k cribed fror the Northern Anthracite Mield of Pennsylvania by H.A.Vasmuth, (Jour. Franklin Institute, see XXXIV. 354.) and they have been occassion- ally met elsewhere. Jd stream channels have also been formed and fillec in later Carboniferous time than that of the coal formation and after the latter had been long buried up, as at Avery, Lowa, (see Keyes Report on — & Pd xe

[owa Coals, 1894. p.182.)and old pre-slacial and drift filled channels are met Within the limits of the drift, seth mast and ves. Such a one caused a bad disaster at Nanticoke, Pa.in 1585 (CA. Ashburner M.E. May 18386.) Cracks of smaller size filled with clay and sand are also met cutting seams and a number of these have besn figured from Iowa by Keyes.

- wt aah a i 44 A Ns es a i ee — - - wt Wahine - -t sah ° a

nev rt ass Oc 12 cv ea! On 7, ft ee, Lh S) ang no At te S © abe mt 3) viz 4 C O t CO CG i Ly tn C

Lacxoandg )s itn the Shales at a cecal pearins seriesiis one - i ted 4 - r - w tA 5 aie! lg I a ") +74 mA Cc - In i ote o hm" r Cc AaAnATS ty of the most widely observed phenomena. hese oreS are best developed in this country in western Pennsylvania and Ohio, and in former years wer

extremery important but

cant by the infiux of hen

—-stone citen weather to While coal seams a

¥ ity, S80 much so as almos ui

their output has peen rendered i j 1 es from Lake Superior. Peaitos of clay iron lite and in this form are mined.

a rule quite uniform ae eek and qual-- justify J. P. Lesley's comparasion of a a sample off a Heath be ne Gadel

Cu

)..ct 9 O ct OQ pte C3 i ch SS

OQ ct @ Fé mM 3 oD. CO Di ©

ry of

- : nm - Nn QD

we ct oO C) “

j t they do pinch and swell, more or less, and become bony in places, t an extent t S

O wd yj hat on a new territory considerable drilling or drifting ITten advisable, and lean streaks need not cause undue surpri 3U isnce has been met in the Loyalsock basin in anthracite and in the Reynoldsvilie basin in bituminous in Pennsylvania and ars elsewhere Nevertheless, coal seams are incomparably superior to metalliferous de- DOB WES! 123 aniearniee of quality and regula: y in benitenen: The outcrop Of a coal seam is marked by a black carbonaceous soil called "blossom" or "flower" or "smut" and this furnishés one of the most Ae, ‘

¥

D

. oo

ood

useful indications of Its presence. If the wall rocks ars firm this out- crop is thinner than the true seam because of weathering softening and squeezing. A drift in under zood cover will genérally show a notably preater thickness, but if coal end walls have all softened and sloughed off together and especially if on a hillside, the smut may give very ex- azrerated ideas of thickness, unless it is cut by careful ditches ae drifts. Thus in 1851, J. Dill reported a coal seam at Straitsville,Perry CO; Ohi At 1 2 to 138 ft. thick, (A.J. ii. SIT. 282) which proper

i to be but 17 ft.(W. Wa. Mather, A.J.S. i. XV. 450).

A ECs

ty) — j-4- ct (aD) “3 coe rod D

00)

hy. rusty from th ; eis i

: 2 7 7 lh - rr Y) moe 1d m >ctuUre bent a x7 1 —$HhD an a! eYreas y Ss Ne is less at sit i c fl cd fi 4 — ULLAL ,) QS 2 an Sa Ae oP ee 1S aN we © p es cLoO 7) Ww than one woulda orten suspect. Aside from physical changes, greater oxi + 4 st +4 e — 7 - : oOo 7 r 7. + aration seems to be the chief chemical change. [If the smut comes from an tcropine on a hillside it must be born hé

preserved their good qualities against weathering coal seams ought to be beneath at lLeast 50 ft. of cover, but it does not follow that serviceable fuels for local use may not be met under much less; for innumerable coun- try banks all through our coal resions have but slight thickness of rock above them. In regions of forest, the presence of coal has been indica- ted by the upturned soil on the roots of fallen trees; and indeed the discovery of anthracite in Pennsylvania is said to have been made in this Way by a hunter; but today the eastern portion. at least, of the country is so generally mapped in a geological way, and methods of prospécting with the oil rig 8 the diamond drill have been carried to such perfec- tion, that these more primitive means are of less importance than former-

+ - tm i] CD Oo S CD U2 CD — C) ris ay

r eT in cS ¢

i"

j--

rm

dicated by very LE stated many work “anual of the hills are the foot of rning and

can follow the

It appears that

ts roof and floor, ined measures, es-

- ¢

¢ baw ’ ) (V5 oo Lat ole pee ?) ct {T)

? j- an Ja co a

ay)

Cc) —-7 ri ew O

-— ¢ tty ; oO oO % r (D Cc: - : 5 3) ne oot r ’

&) Sop

Cq )

)

CIO (D “4 A t+ ct ctr ie) 1 O UY ry ey) be cr ; i

Cy + 4-

z ! Ly in Hie Ss Coai and its Topography" . ‘here the gen due to erosion and on their sides the erraces or benches that are beautifull y marked ions of central Pennsylvania. One at

a cOal Seam with the eye for lc L¢ oftened and weathered more readily

Ving down has caused the bench above it

years ago (1856) by

Ct t ct OD wad

- cr rs ‘o> a) é rsy ua

“4 me. a) in

chs

‘e) 0) bed @) 43) ay) —

U Oo

ms Ww D +—4 Oo) ct

xe O%

is. PY ’

—

a

©

Ch)

Y

; © ‘ay yee

/

a peclally if the dip is steep, the easy erosion of che oal often makes a

Siia.l derression alons~ the outcrop.

The frequent presence Of impervious beds of fire clay or ti,ht shale below the relatively open and jointed coal seam, directs subterranean drainage along this horizon in an important way; and as all coals are more or less provided with pyrite, which readily yields to the oxidizing action of these waters, the subterranean streams become charged pest sui- phate of iron, which is deposited as limonite around the springs and see b or aES: Ne ke wet spots, stained yellow by the iron neniies

ications of coal, especially when taken ‘vith the t described. e

hh O

, ften repeated many times in a series of strata Wita rayvtrs YN a bwpaac “A Pom th 'g Sera oe teen 4- Im 5 ove ving thicknesses of shales, sandstones, conglomerates and perhaps thin

limestones in between, Some may be too thin or bony to be ever worked; some may be too hen for present conditions, yet of promise in the future,

%e In fact, in Pennsylvania today, 50-36 in. seams are mined which were re- 3 ) jected ten ee ago, when 4 or 5 ft. were esteemed a minimum. In Kansas 20 in. seams are exploited and abroad even less. the Alabama sections

and in the Joggins of Nova Scotia 8&1 have been identified 50. are l inch and less, and many more not over 5 inches. In

His v wants there are 14 or 15 well recognized seams, but of these, and same is true of Alabama, seldom more than 5 or

is D C)

O eS OQ cy C) tw @2) a) te WY

a baa!

'

ct DV O (i

in a hold their own pe-

oe eS fl (D

L are workable eams

siven area and often only one. These individual : culiar properties over distances that are really surprising, but at the Same time, displuy among themselves, quite marked differences of composi-

Tt rh )

i)

tion and structure, . As a guide . ow a bed to

o nber of openings well distribu are, it will not change for the wnile the correlation of se erosion, is in general to be mad a ted te

— a + hn

rospecting, it may be said that f) ran

ro

on ye MD © ct 2; O ct

ct e- @ + s

a

op)

parated by intervais of

%

Uy)

— a 69) Cs 02

Be

ry ay t- ) @O ©

e with a 3 sree of accuracy, by means of associated and persistent beds, especially of lLlimestons, or by means 3f fossil plants, or the peculiar properties of the seams them- selves, yet caution is to be observed. The very circumstances of coal formation, indicate that however extended the original swamp or estuary , it might have changed from point to point, might have advanced its Sc oii on a delta and have fai ate on neighboring shores; might cease and be bur- 1ed in cone pace and spring ane in some favor; depression at a dis te orr

ct bee — )

ance, ete: all of which seaid rendei t work in Iowa, of C. R. Keyes has and too much uniformity is not to be expe f recent geological wor toward caut

ne D slat ion difficult. The re- t out this feature stronel

ed Staaaheren. The whole frond in these matters.

ractical development of coal

oo s : O @ ct 03 0 oO ® .

ae

S 1

A most troublesome irregularity in ¢

avlts that in some p $S sh

ba CD YA is

mines is met in the parts of the country display themselves. They are less shown in the northern Allegheny fields than in the southern; and on the whole less extensively developed in tne Hast than in the Yest. So far as records are available they seem to be much

TQ a

Belgium and French fields than in any of ours. Normal faults are much ue most cormon; reversed faults being rare. Two inter-

& : secting ones may cause a wedge Shaped intrusion of t1e hanging,and various drill cores, ai

“ ” a ec rf) “+ D ab

ctr to

@ te A

—

Mm

ss complex combinations result. Diamond d: edge of ae succession of the stra “ficulties . Rolls and heaves and certain other Sse are ae frequent. ing of coal den in basins of synclinal type, is (21

vne oe r

a a SSS - —

- a

Eo Eo

a -— wi il -

: , Soe :

; —— amin ae aes

c Qs tJ wo a r—f r e&! Z i 5 a Fr or 3.55 oy C ee C2 te i F pc aH oO a Nae mt te ct re re 3 rab el a ane he ar ad Cs ¢) fy, my eked Cy £3 + 6 4 wu i ae weil © 42 a es ©) 19 a Sey ee oc per tt Or G4 ue 1 4 & 2 “J : : " ; : aw ‘ : 4 as wf iv , ap] ti en (p rate r + ere oi ta os “af, oO — read CS S&S a ee Gi) C) : — R hat a om rarer E ; ze ra J em Co ee! ene 5 OST mat et TS i to at : cue ts rae) 4 cp, ¢ ie ee wy Ha Oe © ae ea oo, © 2, les oe a O ™ as M2 sl 7. ro Tt rm ¢ 1 Hor Som a ‘ : Ae aa oe ry ; eat . Y Ez A aia tt all ! 4 ! io ro i 1 Foal a Le Li eu ca es i teh F Fal uw nn i i pics oH Co 13 ced ae Ean Sed ££) J Vet eg ee f r om ww ot : ‘ ‘ ) Fr 1 Be Sy fe ae $2 93 eo ow on Co 8 bwOoOOLP OAH OD i as ve OM OH Den W 5. o co . a eo ie Woe an i. de a i a -f sel a if, gi . ai a in a A, a ‘ te ct ra ES. CF. — rj rs a o£. re rd M gree i rs, eS & pal F r f pei im — F rel eS ee t z a i aa Ly ai) a let De : wad a fa y GD 4] 4 f F; Li fall a] ; ‘ so i ie : t i abe ‘y eo) 4 “i a ee a ff LP i oe — rt + La iid C3 To an rm ‘ab f es 2 ‘ ae rm 4 4 So f 4 oc i CI f 9 i © ' — ay tb 7 OG OD ay oct ed ; co ££, tered © Bis 43 Oya eo at as GB OS & Oe cf) a : oe 0 09 @ hy A 4 an ae Sea Gognouvwrltodgda sc a OO Pte ay uw i — 5 few Baie ATs es fj O ap ma ee oy Beng Peg ae PE : pal Ei Rs} fi “+ fH i — A Gls So ee ot ns oom tT 4 ee a4 a) C F r ry ; wy UF pois - 2 ) oF i py Te Ty r P uy th By! gc # 2 it OO 4 4 x. — ot ie ti ' a a : amo O 4 6 f l ei ea ie Sy Ware mn Med Ss See ro ee im SO Gra & Seen eee GM Ore r t am # Se : § if r i ref jh ‘al F L F Cae T j : 4 ey HO Go Ae GOA DoOPAOH UA GO) D Oe a Mie eat oar © © : Eat an Fo te ere es ee +I i ie ae rin ee ee Y ES Gogh eo ot a . ny TS rm hy @ rm Ow a BGA Om 4 ao MA sh ae Cont fi eG ina eared or ay a t 1) Ce oo. oo Fe 4 hae ate gS a red i r on O eee fo Ry “-4e--t t Reis at tee ie pa To ad ae a c mS 7 © 5 oo Oo oOo m2 45 oO Oo) O-d + ia St ; ben ; es H — - ™ et es a te el ™ F oe es — Ey a Mlk 22 4aeo oO uw qd a ye fiee§ mt Cy afutts Cuore tig tet Geen ee 36 Ge Om OR 65 Tiny ae ot SoA O+ FO a oe, . ! ea 6a) OG ct Eas res pea i! 47S ert an ee ah at an eC ‘A Oat c a ¥ 4 i cD id 4 “7 +f -Y + i 4 a ey fe ! ‘ , 4 - m4 ae ’ : ‘ a EG! fi ) 7 :° a rl I 47 19 1% ro ci ‘ ia 9 fag a 30.0 s ie om m4 © -di nes im rt 2270 Sea ea mow Cc a & a Lab i a Gy 45) 0b a 4 . rt ay oY oO ia} bain a Hy [Ga fs (63 co “ 7. a al a f — 1 god %, “y 55 he oR it ae Ww fC, cf reo ' Lo, mo Ay Cd ot am ag ore of 1 @ fy — aU a oor Wi 4 nb og i me 4 a ie E ne fk ee : FL Ta: ‘a ral oO Wins ne) oO rot oO 4 a re co Ou ¢) - at fT ¢ F a r r a 4 “ at a as hd ‘mn 4 : J ‘a. oo C3 he s ‘ ren ‘ fe 4 il rs rab, ‘4 a Lo as i abet a and fo ae ei — ' a — ti ia 5 1% . f re camel 3 a epee 5 ne ies Ly ry rat Cel La aie co a nn — $7. a: A a “6 Gi ac] OQ eat Tf a pea Si C - Lt ope A oo ol 3 ra cima ap 4 3 ‘all : va U at hey hal oO far rc we ogcunned oa wu ta ay c.f Ate ae ; oe “3 es oo r ct mma ec le ei oD i et rd fo ad a i . : 4 Cy tc! ooo ee - : 2 ct i, — i : cI . ie Raoul by 2 cor FN (ates Ni en on Nd ample! Yee! Ue. i in o Poe ati Sete gees ey ot Eon yee ee en ate es ytse Sooo 8 oOordo Barf se fy OO OR, f re ES Sam ET A a oe a i M2 OO @ CO qs kf 46 eee O — © I i ure re ct ya ' — 1 — i c A r + ae es ee i” — jt rt ia r r ! prem nt had ti 2 rat! ta ins ae pe Bats Ot ree Bet Ee By SI Gh ated, eo eres Sf cH Pope ao gc eer tet Bona Gg OP c Ser me ieee ee aes Ua ose Wee hs Oe Tey ee et ow vw @ 7 ep ELE mi ri m ¢ a Fg — ri cH 3 + Aas te r : aq cy wt 4 aE ‘an oy oS sy ; U aa fry Qo ord ra4 re Po re qo 0 ad mt CG) — a. : a ae ; ff © ff 4 fo rst oi G 4 0 - mi orf ri fs ro 1 ct kK . kt Lt at ap mS tose BR. REMPREY Oo Loud os Done 6 AG Boo so 600 ag ms a Po. .! (D+ &: 2 ro ape tes ee Pe oe : ro ei ey iy crs 3 ae +r] ‘ty i ana eS Fa fr : 7 : =pef 4 ta =-4 . kd aot F rt cut ray 5, Ly tc f 4 arte’ pot a fo sa 4 ea Mf f a A omy py EP 1 ED ee cn Vee a do t os i — t Foal [ - — in Ys 3 Oo O.c 2 So i, HOH ROG CORAHTOCLP OHS eS relies OL RE el C3 ‘oh j al Ly ai [ : we 13 oF Co et ered ts, oy ro. ty vik ; ; aaa Ty c rt ab) cr re ee tees ‘ i hie is t a a a . . rod : ad ’ tn An ™ 8 A bad eS GS se or ee oS eo eS 3106 © Pay Fate Cie ei Sa en oral eet ees SR te cow te) cy a a he. BH rf iS ; a +r] ‘ Hi fm cc! q P — i es Lo od 1 - rm! rl O tC: Ly A a Es i mom fT ny 4 r ims fed Td i: co I aoe - 7 ee ee Oe by 7 5 ms, pty oe ‘7p 4 i " a oo0 n ct ok, a Ol beg Jt hog tae ns ee en rc 43 ™“ t, cc! Seal Lee a o iat! SS eae 38 " i : a al oe is i ob ge ey - a nn ee ee ; as Oo + Aes ile oaroo concen Ns QS Cre A PA Sod ee Na emememom is oa al al u ae 14 ae # a S y . ie weal ed “ 1s) F ei ay + — 1 i La ee re wy RS 4 J io ! on ace ad re Sof ft — : PA) Seer im co i + Si a) a oc ct rc 3 # a ae ha i cy % ee pe Oo. G3) a 6 eo ca Le Bes t tt pet et Pee jt he [ veo hal yr a oe tk ca OF si i ee i ; - et all Le a + i) ap £ “4 ; 4 A al ho rc ‘ +—] : 1 i . al i r=) ! (3 f 7 1] : ri Ca rt C2 Fak "i td renal mo — Lo £3. 06 aa e a jr a ei ike ' eee hs mao OS ert Val) Tee amd “ @ red & a4 3 re ) ti ci ey ors Le Fe a ) Ce ree ee — £5 mA be teens mel} Of ¢y + oO 1 f, Pa ail AL peel ‘wk f 4 oF + od + 4 ie. - 1 F % 4 peat + + i ie ¢ ry ; ‘ae ae fy f..3 t sky i 4 me eS 4S af} an iS rib) - 7 , Ms poe a a ee oe 2) c these e is el ot mai. aly nn e at cmt i ie re ar r # a rt i a an J i ™ ——— , Aa pe +. ¥ i, Sine a Hoc OS vAmam4 Oo 0 Arse a ) i344 ; Sar Bee ee uals. Old Ny Re eat) Noch ee ee 9 0) © ra Fa CS ot seep et ores ep a apy iia ce iy fi ae aden ea co a rm cf ei a tt LA ¥ 20 © On Seago ee ae co Om na ae eS i rp RS G Sr Pe Se ee De cahed etka ie el ah) is co Ge wine oe saa o eee marc great! Iie ary pr Sy eet OM Ye aie 5) eal Sears ma 20 4 © Sie Tel, Soh Gee eaten Haoondrr& imme By) co ¢ COP RO eet m Ci) 43 oo a1 Tv} 42 E — ae -4 i), the Oat on r z ; ij © oo) a rie: rt ly ot ae oa Ee Eo he “ime E : / J ca on E 6. t : SL Ong GE ie sat ene) eRe Ohl a eo. Ouehorn SHudPakKa gad + oO cc — 3 c 4 al ‘in| , Bal ay cS ‘aie el 1 4 [i : eee {iJ EA nt ty ot cc x i rnd 4 aeoen ane ae: rab : 4 Pa a On GF Oe tt @ f ane — Heth oG oo ot a mo od Ay a, a ? : 1 0 Sr cq to TD mal oO mi ee rr cc th “1 . ae oe i ee aa mr at ot re Lies “2 rf ar € +4 . e a) 1 hat — wn Gus ead) pee) ed uty ir Ho @d rf ce ee Fa tn a 7 2 Le yi £ rm ts, Fi py oot ee ae : to aye () it a5 ts z pee i a “ Ma 2 i oa os tA ie sa a et Tact see ford Be OM dee mf, 7 th be an Se bn are) ace a) © a tf) € Gio fi r ma . m gt ee Pe eee ea ey Om Ga Et tial [oe ie Se ert ecw St 65, Gan) oc mt o rs oe “i Cc Let ro a) : at oss ey tol Ute en t 4 i at apart 1 EF) i OQ i 4 al oO fr amc. oe oo 4 os os mt Spm bo ma co s af eh £ a a ‘hi ah ac td af Or Hos co aire t z- oo rt ‘a fy-d + + ‘ C4 Hae a) em. MD iH 49 2 m a a L : ssl a tae 4 © Gy CS ee aed cae Gy a oof kn di e “S ; os hat ie pan sal oo 41 CT ae al ee ier : . at 3 fern oO van cea © a fr 3 a eS a ms i ie ca ‘s) r a a -4 Re mM § ae i 1% gi ge ia i s i + Pe Bie ad ORO Clg Bae Fe ocx Te RAELAN a TGS VEN. Hentahatiei en cateca nine name ey Gas ef Se x1 rye a E i ult 4 +1 3 ty! — ne, Liv ei 4 7 ae hy 4 L ae Ret. eh UE epi at Dr Sy BO yy AO eee aria, Meal eh ane oy Re ae Seer eeiiee peed ie Set crek bee ee Pi - : 2 : i i pet ee i j - in ot ot ie ee es F ; ¢ a Panna OE a a ae 46) LA es aia [: 7 — ap ep ee nae re a — (y+ fF F be aF ° i cal 13 4, prt a te il Le LJ rae — ac 3 0 i ‘ z Tall i hry r , : i é ao a, 4a I ' bs 8 fl he -) 4, 1 a — ho i! Fr ‘ itp ee 4h Or oc 8 Oty S CG ee) ey act a Ey eee) onal ON Ae ae aMaodeop 3 Seeteh e et Ce oO wm 5 oo ach ooonon Ghnaogo & east © pe ie Mites Serie ea SGanAnY Bo i ‘ - A Sat he 7 + hit he a 4 a rl} ' f.. a na} Saal Cc) af aot H Fa ay ' ; a i lan — ra rl i c 4 et) fa ‘ab — oJ + Aa i, e : Ba c aid fami C4 a ha! Sp hee tae an oe eee igs mn ee ee ee nah Tee eee ie pee ee ae eke ee IoowMa da a+ rs oS RO Pat oS 2 SOR feo e des Seow oS amin a. sO oO ® O i pot Cc) 7 a 4 ae (1) ri ve ol os 1) a ray A) oo A f. 4 fot ved thf at ab Sf) ES) be, cf tat : et ot £ o i : 1 5, Gd pasa EV ap] 23 cr Si el ay ;— +4 ja ua a L, Joy ae os ae 3 : i hs oy eS kA cr Toy iy - ' E t Cc ca ! i rH oa) &, 1 a aes J : —4y Seder 40 Sed f ; to, wot i) it} oo La is cl t F ye be Ca te a t-4 C3 +4 bal - 4 — +p TO “1 @ oY ht —- 1 mel ont c - et : SS Wy Aon & mE eS 2 MS a er ra as et salt ae Sh Set me SILL GNAUE bes Or iad eee ne 1 --4 ndcoopit oc See Om sy AS Odor ¢ Os s4 2 Sect , b7/-| io Pot eis ro OS at oy a - if 5 ' . ™ . a J & 4 1 r rae Se rm yi tere Sahay aa ™ OO FH 1 47 49 ¢ ie c 4 Co ft to ee as HOU OR oO eG il iP 4 a oe i, 1) a ad tm. Ty rt A “a a, 4 ae, t q Ey a fal a wid pohos Ah iv a Go pu my ae Te fi pe ! i Ci Lae i. “4 Ed r c . rn 5 ‘) i oe te AD j qi J i, av 3 . - rut a5 4) G 5% a: : e aa 42 OO Met ey ees Te OL kad ee! got Om Ew 4 tt ct a Oh @ ed @ sf & & O2ORR GPUS te a . may & i Lge a : t , ot aif! ceed . he mm oa @ “ ae vs : ay alte ap rea on a a e 4 ‘- 1 i s. ah ae 7p ae 43 a 4 4 ad ' rs ead i © Sta via co ae QD C ry wD be coal Me tl. t 5 ss ae 5 at} ad - i ts —, P il ah r r — & 2. oa . ‘ “ye : ci eey 49 4° CG &, & m ah ay 1 A i Seek es ; so eS Eh) Ee art i ho Ca O af . Pex, ee ra Pm coe wl a opel ra 4a ar hh eee CS Ey ae ret. Ore cars . . oe Aw iW) st 1 ad sty Set ha eo Ares a Gewese) COE oe - a fh ae Oca oS in Aoaogsnoo oO nm & ! 4 pal : ew i aa oe ‘peel [x] st fi} Ie. , — r Ch rr} 7, ot oh F a Cy aa) h ca — —— rl ee wu] m 6) 3 EL ee TE oq "3 a “ 2 Sy not 3 oP OO Oo ee ! oP t — os bel @ ! 4 wt oo é % PT oa ST coe ot : He ak read hay tS foes aw ey “] i oe ws mi i EF i c=] fy e : Oo O ao G ie Soot og oa et eae Ordo 2 ee ee ae : HORT eae gt enh be uy ae, f %, a oO r t [-4 es — — ct a Lc x s fag — a) nae £ : eh) C7 ur -, Aa — OC ae : 3 “ mse os ae oO eon 4 mn Hees Tis) rhe, Oye ey : ‘Ff z : - ii 8) Lea mM a 43 2 & fy — F ) €) +0 i Pol oad a ieee me ret Ces ay a ae Yon oyrooanodoeagn oda hm me OV Cl orp 69 “tog ix Bie. paar fj ce iy Se tn i rae I fae A Got Oe Qo er ir ‘ 4 2 © OH Pe ees E jy Cr im 4 es 4 : — ! ro fae al ; Lt pet gel rs l'| 5 1 . + 4 i © a) 4A fy) rc a - an Sea oth 4 oS BS at eed —*i Oat Ged Wi trot ore i do) Ly 4 a mats + 3 tS Se Ue Og 3255 fae yey DEL foc ' J A et ay, GSB er ee gy) at 4 tld at ra rr tla c ey. ot cy ri ra eel ea loa — ; a co Ch a oO ft oreom Jat pte et mM te -4 G&G tb @& 4s im me -- cs + ae ol ae am) met) ee eo 5 ms 7 Li Be ua eM easaa ey tp eck Neh S: et Lents Ne od Sr Dene Menge Ge eter ee ete Ory Sean soe ta gd AION enh ee he can oe SG wet OF J “ cnt of ai are et eae Co ee eg oe NS, ey pel orl 5 wy A herd & tee ate 2 oe Odo 2 ewe OOS potas: Pea m6, © Oy BS a oe i ee 24 oo Oo a ‘i — Fr ri + 5 ee, an eet rs 45 cl c 4 fr ace f i if “4 i rat wt Pe ead alll Li fi has ad ee i vy Ah ac kK. ? r tht tah! Lad ‘ac c pe oped r bf 43 i... d tno Pe re ere noestoe oe tele re

ee ST ae Soo —— a bel riba colts!

CAUee joa Sa: ture 1s prone to be rich and pyrite. Mineral char coal 1S especi common in our Central Coal Pields. Comparative analy- S€S of the above three varieties would only be significant when taken from the same Nn; and such from any of ovr American coal beds, are not available; but a considerable series of analyses of mineral charcoal are eiven by A. S$ Creath in Rept. ii. Penn. Geol. Surv. De MORE a.

The classification of coals in the large way is not a simple matter.

oe

al

In earlier times physical properties vere appealed to and upon these the Subdivisions were based. Ure in 1845 made the EOE LOM Cubical coal,

Jlate or splint coal, Cannel Coal, and Glance Coal. later on,terms more m

like those in use today appeared. Watts (Dict. of Chem, 1865 ) speaks of

a Lignite or Brown Coal, Bituminous or Coking Coal, Wed many subvaries

Lies , Anthracite and Steam Coal. Others as R. C. Taylor (1843) groupe od.

On the ctasis of their relations to the metallurgy of Tron: (statistics of q

er

Coal, p.l. Taylor's book is a very valuable one and to be highly recom- mended) hut such schemes are pr poner AY netallurgical, and the object at Shas Ce is to éstablish the varieties which will make later descrip-

tions Shima Quiesa MoM oye

Ine essentials of the classifications most in use in América today were established by Prof, Walter R. Johnstn, whose namé canmwot be Held in too high respect by all engineers. They are set forth in his invaluable report to the Navy Department in 1844 on the qualities of American and Torei [ use

: pm coals. The proximate meth

oy ey cir ft Ct ee 1

as 1659, (Sse D0ur. Prankiin Insti S carlier:) bat Phe L£raetivoe et: v1

sed by him as early ) and perhaps by Lle combus-

matter was specially emphasized in 1644 Later On, 2m) Penis. He De

Rogers in Vol.II.of his Report on the Geology of Penn. p.983. establishe d -he comnonly accepted different varieties on a percentarze basis; being led thereto by his experience with Pennsylvania coals, and by the broad differences they exhibit in Geographical realtions Rogers made

l. Anthracites, Volatile matters belo 6 per cent

a, oentanthraciteds. " : i ey "

oO, Behibituninous, " " Detweenm Lees

4. Bituminous , A ; above 186 ty But then under the heads of anthracites, cornmon bituminous and hydroge- nous, he carried out a more minute scheme tat has never been much used.

lt We acd to - cS ‘.

fected by the amounts o fixed carbon to volatile the same time we are no analysis. j Q

his valuab ‘assification of Some, he BA VES e500 Rep e. jm. Penn. eeeLe cu wer p.128, where will be found appended an interesting LisceussLen yod . -P beeley: Calling the ratio of fixed: carbon £9 vola- tile hydrocarbons, the "Fuel Ratio", Frazer suns up with the following table

Oo. Cannel, Volatile Ilatters- - - - - - -40-65 percent. : we have our principal varieties as. today recognized. But Se BS nun bers as thus expressed are open to the objection that they are much af-

:

oo @ —

, 2) ty

oA cP Oca. aa r Lt © iE aves

Re iz, )

fal

Mts Ob no

rs oO cD uo et oO ry co

Rr

; ke oO a) O %)

8) a

o cD bes oO tr bm t cf a) a o

D bd ap c a.

Classes of Coals. Fuel Ratios. Hard-dry Anthracite= —- 200 10 le Semi=-smthracite- s+ Ee $e SSM Lig Cle ike Ce oe St eS Se G oo Bivins) seo S820 Soe Se 5 te

Om

ae) CA

LOons

eG

t

h in LB

some sl

eC are

hot ob

+he

ct oh on

xcep

i“ ot

a9) aq)

Py A po

co

er’ A ab)

aod

no F=4

eat eel i “td iat ; A i oo ra

rm bob it 1 re, nal rr 4 re —

ne

' Om

tr

as

Ten

er

a #

rs

ol

Lae es ct

+ oa m co oof ™ a om me

An J

t2 Ls? “4

een Lh)

9 Th ai of)

U7}

i @ +] f

ot : a 4

PH hea

@

Fr %,

Ba “Go e

i

Ls ]3

ei “

iM 4

as co

+

se oe ne nov

ats ke

le

7%,

oes

uP

a i

hi mt ‘a

c bums,

Fm he

ae] a

Prt L

hy, af

oor

+.

im

4, i 4 fl et a ma a ,ee ae oy sa ee re eat

?

f

on

e-! ] r

ap ct ee

oT

e4

a

a, — Yoee

valhic

mpoy

™

—

tf 4,

“ vant

c™

@

— — vr

Saal ZA 7

yf

ie

rl

Saree &

by ae

i IB See

oy oe

ma a

abe

oo a

#

a

raf)

2 Bo

™

¥

—a

Cunt

a

ie

O

oi a

ea Lt

+

a

a fam be

ei Tt

t

+ re.

i

a ab

At Dk a

€

At ¥

r

A

et

wd

a

a! a

ral as ake -in ra ie + et

rs ra

—

hu

a

if

elban a he

b

a

ey

if

¥

mo C Poe

od oe

(1) MR. PAL. 210. (2) MVR. HE66. S69. (5) JiR. 187. S7a. Averace of o-ssaris. (a)oU Ry 1be6.. 292. (ey MTR, eee, ere. Ce vend 7) eBe Potter Lignite Coals of Col. Sey ts, Dene vol. hyd, are extremely high for coke (8) Anthracite. J.5.Newberry, S,.of HM. Quarterly July 1633. S41. tonutains Phosphorus 0.067. (9) MLR. 1682. p.32. (10) H.M.Chance M.E. Feb.18590, (11) H.R. 1889-1890. 176. (12) MLR. 188 it On aes ie, (Leo 52, Alia) CLR Keyes. Rept.on leowa Coal. 507. <(15) MWR, Teee6, th, “ane Leash 42. {16) N.W. lord. Beon.Geol.dhio, V. 924. (17) and (28) Mrcraath calls them typical. M.R. 1885. 177. (19) Semibituminous M'Creath. Rept.MM. Pa. Geol.Surv, 5¢ (20) Semianthracite. M'Creath Rep. Mi. 62. (21)Hard dry Anthracite. M.R. 1885. 54. (22) M'Oreath in Mineral Wealth of Virginia, Ag. 25) M'Creath. I bid. 119. Average of 10 samples. (24) I’ Creath

i nvilliers. : Hle

t

oOo 2D ct (3 “yw

t

Ba OO

nn. Southemn- Cokes ete. ME. deev. (25) H E.Ramsey. Pratt Mines etc. M.H. 1890. (27); LB Ot rs

a. D ae} — to

+ 3 fo Cy co C2 4 —, tr] a o en 3 hs

ae

by Cu

a

f— He moH— oO

Poa.

re

va

i Ke ts

rS ee} t

a

fe [5

he composition of the ash is important in metallurgical applica- tions and a few are appended to sh cenera e

San Ue 47.90 50.65 65.70 43.69 Aske Oe AT S76 44,85 Ba eo 35.79 Fe, O. 1.43 Bere 5,46 14,74 C2 0 1.48 Oo, 52 ‘U5 3,52 iM, O 0.55 Ose Lone K.0,Na_ 0 0.49 768

S. t 0.53

j 0) O72 () ess

a

Oh

100.00 Loc. 000 26554

Srs,

uf tO

Ld

ome 3 tte eka Mine Houtzdale Pa. M'tCreath. Rept. M. Pa. Survey. p.e Ss is given in percentages of oad and reduced here to par

—

(1} Ash of Connellsville coke-J.B.Eritton quoted by V.W.Bowron, M.E. May

L885 (2) Ash of Tracy City Coal, Sequachee Valley Tenn. I bid (3) Ash of Trinadad Coal, Colorado- see No -o oF previous table-W.3.Potter. M.b.V

4) Kure

a3)

mm

a te —

a, pon! a

fy

ay

SULCIARY . The important points For an engineer or chemist to bear in mind re- carding the compositi of coals may be condensed as follows: WOLSTURS... 1 Ss Moisture the better. Hach fe) cent means 2O Lbs of water per ton to evaporate before the heat of the al LS avai ; 7a some. The average of 140 Bato coals ma

ip lowa coals, 64 afforded ©.A.White an average or oals analysed by R. pea eaiee nave? 6.40 %; 9% Pe ded an average of 1.05 ZZ.

a ae m er es cD — ane Cr rey. 3 CO 923 wl —J

a8 deme ees

A. White- Geol.of Iowa 1570. II. 357. Analyses by Rush Emery. Wis agar . Begis Chauvenet- Iron ores and Coal Fields 1872. p.dl-. Ohio. TF. G. WVormley- Report of Geol. Survey}

7 for 28670. p.403. Pennsylvania. A. So. M'Creath. sites al Penn. Rep. My 26>

: gle — a ee ee ee ae a aa eS ee — ie ao Sie OS le ee : tere Ss

— 2

a

——

— Ss — ;

a —

fe

ie Sas

f

of, The Jess AP the better. First class coals ourht not run

over 6 or 7 rae secona class not over lez “4, but the Location mav make a difference. For panes firing white ash coals are to be preferred, and the nearer the ash is to pure silica and alumina the bettér. TI*on oxide, Lime, magnesia and. eit fee make clinkers.

VO per LLE we : mal j

YDROCARBON Semibituminous coals are preferred for stéam- ing. In coking sOn TS oe le ss volatile matter, a more coke. In sas m

coals, provided a good coke is yielded, the more volatile matter the bet-

ra Lt

ey fo Aes m Tey ie oh Aen HT i oe nT r Ao aye b6Er, 10 HS 4 fo0g "sas coal” jin New York a coal Heung yield at least : LQ000 cu.ft. of gas per ton, and extra good anes yield 12000- Hlsewhere fi . 7 ; o ; : ; : ha) local coals may be employed yielding less. At the same time sulphur re

should be Ht 0.5 % in New York, which is severe t de]

ce: o

pa ap, a Hy -) ge: “D [wed

sf O ra

L ; the con Li tio 1 of the sulphur in the coal, see beloy under sulphur. A ood discussion is piven by #. Mc. Millin. Weon. Geel. of Onto. V. 722.

FIXED CARBON. gives the graat heat in steaming. In cokine in the

& & h

large way, the percentage o¢ yield given by crucible experiment will not be realized by several units. ;

aie ee the less the better for all puyecses. “Et te present in three Torn sulphurous organic compounds(often called free sulphur), py- rite or peg aie one: CaloLre OF OfheY SEILBhAte. Tre amor tant feature : fies in its relation to coke. Despite the eeneral impression all the free sulphur does not go off in coking, as was shown by Wormley in 1870. M’Creath gives as a general rule, that the percentazse of sulrhur in the coke, will be C1 less than in the original ¢€oal but for

ra cy om

ry ot

re Eg

Oo

fea '

t-4 FF

Wa (D ta @ cD of ep © ct a a maaal ck er bel + VE Ss Tae a tJ wud

pt Ci) cy — ws — ow m3 cf “a en © ome IVF ie. pt

ey

T

1)

urposes may be above). The

phur even to Fiven below

mm chy i=) bad — Q) a ts

Oo cD — ra

a

cy

et

es Co Chi

tp c ‘nee od Ce ow!

D

og!

+ ct

er D

he

D

o

—

“4 te oH ate es 5 Fh 1 tah 73-4 o Cl. 455 5 ms - ‘ F oe Thee Tat ea A et E . Kimball . iat — la ht ns 0 aT ko ith IAL Ln Mw Oa cal Ch Ot i hi fh Ash J Pp I s ! re o Le Gs c Vo Pls f. 7 L3 my at Cc . 7 io a a ae ee 1 a3 a gee hry acl, 2 SU Que 2S eV Seo aS er LE aL es Es Tha ha re a ye or ll

— a

iy cd ee! CA cr Co

Oo is ¢

bo F aH baad ry

is eal ai) p=!

Dp

‘es bs

hy C4 hy fe Cy QO oar

4 a es et mye a) rm Pu iam wei bed 4 oo . a a a7 ; 7 rr ck. Investigation of Coals for making Coke etc. I1.EB. Heb.193. ne t . Uni w POM ee nied Mata 44 OF a oe ba ee +e ama Le a) jaa ¥ coe 4 Lt a os Oa Ota ‘ir 2 fhe a tal US LS f : Faper Ea: bie Cr ie eSOm—

a H- 09 M ta za Aro NWN Oo a @

ct OC a

hwei

rl

a oO mM Bic

[

Fam a2 WOrmley. Geol. Survey of Ohio. 1870.

Kio Oo tn

rm ‘oh i £ ) it Pit Re a, ee wey ee ee 1) ea TAO Pty it xe T 4 . + le oe 4 ay ean : 1 Wi PHOSPHORIC ACID is present in all coalsashes-but it seldom reaches i fa la oe ae i : 7 “5 ae ge patie tay ae Te ; — AR the hundredths place of decimals and very rarely the tenths It is only ) a ee ot 7 Te) - a : A 4 Fe Fy oF petit a Sa ape al of moment in cokes used for Bessemer pig-(See A.S.M'Creath Rep.MM.126. MS to 78.) eh law tee . i i + oF re ss . Llu ae ate, ee rh a el ee Ty) TT Et A ih Tatty A Sew ot a —— rps a al HE, isft, Medal es LNG OR ete el Wes ae eee ree digs? C) ' COAT, ‘ Py res Dee pi Lt Pbe Pe OenLae tt iL 4 . a 4 - j 7 ra ' ! ry 1 a ’ Tore ra) or oj hy! Os a 7. i on 4 iy - + "ma arn a" a that coals deteriorate on exposure and ara even subject to spontaneous , oS mi - te ce: ees Se! oh pepe MF 4 ] a de combustion, the changes are less marked in anthracite and splint coals aa. Ta, iy eo art ® z i et eer Fe az 4 ' a. fo : and may be almost nothing for reasonable periods, but for more tender + A - a ©: . ed: as x ¥ [eran Eat ia ES bitumincus the result is serious and may impair the coking properties. 1) a . —! pes ea lito fa aa Ee - mf ee 2 a le a F a “7T a rhe evil effects were formerly referred in laree part to the sulp yr com- be Me il i as c thal a ai uy e S a cs 1 a. i Es ft le he SS A Lk oe rt ela Ss ae S EE Orn i_/ A Ls i o I I ; 2 LA le L Ls aid te LOW if eri AA lia, 4 i 5 1 “ Tee ee rr 3 - erally understood as being chierly aue co the oxidation of the carbon and al a Z ok Se aia ay i ] Se og er eee ce pas 34 nyadrogen present although of course the chance in the sulphur compounds 7 a] 5 - a: a a er 1 2 especially the sulphide of iron is ne small additional factor. These Taat nares ra ch IWnees are aided hy dampness Wap o Bhs aes esetpan ef the cart ata Eile diCbe die tt i ak te el 2 td Riek he Lie a We Ge Jt Peaks Doh dec OO ed LDS wool al tae eae ce ag he Si TS “a Pies — BP ae aha se, i a 2 i at Hon anc hydresen proceeds more rapidly in a duy place; ryrivous coals

should thus be stored amid dryness, while dampness does not injure non-

Sulphurous. The change in physical properties is no less marked. The

swelling of the little films of sulphide of iron ves changing from sul- —)

Ex

é to sulphate or hydrous oxide is very destructive. The close paral- el between all these changes and the production of are and outcrop coal

i ee rm ral

ta

is close. These questions are quite fully discussed in the citations be-

tow, especially that of J. Pikimbalil.,

J. P. Kimball Oxidation or Weathering of Coal. M.E.Sert.1879. Ree-Gives many references.

A. 8. M'Creath. Report M.54. MMI1S.

FH. Muck. Chemie der Steinkohle-104.1091. Gives many references to Huro- pean literature. Rec

Jd. D. Pennock, M.E,%eb.1695-Gives a good illustration on Reynoldsville

Pa oak. A FS een

Tect of Exposure on Coal. Amer.Jour, of Mining. Dec

apeme Coal and) iron. Moby Li. t44e Boe Ml. 2e74 SL:

a

HO hy ct &

yy es ta

a)

eo 2

oF Fb e ea Phy HH ©

HO a)

bo

sold by the uare; that about mile hes 640 ravity, With to reckon as peal 44560 sq.ft. no) ELUDES. MOE become a general ch of seam, a con- S assumes flat

tr]

te ty

hy FG) cS kA Kh ca

Or oO

[-d ry 2 FI bey

DU 2) ay, bod

cr ‘ab or me

Th ele

Fh

O

- : - ae

ae D weed ct cD ct Al ct ay iF a

ime oo 1

on ky , o i k

O27, ey,

a i om £

Sy ep

m ©

Og

co oO cD ap)

in)

SO oe ht Se Neos ale RL ho

food 0!

linine

m ¢

a

op wm Guha

fede Homo o f

a Oo Oo K- fo

E Su — . id)

ai

ct © Q ct &

Oo f a3

i, ote ta oot

Ser

3 2) @ ct

J o 8 cr no

ay ck

Ss oe "

eS

ny

Q) Dm

pu

Oc

@ O

a tom nH.

Oo Oo

Oo ) of 1 f Sons ry © tie

k

j- a8) uw ra Cy ee F

iy

on

ch Po

to ca oO

, — t 1

‘ s feud rr

im tb ctr + oN ct ct OG #

H- ( ct (BD ¢ e

a

j—aa —

Sook Foe E

nn ov Pa C0 €3 0 FR. foot

i jj

G2 cD or Hh ize J ee ft tD ji. oy ea ey) C)

vw) (Dp

fH

a ay ©

O Mp

mo AS

on

+O ct O DM a ny é

mo © er. +R Oo

3S m mF © oO

ai, 1 a

WO OO § . Sa DS Ab og chs D

Cd

©

yo

cD

s

D

cD

ay Gi) 3 Gt

ct E+ (Dp

cT

Cod Oo os ca -

Fri

—f

eros

a3

Cd

reat judgement i deavor should be t be 7 7

d

a

Cd O48

ad

cD

r sampling of coal racter of the run ier noted there are le or slate part- es may have differ- ra roof, or a bottom s may be even kept large are thrown out. ent true rmunning con- eanest lumps, he

led out. Where sam- te they should be wash- 1am of all sorts of rock 1S case it is very

aid, 4 le, diamond drill cores on these churn up more or less. The method carefully noted when the analysis is given. f analyses are becoming available, and our related, the analyses are being more and pee) in limited basins. This has many

ma

J cr om Sy qr) + Fy ah)

jf=-4

seams, and of mine fF Varieties

i. 4 a my eo DD

for Oy fn

Ps

cy“

oc} iJ oD fp 3 A cr oi oO ip Df me

1 Rb Oo DD

Kho 2 @O Dp

ye i (2) a cD o wD 1 2 ch oO

ck kh: oO a) Orbe Oo OR

ie ras ay) ct © tS Go me

suis hy ct ck Mm ©

1 fk chr KY a)

Oo © - o dh

©M O Fh ct ct

ft e+ OD

a -h vie t- ce alr rs

ys I-ty

t oO

; Oo my pe m— p—

ep)

a r ) 1+ t

oy mn

Senavane in Hence a samp ditions, and hould also ples are in ed in a ba: that fall diifi LGULTt are Le of taking Now that beds are being more grouped py

cr 3

ct Re Ky Hob

(5 jH-

ry TDorRt Oo SB

ct rab] om

- ry

t ra

r

—

oS

ae

F-

Hi 02 YD ee!

ee

ct

— “i ras

OST, Sam!

crm Oo 0) Mw a) .

: @ ta

CS) a) eRe el

eo Ss O/! oO }-4

— i) j—is fue ths Dm @ a © 3.0 Mets ct

(Dp ct

[

- Om © bmw) ee)

ie Fit, eae 16 1) cf 2 ect

ta k— cr cs

a ah Gi Honrte pw SB

er is

be

om

Ry

Or

cs

09 oO Pb O My OQ a bE Qa agro uno oOo Do ss on to fj oe fu

Qs at iy iH

ue Mm ©

tn

F

a JH ct io OD

ne

aT OH

ina) oO

r

bk i ob j=! i— ct ;

Pa

Fy CD

Mm 0 ct & oO

we be Dp Dm cD

+ toAR ¢

ape fied its a

9 ame oD Fe —

ct

Oo aan fo

4 —

ie cD Mm hg ©

te

Oy or

Om (D

SoH tat Ci) 2 rf i) oF

é& r Lief

Mg ap

J

Dy ft hs

my a) oe

O @

#

aAsrantaces on acernt of the ganaral vrniformitv of seams- snd where an ne 4 - engineer can get points on an unopened tract from experience met else- “here in the same basin they are of the zreatest service, for it 18 to be well appreciated that established reprtatio 0 ts

Wil sf ,

’ : AWr x° bAaA hax - mkt sa Pr s 11 : a :

she marketins of coals, and often new fielas have great aiiiicuities in

I tA ee a a oo eameyetee wea at, a, SRN nN A “alkine CnNeLy WAY GQ&ainss prej pO a Ne eal oe a) eg w cd! Se © diets Kimball. Differential var pling GMs Basti FLUMLNOUS CORE oeans. TF Tt 4a 1 4 a BRT Jem & My Ueto eX pe we) + : a Stun TO YIU 1 Curve -— Pann sre alia need The analyses in Rept. MAI, gna Geol. ourvey ot Fenn. are ali arranged c rT t4 oe J a) a —. 4 ie , re 7 Vie ‘ah V4 Mth ie a 7 by Seams. ine Same iS trua ‘oni BHdwards Y oals and vCOKeS 27 West Lf eSlitba aS na Aner ‘ane ae , Ilan °T + ran in rd moallis ah oa We en thy ana Le 5 SHnerawt pla BE is strongly ur red ALG KILTINL Ae ae] Ke LAR ma LONI INE AS y (e- pal 4 ‘vi. YP Rag - - . oe + oa 4 5 fy, oynor (y mM IOS fal Bield, ete. M. HE. XII. and Ashburner's, Classification ana Comp tion of i SF pene — ete a A dee Se ae tT ae AW p ry im eae the Frennsylvania aAntnaraci CES, Bs. es. CTOs rbd ; iy ma) Nester Mie ee, ee a es et “es ee WO) LY) a ae Mh We) be jas oe fe a) -+ rT . NTAPTIND AT ATHANT OVOT OA TTERATITROW 7 COAT A GHEPTR “oir. TENBPAL GHOLOGI CAL LiITBERALUSE on JEALi. i Nam (ADDART FRROUS ee rT CO POS —-CAKR L NI o mth hid YU JALS . —— A °7 TY c=) x El ie2 . a Li LSRAVYURE OL more than Local Importance. ee ste La ) 7) a ee Vp " 9 my y ae LC + Til] . 7 e Daddow and Bannan. Soe) chem aire. ).C)e le Fottsville 1866. -. —— sw - a : ae £ Pp TT . a ey =r) is a vole . + th Ja diaz 8 ORES. Soak in the United States- thineral Industries. Eleventh SNnst Divs #, 40-4646. J PF T 7) AX Wani7a f Nha and 4t NAraAevranhivr nHiladelpvni: 1QF%¢ J. P. Lesley. Manual cf Coal and its Topography. Philadelphia 1656. Fada ke ha reh l 7 nD recomme! 1c ave: EY 8 AE ee J a W/W i J U Jaadst LE . i. Mac HfHariane LOak nELLONS OL CRE intted States, Nv YY. Leron, KOC. ( Out of print ) ee eee eo ea ct rage oye oa TPR as me) as. Wf TT (x3 5 *Tinera INaUS t cy Annual Statistical Volume oi pne Hid MJ. Gives a 2 ” , ‘ 4 ‘ i ae ES. Statistical ana market Yrevicw or coal-= dia th LBS: bi] ne ral nes OU Ces Ol tne / LL? a e yl. a Ur V eC e fi valua able all nual i O¥VLe te since J1600e With many local cetat of geolog Pe, 7) Prine Cr AS I ' L On Cne Oa BxXOoOL Hits a & 5,oe YW entenhilia UXIOSTt1LON , T+- 4 os 1) 7 aw A awe, “ta a - — Pa sey z Ty vm, Le y d Me n Judges Reports and Awards. Groupl. pp.50-107. Gives many analyseskec ie “rit 2 - a) es . rT 7 ’ 435 TT -7)\ D he Coals of tne United States. Tenth Census.xV.605. Rec yy)

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. ' . . at ot ie + lhe nost-Carboniferous coals will b¢e=taken ur in the following order. I. The Facific Slope-II. The Great Basimn-J1I. The Colorado Plateau and + LAS fe a a alae ar Se ol sted Gk © {Tr ro ake 3 Fa F ; a i ow on tian ea eet c cy Jey tne Kocky Mountains-IV.The Great Plains-V.The Jura-Trias coals of the

1. The Pacific Slope. ALASKA Miocene strata are abundantly developed along the south coast of Alaska. They contain lignite beds, often of a quality to yield good coal and in not a few places. ‘any years ago such were announced from Admir- alty Island, in the northeastern archipelago, and from St. Johns Bay

7 26 4 itka (reported as anthracite I.R.1864,.).19). “lore reéecent- iy the g¢reatast interest has been directed to Unga Island, one of the SOvMa si ni south of Aliaska Peninsula. and to various localities in Cooks ? A a- several Yr

seams 5-6 Ft.thick and 2 miles long are reported. A trai have been built and some mining done. On Kachemak Bay, o insula, southwest side of Cooks Inlet. other serious operations have been begun. analysis is given ina preceding table. A 6 ft. seam is re- corde 7 ) tance of these coals lies in their availability for the cities cn the Pacific, especially San Francisco and Portland. At present these markets take coal from all quarters of the sere (Penn. England, apan, Australia, Oregon, Washington and Van Couver' Isiand).

St AFcins. : a a 3 ~adlet. about the micgdle of the southern Alaskan coast. At Unga- AY n n

t ©

Oo Rat +a ay 0)

CC. A. Ashburner On the coal at Kellesnoo Adm ralty Island. M.R.1885.14 An analysis by C. F. Chandler gsave- H.O 3.74 V.H. 37.02 F.C.45.15 Ash 14.09 This includes. 8. 0,72.Fesbly coking, Sp.Gr:. 1.45

Coal in Alaska- HE.é& M.J. Jan.17.1&660. p.47.

W,. By Dab Review of the Tertiary Geology of Alaska- with notes on lo- cation and thickness of coal seams. Bull.84 N.5.G.5.2352-268. On the Alewtian Islands especially p.242- A very ‘complete seological

CD ) 4 on ur aD : TS 3) -y

bibleography accompanis

G. M. Dawson. Geologi cal notes on some of the Coasts and Islands of Beh- ring Sea and Vicinity.

Goo. A. Ball. Viii7= 2894 Volcanic &c

How. Bp oOet Our Arctic Provinece- Chas.Scribners Sons.1L386- “tates hat c J Rept. of Governor of Alaska

lus I L , Te f lx ot z Jaa hs al on Kadiak Island described in RR ao

¥. H. Knowlton. Fossil Flora of Alaska. Proc.U.S.Nat'!1.Museum. XVI1I.1393- AS he RAD SEY &. 1 Bile Eve ea ron, R, J. Moss. Coal in the Arctic Regions. Proc.Roy.Soc.Dub. May'78.Miocene Coal OF POOe .Gualety Ale eS Ty ely 25% ier recent Account- MM, KR. EGIL: 209

bt 71 "7 . ae x Wee Be UW. Parker . GOO. br

BRITISH COLUMBIA The importance of the coals of British Columbia, or more definately of Vancouvers Island is more than local The mines fur- nish what is ee as the best of the fuels mined on the Pacific coast and ship over half a million tons yearly to Californian ports. There are two basins or fields on Vancouvers Is., all situated along the eastern side. The southern is the Nanaimo, with a town of the same name about 75 miles north of Victoria The northern is the Comax about 60 miles beyond Nanaimo In the Nanaimo field the oldest pa eee are at the town of the same name They were begun in 18635 and now consist of five shafts from 500-700 ft. deep- one of which is on a small island (Protection Island) off the coast-and needed as a means of continuing the mines out under the Straits of Georgia, they having already penetrated two to three miles. The coal as worked is 5-12 ft. thick, coking and an excellent gas coal. Iwo seams are mentioned by J. Richardson Six miles north of Nanaimo an- other large plant is in operation at Yellington, which furnishes the best of the Pacific fuels fhe shafts are under 400 ft. and the seam is ten feet or even more in piaces, and is called the "Newcastle". mile and a (29)

hait south is Hast Wellington With coal 2 1l/2a-6 tt. and a smaller plant. In the Comax rield the one company as yet operating is the Union, whose mines are eleven miles pack from the coast. The coal as worked is 5-3 ft ind much prized. Richardson states that 10 seams are known with a total GF Ft oe aa lowes, SOG a SES ie eee Fe Recent CSP E Oat Tene with the diamond driit Adie been made at Oyster Harbor and Tumbo Islandfinding in the tas, Pocakiviy Ss fas. 02 2.00 ceed;

In the abave fields the coat ates: Plas

as a general thing, dipping eprecs and upward The stratigraphical posit

ct ae Si ion is upper ae he de ow the Laramie of Washington as

Le

equivalent to the Chico of California but be Collectively viewed the fields form a narrow reuels about 130 aie long but senarated into two parts as stated.

On Cueen Charlottes Island-further north- and about the middle of the island, lower Cretaceous strata aprear resting on the Trias. They have been known to contain anthracite but the seams, although somewnat explored, have not yet proved remunerative. Some Tertiary lignites are known on the meinland but only at Sumas Mountain are they altered to coal and there only a two foot seam is reported. For coal east of tne acess Mountains in Alberta, under the Rocky Mountain division latsr on.

Hy, ©. Vy. “Es 7) EO Ash o. Ll. Nanaimo 4.5 Senet O47 Lge ye a Ee 56.10 48.46 A he a Vellavioenon & o2.6 po, 16 8. ss LANES o0.95 Be he 6.58 5, Comax Pield 1.47 oh glee, 64,05 Cee S&, Queen Charlottels. soycall Bee Ue B29 a'76 Nae a7s, fe i 18 A.77 Ob. Ne 6.69 0.89 &,. Sumas Mountain 4,62 Clam re: 42, OO a hee rand 3. Reported by T.W. Myers.see below. 2, Reported by J.F.aJones, see below &. GiC, Bottmann, “kaece. weet ie 8. Bade bee riieGone i aia cnn ue aor Ley. £65 6 and 7) Bud harPin ero, Wi, see ae Mahe a, VA Merritt Mw. et. 1689

dl PRRATURE G, tt. Dawson Genol.Examination of the Northern part of Vancouver Island

and Sdjacems CQORS GE. "C.EES: Wiese, The ine es Mineral Wealth of

Pritish Columbia, C.@.8. 1887-680 Rep ay Rec

" On Queen Charlottes Island. Geol,.Surv. LO76-79 101 Map. “ On Vancouver Island L666. LOB ea epee CSOO, sev Sir J. Hector, On Geolosy of Vancouver= 6.0.4.9. KVL. 38S-4¢5. Chr. Hotimann Coals and Lignites of the Northwest Tertiary. Geol.and Nat Ast. sure stam, LBC iA. A list of references to published an- ALvVees On Canadian coal will be found if ©.G.s. 1es8e—89 467, B, D. Ingall Recent developments in Vancouver ©.G.S. 1866-09 26S. J, #, Jones. On Nanaimo, Wellington and Hast Wellington. M.R. 1L886.4568 Mineral Coai of Vancouver's Island wl, Amer Atheneum 1110. Feb.3'49 Banoo LE? hae SoG

Richardson. Coal Fields of Vancouver. €.G.5. 1671-72 p75. La app es L875-74 p.98, <Anals. p. 465, L874=-76. pda. Leis (e. Da dh On Queen Charlottes Island. €.G.S.. 1872-75. p.86. Anal. Pp. 1 ASWhite. Review of local Geology- U.5.¢.5.BullL. 62-161.

@ — a ee a ee ae : TT 7 a : 7 I. T - she — 1 somaya eae © a re JASHINGTOR The coal fields of “Vashington, are much tune moss impo: Lt a s “" de . r L) ¢ fs a ca 4. mis oS ar] at + ic 7 of those in the United States on the Pacific Coast. iney occur (01 hi Sees Se: sd a - Wena anq from jay Fakes, pas! Trom most part on tne e t shore of Puget Sound and from J0-s50 Ml Dack I i

oO wi Sete

he water front. a

i 3 r - 4s ‘ mL : ‘he streams that head in the Cas: Low westward. On ee

LiF

ell

freias the earliest worked, is neé " ;

Ot OHM © ry oF in

day One very important region is on the east side of the Giacat es on the Yakima river, a tributary of the Columbia. All the coals are oe Laramie are and later than these of Vancouver. The country is heavily wooded, in large part deeply buried in drift, and in the Foothills and mountains much cut up by basaltic intrusions To the upheavals, and if neous rocks it seems pretty well established that the change of tne LLs- nites to sood bituminous coals ig due. Bven anthracite is knowm and, in the ‘ilkeson field, natural coke is frequent next dikes. From north tec south the productive fields are che eqpastehne et Bellinehan Bay.whatcom Co; K

sey ner Paaar CSrvali Creek: : Woh St eo ,

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TeLds. in ing or which igs the chief producing c county; the Wilkeson Tield in Pieree Co.; the Yakima and Yenatchee rields in Kithtas Co.; a minor field near Seatco in Thurston Co. and a reported field in Okanogan Co. S ome coke is made at Skagit river from thin seams but aside from this, on the north, the Rellingham Bay, Squak creek, and Washington fields afford a lignite coal. Of these at present the last named is the chief rroducer from the mines at Newcastle, and furnishes wnat is known as Seattle coal. One bed LO-L1L £t. thick, with good root and fFlocr and a dir of 40 degrees is mined Seven others are known, ons with much bone, being 24 ft. Newcastle is 18 miles east of seattle. mile further are the Cedar river mines, on two gsgod seams of hich cne Litt, Shiekh, 2s Hoy productive, 2ne l is the same as at Newcastle. ten miles from Seattle are the Talbot and Renton mines formerly sorkea but now abandoned. On Squak creek seven seams are known, five of which are workable. The Raging river area has six or seven of good bituminous coal, standing at &0 defrees and with much of the coal above the water. Both of these are of recent development. The Green river field whose largest mines are the Black Diamond, the Franklin and the Kirke supplies a good bituminous, put not strongly coking’ coal Terese beds 4 8t.t0 ¥ it are worked at Black Diamond; five are known at Franklin and Kirke, of Which two are mined. One seam at these mines reaches 47 feet, with of course much bone. The new Palmer mines report cannel. The Wilkeson field is of especial importance from 1ts yield ef coke, There are three large mines, the Carbon Hill of the Central Pacific R. R., the Tacoma and the South Brdin ies Your beds 2 1/2 to 10 ft. are mined at the first; cient or ten, 3&6 to 14 ft mre know at the second but only one at 6 £t. is exploited, and one, at 4 ft. yieldine a gas coal is worked at the last. All these coals are in great demand. The bed in Thurston Co. is 5 ft.and is not now mined. On the east side of the Cascades the oldest opening is at Koslyn near the Yakima river. 4 ft.seam of bituminous character is mined and ext P t =a:

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THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, COLORADO PLATHAU AND GREAT PLAINS. ALEERTA AND ADSSIUNIBOTA, CANADA. A very extended and important arva of ia eite, & nd coal is found in the prairie and mountainous region north of North Paiota and Montana. It begins in the watershed of Lake Winnipeg along the Souris river, north of Vakote and extends with breaks west to the Rocky liountains and north to the tributaries of the Mackenzic. In the

eastern outcrops away from the reetio ons Of mountain upheaval and distur-

are along the 5

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Bt

yen inv 70es Dy

bance tue coal is a lignite, analogous to the ligzhites south of the line

but as the cutlying foothills are approached it changes to good bitumin-

ous and even, well up in the ranges to anthracite. The best exposures Bow and Bbeliy rivers and the coal field usual

a nt

this name It has been pronounced by G.M.Dawson, a competa and conser- Vative Observer, the most extensive and best field in Ganada. The Can- adian Pacific railway has been the active agent in its development, re- quiring itself, karge amounts of fuel and supplying an important local market east to Manitoba and west to the coast. The large bituminous mine are at Lethbridge on a branch of the main line 110 miles from Dunmore. Lethbridge was called Coal Banks in the earlier reports and the mines are sometimes calied the Galt Mines. The seam runs 4a little over 5 ft. Its stratigraphical fositien is at the base of the Pierre formation, which horizen is the chief coal producer of the resion. Other seams occur be- low in the AOOLEDLS and in the so-called Selly river series and above in the Laramie. The anthracite now extensively mined is obtainea in the Cas- cade Tan bey: near tne station called Anthracite There ares several seams reaching in instances 4..to 5 ft. Tha horizon is the Kootanie. Hs QO. ‘. a Re Ash, Ratio. . Lethbridge- - - - 65 SO 56,04 47.91 Tae 1.26 2. Cascade Valley~- - 1.04 B.S 5 57.16 2.60 Se ©, OU... Hofiman=-— Pransikoy.Soe.Can. VIL. bO0=52., snakes. os.

He on J Ou.

Ce] tH

o co ITERATURE.. G. M. Davson. Tertiary Lignite Formation near the 49th Parallel. British North American Boundary Com. Hontreal 1874. " Canadian Naturalist ViIE.NorS 2874: Acc. Sell. 82142. in Central BW. Coal and Lignite of the North West Teol.Can. LS&76é-77. LL. Several analyses by Hefiman. ¢.G.8. 1865 M 1, On the Lignite Tertiary Formation from the Souris River to the 108th " Meridian U.G.5, 1679-80 12A. Analyses by Hoffman 8H. ' App. il, On Tertiary Lignite Formation from Souris Riv.to LOSth Mer- dian, Appendix II. follows the above nep,.Prog, A. 12-535 1L879=80, " Prelim. Rep.ion Geol.of #3 3ow and Belly Riv.Region N.W.Tertiary with special ref.to the Coai Dep.Rep.Prog.Can.Geol.Surv.i880-62 pp.B1l—-23. " Coals and Lignite s on the Bow and Belly Rivers . ©.G.S. 9Ss82-83=24 p.l27 OC. 18383.-G2-835.B 1.Rece, See also R.G@ McConnell. T8B5. FEC " Notes on the Coals and Lignites of the Canadian Northwest. Reprint cl pp. Montreal 1854 ' Rocky Mountains between latitudes 49 deg. and 50 deg.30 nénutes. Cascade Coal Field,with map Leb b. EOP Ba Ole, eee. J. A. Dedge Anthracite ccal in the valley of the Bow river. N. W. Ter- tiary or Canada emer, Geb. 2. ihe: G. C. Hoffman. Anals.of Coals & Lignites Ee ese oti nS ee. Hy gro- scopicity of Certain Can.Fossil Fuels. Trans. Roy.Soc.Can.VII.41.1889 W. H, Merritt. The Cascade Anthracitic Coal Fields of Rocky wee Canada Q.J.G.3,XL1IT.560- Notes on Some Coals in Western Can. M.E.0ct.1889. as

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Gy ic ‘ oO ran) ©) 7 ©O-erd Be ee Ee ay ot oO Im . 2 t(D) fo fo if JY fae i ‘e rms e ered ae poet Ct : . ‘ peel 4 f 7 Sco &%F Oc s - ‘ u? r c Ch % i M ug “fe. X + s im & rat os Saligt , .. f Ly ct Known G “ag WA Ta O Geet S ae oe Se, . ee AO et % eT i BR Da ple 23 a5 My cs oS CD +r qd 4 oi ‘ a 1 $a f Yt my rhe 7) 4 foo es efor spn} —“ Cc q re aa : ; C oo’ ea r / Ax . 2 2p O ex omMmMs Xue heme eg © rt + RS oy ee I C ‘ Yr o# pod se atte? ECD 1, Ete ct oO. / a nn Ss + om as r+ £ CSjike O Sh Co ef ores se as QO a morn . rt i) co +9 ©) : yy yen ay et ha 3 in ms st TS) ¢ ; ve a - : nm) . oro nae " eas Ue a Oat Pio 0.0 1D Coot ay te OC © iy to ie oO TS sided Ge Gs fort c © #43 %, ‘ " m+ 1) ‘ oe . - oat . a c ‘ St ? 5) ; "ng 42 O a) an) dp cy ae) fr ra 's. Tes, 52 pest t ¢ % + i ] C ey Me c 4 ‘ — os oP. ia LY Md , rt 3 4 + rc " a bars pane © © r ct 4 ry cl ; — ye cq ba - : C . r pre c Sone ¢-? cy er 4 + : rl r ct 7 CS a ee) tp? ae @ cc. Cc re O fol ot 5 Dad ee (3 os p ee Mz: m 4 - i pe She to Gaya hh: Lu : x ef t ow ct —- RS C4 ee ; x A ©) © Te © G- ry is me ty) es t " - q Le & cag d way ering tJ) ce} Oo & fart & , it) Su mf C) ee r a ee cy ct ba ¢ . t Or ry 690 Oe MOO FF Omid & Sng IE hae ete ee yt. Bo OX ED ie ee Ee, ‘oun Hn tor Rael 4) $9) rae} rab) C) L ee G4 C) Q) -rt Ww — fon ts 0 oO t sr ar) ) to ¢ © ry ad ' . é - we © +4 rv? G4 —1 0) © wo ea s 5 t rc ot ot : 4 ? ® Od an Q rap) 4 wt phn! art spat S. re oe eT t 4 rom aan) Ch), Ck ire (C3 oo per fo ms ©) WN ey ap oc? 32 Oo GwoY & et Bs ROS (Ses i 8 6 crates Carey Cyl, Cie AON MES EG th nbeke) MARES Oe ite te Sud on w - ’ ‘ 45% Wee ' et 40 ay tte I. ns SO . ai Or Hae A As, UT ost 2 an oe 1 VY 4 2 at © ya Y mt 1 c iS t , re rt Ow] . r (SO ¢ eb, r y J G er cr cc c i € + ) ed c Cc ‘vr. rv ad pe Y reo fe rT 0 4 vy C oO mm © C Sy ome S q ro ix 4 Of AS (N me re’ ey o ae po sgt oT'S C) srt o © te . SS ok AG OO & Ore 42) mc bY ae F- ro a Co co pc csefline et ee fut om Pos ir set eet SF det IS oy OC 25 ofall pee ; 2 + LS ae o a ey of Ss 7 oO 4 . acy mo eS : a) eo be ak Wh ; u So a C2 fe ct nw tt ct ROO ence (Pe. re} & 5 a A, Pah ha c3 PH OOM 1 & a rs ri AO +e @ fd eA C. a Weg Centon am . © SO 4 ED S os FT © 4 © th € Ld z ae. 3 auq ke 4 —4 ap ap ap ab Ep oT + aaah os Ww. Ts +42 ‘a t pe 4 - . os UL Mall t 5 + ae ey ain os ae + he J os fo — — Qo; 3 A edd 4 OS & Om nom” o HOt H OH WSH OD WS tees TO ap UTP) Gk naichaa> Of & Ot) c a a BY OQ, et nee te ot € ri 1 O + o © © CY eat ; a iS Se re. €) ord oO oO ae a iM Overt Ch ot + , cy M S : ss Cc 4 i) ei & w & ~oc yn nm & Ned & GS td ae eS a : Gi Ss 0) 72 co : . 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Ft oe Oo, 42 nl IO fs Reo wo eS ge a Ae Stele She) Dy 8 fe en ea CC Se eo é j eG Ont & HP Da ™ A om. os ct eS OOo OD © a net aa tS SH Owroon We Of OHA OH G a ooYpb Shoaon oe co ees MON ah rans ad sar bak isc, sage as &f ob AR) TS ‘9 pes te in O'Tm ' , je in PO a ccm n Gt +! ah ° is ei u © ‘r ¢ Ss, (i?) Oe na 4 — C3 oo ‘ get . at c ; edited 4 @ rj SS CO) C +2 ©) a [x mn te YJ “, 4 ered Me G4 +2 reer ‘ - b) § or c - - “, m4 ™ hed om if) i. me rr ” - ‘ St Ml een ° OT 4enmt o Hdd o Go te ee ae oh S, U2 ere ac “Sod a he ily Chars a ot a4 CO C) tf C 3 ft &! en ae as ed! A O 4+ ; ek — m4 . -—4* 7 . we u) Cy a iv. "7 ce ’ @) 3 Pa . 42 @ bo C) : c 4 4 c a i ro oh re © ote rs on ea z: <F! -j f ay Bee @ c oO NA r-t - A Pea 5 af TOE ee: “ro & 4+ T I ee ait #4 : Vl py & Cc) SH th : Wet use ay —- ee ms O te © a'iy;j 1 2 (1) ve 600 ba 4 Se uD Ce dea et nat 7 % r (2 u, Nm Oo Ww @®d O o F ED ta MH a cw he (x, af my - cS 5 , b ; ) a tf or y Vey . a ¥ re mi 4 y -¥ 1 CO " : —t " ae WW 4 a C4) # f- 13 Cc) 43 O° O O- re itk0c nei & bp] rt “ caret wa A og OO Gwe Nv O ery sy 5 © pod oS OE ae ei ox A i a Cents a. ‘") : i © 1 : 2" Oo YrPr 49 Ag ere ie mee nom & 1 O PLY ont Hom aca oe ec Mee Ae aa ' ' 1 4 - ° 4 re S po — ‘ mt ok ' ; ‘ ‘ ma 1m O-1H @® §$ i i a) © wm & . CUT H YP —d mm i &, © bp ee OD fa ord ‘) else Fah ie Rte ca a Of eo ee 1+ Yuet ee ie Aon ao moO oo ‘ jt €, ry . a: ns y EA Ty So ee Ss ‘ a od peed te ee wo) m=) 4S Une. —r ) a, a ed CT) 4 er ted ey ' r — ©) rf COM Ga co yw © 5S Ge ma as sn Oe - f WC md OoWM ee ied ee: On OA BOO O© ES et. ca OOH On oeftoOon Mm OO O Cc) 2 wm Oe SoocoA avr a I eS 1) So eS — CF CO + - ‘a eo we SO eee LS WA RBS ES © am a te i Nad N pe: Le : ’ ca aan awe Oo BP oes f- $ fier iert fe a, ret ct rt he O yf OO J r f fy tH ) 1-4 Feo Lo 49 : ¢ , + — y J) £5 SS GH FP oy ao Ga 45 Oe oe erry OUI Ri h & bet OS J SA B&O OD MM er oO es ; a 4 oe oe

re : —— i nm te aa - : se ee - —— sae 7 ° . , A 4 a ? - — i : ’ aT: 2 q

The extent of the Pield is but little known, but the amount of coal is enormous At Red Cloud where the Rocky Fork Coal Co. has its mine, 19 seams'lare/identified, of which 11 show over 6 ft. of coal, with a total of about! '95:. ft. Some seams are better for domestic coals. others for metallurrical work. The production is only second to that of the sand Coulee mines. The geological position is later than the Laramie.

OTHER FIELDS. are known in the Flathead river region in the northwest corner, which are net yet producers though certain to be in the future. Some thousands of tons of lignite are annually obtained near Havre in Choteau Co. and near Glendive in Dawson Co. The Judith basin east of

Great Falls and the Bull Mountain north of Billings are important re- serves. Indeed the advance of exploration has shown iiontana to be one of the richest coal states in the Union.

Hy We, es We se; Ash. Se

sand Coulee. 5 98 33 .Timberline., 2.16

rt

pe

aw © ee) om

—) O © Cyl oi

Foro. 6.67 £6.56 2.04

Nerd 2 Mi Re VSB6... p.256.

3 4.2 .A.G00 aon a OTE in

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7, M. Davis. Relation of the Coal of Montana to the Older Rocks. Tenth Census. XV.69

G. H. Eldredge. Montana Coal Fields. t

F. A. Gooch. Analyse tana Coals. Tenth Census XV.78

J. H. Jones. Montana Coal. Census Mineral Lacustries $339- & seams in Gallatin County- Ll only 4 £t. coal Ore?

Mineral Resources. U. S. Geol. Survey- All the and Boke .

YY, OC, Or tson... shby oie.

J. S. Newberry. The G

f ib Cc?

yay Poe 13.7 x

EensSUS a aes ie

Olumes-both under coal

1888 ,289- Analyses of Sand Coulee Coal. +t Falls Coal Field,Montétana. S.of M.Q. VIII.527

a ON

Hhiis & Bozeman. Ann.

A, CG. Peale, Near Bor Rep.Hayden's Surv i872.)p. 115- oO Analyses — ¢ ’ 4. 7 — iy - fone R. Pumpelly. Bituminous Coals and Lignites of the Northwest-Tenth Census AV Pane e maps. —vT rs TT. Ma Cc? lL. i ry ¢ : i 4 — Té ” 2) Tr, H. Weed. Coal Fields of Montana- School of Hines Quarterly.Jan.1891 © C)

" The Cinnabar and Bozeman Coal Fields- G.S-.A.I11.349.1691. Rec. " Tro Montana Coal Fields.-G.5S.A.IITI.301-330.1892. Kec. ‘ Coal avenge of Montana. E.& M.Jour.-Hay 14.p.520.May 21.p.542. 1692. ler.s.4.p.197., 1893.= Rec m THE fenanivie and the’ averlying Livingston Formation in iieontana- Bull. 104. U. S. G. 8S. 1894. Contains man; valuable data on the Bozeman Field. ORTH AND SOUTH DAMOTA. The lisnites of the plains extend from “ontana eastward into North Dakota and are mined +o a considerable extent near the Northern Pacific R. R. in Morton, Stark and Ward Counties. Mfhey ar

SS eee — o- —

me — ee

aa eo

Se + a, oe

a —e

aa

—— a i

te

eo — ee ee lc tail

—, —— —

So Stee

—

thee) Le) Hiri hi Hy)

lisnt Lignites and enly of local use. The geological age

: fe is Laramie. rurtner north are other exposures along the Mouse eons Souris in Can- iia! river, no doubt geologically connected with the Souris field of As-

da - 7444 VL wre ‘ aor nr 5 - o qQ ” a. . ae a sn 1 t Sintbdbocia., Coal ha- also been reported in South Dakota around the Black

BR QO Ve H. PF. oe Ash,

bly line, Nr dD. 15.09 39.81 05.58 ok sy Z ST, “rom M.R.1566.251. where several other analyses are given.

Literature,

J. A, Allen. Netamorphic: Products from the Burnine Coal Beds of the Lig- nitic Tertiary of Dakota and liontana- Boston Soc. N.H. Jan.1874, A.3.S. Ltt. to 2L43~ s+. H, Eldredge. Laramie coal on louse river. M.R.1886.250. Rec. 5. Willis. Lignites of the Great Sioux Reservation. Bulletin 21.U.S.G.S.

“WYOMING is one of the richest of the states possessing coal and has long been a very heavy producer being of the western states second only to

eee Increasing exploration has shown coal in almost every quarter,

sut the heavies* producers are in order- Sweetwater Co. which, chiefly from the mines near Rock Springs,: shipped in 1693 a little over 50 % the cotal. Carbon Co. which, from mines at Carbon and Hanna, produced about 15 7A; VYestern Co.. in which.the mines at Cambria are amons the Latest opened but yielded 12 %; Unita Co.-whose mines at Almy yielded nearly as much. Converse and Sheriden Counties also are quite large, while the rest are scattering. Westen County. In the southeastern flanks of the Black Hills, important and excellent sé@ams occur in the Dakota formation, just above the Juras- Sic. hf Pak sol aa, where they are heavily mined for the Burlington and Missouri R. R. the seam runs about 7 ft. with some partinges. It is a sood coking coal and of great importance to the mining interests of the Black Fills. In Skeriden and the other counties further west, other ex- posures are known and are of prospective sap iti a Converse County, has mines near Glen Rock, Douglass and Fort Fett

a 0 0 t

vome S0-60,000 tons are annually produced “for Local use and for the R, I

Ss “LONG s Riicorn & Tio.Valley R.

The coal is a high grade lignite and the seams are at least three in number and from 5-9 ft. Carbon County contains the oldest mines. They have been one of the chief sources Of fuel for the Union Pacific R. R. since its construction in 1868. The first openings at Carbon Station are now pretty well worked out. there are several sea but the one worked was 7 ft. Yhe heaviest " ”

vS are now from the Hanna openings about 20 miles off the main : n or there are 21 ft. of coal of which 17 are worked, and in another the entire seam at 31 ft. is taken out. The Dana mines once thought promising are now abandoned. The Carbon Co. coals are Laramie. From Carbon Co., westward across the state there is an almost continuous line of mines er because their operators have been crowded out be the managene t Oo he U. FP. R. Re or because fhe coais are of too

zht a grade to compete with better fuels they are only worked at one or aE t points

ter County has

+

even seams Known of which the lower Tive from 4-12 ft. and of worked. Other smaller openings are situated at Black Buttes, ck

made in the Twin Creek dis-

R. R. under the name of the Rocky Mountain Coal and rth openings were earli

Li ' ry fe)

Q ° S an) ie

ele, a

Gint of Rocks and elsewhere. These coals as well as those in Unita Co. i@ in the Green River Basin one of the notable geological districts of she west. Unita County. The largest-workings are at Red Canon and Almy, north of iivanston and very near the—Utah line. All the workings are on one scam whieh varies from lze-27-Pts-with a dip from 6-135 degrees. Tre mines are gaseous anc tne waste nhas-to-be removed on account of its tendency to take Tire spontaneously, some of the openines having been ruined by this cause. The workings are either manared by the eee Paop ie it. “Ror sas ne Gen ific n F G

co ct 4 ct

er 1¢t and on Hams rk, along the Oregon Short Line R. R. bus they have een abanuoned. seams up to 40 ft. are reported.

ReTerence should be made to the prominent part played by these coal strata along the Union Fracifie KR. R, in the great discussion that raged fifteen te thirty years aso regarding the seological age of the measures, whether Cretaceous or Tertiary. Well nigh innumerable papers were writ- ten by Newberry, Lésquerseux, Marsh, and others, reviews of which will be found in the citations mentioned below under Yard and White They are now generally resarded as belonzing at the top of the Cretaceous.

ly el ie ja pol ried x] wv

of al fe

l, Cambria, Weston Co. Gate Sooo AA .25 265

2. Glenrock, Converse Co. eres Says a OP ri nt 5 40

o, Carkon, Carbon Co, 7.42 o5.435 48.30 8.85

4. Hanna, " ae 44,37 oo tO Cae

5. hock Springs ,Sweetwater Co. 6.57 oo,.10 54.65 B60)

Ge Sw. sree TOG ain 54,80 £8.75 9,00 AIT the analyses ara by Wo Ce Rniehnt and with many pons vill be found on %.159 of the valuable paper cited belo LITERATURE

H. Ii. Bannister. Rep't of a Geological Reconnoissance alone the U.P.R.R Haydens Rep. 1572 p.519. Good Sections

H, M. Chance. Resources of the Black Hills and the Big Horn “Country ,Vyo. Mie. osept.1090.

oS. F. Hmmons. Green River Basin-40th Parallel Survey. II.191. 1677.

Fr. V. Hayden Rep. for ae7e.p.15. General Resumé of “Hro.& NV. Especi- vity “ihre, Lala tie,

G. U, Hewitt. Coat Fisiids) ar Wyoming 11 R. 1659S .p.412.

C, Mine Green River Coal, Basin-40th Paralel Survey II1.451.

WoO. Knibeht. Cosa pe eran Binh) Ta etate Bape Stat pam. Bon tone SE. analyses Aue Og

LInsrel Heseuress The volumes year by year give good revicvs.

A. C. Peale Rep.on the Geology of the Green River District. Haydens purvey. LO? psapir,

hs Pe Hiekheere Ann,Rep.CGeolosist of "Tyo.1668-1888. Cheyenne 1690.

Ins Ps Tard On the General Geological Relations of the coal. see 6th Ann Ren. ir.0.,8.G.8.405=559 and € A.Weate Buli.82.U0.5.¢6-5.

C. A. White. Geolory and Physiocraphy of a por

tion of Northwestern Colo. and adjacent Parts of Utah and "yo. 9th Ann.Rep.Dir. U.S.3.5.685-710

(39)

UTAH. The coals of Utah which lie in the Great Basin have beer Seu PLEr ment ioned. They are the least important and least productive. Hoe most productive field and the one which now furnishes over 85 % of the total lies in Emery Co. in the drainage system of the Green River. near the headwaters of the north fork of the Price. It is on the eat

?

eloana arf #7 VI 3 . . Rs 5 ee eee sae ae Slope of the vasat ch range and finds its outlet to Salt Lake by the

Pleasant Valley Coal Co. is on a seam 11 ft. thick near Scofield. The Union Pacific Coal Co's mine is on a seam 28 ft. much broken by faults but with no partings. The Utah Central mine, 6 miles south of Scofield has 15 ft. 6 in. of coal. The Pleasant Valley Co. also carries on opfe- rations upon a 10 ft. seam of coking coal at Castle Gate. These coals La

are all in the iramie and no doubt are represented in territory in the eastern part of Utah not yet opened by railways.

IIx O Wind tes Lise Ore Ash ty. 1. Winter Ouarters Mine. & 5 Ke ee Day a5, 47.65 G.05 a 2, ‘anon ak. "Can diate: 5.00 UE eS Wf 453235 4.40 Ora tied 5. Castle Gate Coal. 1.68 44..29 48.65 5.38 0.47 A : u Coke. 1.22 PEWS. 82.21 1 See 0.55

; Dm he 7 7 All these analyses are from KR. Forrester s paper, M. R. 1892 - 515

he literature is practically that earlier given under Utah.

COLORADO - is one of the larstest coal producing states in the Un- LON: It was sixth on the list in 1093 and the leader among those West

a5 of the ‘ississippi. All varieties of coal are commercially mined and all the coals are in the Laramie strata except a comparatively vnim- portant field belonging to the Dakota group in sovthwestern Colorado. In connection with statistics the coal fields are usvally divided into Northern, or those north of Denver, including also Routt Co. in the

extreme northwest: the Central or those on the eastern watershed be- tween the latitudes of Denver and Pueblo, the Sovthern or those south of Pueblo; and the Western or those west of the continental divide. It is of -intsrest: in a topographical way, to note their distribution into three g@roups, the eastern foothills, the parks, and the western slope. Most of the ¢6al comes from the first of these; considerable from the South Park, and a large and increasing yield from the western fields.

These -three- frand divisions may be subdivided on their structural, geo-

lozical relations into minor basins or fields. . BASTRRN FOOTHILLS. Sovth Platte Field. The coal areas in the

northern central portion of the state and in the drainage area of the South Platte river have been grouped by kh. C. Hills as the south Platte Field. The main exposures lie somewhat east of those in Wyoming, but ave in the continuation of the same Cretaceous strata around the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. Bovider is the principal producing county a this field and is the second of the state (663,220 tons in 1893). Jeld Co. on the extreme north is of local importance and El Paso, Jefferson,

Arapahoe and Douglass are of decreasing moment in the order ee In —S 5 ai i) + “7 . U Y A SAD the 1000-1200 ft. of the Laramie there are as many as age faax

ems in the scuthern portion, but only one at the northern eee flat- s mountains they are much favited and stand at high angles ov a

(40)

se th

s

- a

— om

A ;

re ee!

ten ou AS chese are left and may be available forty miles ovt in the prairie. SEruptive rocks are very subordinate. The coals are all liz-

nites of high percentage in water, ranzing from 13 to 23 %. Ths seams are scod thickness, reaching 14 ft. as a maximum. Marshall, Louvis- 1, boui

ville, Lafaystte and Brie are the chief centers in boulder Co. and are the oldest coal-prodvucing areas in the state. Platteville and taton further north, and Franceville, east of Colorado Springs on the south, are worthy of mention. Canon City Field. This is a coiiparatively small area near Canon City, and not far from the entrance to the Royal Gorge. As many as sixtean seams aré known but only the lowest is workable over most of the field, and at the most only two others locally. The workable sears ranze up to 5 ft. “illiamsburg, Rockvale, Coal Creek, Chandler Creek and Brool:sid2 ave the chief mining towns. There are no igneous intru~ sions and few faults, yet the coal has largely lost the lignitic crar- acter, is non=Ccoking, and one of the standard domestic fuels of the state. In the neighborhood is the Florence oil field and the local ge- olozy will be sgaifi referred to under petroleum. It is notable that south of Canon City the coads become coking, but to the north, they lack this property. Premont Co. was third in 1893 with 536,707 tons. The Raton Field. This begins abovt 75 miles sovth of Canon City with th: exposures near Walsenburg and extends with minor breaks through Iluerfano and Las Animas counties into New Mexico. It is the most productive of all the fields and supplies about half the total of the state. The zroup of mines near Walsenburg, are located on three of the four known workable seams. The region is not far from the great e- ruptive center of the Spanish Peaks, and dikes are met both im @hess ines and in the next group seven miles sovth at Rouse. The coal, pos- sibly from their influence begins to coke and by a very Ne eee ee tion passes to a very strongly coking coal near Trinidad. geet ere Pifteen miles sovth of Rovse, are the Victor anda Berwind mines with a total of three good seams in several canons collectively known as the Road Caron district. The coals yield a good metallurgical coke. bit teen miles or so still further south is the chief productive district of the state, in the vicinity of Trinidad. The structural geology 1s that of a great basin, which sinks from the flanks of the Sangre de Christo eastward and emerges again thirty miles out on the prainies: In the noble butte of Fisher's Peak, near Trinidad, 2000 ft. high with

a cap of basalt, a superb section is afforded. Wheeler's Survey yeass azo recorded 52 seams, and now more than forty are known but only aes 5 are over 3 ft. The one most worked is the lowest or Trinidad, with 6-14 ft. The seams lie quite flat, but are much cut up by basaltic dikes that destroy the coal near them. The mining towns in the order of production are Sofris, Engleville, Gray Creek and Starkville. The chief town for coking is %1 Moro by which name the coke is usvally known. The Raton field extends south into Yew lexico.

THE PARKS. Both the Sovth Park and the forth Park contain coal but only the former has been worked as vet, the latter being too remote for development although some thick seams of lignitic coal are known. In the Sovth Park, at Como, on the Union Pacific branch from Denver to Leadville, are mines on a seam AY2-9 foo. Ut teen excellent coking coal, but the seams dip at a high angle - 30 degrees and upward, oo . much faulted and cut up by ame heal The coal is often call-

— ee oe CO ee

J - oo - — : PT — ’ ; : . - . — — ae eee

- a 7 . we ee ae

—

J

a 2. — - i

earl, 7

Lechner. ih

Pik it a aasal

x r of the same name and its tributaries. There are two or hree seams ES wiich one Yeaches 17 ft. as a maximum. The intrusions of the “Likhead mountains have served to change the coal from lignite to Ssemicoking and even anthracitic varieties. They await development.

R. ©. Hills, whose valuable paper cited below has been chiefly followed in these notes, groups all the mining districts in the vater- shed of the Grand river, into the Grand River Field. This therefore

f VESTERN SLOPH. It is in this portion of the state that the newer developments have been made, and both in the northwest and souvth- Vest the results already attained are very considerable. In the north West there is a vast area in the country of the White and Yampa rivers that is as yet hardly touched. This region is in close geological re~ Tao20ns Wate the Green river basin of Wyoming. ine Yampa TPield lies a- lonz t

L e

—all J 1

takes in the exposurss as far south as Crested Butte, and really ex-

tends unbroken westward to Pleasant Valley, Utah. It is the most ex-

tensive and diversified of the Colorado fields for it contains all va- rieties of coal of a superior quality. Along the mountains

been great disturbances and eS and these have had a marked in-= fluence on the quality cf the coal. On the north the most important mining has been aone near New Castle where the anticline of tne so-

ealled "Great Hogback” is cut by the Grand river. Seven seams, With-s

total of 106 ft. of clear coal, & most extraordinary amount, are expos-— ed. Of bhesétonté, tha Wheeler ds 46 ft.: another, the Allen, is -20-and a third the 4=-ssam is 18. Somewhat ion appears in neigh=

boring gulches but wi ) Se freat seams are only clinkers and ashes on the out cr ous combustion. One is 1e , coking. making the fuel cane for steam and domes se. The ridges of

the Hozback extends to the southeast and is mined Jerome Park on its eastern front. Both coking and domestic fuels are met, the change tak- ing place within a space of 300 ft. South of Jerome Park lies Coai Ba-

@ Dw ri" Pr a oo yO by ce a FID ee

cr fl Dp

sin in Pitkin Co. and one of the most interesting and important of western soal exposures. West of the llogback fold a laccolite has heav- ed up the Cretaceous strata in a great dome whose middle portion has peen eroded down to the soft shales of the tlontana group, so that the hbaramie beds with the five workable coal seams din away on all sides

ar i

from the amphitheatre. Ihe coals are low in ash sh in fixed car- nm, and are reszarded as the best in the state. A anions is now be- 1 excentionally rough one. attered see but little :

fe

ing built to tap them, but the country Ef 7 a Pee 12 : alee feaan rm as any ee a . Hortner south in Gunnison to. are a number of scatt developed districts that yield anthracite as well as bituminous, the is ay having heaen vel d by the closer approximation ae isneous roOYrmer Nav itis Weetii de velope fot AF oe closer EL] pr Ox Lina Lon A JL Leneous

5 1 3 . ' 4 Lae oy ecr fe ls, faa ee ee ae tans an ‘i a cat BA i rocks. Such are Ragged Mtn., Chair Mtn., Mount Gunnison and cthers.

The seams on Anthracite creek in the Ruby district eas recently been

reached by railroads. fas wines at Baldwin (semicoki eoel) and at j-

i at f2q5+ 4 er] - ye 1. Crest GQ £ULte Wiss) OG

she han 4. 1, ; a, tales wor 7 TA 7: Q@NURVPaACAts Ana cCelking sont Han

od

produced merk the southern limit of the Grand Kiver #ieid "he Crested Butte anthracite is the best known of the western anthracites, while the coke is of a supericr quality. fisneous intrusions or as Hills sug- zests the hot waters from them have caused ths change. There are tiro seams of 4-7 ft., and a reminder of Pennsylvania in an anthracite breaker of 300 tons daily capacit;

Ss

in ha,

——s : se

Mt a So

ay.

a Oe ——

L]

Ie

—

southwest of Crested Butte and in the drainage basin of the Gunni- son river, between its tributaries the Uncompahgre and the Cimanon Lies the Tongue Mesa district with seams of local importance.

la Plata Field. This lies in the southwest corner of the state and extends into New Mexico. The good coal occurs in the Laramie but there are poor and thin seams in the Dakota. The most important devel- opments are near Durango, where four seams are known. The thickness as mined is seldom over 4 ft. although impure sétms mey reach 20 ft. and by a coming together of all four of the above, there is at Carbonaria the famovs 100 ft. seam - but only workable in benches of 3-5 ft. Near Durango the coals coke and are very important in connection with the local smelting interests. In several other places Mines have besn o- pened and the field has additional prospective importance in connection with railways southwest across Arizona to southern California. A re- connoissance survey has already been made of the Grand Canon of the Colorade fcr a line.

Gog “ARS Ue .. heh S. Sp.er. 1. Lafayette Boulder Co. 12.0% 35,28 46.24 6.56 1.00 2. . Canon City Field. R59 S760 SOG (S30 Dobe)” Indes 3, ° Engleville Ratan Field. OL (PE be S7eOh TIAOS 59 Ly 2O% 4. . age Coke. See reference 4 below. 5S: Momo South Park: eo iS) Senta. 292240 LM Be an abst: 1.3505 G.- New Castle. 2.58 86.85 48-57 12.00° 0.59 1,291 7. derome Park Coal. Veet Btbetece ieee 6.36 1.018 8. a Coke. See below.

9. Crested Butte Coal. Gut) (Bete, (SG eo ea i See ee 10. t "Coke. O%S 0.49 BYOB Teel seech ‘wes i ss Anthracite. 0.93 6.87 84.7& Fee Oey 1.445 12. Porter Mine, Durango. ttt “Sout (oonoe Ree. wOEee L2re

1. By Regis Chauvenet, Ann. Rep. Col. State sen. lines, 1889, 71. From Simpson !‘ine, and rather lower in moisture than many.

9. R, C. Hills I. R. 1892, 362 (Coal Creek Mine).

3 Idem. 3 ;

4, Rh. Sadtler gives as general average, H,O under 0.0; V. H. under

1 Bs Cie M6e Sb 80,3: Ash 16.5 to 99.35 with average 18.7; Ann. Rep. Col. State Sch. Mines, 1859, 2354.

5. R. CG. Hills, M. R. 1892, 365.

an " Tt w 7 1! " ZB4, Grand Butte Hine, Wheeler seam.

7, G, @. Tilden, Ann. Rep: Col. State Sch. Mines, 1859, 166.

°° R. Sadtler average of 15 analyses, H, 0 mostly less than 1; “. H.

mostly less than 1; F, C. average 83.78; Ash average 14, Ann. Rep. Col. State Sch. mines , 1889, 2356.

9. C. A. Gehrman, do. p. 191. 1 10. By R. Sadtler,given as zeneral average, do- Pp: BSD iz. Re Go Bitters Riess, Sos TS : i! i! 7 t! tt 26 4 ;

Note. A most complete series of analyses is given by R, Hills, in M. R. 1892, pr. 362-565. They are both elementary and proximate ae include determinations of calorific power. Many others are otVen by : B. Potter, by A. Lakes and cae a and by J. S. Newberry, 12 cita-

tions given below.

GOT RRAT HRs

Coal Pield of La Platte Co. Col. section across Co. 7. & ¥. J. June By eres ne ee

i. FP. Crisholm. The Elk Head Anthracite Coal Field of Rovtt Co. Col. Proc. Gal. Seie, bog. PIT PRL jee UA

Colorade Coal Deposits, “a te Jour, Osteo 16. SO. pe 255:

I’, ii. Wndlich. Coal in Trinidad Rezion. Hayden's Survey, Ler, (Ses

i. V. lWayden. Annval Rep. “alden s Survey, 1869. A. J. S. larch 1868. 40th Parallel Survey, III. 481. Sovth Platte Field in 1670.

G. C. Hewett. The Northwestern Col. Coal Region, 1. XVII. 375.

nu. Cs Eidis. Nemarks on the Occurrsnce of coal in the Carboniferous Fermation at Aspen and Glenwood Springs Col. Proc. Col. Sci. Soc. LEM, ls Pipi e

Ry. i tte,. Coal Rroalde or Gel. UR Dee. “Soe .Tmis. ts: Much irs best paper published. Nearly the same is in Hall's History of Sol., and further Amplifications are promised in the future Proc. Cols 'Sevsntwrre Society.

C. ing. Green River Coal Basin (lore or less About the Yampa Field. ) 400) Taredied Survey, bits 252

A. Lakes. Ann. Reports of Col. Stata School of lines. Especially 1289, which is a quite complete description Rec. Amer. Geol. July eos, lites

no, Sepiett. Un Middle Park, Mineral Goak, As ala Sx TE, 9. 2

—ineral Resouress of the U. S. All the Volumes 1082 - onward. TI lisr ssries of Raymond's Reports or “in. Resources ‘lest of the Recky :tns-. contains much of historical interest.

Jo ‘Se sharhevyer. hie. Cagae at Moths on ai cin Vaelete (eee Gree, Dar. NCads Sis ILGGk=G2% Fi. Ce

&. C. Peale. f’entions lignites on Coal Creek, Anthracite Ciz -tock Cr. ‘eny analyses, Hayden's Survey, 1874, pn. 17b.

“. B. Potter. The Character and Composition of the Lignites of Col. I. Te (Man eOoais Eves

Report

J

—/

s of the State Inspector of i‘ines. a. ~tevenson. On Col. especially Trinidad Coal. Wheeler's Survey, Lire Seu: " Notes on the Coal Field near Canon City, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. ke Bal, Oi” Bio ai aha At eee IS aia P. H, Yan Diest. Remarks on the Plication of the Coal l‘easures in Iutheasparn Vow ie At, Te NL the Heo. (ool; oGik “Soe. Aiton, Geo.

NEY MEXICO. The territory is well supplied with coals and the fuels are of great importance to the transcontinental railway lines and to the local mining interests. The coals are Laramie so far as known, and are, on the north, closely related to those in Colorado. The most productive area is the Gallup field to the west near the Arizona line. The scutherly 2xtension of the Raton field of Colorado, follows as a close second. The coals near Santa Fe are third, and the; test much smaller, a marked falling off having recently taken place in several of the. older fiedds:

THR HASTRERN SLOPE. The Raton Field is in the northeastern county,

aes

. - - a a eet — —

— : ee ee

Colfax, It is the oldest important mining district although the coal at Santa fe was in a small way dug, before its day. Thirty five coal

eams are known but, so far as reported, only One is exploited in each of the large mines. The productive centers are Raton and Blossburg. lany promising exposures are still remote from railroads. The seams as worked vary from 3/2 to 9 ft. but they have not been correlated or well described geologically. Ths coal is an excellent steaming coal, BR is chiefly produced in the interest of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Pe &, T

The Santa Fo Field, lies 150 miles sovth west and near Cerillos

the Atchison system. The mines are often Corillos. Seventeen seams are known of which four workable, but region much disturbed by porphyry are both coking and anthracite. New railway connect io t : given them a great impetus , so that the production is now about 120,000 ]

ey

Bit, Cig, !

ct

Co

AY evar: re ‘ om Bia oe iad) @

a r 18)

) be 4 CD

tons yearly, of which about 0,000 tons are anthracite. : “ The Socorro Field lies 100 miles further sovth, and a tew miles east of San Antonio. The mining town is Carthage and the m1 callea@ the San Pedro. AG seam of coking coai in 4 someWna i and badly faulted field was a strong producer both of coal and coxe up

—— a

a

MD 2 a) be @

lg

eT Load

' id ct 4) Ou

1%. to 1893, in which year it practic cally ceased. pet Some small outcrops are known further sovth of wnich one mine At i White Oaks in Lincoln Co. yields local supplies for the neighborhood but none others of moment occur on the eastern slope. i THE WESTERN SLOPE. Coal seams of some importance nave been devel- nk oped in Rio Arriba Co, in tne northern central portion OF OE Were ei ii ry. They supply the Durango branch oi tne Denver eRe BRaRee oh £3 nit and are known as the Amar Monero mines. The field is ean exten~

sion of the La Plata of The Gallup Field l

Tt

v v iti J scam which ft. or over are the Arizona line Hight scams, “of whic ft. Oo ;

a hi. o 1. a known in abovt 1200 ft. of strata. :!10.S and &

Are sgemibituminovs steam-coals and are extensive v 1 Q Daa ini Pay the PaeriLe coast Ther make consider=- end the inhabitants as far as ao Poacifie coast. ney 3 : k ining and as mined suffer also from lack of good covers able slack in mining ang : . SUTTer at a ectaee a tel lea nt a San vvan CI ti @ LS, a fe sat In the extreme northwestern county, van vuan, bt

coal ar2a, as yet hardly touched.

HzO ir. HE r. i, Ash S, 0 oe 2 i Rat On Ow 98 woevdD BS ae 2) 14, ©: O e 70 LL & Cc L Ay f “7 OD Dee g Pal Se Fe j 329 ¢ IOs / We & 9. Los Cerillos, Anthrac. 2.90 eae S38. 71

1. Tenth Census, XV. 735,

. - o 1 +, A Renalaa Gives a geological SeECtTLON Su m is by “ jo “. . ae af co Pf - r . Bland Hee Vs wa A Li Ly ja 1 Lh Ve & &- OOC non iti a ar 12 ‘ Lo oP es 299. . 3 2 i J . . W¢ thracite sar Santa Fe N. M. 1567. ve . John Leconte-. Cretaceous arntnracite ae Se wi a eames oh i AT - . AVG QVreo S T I 4.5 1436 2 + ot S . 1 t +4 tom “ caultl , J es a : ad 5 “a ‘ siaece Dens. i. MH, Weeeler’s VA ry + In 2 TAS Cary Los ei 1 lacer tns © die + QO. Loew. L yal it O Ulis 1jO as SU VOL & (ange pes OSs c Pr yy ti xt + F ; ; 1 Remark mn the oh ee S f antnracile ave sly tito ° R. W. Raymond. Nemarks on elle occurrence Ot ane

ae - es ——+ en - o_o ’

an) 45

Minoval Wes sources. 1882 & 1883-84. The others through 1893, statis~ ae eal.

J, Jy S vtievenson seology of Galisteo Creek (Santa Fe Field). A.J. S. Poe ev Po ee be

ie lr ae en ae ty. al] “5 orn fr 7 M Arizona 'he Gallup field extends into Arizona but is not yet de- veloped. tner coals are known in the Deer Creek Field, Pinal Co., and

atv some future day the territory will.no doubt be a producer.

Dlitmrature :

m1 re oe ws OD DM 'D nits O Sic

Fields, Arizona. E. & M. Jour. Dec. 17, Sleep. 404,

ie

? ‘ tS °

jo

Oos

! / pe f

e n ? a t. Deer Creek Coal Field in Arizona. Senate Doc. Xo. 20, Bon, By, 23S, LL Sa. 2S8,

crit

bution of lignites and there are one st-carboniferovs are: OCCUT® Ary Eros state. Very recently such (deseo ed as Uretacious by J. S. Newberry in Meese: . H, Y¥. Acad. Sci. Feb. 12, 1883, p. 94) have been developed

y in Presidio Co The field is called the San Carlos and a seam oF cokinz Et ) with a one foot part- ing has been opened. The mines are 26 miles south of the Southern Pac- Trpe Ke Re ‘and ars. 1 d to ship abovt ‘1000 tons daily qe the rail connections are comp. For mention of coal still farther west, see paper by E. J. Schmit ed below. At EKagle Pass there is an exten- sion of the Mexican e coals, which are mined in the Sabinas field but are not yet much O Texas. Further down the Rio Grande near Laredo, is the fomas mine, which produces Bs good coal, appar-

J

Texas. There is a wide distri

or two rlaces where fairly good p r

7 a4- peor t te oo ae, a l- a ca In two benches

a ct

esa

UONo ow

Pry a) tc a 40

a ae?) 1..J

Cc) eo

—

ently an altered KHocene lignite. The seam is 2/2 Kocene lignites or brown coals aon Widespread elsewhere in Texas, so ‘much so that the t n

Cd Us

formation has’ been called e Kolignitic. They are only mined as yet in-the region AL Ov ae San Antonio, but great attention to their utiliza- tion has been paid by the Texas geologi cal survey, as the references cited below indicate. fH, T. Dumble's reports are the fullest works of reference that we have i ish on the subject.

7 2 Texas Carbonif ferous coals will be taken up a little farther on.

co

a Eis

Mm iQ Moe Hels Bogs VAs Ash De

le San Carios Coal. 0,97 56.76 54,00 . 7.81 0,32 2e ven Tomas. 9.5 51.05 59 a1. (Ns Glee. oo Lytle Lignite, Medina Co. A Wee £0.62 36.47 8.40 1.26 lo Ti, Re 1893, $85. Average of two benches. Be Me Ai ey 3 enrose: ist Ann. Rep. Poe Geol. Surv. 1889, 96. do He +t. Dumble Rep. on Brown Coal and ignite, Lov. LITERATURR: Bo te zumble. Brown Coals & Lignites of Texas. Tex. Geol. Survey, 18 Rec. A small prelim. Rep. was issued in 1891, and in the Be aera te to the Srd Ann. Rep. Tex. Gaol. Survey. . [Ar ? ced

Ro T. Hill. ‘!lineral Resources U. S. 1891, 1892 and 1893. Statistical Review. Rec. “. Kennedy. Lignites of Houston Co. Texas. 3rd Ann. Rep. Tex. Geol. DULY Vs Hs 55). Lignite in Guines, Brazos, and Robertson Co's. 4th Ann. do.

Oo Lerch. Lignites and their utilization. 2nd Ann. Rep. Tex. Geol. SUrv. p. 38.

R. A. FP. Penrose. ignites of eastern Texas. 1st Ann. Rep. Tex. Geol. murv. 94, 1889. Rec.

Eo J. Schmitz. Geology and !ineral Resources of the Rio Grande Region

in Texas and Coahuila. MH. “h. sept. 1854. On Hl Paso Co. & on Hagle Pass.

105 Boers Weitzel. The coal fields of Texas. E. & M. J. Aug. 23, LEGO. qi. 214, from the Ohio Institute liining Be ee ee

C. A. White. Age of Coal found in the r: ef1ion traversed by the Rio aides oh. oe Se ETE aun bois

MEAICO. . But Meee coal areas have been developed in Mexico. The most important: one is that which extends from Nagle Pass, Texas, south through Piedras legras to the Rio Sabinas and contains the mines at the

last named point. It is called the Saninas field and lies in the state of Coahuila. There are four seams, witn 5 ft. as a maximum thickness. The coal is bituminovs, coking and varies from fair to very good.

There are othor coals known near Z4acualtipan, Hidalgo; west of Tuxpan, Vera Cruz; in Sonora - and several other states. The paper cited below from the U. S. Consular Reports gSives a food resume of both ‘exico and the Central and South American localities. On these latter one or two additional papers ars cited.

W. H, Adams. Coals in Mexico, el. Rosa. Dist. 3°. HB: 10, 270. oal and Coal Consumtion in Span sh America. A good review. Special Gi;

Consular Reports U. S. Dept. of State. 1891. Re Coal lislds of Mexico. #. & M. J. June 9, 94, p+ 555. Coal in Vsra Cruz. Reports. of U.. S: Consuls Ox. 23). a pei eee ee

Uwe te Cox. .Anthvactie an Sonond,. wi de GS. TIT: S4. Ba9y CRs Aas 138; e D. Cope. Coal near Zacuvaltipan, Hidalgo. Amer. Phil. Soc. Oct. Mito i PRE Us, KA.

July I1&92, 7.

Wht taal e lauross. Notes on Coal Iron Ores in the State’ of Guernuro, lex Bn ian tes enw eee ae

de iornsr. Coal near Guerrero, Mex. called Anthracite Les Mondes lar. Uo ESR be AS ae sey eis eae 124,

Santa Clara or Barranca Coal Hines of sonora, tiex. 8. & I. J. Apr. 30,

Ee. Jo Sehmitz On Sabinas Field. Geol. and Min. Resources of the Rio Grande Region in Texas and Coahuila. 3H. E. Sept. 1884. Rec.

Be G, Suttle. The Sabinas Coalfields. BE. & i. J. Oct. 27, 94, p. 390.

John Evans. Coals of Chiriqui, Colombia. Good account in Document sent to President by S. P. Chase Sec. Treasury April 22, 1062.

(47)

—— en ran i ee lhl cates: CN et te el, ba yh

Ss ge —

Sesman. Cosl in Venezuela. Reader Wo. Sep IY enn, Ge, Re am Sisk Eide ts (289i

Soal an Brazil. Nove 1, 879. ne. S21. hl Ge. FT.

EREASSTC COALS. Coal seams are known in several of the long, nar- ow, estuary deposits of the Triassic rocks, along the Atlantic sea- board. TIhbrey are thin on the north being seldon over an inch or two but Pennsvivania - near Arcola station, about 25 miles from Philadel-

ae

phia, 26 inches of good anthracite have been recently opened (0. C. S. Carter, Jour. Franklin Inst. Aug. 1894. BR. & 11. Jovr. Auz. 1S OA. Ds LA) Nevertheless these little seams are of small account. The coal first assumes economic proportions in Virginia and North Carolina. In ce Ltormser state it was the first coal mined in America, and was opened in 1701. During the last century it was the main American supply for the Atlantic Coast There are three fields one, the Richmond, running

oC from the James to the Appomatox rivers, and west of Richmond and Poters burg; the second the Dan river in northern central North Carolina, and the third, the Reap river in central North Carolina. sic strata (some are doubtless also Jurassic) are eC R

l as the Newark pie ke chmond Ficld is a basin 30 miles long, 4-10

a way, andj no 2

rR a J broad, that rests directly on Archaean granite, so Lark the coal actu- aliv has a granite floor in some mines, and corresponds to its inequal- ities, There has been much faulting throvghouvt the area and for ason great irrsgularities are mot. The seams,too, are lenticula FS! 2mnera no

ay cat

eral section can be well compiled. They pinch O

SWeil, and are ta to tbe ireiatens On opposite sides of the basin. They may reach great thickness, over 25 feat RAOEEHe been recorded.

Trap dikes, of th usual Triassic diabase often cut them and have baked the neighboring coal to a sort of natural anieee called carbonite. The Workings also ars inclined to be gaseous. The “mines are chiefly locat-

ed on ths northeastern edge of the basin, and a few others are on the northwastern. The coal is of a good Gompact, bituminous grade in the better seams, though rather high in ash and sulphur as shown bv the a-

nalysis below. Richmond and Petersburg are the chief markets and up to

50,000 tons yearly are produced. There is a small Triassic area further te called the PerDy LIS, With thix.. seams, not worked.

NORTE CAROLINA. The Dan River Field is not much developed and is not a AaCaNGae: Tho coals are thin and cut up with shales.

m1

the Desp River Ficld is Of more rit tant and is today the scene of important operations at the Egypt Mines, in Chatham Co. The coal occurs 400-500 ft. below the surface, ana’ in two benches, an upper of about 4 ft. separated by a bed of blockband from a lower of abovt 2' The coal is said to be a good coking coal. but ig high in sulphur.

5 ,000-20,000 tons have Saad annually produced of late.

Bent Fp, Beek. Ben S Sp.gr. 1. Richmond Field, Coal. sb, SOAR SSA “ROLUO THESSE ass am ? f Carbonite. 12,50) “FOSS 6555. W296) Seca Se Eeypt, Ne Cy 00 8 mee Sau GO 5.3 1.5

a

ee Ne ee ee le

a — -

——

—— -

—

a eo Se —

——- ———

—

— —-

rT; —

i Seer 25 Ouot2d by Ly lias ‘Risse ac. Badia. .85-. lk, Sa “Gee, fie his flo is an average of eleven analyses.

Se Ts, ‘iy it tilics, ln Be lie alow, tows, WOK, Dea, Many others are cited in reforences below, on inspection of which it will be seen that the coals are extremely variable.

Literature, Virginia.

We Clifford. Om Raechmonkh Basan, Mik. 2SsS7. 365. Many analyses. See

also Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. XIX. 326 and bb), en Za “Sec also undor F. H. Newell. M. Coryell. Hastern Virginia Coal Fields. M. R. III. 228. We i Pontaine,. Notes on Mesozome Strata, Vas Ay. Si Pie AVES 35, iD Sy geen Loe Fret Heinrich. On Midlothian Colatiemy. (Markey esto. Tt... 240), mir. 163, IV. 308, V. 148. Also a General Paper on Mesozoic formation Be Vin 2272 Ree, On-the Trap Dikes& Natural Wolke. wetis VS Re lates structure & probable az sar Richmond. %. J. G. o . L605, qo. S25 Many tan Seep On Naturad Coke. =f. FE. es 446. the Relations of the New Red Sandstone of the Conn. 10 Coal=-bearing Rocks of Beatann Va. @ Ne C

the Goal Pasld ot the en 2

HP Leae, et eGme eles

G ede Vol. alyse

Ii, 19. 123

Penge: Bogts soces Us ty TS54, me it, : ‘ a wr Set rT i Is C. Kugsell. The Newark System, Bulletin 65, U. Si Geol. Survey. pr: 56-40, Also a full yvesume and abstract of literature pp. 140-359. i oe, ir o

Note. The literature is much tac (areas to be all cited here, but ref- erence may be had to Russell's paper Which contains a complete bibliography with abstracts.

OQ ae

Literature, North Carolina.

H. M. Chance. Report on North Carolina Coal Fields to the Dept. of Beri. Tot oh. UL Releion TSe5.,. Jha

He She ates Coal and Iron Counties of Ni CO. Beaders, Des

W. Hh. Jonnson,. Coal Lands of Deep River Co. N. C. ete. Mining Maza= “ Lie i Wetiso ee eg Cisne Good EM Al ND IE with analyses. Several other pa- pers by same author cited under Russell.

Kerr & Gonth. Geol. Rep. HN. C. 1875.

ASRS re URSA ye, “Notes on the Dan R. Coal Basin N. GC. EF. & M. Jour. Apr, It, 1890. ps. 448,

J. ©. Russell. See under Virginia above.

E.G. Tuttle. whe Deep River Coal field of Ne 0. Ee mite di, Nove Leth 1894, np. 441. Rec.

C. Wilkes. Report on Exam. of Deep R. Dist., 35th Us S. Congress end Session, Ex. Doe. 26, 1858.

if

f\" Ha

ao oe

ee —e - tl: See as a

n ae a a? ale 7 7

— a

aie — - - 5 - - ee a an ee ee ay —- - SS ee a - SS Sn ee a —e——e — - - - a - ee. ee. SS ee epee Fe oT ee Ss — 7 - a —— : - -i=- —— — se a — 2

&

yr 7 -—

—

i Ue

ae. oe Se SS ae

Chapter Iv, Carboviepurons Coals.

INTRODTICT Tho Carboniferous strata in America are broadly di-~ vided into ban Se es series, whieh are from above downward, the Pear mian, the Carboniferous proper or Pennsylvanian, and tite Lower Carbon- epee oe or Mississippian. The first of these is of smali economl portan especially in the coal fields immediately east and west

ne Missis sippi river. The last named only contains coal in ern states. In all the fields the chief interest cel ters in sylvanian series, and the same is aie of Burone. This shows, important l¢ vbdaivisions, ly, yet none can be properly d another, apparently depending acted on by metamorphic agenci upheaval, pressure, heat, etc anthracite varisties, but the eastarn Tennsylvania. Le, a.

The productive areas in a broad way are usually described a5 11ve-

rentral ce el square Miles, in la., Ifo., .ensas,

cD ap

bei bell rea co to ere ic’, qe im ct Ne

er eg el

a

ay) ct cr fH. bet —

e oO ca

sanormous lace and

Q oo ane ui a) i cA — S a) a)

Oo rt 2,

(D oO '@ pa) io ef} a av)

iw 2 @ os fp a

t al C0 ty ot eR Se 2b 3

CD co jte WT Tosp S fae a aa : Cr wo @

als fH cr cy oF Hs OQ ct Ci iB ty oy or

Ts AT

is y AS t i 1 Dike I + ot 4 vay 7 baa Vay cet 4 — A. The Avnalachian Arsa, (Allen any would bs a more accurate name; ol, ™ ms F 1 i a 2% L iy ve Vi - 3 ar 3 antics Ws Ven, Vay, SASDCPH “Toy tie Goran eluted.

fenn-. , ee, and Ala. he ‘ Soe Re Acadia Arsa, 2,200 squares miles, in Nova Sectia, and

™ : Ss a © qr teres ure ft Fae my pee ay 1 AS eee one as aitrording

3 2 5 A 15 ‘ ’ e mt em TA 4 - 3 oye 2 a ee yr cma a “2 SRnEPec la i some indication of th: Petlavive areas, Feu i ye on at eens iee ™ a . yy UL a 37 ny - “y om not all cf this territery is etonomieall’ productive ne Appalachian — 1 1 1 wt 4: hats a wntity and 7a Wel lies tae Pat neqgduiet : arva is much the most important betn in quantity ana qua LEY. Veoguecs & Tet bs a ! Es x é- j 7 3 4 re c — Pt en a ee ee s+ra Ay eyo ap Peel Cinerea 4 wAdTwamija’ het Hae srr 1s3* 2 4 rly 9677 5 ALS FLONS ABnALNYacite tg eh ig tte Wt UM TNO the eS pa Se z, orm Ro Dp Shba hi Sieg “ fee es ee Ven Gentra a is next, product Legs, of 502 , S09 uminous; the Vestern ae eh ye eh ae 14 i i . aI + TE 17 7 Sid bya ea head tan FOU PGky nrodu 15935, t hy

: 1 3et We! es tral third, product 1895, 11,65 ce ee es 079 Ke a & Von 144 : a trey echo eet ny oAAiet Act) 2,556,086: and the Michigan area a bad fifth, proavuce, 25382) 02 a

3 ; oer

nous. For the sake of comparison it may bs added, that the Rec f “oun tain, Great Plains, and Great Basin Areas combined afforded LSI 93,578 tons anthracite, and 8,468,560 bituminous; the Pacific Coast , tf -he same year, 1,379,163 bituminous, exclusive of Vancouver whien would nearly bring it up to 2,000,000. The Triassic aY o& eat Spa ica Ue furnished 36,878. The Appalachian areca produces thus BOOMS ars Vite the total, and Pennsylvania alone rather more than one AaLyT is / 92) ag ®

Whil2 the above grouping is useful as a sceogrannicar summer y cha Feil genlogically somewhat open to eriticism. Thus che +exas coal ee i: ars distinct structurally from th -se to the noren, being Cue : pee eds Tire dhe (ae Te elie Ouachita uplift, whils De ES ae er Fastern and Western Central Arcas are very closely related. ney s be descrioed from West to Nast and in a subordinate Wa, FeOM JOUER VEO

hi HS e

: a a cataa’ be. a — 2 em — s a ate a, ee. eee -— “4 2 Pe a 7 ern

bs atin we z ne ee ee en on er eer ees

North, so as to work up to anthracite.

TEXAS. The Carboniferous rocks in Texas occur in a long north and

south line, broken in twe by encroaching Cretaceovs. The two coal fiolds lie in the drainage areas of the Brazos and Colorado rivers. The coals in the former are alone of importance at present. The seams as worked run 50 inches-as a maximum and afford a rather high ash, svl- phurous ‘coal. Erath Co. was the most productive in 1893, yielding 243, 773 tons. The need of coal fuel on the railways of Texas, and the in- mens: distances traversed by them away from productive districts, make even thes2 thin seams of great importance.

Litfrature:

CC. A. Ashburner. Brazos )Gead Field, Texas. UM. EF. IX. 495. HE. fb M. J. July 30, Aug. 6, 1881.

i. F. Curmins. The Sovthern Border of the Central Coal Field. Texas Geol. Surv. ist Ann. Rep. p. 158. Carboniferous 28".

" Northwestern Texas. do. 2nd Ann. 190 miles of ovtcrop. Carb

N. FB. Drake, & R. A. Thommson. Rep. on the Colorado Coal Field. Aus-

Gin’ LEVIS Tex. Geol. ouUrv.

436. Average of 2 6" over

Mineral Resources. 1888, 367. Rec. Rh. 5. Tarr. A Preliminary Rerort on the Coal Fields of the Colorado River. First Ann. Rep. Texas Geol. Survey, p. 212. 18"-30., Carb. " Carboniferous Area of Central Texas. Amer. Geol. 1890, 145.

INDIAN TERRITORY. The coals occur in the western extension of the Arkansas field. The productive area is large; and situated as it is on the line of railways to the sovthwest it ha rroved extremely valuable and productive, having attained in 1593, 110 tons. Four seams

1) t

] Ss are known ranging from 2/2 ft. (not. now worked) to 6 ft.. These are in ord2r downward the Mayberry, te Secor (narrow), the McAlester and the Grady. JFIryan, McAlester, Krebs, Atoka and Lehigh are the chief towns from east to southwest and all are in te Choctaw Nation in the sovth-

+

u

ao nmn4 bitwumir *J7 ct ¥ + 7 Semi- 1 UM1I1O tA on tne S

eastern tart of the territory. The coals are CG the Carboniferous sec-

east and bituminous on the west. Chance plac tion at £,500-10,000 ft.

rE 0 Yo Gs, Fa, Mes Ash. De 1. titchell Basin. 1/058 19.03% tls hoo Vato 0.64 McAlester. 2°10 Dow Ll 62.67 aie os we 5. Atoka. 4.61 She eh 2. 45.74 10.49 0.57 EL, H. M. Chance as below. 2 and 3, M. K. 1585, 261.

Literature:

WY. M. Chances. Coal Measures of the Ind. Ty. A. G. VI. 258. Geology of the Choctaw Coal Field. HM. E. Feb. 1890. Mineral Resovreces, especially 1888, 260.

eos

ARKANSAS. The coal fields of Arkansas are in two or three coun- ties in the western part of the state and in close zeological connec~ (51)

tion with those just described. Sebastian Co. on the line with Indian Ty. yields the most, (448,901 tons in a total of 574,763 in 1893). The Scams run 3-6 ft. and furnish an open-burning, non-coking steam coal of high, calorific powor, and low in volatile hydrocarbons. Further cast the coals b2come semibituminous, with very low volatile percentages, approaching in fact scmi-anthracit by which name they are vsually dce- seribed. Thay extend Po within: 75 miles of Dittie Kock. Coal tif in Johnson Co. is the chief mining center but in the older books the fuels are mostly described as Spadra coal.

The coals are at two geological horizons, of which the lower is Gortainly Pennsylvanian, but the upper shows strong Permian affinitics although still classed by J. P. Smith as true Carboniforous. Thc stra- ta have suffsred considerable motamorphism as is shown by tho cnal.

He Wis is, LP Ash SI Ratio Sp.er. ls Sebestian Co. UVgod FIL *ScerO “O04 doses 2.9 2 Bae 3 ” H OG eS 17.54 4.64 De Leo 29 Teas 5. QOuvita Slone. OeTeO! Pore 76.82 Sr ire <biG20 Wawa dso 4, Coal Hill. 1~O17 10.64 Toke Sig SOD oie Cs Va aha ie eor 1. Hackett City Shaft 2. Hunti pashon Slope. 3. Ouita Slope. Pope, co- 4. Coal Hill, Johnson Co. All the analyses are from Winslows roport lable of Analyses, p. 43, Ann. Hen. G20. SUC), Avy Tee. Mant.

Li “RATURT:

Ja Cs Branners Coalfields of Arkansas. i-. R. 1892, S05. Ree. A Final Report on Coal is in preparation (Feb. 1895).

M. Simends. Gaol. of Washington Co. “nn. Rep. Ark. ‘Ceol. Sure, Leese, IV. 2 mtions thin esams: on to 14",

Jy J Smith. Avk. Coad Moasuras in Lhsir relation tooth] Pacific Gare pont sreus Provinces. dour. Geow. Il. lay, teas:

A. Winslow. Coal in Arkansas. i:. R. 1888, 216.

" Prgliminary Report on Ark. Coal.Fields. Ann. Rep. Ark. Ceol. DUP. LSS Viel. Whee aviee, if 1

Gootectonic & Physiographie Geology of Western Ark. G. S. A. II. DOR 1

KANSAS. A considerable gap intervenes in the arcas north of the Arkansas fields, before the next HVoduObiWs rsafion is met in southeast Kansas and southwest !lissovuri, and one passes across the line of the O- Zark uplift to mest the productive Measures. They occupy a strip about four courties desap on ths east. The area is estimated at 17,000 square Miles, and the production reached in 1892 a maximum of over 3,000,000 tons. Chsrok3¢ and Crawford, the two sovtheastern counties are the loaders, yielding o/5 the total, While Leavenworth and Osage, to the north and wast, afford most of the remainder - 22 searis ara known but oniy 10 SFe over i ft. The Charokes seam is the targest at 3-4 fr. but others slsewhere at 20 inches are mined by ths long

ong-wall system. The coal is good bituminous grade: It cokes and is an import ant i@sl for ths prairie regions. The S2ains dip about 30-40 ft. per mite to the west, and are usually first mined by stripping and later by shallow shaft :

s: Cannel coal is also produced. ts Fee Lue,

iS

I Sayen yor tLh:

MOM MOH —j CY to &D> Owe fo

ie

pe

a

Oo

Hq

3

a or

Le

All the anaéiyses ar by Blake and Balley, and are quoted from a ns;voPYbdte the state Board of Agriculture in 1808, which is in part re- Beane TA “ly ith Eeeee 20s

Lit Rature:?

fH. 6. Batley. (Composition of ican. Coates Hans Acad, “Ser. wb, 2st Blake @ Bailey, Rep. on Kansas Co-is to State Board of Agriculture

abovt 1888.

Braidwood. Coal Fields of Kansas. R. 1888, 269.

R. Hay. Geology and liineral Resources of Kansas. 8th Biennial Rep. State board of Agriculture 1593, p. 34.

he ie eis rece amet. dada, boc. eee “2ibys

i. Wevorth. Rep. of Kansas Acad. Sei: Bese. np. Ys On Coad Vexsuved oF

Cherokee Co. Kansas. Bs FF. Mudge. Pirst Diennial Rep. State ot.John. Coal in Mastern Kansas. 3rd Rep. State Board of 575,

a th

Board of Agriculture 16'7 Agric.

a

SSOURE, The coal measures of Missouri aecuny very nearly the NoevrenitTestern hale BE the State. VPher 222 On ane DOVehvest “sitte vor tie Ozark uplift and have a gentle dip in this direction. The general

character of the country is that of a rather flat plateau, ee

which the SUS SON and the other rivers have corraded their channels,

but only the ‘‘issouri has reached a base-level. The usual soaima wae

strata make up the series, with a Sreater preponderance of mechanical W

deposits along the margins. The Series With @ total thickness of 1900 ft.. Has beer wsually divided inte an Upper or Barren (26h? fh.) ,) accdid= dle (324 ft.) and a Lowsr (250 ft.) with most of the coal in the last named. The results of the late work of both the Missouri and Iowa Sur- veys lead to the view that the seams are often of quite limited, indi- Vidual extent and that correlation over a wide area is therefors impos- Sible. They range from one inch to 5 ft., with an average as mined of abovt 5 ft. but even LS in. are mined. All are bituminous and rather heh an Balthier), boi an Py ite and in films of gypsum. The most com mon floor is clay, and the roof, shale. The seams are best developed and chiefly mined around the border but Arthur “Vlinslow, lately State Geologist, thinks that the deeper coals will probably be more regular in quality and distribution. Many interesting channel fillings alike of Carboniferous, Pre-Glacial and Glacial age,cut the coals as mined. The most productive county is lacon (688,479 tons in 1893}, on the northeast, and the coal ranges 3-5 ft. The next is Bates on the sovth-

cn

ee

est (409,819 in 1895), but in former years Bates was the leader. I contains Bes famous Rich Hill mines on a seam 4-5 ft. The other not- able courities, lea Pewee te. Vernon, Ray, Randolph, Tene and Henry (all over 100.000. tone in 3893) are mostly distributed between the first

named. (55)

In addition to the coal ssams in the regularly, stratified serie there are other outlying pockets, beyond the connected Sienckeeces area. They lie in cavities or sink holes in-all the Palacozoic strata down to the Cambrian, and may afford cross-sections up £0 70 f st ¢ 5 coal. They are too limited however to be of other than sie Orie ot tance.A very large pocket in Cooper Co.has yielded Lohaidarstle, sete

A small tongue of the Eastern Central Fisld projects beneath St. Lovis and contains cne seam. Ba Boo: :

ESO We WH Pe WOK Ash S Las Rich is fal BP D254 £2.62 41.14 Sa FO LACE a Pile R. 18c8, 2837 . LITERATURRE: dishes Klean idi Asnhaltlazerstatt 3 ; Be All L. Kleinschmidt. sphaltlagerstatten vu. khohlenbildung. ee ae TESTS Ti eshy, i) AOS: W. Je Mezee. On Macon Co. i!0. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci. Y. 305. R. Pumpelly. Iron Ores & Coal Fields of llo. 1872. Reports on counties br yurtous assistants. P. Schweitzer. True Composition of Coal and the liethods of arriving at

it, etc. Catalogue of the oy of the State of :o. 1ic71, Appen- dix A. Discusses a coal fro near Columbia, G. C@, Swallow. On the Coal Meas ures of Ho. From 5 Rep. 1855, A. J. S. ii. XXVI. 1 G A. ‘Tinslov. The "Mo. Coal Measures 3 t eyon. Sb. (Ge Ss my. Libs 109,1591. t Coal iteasures of lio. TH. R. 1692, 429- Ree. " Praliminary Report on Coal. +0. Gaol: Survey, 1891. A final fre- rort is promised. " The Higzinsville Sheet of the Ito. Geol- Surv. maps, an important : ier sheet with descriptive lstter fe) portions of Macon, Randolph and o's. in an important coal district. C. R. Keyes suc- slow as Stat Geol. 1894.

IOWA. The Tiissovri coal fields that extend all across the north-

ern boundary of the state, Sere as they enter Iowa both from east and west and terminate at an ape somewhat north of a central por- tion. A narrow, senarate strip extendas up the west boundary along the Missouri river. The most productive districts lie along the Des Moines river, which the area of the coal measures CG. Ra. ‘Keyes: an the recently issued, and valuable report cited below divides the P snnsylva- nian into t7vo series, a lower mostly of mechanical, shore depesits, such as sandstones, sales and clays, and called the Des Moines stage, aes the Des Moines river; and an upper, mostly of limestones, and alled the Missovri stage, from wwe Missovri river. he coal lies chiefly in the strata of the Des *Moines stage- As was remarked under iMissovri the coal seams pinch and swell in a notable way, and do not extend in constant thickness over as sreat areas as in the fast. They cannot therefore be so closely correlated As many as le seams vere eut near Des Moines in \00 ft. but all told there Was but 15/2 ft. of coal, while two of these thin seams swelled to minable thickness only

et

ns Pane. bs -

one-third of a mile away. They are clearly the results of shifting swamo growth along a shore line. The usual thickness as mined is about 4.5 ft. But seams are knewn to Locally attain even to 10) 2b, They arc slightly faulted and show other characteristic small disturbances such as old channels, heaves. rolls, etc, Well illustrated by Keyes. The chief productive county is Mahaska (1,093,530 in 1893), then follow Polk (693,103), Appanoose (650,775), Monroe (648,300) and seven others all 250,000 or over. All except Appanoose are traversed by the Des Moines river or ite intediate tributaries. A number of smaller produc- ers. iis afTy tire Pita:

(Note. Theré ig a difference of nearly a million tons of produc- tion in 1893 between the figures of Keyes Report (np. 525) and the HMin- eral, Resources for 1893, pn. 286. The figures of the former are here Ziven, and if they are correct, Iowa still ovtranks Colorado, contrary to a statement made earlier, under Colorado. )

The coals are bituminous, non-coking, and inclined to be alters ous; They contain PDE dereince mineral charcoal, which often create Slack, Nevertheless they are valvable steam coals and have a large market west and north.

Bin Q Wie CET. Tae Uke Ash ate

1. Mahaska Co. 4,9] Al.69 43.01 10.89 5. OF Be One Gi gis 7.04 AOL IE Ale dy SM ae 4,25 5. Appanoose Co. 9s 70 oD. o4 47.14 hegie 4.41 i, honrose Cn. 5.05 42.64 44.93 Fy apereo 4,79 is Carey Mine. Rose Hid. Keves Rens S07 Bo Gibson sine, Des Moines: do. S08, 4 o Wh 1G & br east. No - a 9 Ly co al iS O4 ) 4, wmoky Hollow woe. Wes “Sue.

LITMRATURE: Ge A, Davis. Goal Mining in Towa Be oe Me ds Sens. Shh, 9, Ba Saks C. Re Keyes. Stratigraphy of Ja. Coal measures. Bull. G. S. A. II.

Coad Piside of fe. My Ry. 12898. 24s. Coal Deposits of Ta, Ta. Geol. Survey, Vol. Ti. 1694, Ree: " Coal Measures of Iowa. EB. &@ Me. J. March 24th; 94, p. 269; March Vet. f. 2YBt anal Kili Ti. S17. 7

G. A. White. Geols, Survey Lowa, Vol, 6.*L. andeEE, Tso).

[

The Bastrrn Crntral Fpibld.

As already emphasized this area has no marked geological separa- tion from the coalfields just west of the Nississippi, 1It ts cut off from them large sely by erosion and is closely related both in character of coal and kinds of fossils. In their 3outhwestern portion the coal measures lie to the east of the Ozark uplift, and in their eastern por- tion they are on the western side of the Cincinnati uplift which latter separates them from the Appalachian field. They form a large syncelinal trough in the valley of the Green he Kentucky, but easewhere have

(55

i im o- ; E +4 ote - a oe - oS a + — a Er 2, : ' ; : : oe ee eee. ae — 2 sw o foe Omri

reow re I :

ps, that they

markedly

©

O

69)

ct its (RL oi SG ct

j

AY) aa

TLUTMOIS. the state

Coal is found

is second

others forming a

nian strata are

on the south:

are recoznized,

are too thin to cS

compa artit ively 600-800 ft. The lower me umber ea

7 +A 7 - be mined. “On

thick

o m SS ee Fiber eT int aa and oi pecially high grade,

not es district of Jackson Co. Indiana, it approximates

aie i) (D OO 2 ad

Well adapted to making coke and the : F 2

Oni” neoirepe. bey or

No gYreat

can har Level Ar eae

under anh hyn to fas naan in prod eka LOT.

nerrow be OM “SNS Noy

asures C

north and west they are s bus

Lity is exesllent

dly be deseribed otherwise than i+

about tw hirds of Tllinois, and md A thy t.

Lilwuwhe central and s of Carboniferous strata, the The Pennsylva~ and increase to 1200-1400 ontain. the best coal. Sixteen seams : I Pollowing uLphuro Us southwest in cid Bigs Muddy

around them,

p

E fay Fay on vVLle

i ena on the borders of 5 ee Ce NS Tee mnie ; indlana coals. ihe coaks Bee 10T

ovut nut

The most productive co y ; Sta Clair just oppcsitese St. Loni (2,133,870 tons in 1893). From this point northward toward Chicago is the series of counties that furnish the largest output aver five oth ers in 1893 passing the million mark, vi: Wacoupin, La Satie, Sangamon Grundy and Bureau The coals are obtained by shafts 59-300 ft. deep, and sunk in the ievel prairie. ; Elis 0 Ve Ti Bs ae Ash in Betleviiie. St. Utara, age 3965 49.6 +4 20 Peru, La Salle Co. 10.30 $3490 Bly 6 4,54 Si Bareta ay, vangamon Co. 10,80 ae gate 44.,78 i lid Gre 8, 4 Carbondale, Jackson Co. 6.56 36. 40 59.84 7.40 De Grape Cr., Vermilion Co 9 74 25.354 Dh as 10,60 1, Macfarlane, Coal Regions America, 425, 1873 The remaining analyses are from M. R. 1888, 38%. In each refer- ence others will be found Unrortunately the analysts did not re port sulphur. LITRRATURRE: Jo Vo 4. Blaney. Analyses of lll. Coal. Geol. Survey Vol. I. p. 275, 1866% Vol. Lit. pal S%4. TS4as. H, Bo Comstock. The Fossil Fuels of Ill. and their exploitation. E. & Me Mie OILY OO. a wets eee ‘ee " The Fossil Fuels of scam ee Re tr My. dour. May 25. Boner ns 1h els Mf. Te eae 4 Toor ny J. Johnson. On the Wilmington J11. Coal Field M,-Be iE. Beers hy te Lesquei'’e wey @ Coal Fy sjas of Ti Geo] ey GD Gant 2Y thd (ie: 208, 1866. ais A, H. Worthen and others County Geolagy GeoLS Sarvs cL. Vol. 2s ui} 1866, fii... 1868, BV, ASO. Vo PSRs. Via S75 NN Ae H. Worthen, Fuel Kesources of Iii. A. A. A. S. XVII. i Avid INDIANA. The Illinois area runs unbroken across the Indiana line, mt so that the sovthwestern portion of the latter is supplied with coal. ne Fourteen seams are known, which are called by the letters A-N: but C. D yh and H.are nowhere thick enough CO mine, and the chief attention is giv- Bit ento Il. J. Ke. and L. The seams as mined range from 2-6 to as much as a

. r e - a 7 ag Tee ey ee i Ue 2 r

we - Lhe : oa + 7. 7 - - a — . - in : ot : A ode p aie Gea ae 4 : ae ey zu : Vind bar or ea aed z oa La ee tt “ et, Vr Sat Se rer ie er Se pe aceite —, ie Eee .- - ; ¥: ‘ : 5 . ' et: Se - , : . : : 2 : ¥ 7 : :

a '

2 ge age, al ; ho gees ome 4 Bat,

a

7’. The region around Brazil, in Clay Co. affords a peculiar coal known as "block coal", because it is broken by intersecting joints into cubical blocks, and where stripped looks like a toarse pavement. It is a non-cenoking, low ash, low sulphur coal and much prized for iron smelt- ing, etc. It has been used raw in blast furnace practice. Seams I. and J. afford it and have a general thickness of 3' 6" to 4’. The coal lies in small basins, moughly speaking. Indiana coal mines and miners are usually classed as the block coal and the bituminous coal froups., Oviside of Clary Co. the coal is mostly bituminous of good srade ind much used for steaming purposes. Some cannel is also mined. The most productive county is Clay (1,209,703 tons in 1893): then follow Park, Vigo, Daviess, Sullivan, Vermilion, Greene and Pike, from O

about @ half a million down to abovt 200,000,

H-. 0 Vs de By Cy “keh ape) TET ata is Bide bose brazil; er See lanes RSC tha. ees oe veam Ll. Park Co. 2498S 40.98 £0.70 Qiao Bese Se-s= Be oe seam IT. Daviess Co. 3.00 51.00 40.00 6.00 # + 4. neamis Pike Go; aver 40.002 S6ehS 2abO sess 1.275 All these analyses are fromii. R. 1857, 235. A great meny are scatter-

ed through the reports of the Indiana Geolozical Surver.

LITERATURE: i. T. Cox, John Collett as State Geolo-

fists have issued approximately annual eee since 1669. The last issved was the loth in 18904. ae first fourteen of these contain many geological descriptions of counties, coal analyses - Tith some general papers (such as Sania make up the Later

oY, ones) which are noted below. Be I. Vox. On the Western Coal :easures and Ind. Coal. A. A. A. Ss Eis quereux. Coal FPields of Ind. Geol. Surv. Ind. 1659=-GO, pub. 1862, 273-341. Also county geology. Mineral Resources. Se7, 238.

KENTUCKY contains portions both of the Mastern Central Field and of the Appalachian. The latter is much the larger in square miles, but the former is a little the more productive. SBetiwween the two lies the southern extension of the Cincinnati Unlift over which the subcarbonif- erous rocks run unbroken from one to the other. There are 4500 square miles in the western field and 11,180 in the eastern. The Western a- lone concerns vs at this point. Broadly speaking it is a large synceli-

al basin, through which the Green river flows, furnishing a navigable stream throuzhovt the entire extent. Twelve workable coals are known in seams of good size. The coals are steaming coals and although great efforts have been made to produce a good coke in order to smelt the lo- cal limonites and carbonate ores, the one as vet made runs rather high in sulphur. The coals ovtcrop around the fringes of the basin and can be mined for many years above the water line. Hopkins Co. much the Largest producer of the state (713,809 bhi in 1893 in a total 5,007,- 119) lies in the western central portio while Ohio, ivhlenberg, Union and Henderson are all over 100,000. rh the northeastern portion is the (57)

Se a SF ™ . - : § er ee ——

ny ae a ek - é : -

ya eee ga — (NS ee nso - 4 Rae ©

Ss

ioe t ‘ — ” - T 7 . F as . a n - el - - a Fi j : H +5 — . - - ; - por ——— ed

—s r A tn al ats Se ve

lreckenridge cannel coal that will be again referred to under cannel.

— Le — 7 Pi ts - - - - ees Ee as ee aa ih lel la_if - s i oe . ahs oe —s 7. s. sn. a ’ jt

ee Ws, HER F.C. Ash S, re © Sais se TAGE ‘lopkins Mee. Ms Po mae Par a7 ,45 16.02 Se ak 2 a Washed. 55.24 Di BO fare I 1.92 5. -tud R. Muhlenberg. lope ne, FO 2G0 4,90 dee is Bed Ob. Unvashed Coking. My RR. 23ST, 262.

Se GG. esheds

Zi Mae R

1 A, Los’, 262. Meany other analyses are given in this report. LITERATURE OF WRSTERW FIELD.

J. H Ablen. Western Ker, Coals .& Cokes. Is Ha AVE. BSA. W. bo. Caldwel il Jr. Coal and Iron Ores of Western Kv. Louisville Cour- vi

oe Journal, Mar. 9, 1876 & issued by itv. Geol. Survey as pamphlet és. in) Bieta Now) os Geolufical § Sur rvey Reports, all with details on Coal have been issved ft uncer D. D. Owen (4 vols. 1856-€1), 11. S, Shaler (187¢- igaq, J. R Vi) Procter (t@80— i speoarty the economic data somewhat scatter~ ‘ ad in Shaler's reports have been collected and reissued under ", ne

Procter in enc ey tava voluy — ToT i i i PN Monre. On Botler, Grayson, RaMene Oe, and (Hart ‘Go's. 1.¢@. Nolin he GistBict. “Geol. Sire Ky. New Issue, D. Western Coal Field, " Airdrie Furnace & Property Muhlenburg Co. do. 63-96. " " €so0logy of Hancock Co. do. 97-129. Report on Coal Washing Part

Ill, 2nd ssries VI. 251-290. " ‘Geol. Pestern Border of Vestern Coal Field. Ky. Gacd. Surv. 2nd series IV. part Xl. 423-444, Cw. J, Norwood. One Part) of the Ereckenridge Cannel Coal Dist. Geol. Bue vey Jorn Ds Dest

" Reports of State Inspector of ffines.

" Geol. of Ohio Co. Ren D. Ky. Geol. Survey New Series, 131-191.

™ Spies, O11 vegion adjacent to Louisville, Paducah & S. W. R. R. Geol Survey Ky. New Soaks i abe.

Repe on North & Sovth Running Railways of Western Ky. It. Geol. Surv. ond gerisa, PVs. naxrt VIL. 255-338. ns Peter. Many enalyses of coals in Ren. A. parts EF. TI. and Tit, Ky.

Geol. Surv. New Series.

Jia Khe Procter. Coal Fields of Ky. M. R. 1892, 415. B., Silliman. reckenridge Cannel. A. A. A. 3, May 1554.

— — —

!

! !

The isolated coal fisid of the sovthern peninsula would be inelud- ed in a circle of 50 miles radius, Rea eh central in the peninsula. The Series: 1s about SCO’ Pi; thick of soft sediments and ontesns but ONe irregular seam t has a maximum thickness of 4 ft. and averages less than 5. It is mined in Jackson and Clinton Go's. but the vield is falling off, (*5,979 tons in 1893). The coal is poor and sulphurous; the mincs are Wet and the country is largely covered with Glacial Drift

a : : ee ate em” . ae 7 - a f it - a rs a r tz 4 7 - ‘ als Jei4 4 bee Se 4 — cd “Sata pad, eat mige ‘ Sow erie " —— eee ae - - ree adit a ee ee ee a Te es ae - : Se SS i ee a St Oat Tie ge Pe ee SP a ee a mp ge et

mars ak 4 as 2, eh Ash S5

Jackson. ae 49, 45. iG) 4.0)

at 4 ; ae Or ¢ 7 ’ acted in... hk, 1066, 200, but vndovhtedly above the averaze

Lif Erate Irf:

_ineral Resources. we, 420 ‘Ree. C. Rominzer. Geol. Survey of ich. III. 122-150.

(Co aR. ‘rrisht. In itinerak Statisties of Mich. 1881, p. 23.

The Appalachian Arra.

Srcadly speaking the ccal fields lie in a series of synclinal val- Fy entral Alabama to northern Pennsvilvania. As a zeneval

ticlines have been eroded and lost, but this is not alvars

st Virginia, Ohio and western Pennsvlvania, for in this sec~

oal seams often ride over the anticlines. The great prepon- oft and yislding sedirents in the geological section shown

th has occasioned thse fo

vth, the relatively silvro-Cambrian 1

rmation of folds without faulting, 7 thin obi tageds and pepe de IS but limestones have Ba about faulting. itc z Rereabicd bee synclinal 1 into the a at the north, he south. The ganeral devel- so a vital factor in the Zaology. s and folds have been of great in- 1s the coal from destruction. stant conglomerate just beneath the e sn no siiall factor in this. Ovr kEnowl- ons has be greatly increased by the recent work sempbe ld and cthers of the U. S. Geological Survey. and Tennessee, more or less faulting accompanies nsvlvania almost none. It is important also to audoinaes of the Carboniferovs sediments in Penn- thinning both south and west. The states will be from sovth to north. e coal territory of Alabama covers some S660 square mites; dt as separat ed into saree distinet fields, which are in the order of size and importance the Varrior, 7230 sq. ms. of whith 4955 are basin and 2275 plateau; the Cahaba, 435 sq. ms.: and the Coosa, 415 sqe mse In addition there is a fourth outlying plateav area, the Look- out fiountain, 5S0 sq. ms. The Warrior lies to the west and is drained by a river of the same name. It is separated from the Cahaba by the intervening eroded, anticlinal valley in which ele pica is situated. The Cahaba field then forms a long, narrow synclinal ridge, with 2 sec- ond eroded, anticlinal valley between it and the Coosa. The anticlin- als are unsymmetrical being overthrown by a compression acting from the east, and the prevailing dip in the syncline is sovtheast, while the axis of the trough is near its sovtheast side. The northwest flank is long and of relatively low aees ee eae the southeast is steep and 9)!

r a r 4 ct ©

c fy per ©

0 deo %

S$ as well a a a

ra) ¢

S S

tI )

ay ; 3 ty —) ) ao £0

“™" Ww IS Hh j-

ey

io ee) ct op (Dp QO b+

ty)

ag ) a

bw '

b

ep om CY

ry QO ww

b

y

ry

wo Oo @ l-

vu +O

Hs

'

“AD ws (D

of Villis, Ha: In Ala ab ates ‘e the folds, but empna S 1Ze 5 the sylvania, and taken up in ords ADADATA,

ome ime

7 )

"

-!. yes ae cae

ot nn M4 4 os

J iD By

t--

SD W je r

aah

:

ee PA See - s : - i

d ; f ‘ 7% Te ° . . 3

el oad ee

. wil! A : : , ‘ ain wie Sites maeuPiS 2 beet , - ee

— mF dey 6 Mea” Ta

short. Great faults have served to break un the regularity of the measures. The total thickness reaches S000 Ft, and over 50 “coal sears have been identified, ef which in the Warrior field as many as 9 or 10 are Beret) although most of the coal is obtained TYroOrm Ewe. OS these the Prat sam with a general average of 4'G6" affords abovt half the state's out put and the Clisncsetic abovt one-quarter. The larfze mines tie Go) tive west and southwest of Birmingham, in Jefferson, Walker and Tuscaloosa Co's. They are mostly controlled by the Tenn. Coal and Iron Co. Approximately half the cnal mined is coked for biast-furnace use. It yields a ssrviceable coke, not perhaps as good as that from the New River region of W. Va. or from Fine, Fin. hy. or from Ucnnelsyvilles Pa. but still as the results show, a very fair fuel.

q

The Cahaba field is chiefly attacked in Bibb Co. at its sovthern end st Montevallo, Gurnee and Blocton. Further north at Helena are other openings. The seams have different hames in different regions but practically four furnish all the coal while seven in all have been opened up.

The Coosa Field is the least developed and explored of the thr Its output is at present not great.

Ee GQ MES MEI Bs es Ash Sip te Pratt. Seam, Verrior Miata. 2.50 San 2 61.60 5.42 0,92 Bie erie do. do. Oe Ley O.803 7 o0 10.54 1.20 4. Newcastle Seam, do. 0,50 29.24 59569 10.92 0,64 4, Blocton, Cahaba Field. Oe oe rege GO. 75 eee 0.48 Le oie PEGS, S725 2. M'Croath & d'Invilliers. Southern Cokes and Iron Ores. 1. %. Feb.

aay Reprint i SON

GS. He Jd. Schmitz. Contrib. to Geol. Ala. it. BE. June 1863, Repr. p- Br O. Wuth Anal. About 70 analyses are given in this paper.

4. Oy A. Ashburner. Development, etc. Ala. Coal-fields. i. %. May SES a ens ue Ws LITERATURE:

Tel, Aldrich. Coal Mining in Ala. Historical Sketeh 18535 - 1875.

GSO]. be Win Lee! HERS. WG (een C. A. Ashburner. The Development and Statistics of the Ala. Coal Wields for L8o7,, 1. Re t's 208: WM, Brewer. Coosa Coal Pigld, (%.\)G iy Jdsduly 1695, 7. Campbell & Ruffner. Physical Survey in Ga. Ala. and Hiss. along Ga. Rages eo Nek Lies 1883. Contains Geol. Section of Ala. coal fields A. M. Gibson. Geol. of Murphrees Valley small mention of coal. Geol. Surv. Ala. 1893. " Cual Measures of Blount Mtn. do. 1893. %. & H. J. Maw 26, 1894, 439, Coosa Coal Fi C. W. Hayes. Geo " and M. R. Campbell. Geomorphology of Sovthern Appalachians. Nat'l. Geographic Magazine. Mav, 1894.

" eld. do. Not vet issved (Feb. 1895).

x N, &. Ale. (Lookout Mink: Coal.) Geol. Surw.. Ala;

(60)

in

! q

q j q ” i] TE PSS Bil tea re i AE on , ‘ ni 2 . ; SS ee t ci ='2 a at ales es ae r ; 2 : RE Fs . ee . : ne . i ; : —— : fo. : ——— aan

a : - ° : ao : . i — Fp ee ee Soe ee iL 4 eet, . . e : 1 i t ‘ ‘ : q 1 in -s e Aon a Ly eS Pal x 7 - aul a. + : 2 ee — 6 ez

See ee te ad Se rears Pha i el ee eee, ee

ia So UNE, Cond Prom an ada (2 2 tee Tidy 2oGy . Lisa ire €2 5 diy eA eect Pe aehos Pa Gas ty 1). Goal Fild of Tuscaloosa Mla. A, J. S. II. i, 371. Good vy A s3ction. See also II. 2, 228, on Fossil Plants. See also %. d. dari i shel yas H, NcCalley. Rep. on Warrior Coal Field. Geol. Surv. Ala. 1€86, 571 PP. ec. " and BH. A. Smith. Coal ‘easures of the Plateau Region. do. 1891. R9c A. S. licCreath & BR. V. d'Invilliers. Comparison of some Southern Cokes and Lron Upess ils Gebe wee Da Porter. The Iran.0res Coals of Als, Gas O° TEN iets PO Mo Ramsey. The Pratt tiines of the Tenn. Coal @ Iron Co. 1. BV. 170. Ne te hCtunell., Ala. Oost ec fren, Wish, Ries Geot.) oMbve tenia. (i 1875, pe 46. anf Mets ochmtzZ. Contributions to the CGeolosr of, Ala. “PR. June UCes, an -any analyses. Fo A. Srith. ‘arrior Coal Field. Geol. Surv. Ala. 1877-783 4 eounty Mars. 4 " Resovureces of Varrior Region. 2 maps. do. 1679-80. bet ae " Apr Leultvurad Peaturas of Ala. dai, LESL=Ss2i, Ey a

" oOal Ieasures of Ala. ©. Re. 1892, 293. Ket. Best brief acecunt.

haige Geologucal Map of Ala. with explanatory chart. Ala. Geol. ees ‘ ; Cae eae ae

Js Squiie. Cahaba Coal Field. Geol. Surv. Ala. 1890, Kee. ae GHWORGIA. The Warrior field of Alabama extends in the ridge of

1 tountain across the northwest corner of Georgia, and supplies two

eams of bituminous coking coal, at the mines at Cole City, Dade Co.

; met ‘eA 5 t upper or Dade Seam is 5 -4 on the average, and the lower, 12 be

cn g9

ht ‘

Me He]

(2

ov, called the Red Ash is abovt 4'. They have been the chief produc ers in the past and have shipped a high ies but low sulphur coke to nea wnoogs. After an eroded anticlinal valley to the sovtheast the

ridgs of Lookout Mountain is met, being het extension cf the same from Nae canis large mines began to ship in 1893 from Round l’ountain in this field and nearly doubled the usval ovtput of the state.

H, 0 VV. H, Rew, Ash S Dade Seam, Cole Cy. ay At a EE 61.69 10,59 Red Ash, Ps Bis Oe 66550 2 Coke, Cole C'y. 0.54 1.09 75.94 At ot RoOuno, Jin. 16.03 73.10 ee:

a iF

oOo Of Oo

ih O00 GO Ot. MH -~3 yt C9

1; 2 and 4. Geol. Survey of Ga. 1893, pn. 258. 44 had also FP. 007. os Liporseath sot Tnvidiivers;:; DM, Ris teb. es

Literature

— -

——— sia:

a" len gael

—

rencer. Report of State Geologist of Ga. 1893, 247. \Reec. Con- tains a gsologzical map of northeastern Ga.

2 ‘e

a ed ee ——- - y pw — a c ol le

— —

oS oe — —— . — a

— le

TENNESSES. The coal measures of Tannessee lie in the Cumberland tableland to the west of the Tsnnessee river. The topography is marked (61)

Pru rae ee

— om a —

eer s ee, 2 oy en

ha ond —

o-— a se ero eee Ge, i ce il Sa el eid Taal Se al be ise rs & eS " z # aa ni Se te oS; i” f ae net, ’ : ; - ; 4 i - - z ‘ - 2 =e. : Sate ee Sy) Se Tae ek a Saat ‘ ; Btots 5 ; a . : o- —h a is ae ee ee :

Z.%

and characteristic. From sovth to north the tableland is roughly speaking 60 miles across, and terrainates on the east in a stesp rampart of cliffs. In its southern portion it is cut by the Sequalehio river valley inte two parts and on the north it has one or two faulted ovt~ liers. In the valley of the Tennessee river the early palacozoic stra- ta stand at high dips but as the tableland is approached they flatten alnost to horizgontality, The coal measures are classified in three series. At the base is a heavy limestone, above it are found from 60-400 ft. of sandstones and shales capped br a hard conglomerate locally called the Sevanee, but the whole sevics has bean named the Lookout sandstone on the J. 5S. Geol. Survey sheets. This, the "Tirst Neries" contains from 1-4 cnal seams, of varying thickness and vesem- bling great flat lenses, and locally of importance. The conglcinerate AS

is the protecting cap “hich has resally brovegnt abovt the foriation of the tableland, Unon it, toward th: east rests as. a higher plateau, the second series, she eee With steep escarpments and forming th: so- called "back ridges". Topographically thse two merge into each other more or less pene east. Ihe series is from 250-500 ft. thick and capped by a heavy sandstone: As many as four seams are known. The second or "Sewanee" is the principal souree of Tennessee coal, and is found about 50-60 ft. above the conglomerate. It has a wide 2xtent and is extensively coked. The third ssries is thicker than either of the others and reaches as much as 5000 ft. It has only been preserved in the northeastern part of the Cumberland tableland where heavy faulting has dropped ths lower series out of sight. Twenty seams occur in it, of which slaven are werkable. This region is on the whole the most productive of the state, and contains Anderson the leading county. fDe= yond its sastern front ius a disconnected ridge of steeply dipping beds likes an advanced rampart and called Valdens Ridge. The sarie narie is applied to the ridge betwsen the Tennessee and the Sequalchio series. The coal field as a whole has been called the New River Pield by 7. &. Calton, but is not to be confused with the New River of Vest Virginia. On the extreme northern border and running into Kentucky is Jellico several of the upper ones being in the third

ike With workable ssams, se er

iss.

The most productive mining regions are at the northeastern and southwestern portions of the area. The coals in gansral are bitumin-~ ous, and coking, but the coke is not all that is desired for iron smelting and much interest is felt in the neighboring fields that af- ford cokes of higher grade. Ths bane of these sovthern coals is said to be fine, fissile shale interbedded with them.

Hes ee 1d oe Ash os

1. Coal Creek, Anderson Co a $4.20 58.0 6.93 0.79 20 sooddy, Hamilton Co. 25.90 56.89 14. 22 Se “Sewanee, Grundy Co. —- 27.25) 62352 POSEY epee 4A. Htna, llarion Co 12 45 cae ae 9.60 1.12 oo Average 53 Cokes 0,42 LL 2e8 G2, 04 34,54 ay, Ls Q 5, and 4. hg Wat 16s, Lede 5. Cokes used at Chattanooga -cCreath

ind d'iInvilliers eile He hay Teer

qi j /

Wo VT. Bevron. G;ology and tHin-ral Rescurcos of Sequaches Valler. fi. Re ay 1685.

Chattancoga Shoot UV. S. Geol. Survey. Roc.

il. U. Colton. The. Uppsr Moasure Coal Fiald of Tonns. HH. A. SEV, p.292%

" BA ERoport is quoted Th. R.. Vos, 364.

lng. anc iin. Journals. Jan. 7, 1668. Tenn, Manber:

H. S,. Floming. A Report is qucted in It. R. 1880, 366.

e Hull. Physical Gyology of Tonn. & Adjoining Districts OV. ds Bei Ss Msb. JE91,- 69.

Jo U, Killsbreu & J. kh. Safford. Introduction to the Resources of Tenn First & S3c. Rop. of the Stats Duroav of Agric. A. J. S. iii. IX. 2OTs

‘eCroath and d Invillisrs. Sovthun Cokos and Iron Ors ie Se Fob.

ne Faas

Jo. De Portsr, Ths Iron Ores and Coals 6f Als. (Gas and Tann. 2 Ba

vw in batween largely ramains r future. In the sovthoast- nties along the Virginia lino there ar2 coking coals of excep-

‘oxe3llenee and thought to bs a promising fu32l supply both for the Tenrness2e and Alabama furnaces and for Chicago and vicinity. The principal scam, called the Elkhorn, is thought to correspond to tho Im- boden of Virginia. A great abundance of cannel coal has also b3en found in this Kentucky field as well, and of all varictizs of coals sight or ten workable seams have been identified.

de tie Dattora. Coal Bialds of Tsann. cs By ECO. tov... "Roc. “Sis ae the bast short account " Geclogy of Tenn. BB. Willis. Waehanics of Appalachian Mountain Structure. 13th Ann. Ror

Hive UL. . Seale Sur rear.

BHAST@RN KENTUCKY. The Tennessea coal ficlds extend northward into eastern Kentucky and expand in the area which spra2ads sastward into ost Virginia and Virginia and northward into Ohio and Psnnsylvania. In Kantucky the gsosyncline with tha Ohio fislds on the west flank, the Wost Va.-Pann. ficlds on th> sast and the Ohio rivor in tho trough, be- Zins to b2 in svidenc As earlior stated the sastarn Kentucky ficld has som: 11,180 squv miles, and is a rich fvel reserve which hes not as yot been much mind Ths leading counties are Vhitley (Jellico Coals) Lavrol and Knox in the southeast corner, and Boyd and Carter, in the Hanging Rock region along th> Ohio rivar on the northeast. Ths

f 13

t

ct J S ap OQ +

H. Ma wake May Gis Ash a Sp.zgr. 1. sdellico Sear. . 33.70 61.90 2-40 O. 796

ae Wlkhern Seam. oa " Coke. 4, Coat “6, Boyd. Co.

52.24 61.60 2-90 0.656 aise

No Fw Do

+]

Oomono

06.70 52.60 &.00 Peck 1.515

le Procter ines, Whitley Co. Crandall on Whitley Co. as below p.29. 2. Holcomb's Coal, My. River. Crandall on Pound Gap as below p. 21. 3 Mi11 Brook, Coked at Connelsvills. Idem.

4, Horss Branch. Geol. Surv. Ky. Rep. C.. ps. 22,

(63)

0.60 94.14 4.66 6” 90g Spee

ot +: ( a

i

;

- Py yy ha (eee ° ’ J ™ ay — ‘ag as yaaa Pe hei Ea seo Pate a al i a “fr tae Tae ee ' aoe eg eae ee a . atid Sika yr eet eg CEN TE et ae s% —s g : : . Se Fk ey a eed es SS: PsA yt -s —— a pa Sah? pigs ahaha ee § - ee ode cs ox re - u mn ' ee ™ SS ee ee ‘ y cat 2 a ae pg eet ee MPH AG — - SS ee a ye eS - 53 FE Srey SF , ew al Ne — E . as a. 7 ai ees Ce ? allies ee “ ‘

+. — Wie te a. ep at ine ‘ r pe if acter gl Sige pea eat gig Sent 0 heey SE

As Re Crandall. Geol. of Whitley Co. Ky. Gs S. 1ee9,; 44 pp " Geol. tlorzgan, Johnson, Magoffin & Flogdd Co's. Ky. Geol. Surv. V. " Report..on,. Pound Gan Reson, S.. B. Kr. Ta. Geol. ‘Stevi. Ret, Os Pt. Ae, DST Clunns Branch Cannel Coal Dist ivr. Geol. Surver We Bah i Geod.) of SEboete Co- i601. Survey Kv. 1656. As : . Hodge Rep. on Letcher, Harlan, Leslie, Perry and Breathitt Co's ae te Kye, Ky, Geos Sorry. Rene” CU. Part (2. “rss Je lus Hodse Rep. on Upper Ky. River ivy; Geod., SUPvs Reps “C. Berta. Josenhn Lesle R Eastern Coal Yield. Geol Surrver iv. Vois, 2 Loedsb-59, £45 C. J. Norwood Rep. of a Reconnoissance Livingstone Station to Cumber- land Gap. Ky. Geol. Surver Part VI. Vol. II. Second Series, 201- DLE. D, D. Owen. Rep. of Geol. Survey 1554-55. Uany details of coal fields we Rer. 2ab6-57, Vel, DE. pnp. SS. Many -analvecs:..) do.’ Vol. PbS, 9. “any scattered analyses KR. Peter. Analyses of Ky. Coals. Geol. Survey Ky. J. R. Procter Di- rector Rep. A. I. 1884. Various analyses. II. Many acattered anéls. coals. Table on p. 292. " €ecl. Survey Ky. I. Hew Series. General Comparison Ky. & other cofels, 115-118. My Procter Resources of North Cumberland Vailer. Kv. Ceol. Surv. Ro 3. Shaler. State Geol. Reports by various assistants on the Eastern Goal Fieldi. Hy. Geol. Survey. Ren. C. Iecé4, Rec. " Reports bw various assistants on the Vestern Coal Field. do. do. Ren. D Rec. G, M. Sullivan. Geol. of parts of Jackson & Rockeastle Coco's. Ky. Geol

Surv. 1591.

VIRGINIA. Mention was made earlier of the Triassic coals of Vir- ginia. In the sovthwest portion of the state there are three areas of Uarboniferous coals, tio of Which are near the base of the strata belonging to this age. The more easterly lies in Pulaski, Wythe, and Mont Zomery counties, and furnishes the cldest coal mined anywhere in America. It comes in the Virginian equivalent of the Pcconc or Vesper- tine sandstone of Pennsylvania, at the base cf tne Lower Carboniferous. The coals ere in thick ams but being of high ash percentage are only

Fit

S inc works and salt blocks. wn as Appalachia and have been

mined for local use, e cially in the Z They lie in the Secti ion of the state kn formed by an sasterly seeeee ten of the scdiment-depositing waters cf the Wospee tine times, -as nas been shown by Mw. R. Campbell ina pen Plece of Zzcological work, and not by overthrust faulting as had bee earlier sv rece The -Aitoona mines are the best known. The coai is Semibituminovs. The eoat-fields further west supply some of the best coal end coke of the Rast. The Uorfolk and Western railway has given the northern or Flat Top field of Tazewell Co. an ovtlet and under the name of Pocahontas coal it is ian chief fuels of transatlantic

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steamers all along the coast. Seven coal seams are known of Which the Pocahontas or No. 3, at 5 ft. and upward is most mined. The coals are low in volitile matter and are all contained in the Pottsville or Great Conglomerate series of Pennsylvania and are therefore lower than the coals further north. South of the flat Top ficld is the big Stone Gap field in Wise, Scott and Lee counties, but chiefly productive in the-- first named. This has been-but.recently opened, yet it is manifestly a

most important-one for the future. Both the Conzlomerate measures and the Lowsr Productive of the Pennsylvania section are present and con- tain coals higher in volitile matter than those of the Flat Top field.

Ten workable seams 3 ft. and over have been recorded, of which the Im- boden is one of the best known. This field extends into Kentucky and the flat Top field, it should be stated, runs into West Virginia and the latter is south of the New River field. This section of country is undoubtedly to be a great coke-producer in the fvivure.

H. 0 ise [ERY Ge Ash Ss. 1. Altoona Hines. 0.24 9,46 ne CLE cape Weare p. 1.12 Zo loms Creek. (eRe LL .65 (oles 13.56 OV 55 oo wmoaceahontas. 0.69 18.83 Pee Oe 5265 Cre e6 As Coke. 0.20 0.49 BAAR e 6.05 0.68 5. looney Ureek L. 40 Soe 06 erantol Ses ie Ya. G6. Big Stone Gap Coke a omen 92.295 Bia 0.75

A. ©. MeCreath. Mineral Wealth of Va. Pee be do. np. 130. The samples reprasent the extremes of the Pocono Goals.

o

Nor

oe do. do. Average of 10 samples. op. 119. Agen oe New River - Cripple Creek Region. p. 153. 5. Big Stone Gap P'd. Imboden Seam. J. M. Hodge as cited below. Rear 4, Be. Grbai Ne ari LITERATURE: F. Bache. Coal-sections developed by Recent Onerations in Wise Co. Va. ery Pree Leo. Ep MM, Jour, dtpne S60, 1694 605. Ca is. SBOE esourtes of Ss. We Yas BS BRO Pan bristol & Biz Stone Gap, Section of Tenn. Va. HM, Ep hay Leese. Correlation of the Coal Rocks West of Pocahontas, Flat Top, Va. Ms ‘He Peabs Leo, M, R. Campbell. Palaeozoic Overlaps in Montgomery and Pulaski Co's. Va>o iPossnosCogite, ) uGe lS. AY ove Whi. See: “ Tertiary Changes. in the drainaze of sauthwest Va. Ai dy to. July, L894, Bil. " Geol. Big Stone Gap Coal field of Ve. cm) ie. Sela, Lila w.. o, Geol, Surv. 1894 ene Jo M, Hodge. Big Stone Gap Coal-field. M. EH. Feb. 93. See also dis- cussion do D,. Killebren, Notes on the Coal Pield of 8. WW; Vas Ey, @ iM. sour,

Jan. 19-89, p. 64, Jo P. Lesley, Coal Formation of S. Va. Prot. Amer. Phil. Soc. Jan. Ty By Lhe. Bas ese

et. kh

ay a alee Pa: wie poe de

n "The New iver Cripple Creek I“ineral Region. hk. w . R, Re 1CO7, " ™ Comparison of some Southern Cokes and Iron Ores. i:. BE. Beb. 1co7. J, RK. Precter.. Biz Stone Gap, Va. Contains a good map. Dig Stone In- pre vament Co. ZeyO ; J. J. Dtevenson. Notes on the Geology of Wise, Lee and Seott Cos. Va. Proc, Amer. Phil. Soe, Avg. 20, 1880 (Big Stone Gap Field) " Notes on the Ovinnimcont Coal Group in lTiercer Co. V. Va. a@ Tazewell Co. Va. (Flat Top Field)

Th 2 292

and are so able. Toge the Ohio ri pote ee UV, the lower m tle; eee any disturb first are s and cast 21 through the ynelinal b

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a

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Carboniferous recks, and the coal stams remain as isolated, asins on the tons of intervening ridges. Finally in the an- ins the synclinal remnants are sharply compressed. strati- tnere is tha Sub, or Lover Carboniferous, now best callod ippian series, below: the Carboniferous or Pennsylvanian in (with almost all the productive seams); and the Pernian, of rtancse, above. Ssissi*pian series is divided intc,

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its The names in use among the mining fraternity are hovw-

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S72 ebay; : Fame ae pa in ee eT el ee Ee aR mph ned Sk iad are Posie ners og tl ak ee eS emit ee eg . we J - ae 7 ale & + St ee ee pe - : . , ss rT a - & x Ce i. - ee ee A a Pare a ‘pent . - - — eS ———

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fs 0 Wig edls F. C di o+ Ccke Field 0.182 0.72 92428 6.2 0.56 henge Beech BELOW pee ke 00 G.00 5.00 eae OM 7. liineral Co. O..22 20.18 72622 3.95 Oat Min €. Tucker Co 0.70 22.03 70,5 6.74 0.924 Ug, M Eawards, Coals and Cokes in V7. Va. p. 65. Lotrer Kittanning

02am

CY) 7 Try Tht “+ . 2- doo pp. 6&7, New River series. TT ee Th x ?T So New River Piela, No. 2 seam. do. p. 67. Z Avarasrs fF aan rd c F ar) QO} om —? Gud wles 4 - Os oO 3S 2am. do. tine Pyetns i P r)! ae be & tL gi 6. AIN2r1icean “InNa Pittsbura +A am ys ™ aA wa. & of + eee 4 1 LSU Ss S$ 21). We IN LoCo, Oc ae ye aa, . TT ry NIA nan o Lr; Toh OS A ii Ma 5 Ton 10 3 . [dem. Cc rr es y? Maes — ‘ ae Ge WwWover Kittanning Seam Davis J. D. Weeks as cited balcr. - ww + ae i T Tt) TTX) AMITITDOs ‘Pa Exell Draw, gt dae whe se & ryt — ie ryt ‘2 4 . S ‘ - D. I; Ansted. Lends of Cabin Creek Coal Co. "The Virzinias" LEED 4. We i — “ic eh z

pt! 09

tq t r ict

rs 7 Cs , o_o, a y" T ‘ bg ¢ @y (ea L. — we ae © Kimson. Loup Cresk, VW. Va. Coal Pisld (New River Fiela). I. R

1293, 403.

a tf pee i .T . 7 ‘7 -

Pe tie “UGK. Notes on the Hard Splint Coal of Kanawha Valley. 72. F, ‘oxy TRO] / tL COc i @

Ver ecm . va - + mee —

lis. J, vraizhill. Improvement of the Great HNanawhea R. W. Va. 21. R. Love. 540.

a cy 34-703 ‘a 7 . - — -

Vo Oe Ldwards Coals and Cokes in West Va. (Kanawha, New River Flat

OD dS

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Iyo

er be ° Va ° A . J © S ro) ii I T a

ct Q Uy) fF J

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-(D ay) ct OQ cyt L— x O 1:3 (vo ry cn oD ct)

Tory, SR Clark Ae Cincinnat lew Ri :

Mee r 7, 459, @ cont 4 57S. ee ere Coels.

Jo P. Lesley. On an Asphalt Vein in Wood Co. W. Va. AGCrahamite). Proe

R AraeY PE. SoGss We es. Lees ee reser: 41, 120.

Le Se Lyman. ‘Some Coal Measure: Sections near Pevtona, VW. Va. (Boone Co.) Proe. Amsr. Phil. Soc. Hov. 23, 1894.

Maury and Fontaine. Resources of V7. Va. 1276.

Se F, Morris. The New River Coal Field of 7. Va. 3. T. VIII. 232.

J. J; Stevenson. Notes on the NMvinnimont Coal Gr :ecer Co. W, Va,

SIL (New Rivar & Flat

Tazewell Co. Va. Amar Phil. Soc. Oct. tote ck: lop Fisilds). " Upper Fresport Coal along Lavrel Ridge, Preston Co. YY. Va. Aner. PRIiDs.. “Set. Leb. &, LoSrh Go W. Surmers "The ‘tountain State". Resources of VW. Va. Pamphlet distviby ed at Chicago Fair 1693. Contains a good map G nanay sta- tistics. Jo D. Weeks. Elk Garden and Upper Potomac Coal Ficslds of VY. Va. (Miner al, Grant & Tucker Co's). IM. Bi Fes. 1894. " Pocahontas and Flat Top Coal and Coke. Amer. J'anufacturer Pitts- DUS, Pane eos ASSO un, Tue, Do Whits. The Pottsville series along the Jew River, W. Va, Dull Ge &. A, Baltimore Meeting Dec. 1895. i. ©, White. The Coal beds on Cabin Cr. Y. Va. xtr. from 1004 Offi-

ty

7. i? ip ; ; nee cS fs cial hep. of Prof, I. 0. Waite of UL 5. 6. Se Wirsinine Less. 7.

(6)

eo is wer : . - : +e é ‘ . . 7 2 2 . Sai “ : {os 7 De Aye — y

a ao ee 3 tices 4 - g ok 0+ kD. : —— sa 2 : ry

ao ee ain 5 . . “es . - - :

a ee ee oe ee

a

wey io -

Pee Ty 9

. - -. ay “ “4 an eee ot - ent es wa

Tt

T. Ca Whits. Stratigraphy of the Pituminous Coal Field in Pennsylva-

Seat oe

nia, Ohio and 7. Va. Bull. 65, U. Sa Geol, Bursts! Seses, Ssc¢ also References under Virginia, on New River & Flat Top. All the ca int 1ve- -MAL Le.

rey

Volumes of "Minsral Resources" have more or less descr ter. Many papers are in "rhe Virginias” formerly published by J. Rotchkiss, Staunton, Va.

OHIO. Approximately the scastern third or Ohio is Covered by Car- boniferovus strata aint S& soodly share contains werkabls conl. The state was for yveoars second to Pennsylvania in output, but recently Illinois has outstripped, ii, Lseayine if third With a production of 14,205,045 short tons in 16c9S. “Ths repressntative of tha Pennsylvania Pottsville Conzlomerate, outcrops on the Wsstern and porthern border but is no lonzear a conglomerate. It consists of sandstones shales and coal seams. The overlving series are then crossed as one passes southeas o the Ohio river, so that the Upper Productive measures are of sreat importance. Broadly speaking the Carbonifsrous rocks lie on ths east flank of the Cincinnati Unlift, and the coals were formed in coastal svyamms as elevation progressed in Carboniferous time The sWamps moved eastward successively so that it is not probable thar the Lower coals underlie at depths, the arsa of the Upper. Ithe dip sovthcastyward is almost too slisht to be Lecally detected and the Ohio ficld as rot. Orton has lately shown, is porhaps the most resular and undisturbed of any one vet discovered. From 15-18 seams are known, some of Which are acarcely represented in Pennsylvania, although on the whole the corre= lation is close,and in this irmortant work tne Chio Survey has made ereat advances undsr Protessor Orton He fives the following series, 1? wen Pottsville Conglomerate Measures from belov upward, the Sharon, Quakertown, Wellston or Jackson Hill, Lower and Upper Mercsr, and Ticn- esta ssaims, six in all: in the Lover Coal Measvres, the Lower Clarion or Erookville, Unper Clarion, Lower and Middle Kittanninz, Lower and Upper Fresport, six im alli in tha bower sarren Heseures four thin ones, the iiahonin?e, CembesaG limestone, Patriot, and Crinoidal Lime stone. In the Upper Productive the Yittspureg or ee and tha Se- Ticklsy or Meigts Creek arse the important ones anc nractically en Histe ee list although ths Yaynesburah ssam and in the Upper Barren lsesures the Washington seam are known. While ten seams ars Actual producers, the main reliance is on the Middls Kittanning, the Upper eR anc the Pittsburg In the matter cf correlation with Pennsylvania seams, the lat2st reports are to be consulted

the Ohio coai field is so @eanerally mined that the specaally pro- ductive portions do not stand ovt in such prominent relief as in some other states. Ths grsatest yield comes from ths Lower Productive !t-eas= ures in Jackson, Hocking, Athens and Perry Co s. on the southwestern Limite, The locking Valter coal is & standard fuel im Unio and alons the lakes. In the esntral eastern portion the Pittsburg seam is im portant in Jefferson and 5elmont in Meigs Co. along ths Jhio Priver, it is called the Pomeroy he Saevien saam that furnished the Fermous Brier Hill coal is now exhausted. Ohio coals have a gsneral average of 4-4/2 ft. They range from 1.24-1.34 in specifie gravity They are not as A rule Zood coking coals and this industry is siurongliy on tie Wane,

—

——

t

— eile el iether ae re al

a A er A

Ds nif SO ny eta a at ee — ; . : 7 : : a i a ll

a a eR ee a ee Dip at , . ele aa . et tae ; ' a Si Sere Set eet ies i ae a eee

: Se ed ee ee

Fa 0! NGM. oR ts Ash S34 op gr. 1. Brier Hill Sharon Seam. S760" CSAs5S G2666 “2.06 OS85° Baas eo tid. Kittanning Hocking. Vy. 45.93) 36.46 S2°4i) 21s 2700) $e Unpsr Freeport Seam. Dron, 69,08 52.78 5.82 2.88 4, Pittsburg Seam: Pe@o oOeso BveIo° Meh, We wer 230 5 o Pomeroy. 4,10 36.590 56.20 ‘5.90 "Oy4e heS5S

A ' , Cc Vo. A e a ft 6 : COC jee eo / L

¥

Oe Dae “G25

~alineville, Columbiana Co. Idem. Jefferson Cow Go. 6S.

Pomeroy Coal, Heigs Co. do. $4.

°

Ow Glo

do Au Ade. The Wellston Coal District 5 Ohio ° nee ee Dew sits Feb. 10, 1894

ER. S&S: Andrews. Comparison bet. the 0. and WV. Va. Sides of the Allegha- ny. Codd Wiese Av w. 8: DIID WO. 28S2. Ky GA US ee aa ee

Geological Survey of Ohio. The two annual Reports of the First Survey under W. 7. Mather, 1837 & 1833S contain considerable on coal. The second was begun in 1869, under J. S. BEWOSOE Chief, EB. Bs. “Ans drews and Edw. Orton ass'ts. The Rep. of Progress 1870, has im- portant records. Vol. L. Geolozsy, IS7S count y FeOLosws: Viddieo EE. Geology, 1874, has a sketch of the Carbonifero us Sirsben ibs Vinh Newberry, 81-180 & much county Zeology by others. In 1882 Edw. Orton became State Geologist and Vol. V. Economic Geology was is- sued in 1884. It has a very valvable report on coal and is recom- mended; pp. 1, $59, 722, 1082 Mates 8 Web's eons Geology 1858 has chapters on the Pittsburg Seam in Jefferson, Belmont and Guarnsey Cosa er By oe Brown, 595-626 & on the ete é& Federal Creck Fd. by E. Lovejoy Se oo ge Vol. VII. Geology, in part in 1095 &

Le

mans of the fovr 1 oal fields, pp.

Lally recommended to the feneral reader. An his-

Ohio Surveys a Aadw.. Orten is: in Jour. of Geol.

wy

ct

jw

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0 Jh

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bk.

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is 5S. fuut.. TherCoeale. of the Hecke Valier, OF The the Phe Siro. ; he ies and Lron of the THotkine Vatiey, OQ. ThE. Vitis o2S. C leld. Salem 1874, 78 DP

2 maps. 3 1. S>. “he, Casetno.. v2 pp. 1 map: he Observations on the Bituminous Coal Deposits of the oh. thas Ondo. ie righ "is. a at cutee met f

59... Good Sketch. “"Statistaital an all the

7 P\a4 Tel 2 a Ts Tf 0 V4 2 De, ULE On ne Bedford Cannel. HE. & HM. J. Mar. S, 1884, p. 175. ‘a ‘ae . ms a ot 2,4 xg % Or a udze Lonran. Cannel voal ln EO s ve r Se Y OV AE o Ie f I 5 18350. rm ry VW tT 17, 2 i eo Qn - ee ) ip, Ge Wormley Chemistry of Ohio Coals. Geol. Survey Rep. of Prozress mr ff A A 7 LG7uU P tUsd I. ©, White the otratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field in Pa. We. Vo ann () FR ie ey lel 2-4 ‘ig ey ci o ta Oo Celok: / UI i ) ’ J 0 ua ha

mie tee) mn eae he — 7 . : . eS : . a - - F - ; ae

I ras p Ad,

ra ey SN ee eee

“ SS zs

ni : 2 KGa : ons Se : es - Few Sais yp le Eee ae eee nee errereer ses

he coal area a this state is small in square mites, but a poverfvl producer of the St famous of American steam and black= smith coals. It is a narrow Eanot: that extends north into Somsarset Coe Pa. as the Wellersburgh basin and sovtn into Vest.Virginia as the Lik Garden and Upper Potomac fields referred to above. This basin lies aesclogzically eastward of all those in Pennsylvania except the Broad and the anthracite synclines, and seems to correspond with the Jorthern

MARYLAND. The

fisld of the latter. The basin in Maryland is called the Cumberland or te Georges. It is a narrow synclinal trough about 20 miles long, and rather sharply compressed. Ths dips are fairly steep.Although the seams of the Lower Productive measures are present, and of so0d,thickness,

the Pittsburg seam is so large, accessible, and of such good quality, that it along is mined as yet. It is locally called the "14 foot" but on account o1 a bad roof, only a part of this is taken ovt and an anor- mous percentazfe is left an pillars. The average vield per acre is but D000 tons, of the 15,000 or 16,000 present. he coal is Semibituminous

and as stated a standa me steam coal.

Fags Wu 2s oe ake oS Ratio I, “St. Gaorzes Field Wass USeAyY) FSRbT Se en 4.75 ae : eh els 71320 TOs. GES 4,7¢ om 7‘ UA7L Jb.26> Geese to224 3.54 4,47 i, 2+aned Sq byes (Se, MNeCreath, lRens Mai he 29; has Gech. Sues

Geological Surveys of tid. are antiquated. Eleven siort reports were issved by J. Te “Ducatel and Js HH, Alexander, 2844-2840. PB..T, Py- son Wrote two, iS60 and 18¢2 of greater importance. The later ®eOlozical work in i'd. has besn nearer the coast tan the coal fields.

J. liacfarlane Coal hezions of America. Chap. XI. 237. Rec. iacfar lane quot es Reports by J. T. Hodges and James Hall. Also Tyson's Geol. Survey.

: R .

and 1886 contain brief geological

NWNSYLVANTA., In passing into Pennsylvania the classic ground of

“af Doni Ter ous seolozy ae America is met. As the stYata of central lew York have furnished the standard for the Palaeozoic up to the Carbonif-

esrous, so the Snaiaianie anticlines and synclines of Pennsylvania have proved the standards of reference for all American coal areas of Car- bonifsrous age. The varicty, excellence end accessible situation of Pennsylvanian coals, have all combined to make this state produce more than half the sntire output of the country. In 1893 abovt 54 millions short tons of anthracite and about 44 millions of bituminous were ob- tained.

Situminous Dasins. There are six bituminous basins with senarat- ing and in central Pennsylvania eroded anticlinals between. In addi- tion to these and distinct from them there are the outlvring Cumberland, Broad Top and the Anthracite basins further pate The separating anti- Clines enter Pennsylvania from the cial With @ strike of abovt N. 30 E

(71

a z i 4 - ‘ . are 4 ‘ Set ted ; . . : - yy ¥ . o—_— mS

e £0°52255 . a +a Pon Ee ets eee ee

eee -

but they curve around to about N. 70 EF. as tney die ovt. They are zgen= tle in the West but become more marked and bola to the e¢astvard aad are sharply compressed in the southern anthracite fields. The intervening troughs rise to the northward on account of their southerly pitch and Pinally run out im the air. Some small minor anticlines appear between the main folds. The Sixth basin 126 es to the northwest beyond the Bra~ dy's Lend anticlinal; the binds th is betWeen this and the Saltzburg fold, that crosses the Ohio YPiver just Bo! Pittsbures: the fourth betifeen the the Saltzburg and the Blairsville anticlines and contains the Pittsburg region; the third between the Blairsville and the Chestnut Ridge and conteins on the south the Connelsville coke region and toward the

north the Keynoldsville and Blossburge districts; the second lies he- tween the Chestnut Ridge and the Lavrel Hill anticlinals and finally disappears in the Barclay district of Bradford Co.; the first is con- tained between the Laurel Hili and the Alleghany mountain, and holds the coals of Cambria and eastern Clearfield Co's and runs ovt in the Loyalsock or Bernice basin to the northeast. SGbetween these ate some minor rolls which have proved of greats’ importance, especially in the

northwest in connection with natural gas. The Brady s Bend, Saltzburg and Blairsville fade out mote or less on the rnrerth but the others ex tend much further. The names of the coal seams have already besn “given The Pittsburg seam is the chief one, as 1t yields the coke at Connells- Ville, and the famous gas eoal of Vestmoreland Co. it is a compl>x seam, made up of several benches, as follows:- roof coals, and ov3r-

clay: breast-ceal (the bench mined) : parting; bearing-in coal; part-— ing; brick coal; perting; bottom coal, These characters are preserved over very extended areas. The Upper Freeport seam and the Lover hit- tamning seam rollow next in importance. The Lower Freeport seam 1s fourth and the Waynesburg firth; the Breekville and Upper Kittanning are next and the others are only of local valve, It should be also stated that the seams of the Lower Productive “easures are often called

by the letters A to E and that there are several seams in the Lower Parren eA SIAU ae oe Locally ia 3k

“Ta anocugn to mine. The amount of

2 sai seneral thing

from eevee fa. nor th gk and in diffetent basins from west to east Feclogficaliy, and ons-on which J.d. Steven-

- a very important point, ;

son has wisely laid speek emphasis in lately discussing the origin of anthracite, The northeastern terminations of the larger bituminous ba Sins, as well as the seastern outliers are semibituminous A great deal

CS : of emphasis was fornier “Ly placed on their characters and distribution and the general classification oe coals has béen influanced by them. oT a

Ne The Cumberland, Broad Top, Johnstown, Snowshoe, MeIntyre, Barclay and

Blossburg sub-basins yield such fuel, but by the sharp lines of classi- fication on page 235, most of them are still bituminovs though low in volatile matter. The Cumberland field has already been reviewed. [t is of minor smportance in Pennsylvania. The Broad Top basin is a sepa- rate outlier in Huntingdon, Bedford and Blair Co s. ag much as forty miles east of the Alleghany mountain. There are about GQ square miles

ines, A

“ Sat tof a 5 ye Ae eee te ie Perea ae a ee, tee of coal measures ea ee into two main ana several minor syncline ia ta La 7 7 my a "] rm to oP ‘fs + “p y rs 1 “4 a a 7 if. i oy few acres oT Line ee Jug Seam are caugnt by the neignts iv. otherwise a my ae 2 =i" rs . % r the Lower “reductive eld che Goals Which nave fuel ratios from 4-5:

oe a —

" a7 a ee a Ff ee Se: Yc

fh te ah le

J

4 Sere ee set 0 a, eee 7 ou 2 - “5 ee Ee en a Te ee eee eee ee eae ie

i, 0

Washington

o

Seam. Fannige Dave

Wie ths o0.61

A ah gM Mp apecer

S.

Ratic A ee Leioe

oa “Hew ekhley u LOS 64,80! bo.54 Sp ie ee a ler re 4. Redstone - 1.06 oo01D9 46,69 Ae Ber eel 5. Vittsburz " Greene Co. 0.90 Dose Bones Geiss ave Aono Ce . Fayette Co.1.26 ovens S962 Geeo Weer lee te 7. Unper #fresport, Cambria Co. 0.86 2es65 66.58 AOS eee Sten eos y E Lycoming Co.L.1L7 afiele) Tae 7-16 0.64 4,30 9. lotrer Clearfield Co.1.24 baste ore2Oz Bat 2.42) Bal 10, KAittanntne middle. eek 40.99 45.79 SO Le eg eI ais! Lilie 2 Lower. Os5o95 Wo.de 2.94 ek See eek. 12, Clarion Seam, Tiaga Co. dats Pree, fogerme eke omieaie) eRe: ogee 13. Becookville Seam, Cambria Co.1.47 Pea Thee ok 4,00 0.57 4.21 be Pals Geol. ‘Surre Rene Toy Dia “fe wa Se dO. p. G6, Anal. 154, Se doe DPD. BD Payette Ca, ee WO0e ops, EL. Pig debe shies be UMpise 22. Brdignds Cok Te aie alan On Kielntyytewn “Ely, Ele, 475 i, SEES VE TO, os Mi 65, Doetiber: at WW. . M. 6Y, Bocad-Tap Field, Huntingdon Co. 25. tie My Ys hlonMmve? Atm. 13. M. M. &6, Commaugh Station. REMARKS. These analyses are selected to show the feneral range in com- positione To be especially significant analyses should be grouped by coal ssams, and tnose of each seam by basins Inferences of valve could then. be drawn ebout the ch pabuer of the individual seam ina

al jehare field and about its variati

Xxtended treatment there is 1 n che method may be emphasized.

Lithrrature:

FP. M. Brown The Reynoldsville Coal Pisld. FE. & Hs J. Apr. 22, 1loJs, SCC.

Connelisville Coke Region of VW. Pa. HE. & i. Jour. Mar. ©, Lo7o, pe Loe I ia Lu

H, ui, Chance. Available Tonnage of Bituminous Coal Fields of Pa. NM. Be Cet. LES@St,

Caclozical Surveys have issued the following. H. D. Rogers as chief geologist. 6 short Annual Rep. 19536-1642. Final Heport 2 Vols. and Atlas 1€58. These last were issued by Rogers in Edinburgh, Seotland and the spypression of his assistants share in the worx was @ literary cutraze (See J. P. Lesley, Preface to Iron t-anufac- surers' Guide). The reports are valuable but much handicapped by the curious figurative nomenclature The Second Survey under J. P Lesley began in 1674, and has fed Special Rerorts on Cotntics,

(+)

(a rm fo

(7

1, ‘

. 7 e “ wel pug - om C —" . . my SA a Ag de ona re te" ra a eres Ri E : : - ; , ere) ‘ es FO peek eens Ln dee ee a i a — ayXJ ad Le. ee “ 7 Ate? i 2 7 ais ee : : me y ete - taal tet s . & . os ‘i er 7 eee Se i-2 e! +. aa Pa agg —— —— —- 7 / ; i So a r ly a — —— Poe oe a ee 1. en ee ison Ss - ws r iy : is i il a 5 ree aay ela: i ” ; ; . ‘ . - : OS ae ap ee a Ae a ay ™ as ay Sg Sy fees Sara e

Se J # — - — 7 - P . .

Annuel Reports, an Atlas, Chemical Reports, etc, and recently a Final Summary which has not vet reached the Carboniferovs. The local reports are the principal books of reference and to be rec- ommended.

ea Hosters Kohlen vu Eisenerz - lagerstatten Nord Amerikas. Vienna.

E. Vo ad’ Invi villiers 1885 . also 13856.

VT, Ro Johnson. Rep. on Geol. ilin. & Topog. Exam. of the Coal Fisld’‘of Carbn Creek, &c, (pradford Co.) Separate Print. A. J. S. i. YXXIX, 137 Notice.

Jo Fe Kamp. Section in Western Clearfield Co. S, of M. ©. July 1093.

Jo P, Kimball. The %uemohoning Coal Fleld of Somerset Co. Pa. T. I. Me Bs ALL,

J. P. Lesley The Geology of the Pittsburg Coal Region. M. EB. XIV.

re

Pittsburg Coal Region. Ann. Rep. 2nd Pa. Surv.

Hr o>)

" & B®. 2. Harden. Wellersburg Coal Pasin. Ann. Rep. Pa. Geol. Surv. 136385. J. P. lesley. Coal beds in the Subearb. of Pa. A. J. S. III. 10, 155. Letter describing coal beds near Broad Top. Jo Masfarlane. Coal Fe ear of here 1cTSs. “Thr i

Mo Moade. Chemical cuneee and Description of the coal lately dis- @overed near the lioga Pace Per Oak dv 584. Se SAB s

liineral Resources. 1834 76 contains a good review.

Mines of the Pittsburg & Wheeling Coal and Coke Co. E. & M, JOur, Febsin A

jo AO

J PL rad Pt aS o

A, Row e Mahoning Valley Coal Region. M. HE. IV. 166. FE. de Rivere llines of Mineral Coal in Pa. Ann. des fliines. 1685, 459. WV. P. Shrine. Pittsburg. Its Resources and Surroundings. M. EB. VIIT. BT's Re tT. 2saylor Statistics of Coal. 1848. H, A. Wasmuth. Notes on the Pittsburg Coal bed and its disturbances. AmeYs Geol. L. 2T2s I, G, White. The Azge of the Tipton Run coal cf Blair Co. Pa. Amer. ae +7 el a ok at ms : a iG iP) es iF Stratigraphy of Bituminous Coal Fields Pa., 0., V. Va. sull. 655 Bo Sato Tee. See Ceneral Papers on p. 23 ANTHRACITE. Although the anthracite fields of Pennsylvania cover but 470 square miles, they afford over one-fourth the country's produc tion and the valve of this fourth exceeds that of 211 the pig iron pro- duced. This is due to the hot and smokeless fire that anthracite af- fords, to its nearness to the great centers of population, and to the unusual thickness and number of seams The total cross-section of coal increases grsetly from West to northeast as one passes from the bitumi- nous fields to the anthracite. Owing to irr eeu arities and disturbanc- es correlation of ssams throughout the several anthracite fields, and sven throvghovut a single cne has not been very successful, much less car it carried it betweer them and the bituminous ficlds further Teast . ottsvilile conglomerate is a trustworthy get but the nopulas He e of tne i eee a seam to the Unner Free ort is less agi] 60] There are as many as 13 seams known; and 1215 are

sf

¥ nw oe a rat ee ARTO SM OEY FT

ree.

4 “i , 3 a a

‘ol rie te mit ae

yvorkable. The most famous of all is the Mammoth Which may attain more than 100 ft. There are fovr main fislds, and a fifth ovtlier. These are each more or less divided into minor basins, especially the two ee ones, by subordinate folds parallel with the main ones and by. cross-folds. The fovr fields are all more or less closely foided syn nie ages and only the Northern is represented to the southwest in the bituminous basins. The names and areas of the fields are the Southern or Schuylkill, 140 sq. miles a long narrow one, forking to the sovth- west and with a trend a little north of east; the Western tltiddle, 90 sq. miles, with a trend still more nsarly east, and consisting of one large and two or three small ovtliers;: the Eastern Middle, - Sq. miles of a- bout 12 more or less detached basins; the Northern or Wyoming field 200 sqe miles, practically in one long syncline, less crumpled than the oth- ers; and the Loyalsock, or Bernice or Western Northern with one princi- pal and several minor basins, tne latter but little developed. In the two middle fields the folding has been especially violent and has gone to the extreme of overthrown anticlines, and in the svynclinal troughs to a doubling of the coal seam on itself. In the case of the Mammoth seam this has afforded a great thickness of coal. The basins have been often likened in shape to spoon-bowls or warped canoes. They have also been much protected by the upturned edges of the heavy Pottsville con-

Zlomerate (No. XII.) that underlies them. his forms a notable ridfe, back from which, after an sroded vallav in the Mauch iChunk shales, ther is a second ridge of Pocono sandstone. The projecting conglomerate and

the inner crumpled coal measures have led Macfarlane to liken them to a #croll in a conglomerate binding. Both Upper and Lower Productive Measures are present. As regards trade regions, the Western Middle and the Southern fields except the ovtlying Panther Creek basin, furnish what is called Schuylkill coal; the Panther-€reek basin and the astern Middle field afford Lehigh coal, and the Northern field shins ‘Wyoming coale The volatile hydrocarbons run lowest in the Fastern Middle {ra- tio 25.53+30.35): they are somewhat greater in the Western Hiddle (ra- tio 19.87-24) and the main portions of the Southern (ratio 11.64<-23.27); they are of medium amounts in the Northern (ratio 19.33-19.92) and reach the valves of true bituminous in the western prongs of the poem

ern field (4.63-12.40). These ratios are taken from J. J. Stevenson's paper, GG. S. A. V. 69. In the trade the coals are classified by gen= eral agreement, as follows, being ranged in the order of productiveness. 1, Free burning White Ash. 8. Hard White nis 3. Wyoming Red Ash.

&. Lehigh Red Ash. 5. Shamokin. 6. lLykens Valley Red Ash. 7. Schuylkill Red Ash. 8. Trevorton. 9. Lorberry Red Ash. 10, Bernice White Ash. The Hard White Ash commands the best prices, but the free- burning White Ash supplies ahout half the total (See C. A. Ashburner. M. Ee Fab. 1886, cited below). The ordinary sizes as shipped are,

broken or Grate, thro hestnut. thro 112s Over! id

t? ‘ i rm 2 over 2.0 une ‘SE '! rar 2 ! ea '! =f) R22, Dien Le tt Ree. 7a" eke) it Ap ote 18h l me w On Vv Stov oe TT, 75". P95" Buckwheat, .50", “25

Very coarse lumps ané also separated as steamboat coal, and finer sizes, known as"rice" and "flaxseed" are now dressed ovt. The vtiliza~ tion of these latter and the saving of the hugs quantities of coal in

he"culm", whose vnsightly banks he ve impressed every traveler, has (75 )

oes fur 6 ae Y a ” ort - a vate ° ET ee “re tite cele bed - . wy" J . 5444 7 oF ” - - - ie m8 “ : . tw Cn rAd — ae es pe MT Bhan e ee et

: ee : a rae ime, : — 5 — hl oe re

- Creer, EM py Ae PRE pie Se GO OF

t~+

been Aa very serious matter in Pennsylvania, and state cormissions have aken it up. The exhaustion of the seams themselves is also a v32ry se- riovs question. It is thought that only abovt 40 % of the Total is ob= tained in mining. A. D. W. Smith of the Pa. Geol. Survey, estimated in Leo2 the total orizinal amount at 29,500,000 000 tens. Of this 23255 000,000 heve been mined or left as unavailable pillars.At present rates of mining exhaustion will be reached in abcut 150 vears. but of covrse the order of svents will be after some years, a gradval increase in price, and diminution of cutput so that complete exhaustion will never be really attained. Nevertheless anv great falling off of this incom-

ct

parable housshold and steaming fuel, ‘which goes all over th: east of the Rocky Mtns., will be a very seriovs loss. Oth

eX ursd on the wame subject. P. We Sheaffer allowed them in 16 166 vears, and R. P. Rothwell in 1894, estimates 70-100 vea

Several explanations have been advanced for the origin f Anthra- cits, a gocd review of which will be found in Stevenson's paper cited below. There is no question but that the heat of neignboring ignsous intrusions and perhaps attendant hot A So are able to alter bitumi- nove coals to anthracite. Such is trve in stern Colorado as earlier

set forth. Pennsylvania however has no igneous rocks near the anthra- cite. H. D. Rogers as zarly as 1645 connected the increased violence of the folds on the east, with the decrease in volatile hydroc.rbons and reforred the anthracite to metamorphism brought about by escaping Steam and other vapors attendant on the elevation and crumpling. le vas forced to assume &@ more or toes! cataclysmic upheaval; whereas Stev- enson shows that the slevation has heen so. slow that the coal has ad-

justed itself without crushing and even the old lines of drainage have not been disturbed. J.P. Lesley in 1877, explained them as dve to a heavier covering of Permian strata sufficing to raise the isogcotherns to the infsrior tightness (i.e. less shales) of this load, in the cast as compared with th: west, and to its more fractured character, all of which favored the greater oxidation of the coal. Stevenson in 1877 and more fully in 1893, referred it to ths difference in the character of the original plant ‘danosit, as contrasted with the bituminous fic ds tO the sovthwest and opposes viev that the Psrmian load was ever es- pecially thick. He beliaves that the svamns hezan to spread from the eastern side of the interior Carboniferous sea, and advancing cn del- tas, their accumulation became are2atly oxidized before they were buried By carefully tracing ovt relationships in fvel ratios he certainly makes ovt a strong case. There are undeniably many puzzling facts - on any other supposition, and perhaps oven an this. For instance in the Loyalsock field there is a seam of anthracite above, & C0’ lower a seam of bituminous coal. In the Vespertine coals of Virginia, the seaiis are near great faults and are crushed and slicksnsided vet they are bitumi- nous. The Rhode Island coal which is next taken vp is in a heavily metamorphosed region, and is a stage berond the Pennsvivania coal, boe- ing more or less graphitic. HD, Ma-He. Fees Ash Si. Ratio Spotl 1, Primrose Seam, S.F'd.3.01 4.12 87.98 4.38 0.506 21.32 1.584 2. Mammoth " 7 © 3,09 4,27 @3.82 8,18: 0,642 219.62 1.6052 3. Primrose Wi if Bids S64 S52 SIoS DC.65) 0.4909 Si59s aee54 4. liammoth 4 F Bete 6.%2 Sisa4 Gide Uisgt 22.6o Shape

te ee —o

ee eee a Sareeteee

fat wot te “aw ERS Seaman eee oe : :

SS ty

2 pare

oe Be Ih Seed Bam al hg ete

- “

+

a ae

tS

wir Fy tl

. - oo t Le eciasites

ie

ys,

tar tt ie .

ers SS,

eS

ce cpt

on

A Ratic Sp.e2r., Bo gUsss 2sb67 O° BOBS ch iO

os BeE.Oy D6 D0 §

Cw) © Hy Oq Cg)

Ra

5 e Buck i ‘tT Ne W ° M, ye! d ° 6. Savan Foot ‘. Werte h. dic Wea

Hi fi

9D

Cn ©

Gs Ca

WO 0% CO CO NS fl OS 8)

i ae. hapOney LZ .00 T5765

, 3 Northern F

H ;

cy nt 7 oe hami1otn r

MPH AH NW e N~tOc) CO O&O C) CN tO

OOnmwm Ml) COOH 2 Oo O

t

MOGs, x Seam, Loyalsock. 29 C5254 ce DeQVS 10.29 you A Bo 60 bsa3ilow 5. eld 15 Ofeoo Dae Ta lOsse's Ps ay

2) ' 1) y i¢ 7 4 Pd ar i a lz. itykans Valisy S. F’'d.2.97 en OP OS 39 0.676 SP acer

es ref CJ

oy

Co O) eS

i, “CTPasorfaca=

iF ft : ite Pas (sols Supyse, Bese oe Las ~ao OD

Att 31 1 is ca Se: on ; Se Gate aes Lied eae called to th: complete analyses carlier Cited,p. -ty @ho to tne Y3lative amounts of hirdrozen as compered with bitunimous

Cc yA im40 , m7, . ; o A. Ashburnor. Th Classification and Composition of the Pa. Anthra- Ore Ss Akg vn KEV - 70S. RK Gas ! 3p ke Re Ai A ’ " ine Anthracite Coal Beds of Pa. it. m, XI. 136 Y Tt? : ae : sSePiocf D- 5 if Anthr Bric Description of the Anthracite Coal TFislds of Pa. ~Eneineers wiGbs JNile. Pa: dpe Ss aber, . i Maayan a ee an sorn 3 i S Sore 3 es nae MR a “asin. Ann. Rap. Pa. Geol. Surv. Lec, 4D9.. Rees iitTh notes on th [ ay By a7 # Hj oves on the Nenoopany Field by F. A. Hill. The seme Volume + ey Te : . Le also contains novss on yoming Valley fossils by Ashburner 2@ eil- J 6 WY he nN “ f AA ’ lA ae +) ; ; za : ca Zeneral paper on the Anthracite Coal nhegion also- cite

se or LT

ee (yt tama

GPO Gi PLC Hre Kolise Sie " Wau. 2 . “ev Method of Mapping Anthr. Coal Ficlds Pa . RR. Feb 25 J tw 1, ie st ‘ ‘ - ¢ -'@ tif els or Rete See also comments by 5. S. Lyman a ab S60 " Mf : 7) — . id ite + We J Mathnod of estimating contents of highly plicated--beds.- Eneincears Club Phila, 1263) aoe V (is R uk Se 7 7301. Helations of Nanticoke Disaster. 7. B. Mav 1826 a0 . f Carth C }?P Ranvo aad # a ; 3 a ae ORG C a sa Ape ot eae he, Reprint from History of Carbon Co. 1554. : a arteor. Anthracite Coal on Perkioman Crack. Pa Bee ewe cat “7. 128 “Tey, Ra a egg, Mie oe Oe ee eS pean cee ames Use 1d, 1894, p. 147. From the Journal of the Franklin Institute : E -O ve — a -- - oS . Ven Goes sek coe Anthracite. ae =ist. On Vilkesbarre Anthracite. Ay J. 8. x: IV. 2. Hest 2. uT % : —s : . C. R. Claghorn, “otes on the Bernice Anthracite Coal Basin Sull. C Pa 14 7 yz a Ae er) CA 4/7 C4) wit ws ’ e co dile ie AVIT, 9U6, ale co a : Coxe. “Otes on a peculiar variety of Anthracite. ww yer Wei? ,. “Sui Seological Surveys. See under Pa. Bituminous. A very complete set of "

by thie ond Survey and are the best

Mi 1 AL. © for ws 5S. Gresley. Anthracite Coal Apples. pe FE, Fab 1893 Ue ay . no Sf) i ) 5 + 2, 4 i ; — ri - ay is ° ° Our Anth racite SS Supply OS Leis ribyv? A lig & 0 i lap Poriuw April 1092. ee fhe tt] Z Lp tds Geoloezy & Minins in The art harn C a ") 7 1D Sn % Cd + =sP% + tui 1OFf nern oal fraid of J ae : Sa ie VW R a oe, "Won nN An vohnnson. An t Iron Ores found

qd ne, Northampton &

/ @ Also pW die Sy

Q ct aa) Ha wT

ec 1”

M- (2 0

MTs Pe 9 ee See ee ee SP ae eet Ls a oe — op ae a DS ee a ee a ae ees: he Pee Mer Saag. oe fot See er se

a 2 - wo .

a ab eS SoA MM OWE Ue gee Oo - - . 3 aa

ee 8S Be ee Se eat ea — Jig be Aca zi,

ome Se Se es : - : eh ale ne 3 ‘ é : 24 a Pe — so t ae : ——- ; ts : mea ; ¥ - 1 . : te eee Sy eta TERI steel, Ge ast ek, Shoe nes

7 itt de 8 - . a="

Ae : ee ae : : a ¥ eb t + Berta, pe r Py a) gt of er a , j A

es Y a ss sr 3 - — . : ’ . 7 ; ss Neder a on ae o abe a a ee es me

Re. As: Bi. GL. and Tirning® in the Northern Coal Prelds of Pas. 2 Ee Loa oMaltarey, On tha. First ors outhorn COL Pista ofuPax. A. Als, Le Ain (O70 Loprouvx. exploitation af PE sparations de la hoville daus quo -.diq Tonhsxivartne: Soc. .det L- Indi link C.cRiobDeé:. 9 J. PP, Lesisy. Note on an Apparent Violation of th S

A wd

GN WW c# DY DOO

f-4

‘ °

O Kb

Cy be

Cc,

7 eee, rd a O

gressive debitvminisation of the Amer. Coal B. ds coming east. PYGC.. (Aimy, Dat) se Oty, Gelb. Twa Peo Op Ler wee, dig: -Seeibdue aha noobs be Se Lyman. Shipp2n and Wetherell. Tract, Separate Print. S93.

Liaw Gly. Se) Acad. Library. currance of Coarse Conglomerate above the liammoth Bed. 1. &.

ir C Oct ° 1892.

" Nev Boston Anthracite Basin. Ann. Rep. 2nd Pa. Surv. 1587.

De Rifts. Noties of Belmont Anthracite Mines tn Pas Aso d. 8S. REE

P. We. Sheafor. The Exhaustion of Anthracite Coal. Amer. Geol. III, 45 S33 carlisr paper. A. A. A. S. 1879, Ssratoga misting.

A. Vy, Sheafor. Notes on r2-vorking of Culm Banks. Es Ti Fab, 1894.

CL, silliman. Notice of the Anthracite Region in the Vallav of the Lackawanna - and of Wyoming on the Susquehanna. A. J. S. i. XVIII.306&.

” ’ 4 f Nt 3 to eh ak ¥ . - . Notes on a Journey to Mauch Chunk and othsr Anthracite refions of TD i So ; YY i Ao A. t) 6 sD 9 LE bets ye tf ii SEC Tranann Oririn — TD Let hyva . T4- (x Cc V7 2 vq t 6 CVOnSON. JPL Nn Or ie Sx et Pit 2YCLt Ce Dis Late car De A. ar StS Ie COZ C7 ; . apan 4 i - 1U93- Race Snort er LOLT) ri Jo iro S30. . Ee Sw ate it - : 7s a TT ft. ast

Bis Gig. ea Ae or the Westsrn portion of Schuylkill

ber

+

iJ)

—

ley

s cr

w2Q . (Dp C)

H. As Wasmuth. tud 4 tratification of the Northern Anthra- aie eo fa 7.) a Tt ee ee ha. Cite Ficld of Pa. Jour. Franklin Inst. CRMRIV. nn. S54, Old river enannel woli Tisvured. TT) re ae as: ; bh aries Also Sai ae t Tits Le Al 2 1asS aks esance or i aultes - do ; ao Aus. 1837 J on. boul NY 7 TTT r RHODE SLAND , 4 D MAS SACHUS ATTS ‘ On 1 Narre sans at

33. and even

1ey censist

re

(v

wort to from the nad the

onglorasrat2es so mea

strata

to Worces be nracticalli

. one Limeston. inca of]

YO ™s

r a

3 0) f jJctHM

Sen ee 5S

¥) 9 Om

r gneiss, of

O %)

$00 a cp hs a8 Ny O o9) cD Cc) r cr

DM FF oO ey) 2 re

Feld te ee)

+ Cy ff

O

G

tes, which..h n bituminous. arccexrat several coal seams. Ths country is buried in drift whith conceals the gseology. Ths coal was onsnsd as early as 1808. At Bort smo abn. a. Lew miles northeast of Newport, and north of Providance tovard Woonsocket it has been somayvhat mined. he seams prove to be more or less irrogu- lar, from the crushing they have undergone, and the coal itself is graphitic and although the published analyses do not indicats-a specia ly low peresntags of volatile hydrocarbons it kindles with: muech-ereater difficulty than normal anthracite. Many zranite intrustons ara=near and on Conanicut island Pirsson has shown them to be later-than the Carbonifsrous. They may have contributed to the zeneral-metamorphism. The graphitic slates and bony coals have been sround and -tsed for a facing to prevent iron castings adnering to the moulding sand. WVany beautiful carbonifesrous plants and insects have bean found in the meas~ vres but as fuel the prospect of their utilization is remote.

a 7 a. et 1. on ae ee ee ee ee tS 98 eee bh cy ot aa i ra . ale gmte Zs - La ‘ iat : A wy a a Tae it ee eee : er Le Teg! Se eee ? - —s ‘ a4 4 2a, Se ee eyes fe et 2 — : . - — ‘ i. Stee eine SERCO FUER ei Wae <chace, 7 ap Cea ye oe —a —— es ee i — Sm: . a 2a Sas —— ? - 8 hn a Rl ST ee ee wre Sat re eS PR Ss age oo ; wv ey Sona 4 Fare Daal ol . tte” — , ane i" (aur er ; ; ee : et (i er, . r ar eee ae os) & E ot — — : ; . es PS: pees EN vie ee pie ee een

Fo Sa. 295 bese 6") eet oe. eR £

Litrratur®

Rhod™ Island.

et eae ee St gama

A, 5, Mrauons, Notes on R, I. and Nass. Coals. i. Ey. “ITI. 5106, A. A. Heyes On Rhode Island Geant tpiokampetn Be the. USES tee UE SOF Re Hitchcock Sr. The Coal Fisld of Bristol Co. and of Rh. I'd. A. JT, : S Se tie AVES Savy Ao L. Holley. Notes on the Iron Ore and Anthracite Coal af R. I. & Ay aeee - its IR, PbS, (REZ ee me 3 Je. Dec. 1 LO, Hie. ABI. ¥% Be Silliman, Anbtoaracite Goad of. ore Aeede Se eh fie Hess ray i. S. Shaler. Renort quoted in , 'R, LBS. SSLs " On Geology of Aquidueck Is. and Shores of Narragansett Ray. Am. Hats. 6, SLS) 600.775; MASSACHUSETTS.

At YWrentham. iss. Ay Je Ss Da -XXTLESR 405. ere notice with good ac- vice.

VW. O. Crosby & €. H. Barton. Extension of the Carboniferous Formation LM Heo AY OVS. ey Se a ere

C. Lyell. On the probable Age and Origin of a hed of Plumbago and An- thracite occurring in ?’7ica Schist near Worcester, ‘ass. A. J. 3, is ALVET. 2,

J. Porey, Analysis of Bituminovs and Anthracite Coa from “'orcester, Nass. and of the Paiebe Saeco Anthracite of same rlace Oy. sew Ge Dew ka een

J. A, Perry. Note on a Fossil Coal Plant found at the Graphite deposit ID r2ca Seontet at Cor tacterm 2 asa. chewd. Seatit= 255 157,

(7Sa)

Literature :— Rhode Island,

&o 5. Emmonse Notes on R. I. antt Mass. Coals. ™. F. XIII. 510.

A. A. Haves +, Om Rhode Island Coal (Portsmouth) A. J. S. ii, KE, 967.

R. Hitdheock Sr. The Coal Field of Bristol Cc. and Of Kier Pave “Aime Dip Als. sole ene

Ae DL. f lolley. Notes on the Iron Gre and Anthracite Coal of R. I. &

eS” Nag shee Oy (OOS OR Raeky ce Dee ds, VLOG 5 “pas S99 Ba Sijtiman. Anthracite Coat of RYT. KR. 2. -Sk ae Sle ok. MN. %. Shaler, Report quoted int’. R. 1687, 361. " On Geology of Aquidueck Is. and Shores of Narragensett Bay. Am,

Nats. 6, SLSs. GIT, 5d; MASSACHUSE?TS,

At ‘Nrentham, Mass. A, J. S. i. XXIII. 405. Mere notice with good ad- Vices

ws 0. Crosby & G. H. Darton. Extension of the Carboniferovs Formation Lh, BASS Molaro. klae Lob ton

Ge Lyell. On the probable Age and Origin of a bed of Plumbago and An- thracite cccurring in Mica Schist near VOrGester, Mage. vA. hs. Se Liss Ik, sees

Jo Percy Analysis of Dituminous and Ant’ racite Coal from Worcester, Mass. and of the Plumbazueous Anthracite of same Dilacay Ma gh Hr, pa aL tee eare

J. A. Perry Note on a Fossil Coal Plant found at the Graphite deposit in Mica Schist at VWore¢ester, tiass, A. ds Se PIT. Seo7s7.

a —— ee ee ee ee oS Bwe 7 re ee aie ne oe SE See re eT eee See ers sal Pe it 7 ie oe ileal Kahl a eas ae va at ae atl le fae Ss —- . ; ; - cm ¥ ay tg a yg a) en es “! tl i a ae h ' Le rt? es © oes Ve Lb — SS . ree re - Bd sae 5 Lwin ln ee es ee a eee — 7 res oe ks - a ae ee ema, ahda~ ahi

The Acadian Field,

NOVA SCOTIA contains the important portion of this fisld, betavse the scams in central New Erunswick are small and but slightly mined. Nova Scotia has two distinct and pate areas: one on the neck of the peninsula is called tne Pictou or the Joggins and lies in Pictou and Cumberland counties; the other, on the eastern side of Cane Breton is- land, in Cane Breton county is usually spoken of as the Svdney field. ihe reat number of seams (over 80) in the Pictou field was earlier re- ferred to (p. 21). Althowtgh the great majority are insignificant thoro are among them some of exceptional thickness. At the Albion Hines Seg iy’ the "Deop Seam" is worked at 22 ft. and the "Main Ssam" is till thicker. At several oth rer mines 10-12 ft. of coal are not incom- mon. In general the dip is rather stcep, 15 to 45 degrees, and the a- vailable territory is therefore restricted. There are three principal districts from west to east, ees Westville, the Albion and the Vala. The coals yield consideral slack and all things considered the field is hardly as Zood as the Sadess

Ee

ey The Sydney He eae is on the coast at the northeastern part of Cape trcton. It is the one that has been such a subject of interest along the New England ccast yates the recent purchases of the mines, by Beston Capitalists. Ien or twelvs workable scams 2 to 10 ft. have been iden~ tificd; and four basins, the Sydney, Lingan, Glace Bay and Cow Bay are recognized. the coals dip seaward and where worked near the coast are followed out under the ocean. The dip is Low and the q ality Zzood.

Atlantic seaboard, the Gulf of St. Lawren and in the Wes

Expectations are entertained of developing important marke Ge At the Acadia Mines in the Pictou aa a coal was mi i pi

T) ha ; Teas he - i the advent of petroleum that gave a rich yield of oil on distillation. 4- as ci 7 s 7 e [It was called Stellarite and is of some scisntific interest (See J. W. ai 7 5 ‘- rT in + : Dawson, Acadian Geology, 359. Me Vay wike 26 SS - eRe

ATT |OT ATOTRTT wie a ra) nay BRUNSWICK. One or two small ovtliers of carbonife in central New Drunswick contain thin seams shat ArBanne + tew he tons annually but are of no great moment.

XG een me! & Th 1 G + Fj Ha Wo Ve ole Ge Oe Agi Ss SPe Bre 4 Tl Ao mA 7 oo Py ie f 1. Foord Goll nie 1€tou ield Th eee oe wee Ho. 40 rie (4 aS 1.294 cc a ii it ry C ge Dt lle oo -§ “a es im! me Deen 2eam, me Oe 20,45 iy ota §.50 1.69 1.045 o ‘ iT raat ae P nr 4 SS ; 3. Acadia Scam, S10 Saree ISG ar 75s. OL506. Teese fi Oar .ar Wi a coy . ’ oyanet Vine, S ! dney pot ons Spee Wie 6] he BY Ke Se ee ae . ; a7 7 Ti fy a i i So International Mine, Syd. F'd. Z4 009 62.99. S590 B96 Se Qn 2 T on aC iF 1! " Oe ae A ‘ ‘a sclace ck i eS C3 4 i 2) 683. 14 Ao ees sive a9 — pe ee oe et ee: TJ ; 1 iad i e ce - my Fall a Pa “t F 1, St. How, analyst, cited in Geol. Surv. Can. 1867-69: Appendix on jt iS Cc ta 52 " rai es . . ictov voal field, pv. S. Sample from Main Scam.

nN ao & OO +

fel

cy

w o N De © Tir ™ - aero Gokotcll cs ws Routledge as cited below.

a oe 4 er ee Sas eee ie See Be ee tS mae S ‘ ——. 7 a egies Ps ™ ® ” ‘ ‘ 7 za : i — Ses Soe ARO gs Cy +. 2 tire i 7 o 5 a a — : - - - ms ee . . —s 2 Ale ti a ‘ +i ho ee Se eS ot Fino ene to tt to ee ee L ves : a ; — sie hicitemed ae a ; - ae aie SS - ima a + ; Te a a Et ks vp Ee i et lat : rs — eh ae sa Spa Pere : A “ 5 as 4 Pee - . ; : - ha : : 2 : “ 4

Se

mie eae Sa Tetr~ SEacees Sane

—— - “7 . a

“ i he

“e ees —- S

Ee 2 Me Kt

Scoot Dbarlow.“-Springhizi Field. ¢. @. S. 1873-74, 147. hi R. W. Blie. “Coo Gs Se 7885066 B. a Se Barlow VW. McOvat. Coal field of Cumbérland Co. N. S. Can. Rep. RK. Drown ection of the lower Coal Measures of the Srdney Coal Field. GN i ik ESS We Te: ) ) J. W. Dawson. - Coal in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 9. J. G. S$. I. ah ; 1 RA B22) MERELY 2866...95. XX. T8724, BOD. ih On. the” Commi Wisdsursk.of South dererines hs We Ge See we TS a " On the structure of the Albion Coal Measures. do. do. 42. “wi " Reply to Lesley's Paper (Sos Ref.) Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. VII.. 1860, ri 164 - 2, 8 ov. Hugh Pletcher. Coal in Northern Cape Breton. Can. Geol. Surv. 1884, ait $3 fs H, M i 187 79-80 7 we Sd. Hy 7 EH, Gilpin. Comparison of the Distinctive Features of the N. S. Coal is Man Hields. Geol. Maz. Vol. DT. p. 467. ie : ontreal Meeting British Assoc. 1885. F dW. Hart ley. Rep. on the Coals & Iron Ores of Pictou Co. 3}. S. Can. Geol. 1867-69 and appendix to same. ih H, How. On an Oi1 Coal found near Pictov, N. S$ nf T

A diz Ss ris Loe Gye 74 ‘ a

; QR jv . £4 4. ben mn C . Do A177) PST, On. ret one Tray 9 Can. AE

et et ns FY Se 1 Ee ——

he International Colliery. Cape Sa Civ. Enz. V. 19, 1891.

fn De Sneald., Good Reviews, Us G. Ss. O90 SS< “Soi. /

J. PP. Lesley. On the Coal Measures of Cape Breton, N. S. Proc. Phila. ae)’ Acad. Sci. Nov. 1862, p. 93. A. J. S. ii. XXXVI. 179. hy

W. RE. Logan. Rep. on Pictou Coal Field. Can. Rep. Prog. pp. 3-535,1869. Al

Che Lyell. On the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia. A. J. S. i. XLV. 356. i! Also 354. 1

W. McOQvat. Cumberland Co. C. G. S. 1873-74, 161.

He S. POOle. The Pictov Coal PYeid. MM. fy. RIV. 408s ‘Hea,

W. Routledzo. Sydney Coal Field, Cane Breton, Nw S. 8. BE. AVG pe 542, ah re Rec High

C., Robb Cane Lreton CG. Gs Se PS7Sa74. AUfLe Sryadtey Biers Cece S¢ uy "ES taS, 939. Recs Pas PHS DWGREIAs

Bailey Matthew Gs 8G. "Ss WSV72Ze75., “Saoas

Rs We Brite: . G S&S: 1680-61-82, 21. 1679-8056 D.

CANNEL COAL. Although cannel coal is essentiallv a variety of bi- wry tTuminous, it has nevertheless such distinct and characteristic proper- ties of its own that it deserves special mention. It is sold as a sep- avats brand and commands a much higher price than ordinary soft coals. MI The upply is not unlimited nor is the coal very widely distributed. By SeanG of cannel are especially prone to variations in quality and thick ness and because of their frequent high percentage of ash their rela- i a tions with bituminous shales are close. The percentage of nyrdrozgen is He also sean high. The luster is dull, the specific gravity is low, and ag the coking powers as a rule are very inferior if not entirely lacking.

Cannels more often occur as a subordinate bench in bituminovs seams, +),

than as an entire bed. Plant remains are at times recognizable, spores AS el (80) ay, © d

Ri a a oe Pe ee eg Te ge Stent eel hie is & 4 a ae) et ee A) ey ee ee ee “ Faenwa a, 7 pal fae an ewe eee ine ES Pa eR PS

™ - — T - a os a) eee

eRe Rt ee 2 ae ge es es

+ ab ie . ad 2 Z ‘ 4 91 a ie ah

ees ee eS es =e. SS : E i 9 SS see Dy kh eh 7 at me!

nie ee ——- wears 2 te : ae ee ee eee a re

7 - " te °° “4 a oo a he pasate gree ae Sage Z ee gett ae ids a et Tre eh : . itr= ; : . ® ;

ee lel eae etl tet a, ais Le ows t as : CPS tape 1s : oa) ee ee es re ee fof, ‘ a F- a - c a ye & r 7 el fe ee ee,

a Ped) airs — Dar ese eee eee ee es ee - : aig ee 7 ; i era — z : ‘ ey eet lee patel tens oe nee ee. ao pagrentth semanas y pa eegiee ss Say ee Flew ee ee 2 es oe ra? ; J sie a Peron Hie ce 0 -- 7 : - ‘

—w

¥

— ma : ix 27> — 2 - £5 a

——

have bean detected in some With the microscope, and fish oS OE 2 Tie aL. ncetably abundant in a numbor of localitics. Canncls We source of "rock-oils", bsfore ths wells of petroloum bo their supplies, but thoy gave way bofors tho latter. OF lat. they have only served as a fuel for open grates and thercforo as a high-priced luxury, and as gas enrichors. Ovr best known brands are obtained in Kentucky and Wost Virginia. The "Breckenridge" cannel of the former in Hancock Co. on the northeastern edge of the western coal field is a standard brand. Othors are obtained in Carter and Johnsen Co's. in the eastern field, from Campbell Co., Tenn. (Jellico cannel1) and at Connelton, Kanawha Co., W. Va. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois have loss prized varicties. Years ago Il'tissovri affords da curiovs coal from the rogion near the mouth of the Osage river, where it occurred in great pockets, and was called Osage cannel. Ite snecei ic gravity was at times even less than unity. A very famovs Little do- posit in its scientific relations, was discovered at Linton, 0., by D Jo Se Newberry - during the operations of the Ohio Geological Surv Although but six inches thick and only a fow acres in extent, it ¥ ed 40 aeetee of amphibians and 20 specics of fish.

% the Acadia mines of ths Pictow coal-fiald of Nova Scotia, tho peculiar coal "“stellarite” which was above referred 6 was former Lv mined. It rs3ccsived its name bacause it coruscated with sparks like stars while burning and therefore is perhaps as near cannel coal in its relations as any other variety. It formed a larer 1 ‘'10" thick batween, a thin bench of bituminovs coal above, and a rich bituminovs shale be- low.

The origin of cannel has been an interesting and puzzling question and @an explanation of its peculiar richness in volatile products, gas- es, Oils, tars etc, has been sought by many. Dr. Newberry in 1657, ar- Soa that hs Ohio cannels were formed from thorovghky macerated plant tissue that had washed into still lagoons in the coal-forming swamp. Others have considered it to have resulted from varieties of vegstation rieh in sums and resins. Some microscopic observations give ground for this view. Spore cases have appeared in many thin sections and as this form of vegetation is rich in nitrogen and hydrogen, special cannels have been refsrred to it. The abundance of fish and molluscovs Ronains in some cannels, rich in oils, has suggested with great reason that the soft animal parts of these organisms have been important contributors. Inasmuch as the composition and properties vary, in different rozions, all of these explanations may have applications. A very complete Yre- View of Literature and localities is given by Zincken in the paps3r cit- ed below.

, HO WH. Bete ésh $5 Snaers 1. lUreckenridge, Ky. =s5— 53.53 54,57 22,20 2co 2. Grayson, Carter Co., Ky. 63.5 abet 4.8 1.52 5e Whitehouse, Johnson Co.Ky. 536.48 54.72 CO O.95G 4, Connelton, W. Va. a4¥ $9.82 52.78 7.40 1.162 5s wWekigeo), Tennis 49.85 35.03 A5.42 O.74.0 6. Osage, Mo. 167 Adcso.. Si2ie6 5.44 0.4 7. Lower Freeport,Jeff.Co. Pa.0.51 30.49 46.19 22.23 0.576 So NStelharite, Nova Scotia. O.25 66.56 25.535 8.21 we--- e103 9. Boghead, Scotiand. 63.5 11,60 24.87

10. Wigan. 39.64 57.66 2.70 1.275

a diame oll SES rae ie ON el ee ee ee es he ee) re o2, ea le. r : . — - - rs Poway ty a9 Oy en re er te ews” Tie ee —s - . - — ete eae a ete a” “e~- ae aw : inne, . - - - logis ee a ¥ A an ot CY My St pg Lig tle 3 ror mt Ne oR, mn ait Seta Forts ate de 5 ie we nee ae ee Se om . —- - 4 —— Sa NA Se Os song - ig ; s. aa “bite 7A 4 : : 5 eS A ne eee . . — eu tke eae 2 j oe ag ioe oes) - 4 3 PA andes mn a eras Pare ee : oh’ : : 0 ee aE acy $9 eo ew ee oni aa . a el . . : “ — eet wa , . <i. — —— E ‘ , ,

C. KH. eye iN, Ser Ash 11. Spores of Lycopodium, 64.630 GialS €429 20.19 --eee Hee 12. Lancashire Ca annel, "ng. Soest Onb6 BeOS mete a eslenlanten 13. Boghead, Scotland. 61.04 9.22 4,40 OG 0.325 24.23 14. Wigan. 80.07 5.53 8.08 2612 Pep 2.70

s

L; 2, 3, and 4; are recalculated from ¢. Macfarlane. EB. Feb. 2890, er ile, tha. CSO soos

G. J. Macfarlane, Coal Regions of America, p. 474.

Ty 8, 2h, Sy and sy 2intkenm as pelov ist Station

S&, 10, and 14, How, Mineralogy of Nova Scotta, p. 24.

LITERATURE? Ge Macfarlane. Notes on American Cannel. NM. E. Feb. 1890. Je Se Newberry. aie of formation. A. J. S. ii. XXTIT. 212. Geol.

On Ome te eb C. #. Zincken. Die Cannelkoble, Oest. Zeitschr. fF. Berg. u. Huettien- wesen, 1887 (Series of papers With zood bibliography). Rec. See

also Lorg. vo. Huet. Gaitung, July 1, 1881, Bo Silliman. On Breckenridge Cannel. A. A. A. Ste TSA. d coals or especially cannel

BITUMINOUS SHALES may be considere coals high in ash. There is no line of re a ion but as the ash reaches 30-40 GZ the seam can hardly be called a coal seam, nor above 90 or 95 & ash is it very highly bituminous. Litvuminovs shales are black or brown and if rich in bituminovs matters they may be tough and leathery. In this country there are some, which are low in carbonifer- OusS SCARE Ne but which are of enormovs extent, such as the Marcsllus and Genesee shales in New York and the Huron she ale of Ohio. No sucth rocks have been found of valve in this country as yet, but they have been regarded as possible future sources of petroleum shovid the wells Zive out. FP. Neymann obtained from 100 grams Huron shale, oil at the rate of 10.78 gallons per ton. The famovs "Torbanite” of Scotland Yields 116-125, "stellarite” of Nova “Seotia, just referred to, 53, can-= nel coals, 452-08, asphaltic coals up to 100, Australian "Kerosene Shale" 20, so that the adaptation of the low-grade American shales is a remote contingency. The origin of the bituminous matter involves the same discussion as is given above under cannel.

H, O BY ge Me Cis Ash Sp.gr. li. Clevedand Shale, 0. g Pae Wa 6.90 4., 90 $7.10 Be ssaeon Shale, O. 0.86 S00 6.18 84,60 —- oe Je " ‘ 1.06 I S95 80.99 meee 4. Genesee Shale, N. Y. 0.8 Soo) 90.80 tee 5+ Shale with Stellarite. 30.65 10.88 58.47 —-o 6. Torbanite, Scotland. da TR Mh bao eA iho’ ze Sa

Literature:

H. M. Cadell. Oil Shales of Scottish Carboniferous System. Jour. Geology, II. 243. T. S. Hunt. The Pyroschists, Chemical and Geological Essays. (82)

ee ee Ob ae SP ae - shie att - 4 ole ” . . .

— 7s a ot 2 ae Sage —— . Me ae kes te ee en ’ % a ‘ 2 —-- — rs “.- — “ er - . e oS — ow . a mc ° . r Vee ene e) a Cd dk Coe ee ee yee 2 : "IME 2. Se oe ses py Be J . ‘ Se re. Sore Sain . as “ a SE es Pe F : Se

Cas ee oe ees 5 se Mersey oN, Bae per ML a ag - ry se 3e ay Lowe se eee es as ater - eee - a — i — : : — F — i Pha oe " Pie:

" ' - 3 ‘ - 5 ry a ae ae ae. " - :.

Seg re ee a Tes ot

Origin of the bituminous matter in Lituminous Shales.

Annly C14 Wi. Acad. Sei. PL. Now 12, 268s.

P. Neymann. Same Title as above. Unpublished Thesis in Columbia College.

BE. Orton. Source of bituminous matter in the Devonian and Subcarbonif- arong. lack Shales of Ohio; A da Se 1K, 27 Talsees). C. F. Zingken. As cited under Cannel above.

SSS eee i———C—F—ll—o

Geolog. Dept.

Summary Of Thr Stratigraphy Of Coals And Lignites.

Cenozoic - Tertiary Systei,

Only peat and incoherent lignite occur in strata later than tho Miocene.

Miocene Series. Alaska,

EOCENE SERIES. Tejon staze. OREGON, Coos Lay. CALIFORNIA lionte Wahsatch stage. UTAH, San Pete. EBoliznitic stage. TEXAS, San Tomas and other 1i Fort Union or Livingstone stage (Many consider t! MONTANA, Rocky Fork Field.

Diablo.

Biid ites. his Laramic).

Mesozoic - Cretachkous System.

LARAMI® SERIES. TWAS HINGTON , Pug at Sound and Roslyn Fields. VANCOUVERS ISLAND, some ALBERTA lignites. MONTANA, Bozeman and Cinnabar Fields. NORTH and SOUTH DAKOTA, lignites. WYOMING, Southern Fields. UTAH, Webor River Field, Basaeant Venues Field. Now Harmony Field. COLORADO, practically all the coal. NEW MEX- ICO, all the coal so far as known. TEXAS, San Carlos Field, Bagle Pass Field. MEXICO, Rio Sabinas Field.

MONTANA SERIES. "Pierre"

COLORADO SERIES. UTAH, Kanaraville and Cedar City.

DAKOTA SERIES. COLORADO, Lower coals of

ton Co. The coals have usvally been referred to the Dakota Series, but lately discovered fossil plants may prove them Kootanie (Science, Feb. 1, 1895, p. 137).

KOOTANIF SERIFS, ALBERTA, Cascade Vallev Anthracite. MONTANA, Falls Field ("veen Charlottes Is. Lower Cretac ecus).

la Plata Field. WYOMING, Wes-

Great anthracite is described as

Mesozoic - Jura-Trias Or Newark System

VIRGINIA, Richmond Field. NORTH CAROLINA, Dee

and Dan River Fisaids. (83)

ee - , am Pa

As Sta ea eee F gl a “I 2 ve eS va : oe a, A Pos : en, An re F a : Sa —— - —— Qe ee ed

7 —

web ees re ly et Nm oy , ; ' ; r . - ; - ss Se ats -: Fi iar ieee Cla . , -" i, 5 ot i 7 : “4 sted a a i ae wage as Sent pes + - . ie oe —— — ro : thu ee se a ee Ta a at ‘ fae — : ee en eee oe aes i OP a Ry : Oa ee

1 a : a ec! — : at er Ts ae hae a 7 ae : 77 ee , “— 5575 oa SS 2 Pane ae ye my i ee coe - ae rs, is Stee Je i i ea ee ot eg Oa ; tm ae

FP yieS

: PM LWT DS oa ee ye Sper ee , revista ee REE ae

Ae at i aegis) — os mt + im oe , ‘ - Sry a ee hae eiaaecpserrar eee mer pee Se a vt “] ae ee h Ear a he ee ast ,

“ft Se oe

Palakozoic - Carboniferous Systmm.

PERMIAN SERIES. The Washington seam and some other thin ones in the Upper Barren Measures of Pennsylvania and adjoining states.

PENNSYLVANIAN SERIES. Coals of the Western and Bastern Central Fields; of Michigan; of Rhode Island; of Nova Scotia and nearly all of the Appalachian Field.

MISSISSIPPIAN SERIES. Verpertine coals of southwest Virginia.

NOTH. In the Cretaceous coals do not confuse the names of Dakota, Colorado, and Montana, used at the left for feological series, with the same employed in the purely neographical way. It is evident that the Laramie series of the Cretaceovs in the West, and the Pennsylvanian ssrios of the Carboniferous in the Hast, afford almost all the coal mined: but the Kootanie is of frowing importance.

BRIEF STATISTICS. The following s es for 1893 (except 16a which is for 1892) are serviceable as they e of the Yalative importance of the productive regions. They are a.ranged in order by states, territories, and provinces. Short s (2,000 lbs.) are here used. It is well to remember that a lonz ton (the usval unit at the mines) is 2,240 lbs., and the metric ton (the Furopean unit) is 2,204.6 Lbs., or practicaily 1.1 short tons

1. Pennsylvania total,92,030,267 14. Tennessee, - - - - - - 1,902,258 Anthrecite,- - 53,967,543 15. Washington,- - - - - - 1,264,877 Dituminous,- - 44,070,724 16. a Territory,- - - - 1,252,110

326 IlLlinois,- - - 19,949,564 (16a Alberta & Brit. Col.) 1,106,593

Oe Ohio,- - - - - - 13,255,646 17. Monte VEER Pre ere Re 892,509

4, West Virginia, 10,708,572 18. Vir Sina Sees 820,339

5. Alabama, - - - 5,156,935 19. New Mexaco,= -- 665 ,094

6. Colorado,- - - 4,102,389 20. Arkansas,- - - - 574,763

TY. Towa, s+ SS, 9720229 22. Utah, Ss ee 413,205

Ss. Indiana, —- 8 SS. 791, 85i 22. Gec¥sia, 3 SS 372,780

Q% ee ear se BS. 716.042 23. Texts, - +--+ 502,206

10. Kentucky a5 ot SS OOF LUO 24. Calaetormia.= <—s- 72,003 10a. Nova Staban: se (2E07,6958 25. North Dakota,- 49,630 ll. Missovri,- - - - - 2,897,442 26 Lcnisan,<- — 45,979 2s KANSAS feo 124663.545 27. Orexson,— - - - 44 41,653 13. Wyoming, 2,439,611 25. North Caroilina,-- - - 27,008

Total, 3 - as 6 Bie & & 2E2,592, 714

Chief Coal Producing Countries. Short Tons.

l. Great Britain(1893)184,044,690 8. New Sovth Wales (1892) 4,226,000

20+ United States (1893)162. 352,774 9. Canada (1893)- - - - - 3,719,170

3. Germany (1892) - - 103,851,090 10. Japan (1893 -- §,400,000

4, France (1892)- - - 28,862,017 11. Spain (1893) - - - - - 1,688,820

5. Austria (1592) - - 28,037,678 12. New Zealand (1892) - - 675,915

6. Belgium (1892) - 21,590,448 13. Sweden (1392)- - --- 421,155

Ss OT? ee Se Se oe i he a For ai aiadall “lets oS Phe oes : : r : i, tee SO ee eee eee SU ee Ce ; : PMS WY Ras Tee at Feo a ay, aay: wagt need : eo er rh - + ; e 7 ‘ Tei if Trg x 2 . is “4 onaies il — — - “FF ls a ae T c : - Pape AT Le ea aad Ay oa é 3 , 7 a) ec “Se © Sar gs S pay x j . 2 eS - a a — es es ee ee i os - . : TT a 5 : Sia Ly - 7 —— —— i —, Le, ee ee eS F , +e ad 4 wt ay rt af 2 al 3 aF yee - eee ap rs P ; ; : 5 4 i : ee . ia peer eZ : het aoa rete ay ae aT, a of e — z . we P- tings (Ts —— Te, -—— SFE Pe bere mn, Eel he a7 re) 1 aoe ae fee 2 af ; y ; er ow" ahh Sas anne Lh — aha Po ee ae? a VST: Fel at Teo ia Te ee eh] c

i

oo Oe eS

7. Russia (1892)- -- 7,621,969 14. Italy (1892) $326,340

These statistics are from the Mineral Resovreces U. S. 1893,pp. 200, 202. Mineral Industry, 1893, metric tons being changed to short tons.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. The great part played by coal in modern civ- ilization is a favorite theme for more or less fervid rhetoric but the significance of the above statistics can only be appreciated by comput- ing the equivalent footpounds of work according to modern thermodynam- ics- Jevles equivalent is 772 footpovunds. A pound of bituminous coal represents 10,570,147 footpounds; a pound of anthracite 11,028,715, or say for a pound of coal in general 10,000,000 footpounds of work.

Footpounds Equivalent

per day lbs. of cod

A man raising his own Weight on stairs or ladder

develops - - -- +-+-+-+- + - =-2,088-;000 Oreo Aman carrying weight up & returning unloaded - 399,600 0,04 A man pushing or pulling norizontally - - - - - 1,526,400 O65 A man working a pump- - - - - 1,188,000 Os2Le2 A horse walking with a boat or cart - - - - - 12,441,600 1.24 A horse cantering trotting with a railway truck6,444,000 0.64

The efficiency of a steam enzine is 10 fe Statistics show that it takes from 17-26 men to mine 10,000 tons per year in different states. The larger states are below 20,but one may select 20 as a fair average. That is 500 tons per man, per year, or about two tons per working day. In other words a man pr “oduces per day 4,480 lbs. of coal, equal to 44,- 800,000,000 foot pounds of work, of which an engine makes 10 % or 4,485 000,000 effective. In this way comnaring the work of a man as given in the above table, with the available footprounds in the coal, We see that a man multiplies under present conditions his strength from 2,200 to 11,200 times, using round numbers and is equivalent to from a sixth to a third as many horses. No more emph latre commentary could be adduc- ed on the importance of coal, and yet no mention is made of the addi-~ tional comforts, of warmth, light and convenience in cooking, etc. af- Torasa HY LE.

NOTE. Graphite is treated aft metamorphosed product from petrolev often as from vegetable tissve.

er asphalt, for it appears to bea mor something similar, quits as

Chapter Iv. The Petroleum Series.

The general name of the Petroleum Series is meant to include a group of minerals of widely varying physical properties and of exceed- ingly complex chemical composition. They each consist of several mole- cules and no one formula can be conceived to express the composition in an individual case, any more than it can of a coal, yet it is possible from elementary as well as proximate analyses to gain an idea of the elements involved and of their relative amounts. The ordinary process of alteration through which eee ee ee pass in Nature, is in gen-

a . —— ” es . . c — : ee : et a tee ees J Nit dary ee tag Rt oe SD ae eg heeds SPO Swi hate 8 “a a er eee ° 7 CG tee Mine 7 “ y Ser vs ad elon AT: 0 Serene 2— oa ws yz Oe ee oe re fee R+ Ayes x ne, ae tg rT eet sy - . A ee —e ae oe. den ‘— —- cn "2 6 PSP Lt ” ee Sy as Ses 220 aa

a o4 . ; x 7 aan - — oes eas a! ae : i wre ra : : a +e eer ‘ 242 ——-

. Pes b . — - “ - , nt Dat ee ey - ra Fe SOE neg PS, Ue Pe we oe ee al ne at eck oe

eral on2 of oxidation and much the same may be said of them as was ear- lier stated of coal. To a certain degree thev correspond to th2"Evolv- ed Products" of the table on p. 4, but as they have not all been deriv= ed from vegetable materials, but clearly in some important casos from animal remains, this expression as there used cannot be sWeepingly ap- plied. Petroleum is selected as a generic name for the series because it is the mineral which may be considered with good reason, to be the source of the others in almost all cases. There is excellent ground for believing that all are of organic origin.

he series includes a succession of minerals, from an extremely light gas, to a--perfectly solid asphaltic coal, or:i.even to graphite, and individuats-may be selected so as to give an almost unbroken series from one extreme to ths other. The gases are zrovped under the Zgoneral name, netural gas. PRe oils from light to heavy are called petroleum. The tarry minerals that are at least ropy and viscous at ordinary tem- edt yale are known as maltha. Those that are solid at ordinary temper atures constitute asphalt, and those that are brittle and jet-like, and resemble glauce coal, are the asphaltic-coals. Graphite occurs in such relations at times as to be seas ie! derived from some one of the fpe- troleum series. At Ticondero iT, ¥. for example it is in a fissvre vein with feldspar, calcite, eee, ene etc. Besides these there are so~ called natural wa os OF OZOC

Percentage in C, a oe ts by Wei; ht

Percentages by Volume. Natural Gas. CeHy., C 0 CO N H, 5 H. Ot ‘Soitgy os Hie 1.-Sand- stone Gas 90.64 0.30 9,06 tr 76.69 25.51 Bek Po De ee 0.20 2.02 tr 74.96 25.04 Semhale “ 90.05 0.41 9.54 tr 78.14 21.856 4.,Limo- stone “ 93255 0.42 0.25 $3.41 0.20 21,64 0.39 0.35 lean ay ee WS AG 0.55 0,29 2.80 0,18 1.42 0.50 0.50 ae Pereentage by Weight . Petroleums. ee H, N. S. O. 6.0and-— stone Oil 85.2 TROUSERS OUBE “sess etiece seed See eo ee eee 7 Shite M 26-952 11.829 TAOS seee Seuss Seco 0 Seeee, Gee og) S.Lime- stone © SS--5=— Seee~ a ee a ee ee Malt! altha. i Sp gre 9.0hio G4.2 13.1 sstae, eke eases SESS eeers 0+887 Asphalt. 10. Trinidad $5.89 VL.06, S.A0 atc25 Sats Sete SSSeS Lene As Asphalt ic Coals. V. H. PO C.. “Ash 12-.Albert it e87.25 9.62 1.75 54.39 45,44 a7 Tee Oost 15 -Uintaite 78.43 10.20 23.27 8,70 eo W.s0ss

erite and a number of fossil gums or resins.

— ge - a ne Ae”

——

ee tamey

a

pan

—- 7 2 ale at hee i. ae Dem —

— - a ae . a aren tans 8 —— ‘at Se i . — ty a i ee Pee ee ae ee "a - - —— PE — ae - - ——— se “oe ol - - ——- roe - © eh. - be ee ee) ee oa ee et ee es se eg ll pe ip oN GG cee at ‘ ’ é 7 a ee Saag ee So ee ee ee ee .

a nan ar a CS ae ORS Spee ey

ae

Cg ey im, a piper: Serene mse ee ee 7 a Sa aw c ‘ a a, ow " Se eS , ‘i rs “ ee aes ee - am a ee ahead Pear ; Se pas Fata. ae Sete SS ae a ae ; — ei al 4 ed Sea 1? 6 die - - E 7 sae ‘ ’ r . Tis a wr Fe . Sp a kh ee re 4 an a . 3 bet © a ‘eo dns Sgt a thm, he 7 yh SE a ei 7 ae

ees

OZ OGaMiLt Oi H Mh, J © O Miva r, rr, CG. Ash Ope fr.

14. Utah SD. 44 14.45 ee ee a ee ee ee een ee ti i ee) 4 ree ee ee ore

Resins.

15 ° Ambar ‘toe 94 10 ‘ 22, Se a +0, ee Ne ee ae eee ee tee ee Note. CyHonge is the general formula for the "paraffines" or

marsh @&88 scries; C H tor the clefines.

L, 2, and &, by F.C. Phillips. Pa. Geol. Surv. Ann. Rep. 1086, 815. los 1, SHetftteré: Warren Co. Pa. No, 2, :lurraysville, WVestmoro- Y

land Co. as ——iow 3, Fredonia, Fr.

44 and 5, by ©.—G;—=Howard. Geol. Surv. Onto, VI. 157. No. 4. ig Findlay O. No. B Kekomo, Ind. Loth from Trenton limestone

6 and 7, Tentn-Censts. Vol. X. ps 53. No. 6G Cumberland, W. Va. No. 7 Harvard, Co. Calif.

C-e J. Su. Claire-Deville as quoted by iretzsch Geol. d. Kohlenlager, 72. lO. HH. C. Bowen for F. V. Green. ". BR. Oct. 1988. Undetermined 0.56. 11. Queted by Macfarlane. Coal Regions of America, 26. 12. Quoted in Geol. Surv. Can. 1867-69. rrendix to Rep. on Pictou Coad) field. pe 16. Laie war Me Loéke,) Me he wel Sey: Sac siso wi Pe Dlako, Mi. 4. Feb.1&90 4. OQvoted by HE. B. Gosling, S. of M. O. XVI. £4, Nov. 1694. 15. Schrotter Pogz, Annalen LIX. 64. t varies, ©. 735-79, H. 9-10.5, Fe 106 52 Sic

A brief comparison of the analyses shows that carbon and hydrogen ar2 the principal elements involved in all. As compared with the ash- free, elementary analyses of coals on l2, the Prange in carbon is much the same. The oils and asphalts are richer in this elerent than ccmmon coals although inferior to anthracite, but in hydrogen they sur- pass all coals. The paraffine, marsh gas or methane series A hemes) ig the principal one present. In natural gas the paraffines above bu- tane (Cy Hyp ) are doubtless absent because they are liquids at. ordinary temperatures. -much the most abundant one present is C H which has bv seaightG.- 74.97, 1. -20.03, valves near Ho. 2. The higher paraffines in- crease in amount with the increase in the specific gravity of the min- erals. The components of ozocerite for instance have, carbon multiples mostly between 20 and 30. The gta series (Cy Haw) is relatively more abunda nt in the liquids and solids, and is of small account in the gases. It is improbable that the nitrogen has been derived from adm1ix- tures of atmosphere, because af the small amount of oxyzen in any form

that accompanies it.

The above classification has been based on the physical properties of the minerals, wnether gas, ligszid or solid, and none are introduced in the condition of mixtures with foreign matter. In the group of as- phalts there are some which saturate limestone cr other rock and in this form have important applications. Influenced by considerations of the latter kind some writsrs (as for instance Malo - and F. V. Greene as later cited under asphalt) give these mixtures great prominence: ‘but as Blake points out, in a scientific scheme of classification accident-—

ee ee ee eee BOF, aie -s a es ps fae aa, ; ee Nig el — ¢ ; ee Syl ey ee eis . re a . ¥

a ee Ot yp eh dS : : ; . ‘ ; ee

Ms to

P ;

oe a so ; sais a ee ae Sani Se re ee a Fee ee ee ee eee ee . ) : Sas ; S, re ial he oe P 4 r ‘ e ar w eg ee ee a ha : a ae cr 2 . i ee - : on are. - -— ee iy Oa ey awed oe Be bs F : . : ol os : ve ews 2 ee aie ee sere ae FP OE Pa reels a Ree ay re ee 1S emia ; FF ees

al mixtures had bettor be ignored (M. E. Feb. 1890). The chemical com- position is so complex that it is not a good basis. In most of these minerals We are at a loss how to mroup the atoms. The most that can be done is to contrast the oxygenated hydrocarbons, such as vintahite and the resins, with the simple hydrocarbons such as gas, oil and ozocerite.

NATURAL GAS. Although known from the earliest historic period in tte oriental countries, and frequently met in the drilling of brine and petroleum Wells before 1€C00, natural gas has only been practically u- tilized on a large scale within the last ten or fifteen years. Its treatment cannot be taken up othervise than in close connection with petroleum for the productive regions, broadly considered, are ths same and where ons is found the othsr may be sxpscted with considerable cer- tainty. lVatural gas is colorless and of variable specific gravity. Calling air 1.10, Orton states (Ky. Geol, Survey Rep. on Petrolevm ete. 1°93, p- 106) that Pennsylvania gas (sandstone gas) ranges from.51-.54. Findlay, 0. gas from the Trenton limestone has bean determined at .o7 and .60. Others cf locality not stated hav2 reached .S7. Inerease of

(Sioars 2874), 082 CO. 0. (Spas wove ior i Ss

eusity, while inersase of C Hy, (Sp.2gr. .559) and of E (Sp. gar. .069) kesps if low. The variéstiés with even the slight peresntaze of H:5 have a strong, offsnsive odor, but the sand- Stones gases that lack it have ea not unpleasant smell. From the same gsecological sources, the composition is surprisingly uniform; to such an extent, indeed, that Analysis 1, above, answers quite well for the fZen- “eral run of sandstone gas and No. 4 for that from limestone.

PETROLBUM. Crude p2trolevm varies much in appearance. The light- est olls ars straw-color; the usval run of Pennsylvania and New York Oils are greenish, and the limestene oils of Ohin and elsewhere are dark brown or nearly black. Oils are compared on the basis of density and this is expressed in degrees of the Beaume scale. It is well to bear in mind that ovr usval specificisravity of 1. or of water is 10° Beaume; 25° 5B .9032, 70° .7. The formula of reduction is ar 1303= degrees Eeaume. Oils from Allegany Co. MN. Y. run 38-41 he fig= Kean and Venango Co's. Pa. 46-48 B: Warren Co. Pa. 43 B: Lima, 0. 36-36 B; Florence, Col. 30 B; Wyoming surface oils, 25 B. The seneral aver- age of Russian is 32 B. The bsaering of this is, that with lighter Olls, there is a better yield of illvminants (38-60 3B) which are the products chiefly sought. The chief hydrocarbons present are the mem bers of the paraffine series, with perhaps some olefines. The most troublesome substance is sulphur, in the form of complex sulphurovus hy- drocarbons. Somes oils have nitrogen, as in California where surface pools become filled with larvae. “hen Pennsylvania oils stand a dark Sediment settles out, called "Bb. S." which decreases the yield of illun- inants and lowers thse price.

GHOLOGY OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. These substances in small quantities are wide spread, and almost all sediméntary rocks hav2 at least traces. Soms years ago, Professor Wright of Yale, detacted an appreciable amount of a mitumen in the pegmalitic quartz of Branchville Conn. famous for its inclusions of carbonic acid (A. J. S. Mar. 1881, 209). Prof. Wm. Libbsy of Princeton recently (1893) obtained spectro-

(88)

et ale ge. — ae ae 3 +g A an ee la s ES ee i re Se, ) ire AS ity See ie ta, et L, ‘ — inlet a a : — : to Se. 5 ston ae: aS ter Sor Sel ge - hey Be —-— maf a aoe “a SS eS 2 - — : ; ‘ vt A ; F ee’

aaa al Wie aN meee s ehie ty Me ete Ooe at oe . 2 : 7 wipe! — a Seen vat a ee : 7 — : : : oe ae FO Got hey

&

scopic evidence of burning hydrocarbons in the flames which play on the lava cf the Sandwich Island craters. A. J. SS, Yay 1894, 371. Evena very small percentage of hydrocarbons in a thick rock stratum.consti-~ tutes a total of vast amount. Orton states that .02 % in a 1,000 ft. of rock would supply, if av&ilable, a greater yleld per acre or square mile, than the richest of ovr daveloped fields, that this is an a- meunt that rarely fails in the rocks of the Ohic valley.

It is to be emphasized at the ovtset that in ovr eastern Am3rican localities gas, oil and salt water always go tomethsr, but of coirse in all manner of relative amounts. In the earth thay are arranged in the order of their densities, the lightest on top.

In the geological problem of origin there are two main questions, Vize whence has the material come, and how has it been concentrated? The first serarates at once into tha two; is it of inorganic or of or- ganic derivation, and what chemical reactions have led to its forma- tion?’ n America almost no one seriously doubts that ovr local denos- its are derived from organic matter, wiich has been originally buried in ov below the strata that now afford the cil or gas. Abroad other Views have had some BOE SPLenee and even s2em to nave impressed at least one American z2o0lozgist with their claims to*seriovs attention (Sees G.F. ; ate Codmonol ita n Mazazine, Dec. 1894, 256). They will hovever bs dismissed with the mere statement.

becker

INOF GANIC HYPOTHFSES. LEertholet (1866) as the result of exps2ri- ment, stated that the hyrdroharbons of the petroleum series could he produced by the reaction at a hizh temrerature of water carrying ecrr- boni¢ acid in solvtion, vpon alkalies if such existed in a metallic stato in the interior of the earth (Annales, Chem. et Phys. IX. 481). lliendelejeff (1877) attained similar results by the reaction of water and carbonic acid vpon metallic iron and metallic carbides. These he then assumed to exist in the earth's interior (Revue SCientifidque 1077, 409).

It may be merely stated that this existence of metallic alkalies of carbides of iron in the interior of t earth is a pure speculation, and the difficulty of conceiving that the products of the reactions would pass upward through the many thousands of feet of overlyins satra- ta, is too great for most minds.

ORGANIC THEORIES. Granted an orfanic sovree, the question arises as to whether it was vegetable or animal. It is quite certain that Olls from shales and sandstones are of vegetable origin, hvt that those from limestones have been derived from animal remains. Ts absence of sulphur in the composition of the former, and the accumulation of the latter under circums stances unfavorable to plant life Zive s00d ground for this viow. Some California oils from shales seem to have also had

an animal origin. Differences of opinion have prevailed as to the covrse and causes of thé changes from organic tissue to oil and gas. T. S. Hunt (1863 ana later) advanced the view that they were developed in the ordinary processss of decomposition. and that they were indigenovs in or near the rocks in which they are found. J. S. Newberry (1859 and later) ex- plained them as due to a spontaneous distillation at low temperatures.

"Distillation" implies heat and the process thus differs from Hunt's (89) Og

a + fos Low ‘ pe ? - " ‘ 1 th any [nap wie" - Se ae siecle nati aid ee: ccs Fa cd ee ol gh ap ies Se er ee Pe, et oe Ee] A a sao i —, a_i ——— — . poe ‘ zs ee © + . —" aa . - lg iy yy ye eee ee ee ee ee ae Sweat ss : “ — . a sz ie 5 i i — —— — ae rain + - ree ‘ . : 4 aay ca inet a ee lets lial nicl ett SE a e H pare ce c J as al in 2 ft : ee neater OS rife Se 8 is Sg ty a ae fe at pt ra a

- Tas r 6 1 i fon ee ee es a ere Sg Flatt eg En Re go. Bac aA rd wa San Sl ee Lala peel ay ea 3. : ira tlie + ; ae : - . a LF be ee Fal oS, oe um

. f 4 scan ne : yp Saipan Sree Lae eh eS

. #

% ¥ k a vs nd a a het iy a a. ee sac Fh ‘ . a a dank ee x i" Sa Bal — rth s wat + ar wel wed aan ete? Lp ee ets sit pa: A) . ¥ - a ea v

eet a” a eS ee. TEE a vo ne ee ae y rain ay ate ey er oer

who does now necessarily assume temperatures above the ordinary. S. ¥., Peckhar followaxg out Newberry's idea referrod the heat to the folding and upheaval of the Appalachian mountain ranges in Pennsylvania.

The difficulty of detecting the presence of any notable inerease above surface temperatures in the oil wells and the absence of any large upheaval in the Ohio fields have led to increasing faith in the reactions cited by Hunt, and roe limestone oils there is little reason to question them. The feneral barrenness of the sandstones that’ carry oils, ets. mM traces of skeenisme. has led most geologists to favor Newberry's idsa of the sovrce in lower lying ae cmnons shales, whence the hydrocarbons have ascended.

The concentration and storage of oil and gas depend vpon cavities of some sort in the wocks which hold them. E. 5b. Andrews first gave definite expression to the view that there were subterranean cavernous fissures in which gas, oil and brine ranged themsel¥es in the order of thoir specific gravities. It was considered a matter of chance whether the drill struck such a cavity, and according to the point penetrated the well would yield Zas, oil or brine (A. J. Ss ii. XXXII. 39, 1801). This idea has been practically abandoned.

It was early noted both in Ontario and West Virginia that the Wells were ranged in anticlines, but no great importance was attached to the relations at the time. In 1885 the work of I. ©. White in west- ern Pennsylvania and in the years following the observations of Edw. Orton in northwestern Ohio, have developed what is known as the “anti- clinal” theory of storage and one that has proved of great scientific and economic value. In Orton's expressive phrase, porosity and reliof are necessary to concentration, the former to admit of accumulation, the latter to occasion it.- Anticlinals in whose stratigraphy a tight shale is involved, and which overlies a porovs sandstone, conglomerate, or dolomitized limestone furnish the most favorable places. Gas and oil gathering or ascending under the impervious shale, in the porous receptacle, from some bituminous source around or bslow, will force a- way the brine left in the rock from its original deposition in the sea, and accumulate under hydrostatic pressure, proportionate to the depth of the rorovs stratum below its outcrop. The gas will be at thse crest, the oil bensath, the brine still lower. A well at the crest yislds

gas, on the flanks, oil, and further out brine. It must be remembered that anticlinals rise and fall along the strike of the axes, & that the heights are especifk&lly favorable. It is also true that not everywhere

is the receptacle sufficiently porous, and nor is the cap of shalo al- ways tight, so that an anticline does not necessarily imply gas or oil. The anticlines or even monoclines are often quite slight and close lev- eling was necessary at the outset to prove them. In this and in the determination of the depth of the oil sand or gas rock the need of a universal datum was felt and now even for the interior the sea level is used it having been widely established by railway surveys. laps have even been constructed in he aowine the varying depths as referred to the sea-level, at which an oil or gas rock might be expected. They are thus a sort of negative topographical-geological map.

Although anticlines have been shown to be the determining cause of the locetian of oil and gas pools in almost all cases, Yet geologists of weight and experience (J. P. Lesley, C. A. Ashburner and others) have disputed the necessary wana 3 and have argued against the uni-

(90

yt aad — ag hh Nt wl ate TW ae ae ee Nee —- ct “lll - r 2 iat ee — oe es, — : 4 a E ee ee eee ——— ws r- : - whig a . <7" r a a pe AES Soe ee - ee ae ee SE en 7 ele i + a Sage ee ee ees Se te ee BS, yt Sl) a aMuk “Tye eae a of per oy ee ee te ee ee — a ’ ae

ee ope . a le r a - - - re gio + tril BS a plaice Se ean ee mat de We so hee Ries tre ee ' Se ee ee ee SSE an nnyreni Aried-aaT’ pr rineic yah aor eteinedimenreteeaneialeme= eee aae eee ae henna eee — “ ; an a es Fe Lak BS 4 t Se eee LA ee ee a ee 2 fat 2 - - inion : Bi eS ee aa 5 a : — x Pe : . : tl ars ital Suerte onlin dea oa Siw oe, eee Se. - he gh Lm ; 4 4 A al ae 2 2 +8 nl ir fo iJ be ee eae ae

a y

nt as oe r “ aa Bey p : ' Fee oe ee 2 ge : — - wre : — oan aaa See Nici ad nie ates oie ct mee pa Oe i ee ees re ee Ty TP at Mino ee

versal application of the idea. Local porosity would then be the only determining factor. Anticlines have undeniably proved in rec: a @rcat aid to the prospe2ctor.

Gryeral Literature:

Note. very comple te bibliography UP to and including 1080° will be found in Peeckham's report for the 10th Census, cited below. It is ee Ra ae with additions bringing it down through 1886 in Part II. An- mal Rerort for 1666, Penn. Geol, Surv. G30. In the citations nes on 1y works of snscial importance or of Zeneral anplicatio hese have been mostly issued since 1086. short biblios ially on the technology of oils closes the paper of 1. C. # tioned helov.

¢ ra

- Some Recent Speculations on the orizin of Petroleum. A- mer "Geol. FVs 72, E. 0. Androws. Petrolevm in its Geological Relations. A. J. S. ii. XLIT. 33. " See also Rock Oil, its Geological Relations and Distrwbu Tis XXXIT, 85. First shows the cavity theory. Se iis ACKVITI.. 159. Marly Accounts of Petroleum

— Sem SD (J. F, Carli. Many valvable reports in 2nd Geol. Survey of Penn. let-= : tered I. II. III. vp thro’ I&. A general disevssion is in III.

H. Ce. Felgzer Jr. Petrolevm, its Production and Products. Industrial Statistics of Penn. in Annual Report of Secretary of Internal Af- fairs of Penn..; 1892. Part, III. np. bl to. D20G.7, Rect, pAfvery val= vable paper.

Cis HH, Hit ehcock;

Petroleum in N. Amer. Geol. Mag. IV. 356, 1867.

1867, p. 623. Rec. Alenes Jo

Hanns Halfer. Petroleum & its contents. Reviewed Aug. 4, 1888, pm. 81s

T. S.~ Hunt. Contributions to the Chem. & Geol. History of Bitumsens and Pyroschists or Bituminovs Shales Aids Sx Bs 13965 15Ts. S36 aleo

Chem. and Geol. Essays.

J. J, Jahn Zur Frage uber die ees: des . Jahrbush d. K. K, Geol. Reichsaustatt, Vienna, 1892, p. 361. Shows the chemical possibility of a derivation from animal remains, and endeavors to

prove that this is consistent with observed geological facts. GC. FF. Maleery. On the Composition of fovea Petroleum Oils and of re- fining Residues. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sciences, Vol. XAV.

"Qs Wee tee” Mendelieff Theory. Theory of the Formation of Petroleum. E. &. if. Jour. DOCS Mie wan Die Deeche J. S. Newberry. Rock Oils of as pee Agricultural Rep. 1859.

D y

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he

7, D

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ner — Z ee -s) a aan ‘9 ne eer ‘ —- ‘ : ; ‘ : aii ci ‘ ina Ces SL + oa - -- x (Se een ae SESS, er aT Ey, rs e— 3 aa eee z . ; :

: : —" hi 4] we Phare he we ge ae — hed ; ‘ Le r ro or ah te a ——— et oe, oe we Be ee a an —tT a : : - ie. - : a ar — ae ee aes 2 — a RS a Aes Ao the es oo ——— et ate i 4 a — n a 2 : . - 3- 7 - hig as? ‘j=l es ll aa a ee — 1 - i — - SABER SY Sag Sere TS S57: eee sey ae —

re See a2 Nee Sane Sa eae . SAT SAS

,-S.. Newberry, The Fivst O11 Vell, -Harpers Sasa: 0et. 1890; . Orton. Geol. Ohio, VYol. VI. Chap. II. p. 60. Rec. " Petroleum, Natural Gas, etc. in Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Survey 1894. Good review of origin. Hec. Uo Peckham. 10th Census. .Vol. Xi pw Sa Rees " Abstract: of Chaps Va an.Ac Jd, S. Dile 285 105% Called The Orisin of Bitumens.

cy

Fe Cy, Phillins. Researches on the Chem. Prop. of Gases. Amer. Phil. Secs AVL, Part PRE Trans. 149, Origin of Nat. Gas Petroleum, 2296 canvy anals. 224.

e-

tiche end Rome. L'Industrie du petrole aux Ftats Unis, d'Amerique An-

nélos des ‘ines, 1894, 67-150. J. D. “soks. Annual Reviews in :"ineral Resources, U. S. Geol. Survey, Lega. - Haey : iInsral Industries Census, pn. 4235-578. Rec. L,. C.. Nhite Anticlinat Theory. Sci. June 26, 1085. See also Ashburner. Sci. July 1885. The Mannington O11 Field. Buil. Geol. Soe Aners PIDs eT, Leyes a ve . ! os ontains 2 grod resume of the Anticlinal Theory. ROLEU?1, GROGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND STRATIGRAPHY OF THR CHIEF PRODUCING REGIONS.

Tyi-

[he following table shows the relative importance of the several states in 1893, in barrels of 42 gallons. The figures are from the Mineral Resources for 1093, p. 463.

1892 1893

57,149,034 5 ce & DO 98S ee 16,862,991 205 2 16, S00ure9 3.810, 086 — %im a & |B, 4457472

Pennsylvania, Oho ase ee Oe ee West Virginia,

!

Indiana,- - - - - - - - - 696,0€8 - - - - 2,335,293 New York, aoe oe, Dyers 645 4s. we BOSTooL Colorado, - - s+ 824,000 - - 59@,390 California, - - - - - 505,049 - - - - - 470,179 The others, - - - 6,635 - o, 110 50,509,136 43,412,666 Russia, +. 35,104,126 Canada, - +--+e¢.+4+24 2e©-+4-- 795,406 It is difficult to secure correct figures of neighboring states because of the mixing of products in pipe lines. In the above, Penn sylvania, Vest Virginia and New York afford sandstone oils; Ohio, Indi- ana and Canada limestone oils; colorado and California shale oils.

The productive regions in a large way will be called fields. The fields will be subdivided into districts. Following the usage of J. D.- (92)

— : ee lidy Roam: a il te, ar, She gle Ck we i 8 6 i ee oo nt — Ria’ : . “si — Se Es ; —T See y — - ee eS 7 oe Sarak oa PT IEDs &- ee ho a Qu CU a? & - af nn : - a. a . Py aes yt mage nnesetet —" neve 7 ae - - a —— egeae SA ze De ; ai - : - - — — FS, wh Pat UA ae s a we aa SE ES h : : qe ae —— - 2 mS tier Fees : Ay , - Oi oe o™ 89e—e ee ee ie

-AMLEMIAS Perey ar tT al et — -

Weeks as established in the Volumes of the !‘ineral Resovrces, there are

1. Appalachian Field, including districts in southwestern New York, tTestarn Pennsylvania, Vest Virginia, eastern Ohio, eastern Ifen- tucky and some prospects in Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia.

2. Limea-Indiana Field, in northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana.

os Knniskillen Field, Ontario.

4. Florence Field, Colorado.

5, Soevthern California Field.

GO. oenttered and Tiinor Fields.

THR APPALACHIAN FIRLD begins in New York and runs in several belts southyestward into West Virginia. The nils and associated gas are all chtained from sandstones of the upper D*vonian (Chemung and Catskill) or of the Carboniferous as high 2s the Pottsville Conglomerate. Often- times close stratigraphical dsterminations are difficult to make or ac- count of the similarity of ths beds. There may bh? several productive horizons, in the same district, which themselves are but a few feet thick and which are invariably porous sandstones or conglomerates. Al- legany Co. Y. is the extreme northerly one and derives its supply from Chemung strata. In vattaraugus Co. next west the Bradford dis- trict bsagins and runs southwest into i'¢hkean Co. Pa. The Chemung strata Yield thse ovtpyvsy The productive beds are a dark brown or black sand- stons, called "black sand” as distinguished from the lighter colored sands earlisr tapped in Venango Co. Penn. Collectively all the above are often called the "Northeastern fis3ld" using "field" in a moro re- stricted sense than it is employed above. The wells have a small ave- rago production, 2/2 barrels daily in Alleghany Co., 8 in the Bradford district, but are long lived and reliable. Southwest from the Pradford district but on the same gen2ral belt are a number of separated pools in Warren and Forest Co's. forming the "Métddle Field". The horizon is still Chemung. Although the pils differ more or less among themselves they are generally called amber oils. The wells average & . daily.’ Still further southwsst lies the "Lower Field" chiefly in Venanzo, Clarion and Butler Co"s. There are three sandstones called the lst, end and Srd, within about 350 ft. They w8see the first ones tapped in 1353-650, and led to the great excitement of those years. Where all three are present the oil is found in the lowest. They belong to the Catskill strata. The wells were drilled in the valleys at first, bvut later on additional ones located on the hills, struck higher sands Which were called "Mountain Sands", but they never produced much. The Wells today average 7-21 . e@ach 24 hours. Near Franklin the yield is lubricating oil. Several ovtlying pools in Beavor and Laurance Co's from the Pottsville conglomerate and the Berea grit are also included ancthis Field. In Allegany Co. south of Pittsburg, and in Washington and Greene still further south are a number of other districts which make up the Southwestern Field. The best known is the McDonald of Al- lomany Co. which after an opening cal f phenomenal production has

O

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oH 72 ©

(D Cd Fs ©

WEST VIRGINIA contains a sovthern extension of this Southwestern Fisld in the Mannington district, which was located by I. C. White in accordange with the anticlinal theory as described in his interesting paper cited below. The oil. is obtained in what is called the Dig Injun=

(93)

Seatac eiaaagh Saag Latent ta cieee rive a eh rete “et ae en ere er re ear aap SE 2 ein tis i a a a oe (ahem ys va Y idee ea — ; : a —S— rae ee! ef? ete : ee . haat i 8 St ae ges ee ee +a

‘fy ee ee os riserereest Tey ome oarpencpesgss or ‘mahi 7 i : M3 — es ni een 9 -—— 5 s 3 a —— Eee Pn rey Suet ; © ; % x . ig : - aes eee 2 " pao ao : ee suhiag : os ee PN dea eee s ; — 5 ee TN ’ ste te Se — aT

cael EEG ee iw

a a 2 a. . - - “ -

ae 2 a - - “oi - — — — - 4 x — She a re : oe

nn sala tamiasead - F oi a ; Pe age eee a ee a . z os a S28 eee ad - Fi Lees zal — . . : aa nF Serr

sand, a member of the Pocono. Further west and south from Marietta on

- are the two pools at Volcano and Burning Springs, known years and of which the former yields lubricating oil (31 B), The norizon is the Big Injun sand of the Pocono. More recently devel- cped districts are the Turkey Foot in Hancock Co. in the extreme north- erly end of the Panhandle, the Sistersville in Tyler Co. and the Evreka in Pleasant Co. both on the Ohio river. For the immense increase in the production of Vest Virginia these last are responsible.

Tastern Ohio contains two or three districts closely associated with these of West Virginia. The Macksburg district is an old one that lies just aSPER of Marietta and for many years has produced oil from the Berea Grit of the Lower Carboniferous, along a monocline. The Sis- tersville and Evreka districts of West Virginia extend into Ohio and vyiold cil from the Pocono. In northeastern Ohio, the Mecca-Delden dis- trict has long afforded a lubricating oil from the Berea grit. The chief distr icts of Ohio lic ovtside the Appalachian Field and differ from it in geological relations so much as to demand special treatment.

LITERATURE OF NEW YORK OC. A. Ashburner. Petr. & Nat.. Gas in N. Y. State. M. B. 16, 906.

CD. Silliman Sr. Notice of a fountain of Petroleum called the Oil

Spring (near Cuba; Alteg, Co... Yu). Interesting. Ai Je Se Bo.

97 o H. Wrigley. The Amount of Oil in Pa. and N. Y. KE. & H. Jour. Pune 17,

See Piss Oudis

Not¢ But little has been written on the New York Bint as con- lected with Pa. A forthcoming report on the Mineral Resources of N.

Y. prepared by F. J. H. Merrill for the State Reet AsH ood of the Chi- cazo Fair, 1595, will have a sketch and geological map. It is not yet issued (March 1895).

LITFRATURE OF INNSYLVANTA Note. Attention is called to the citations of a general character earlier given p especially Folger's. The literature of petroleum up to 16&5 is chiefly the literature of Pennsylvania. Of current jour- nals, The Amer. Manufacturer and Iron World, and Stowells Petrolsum Re- porter, both of Pittsburg, The Petroleum Age, of Bradford, and the Oil City Derrick may be cited. ey ae The Pa. Oil Regions, Their Geology Hist. E. & M. Jour. Sept.S, LS8l,. px 150. 7 C,. A, Ashburner The Eradford Oil Dist. P*. M. BE. VII. 316. ' Oil-Sands cf the Dradford or Northern Oil Dist. of Pa. compared mith those of the Venango or Western Dist. Amer. Phil. Soc. Mar. Dig Le The Product and Exhaustion of the 0i1 Regions of Pa. and N. Y. a ge ae . J, F. Cari] il & Ga: inn. Rep. 2nd Pa. Surv. 1885. Carly Pia cs aN & Gas Rezion Qo, 1886. (9A)

- ri 7 . a : 2 E of Po) ExT a ae pe a ee ie SEE ee ak: ——F Tie . —, . . 2 i 5 5 a3 o=te SF ee re TR pe cal tei a tlie mal ooh i J ae a: ee rie — a a -— Page - An ts i . et oe tea x's ats

i a — Ss z Leet ee a oa rr hee el owe, oe ie 5 aa es ls Sy re ha I ae — - wee rr eee Rar 3 : Shs Soe ry — a eae a — er! ee ee ips AN keep ye ae, ST Vin, ee at pees a liste ee P

: ; - et nerd sal Saree a He ig heed re el

J. F. Carll. Reports numbered I.-I5 on local geology of oil regions of Pa. Pa. Geol. Surverw Kec. J. P. Lesley. On the Allegany Riv. at Brady's Bend. Proc. Am. Phil. SOC ues Seas woos ! Ly. Saves. OD Raezionsor Pa, An wd. Sl te RTS 16s J. D. Weeks. Annual Review in Il!inezal Resources, U. S. Rec. " Mineral Industries. Census. Rec. H. BE. Vrizley. Pa. 2nd Geol. Surv. Rep. J. Petrolevm of Pa. Gnod introductory sketch. Rec. On the Present & Prospective Conditions of the Petroleum fields of Pay Se Gay se Bote i225 Lares Tie 702 " The Amt? of OF remaining in Pa. & Hs ¥. Mi BE. xi 354,

Literature Of West Virginia:

Note. Aside from ths general papers of J. D. Weeks and S. F. Peck ham mentioned above, p. little has been written on West Virginia Oil.

B. We Evans. On the Oit-Producing Uplift of Ws Va. As J Ss EE. 42, I, C. White. The Mannington Oil Field and the History of its Develop-

ment. Dull. Geol. Soc. Amer. III. 157, 1892.

The Literature of Ohio will be found entire under the Lima-Indiana Field.

THE LITiA-INDIANA FIELD is one of the most interssting of recent discoveries. The first gas was tapped in November 1084, at Findlay and soon after oil was found at Lima in the Trenton limestone a new and un- expected horizon. These discoveries started drilling in many new quar- ters and pools cf oil are now known in en counties, fovr of which are strong producers. The field has be ne of the chief demonstra+ tions of the anticlinal theory, so much .so that in accordance with it, the promising country is now quite accurately outlined. The northerly extension of the Cincinnati anticline is marked by several low rolls at whose crests, and abovt 1,100-1,300 ft. “e€low the surface there is po- rovs, dolomitized, Trenton limestone under tight Utica and Hudson River shales. The porovs bed lies about 10 ft. below the top of the Trenton, and is from 3-10 ft. & never more than 15 ft. thick. Some gas lies a- bove the oil, but it may be but slight. Below the oil is brine. In the gas districts the oil is subordinate. It appsfears from the above that the wells are shallow as compared with Pennsylvania. They also require less casing and are cheaper to inaugurate. The oil is heavier than th2 sandstone oils, dark in color, and contains about 0.5 4% 58. This at first was a drawback in refining but successful processes are now in opsration so that it and its odor are removed. The Trenton lime stone oil today yields a greater part of the illuminating oils, than does any other one geological formation.

Literature:

. W. Minshall. History & Development of Macksburg Field. Geol. of Onto: Vol. VEl Hx 243,

(95 )

oO

SS ee ——— er — — -2. +- - ae

— : ee - - 4 fa — es —. 2 oe So hoe a ee a eer IS ee at ~St ai — - ae Se a ee aS SS ESTEE aa, SS a ee ee i Seen See F: Wii aT aa Salen oo ee

Eat; 3 — ee Se ene Flas es — —— Sr, —S- SSS ah a a fe Sap, ES ie Areas ae a ane EASE pores ee ee eee SO ee epee ts st femmes aa 7 ee - angle re ls eg i a ep ee

Se ee ee ee SScrt same Be anh aoe Sema eS er ier ee a A

J. S. N-vwborry. Roek Oils of Ohio. 1859. er Phen "cons Gool. Ohio. Grol. Surv y Vol. Vin Roe. Mee. Spa-

ially on Tr:nton oil. " Pr Liminary Rop. on Oil Gas in Ohio. BET: t First Annveal Ronort of Srd G

sol. Survoyv of Ohio, 1890. Rec.

- Tr anton Limestone: as Soure. of P.otrol. & Inflarmmable vas in

Ohio & Ind. ott Arti. Rane Divs Ws “Se Mes Ss Tl). AS5-665. Rot

Indiana. Tho Lima fi-ld runs across th Lins of Indiana antl vith- in th: last two vears, in th. bord .r countizs of Blacxford, Jar, Wpdis. Adams, end Grant very productive awe has baen found. The seological relations are in all resrects like those of the Lima field.

One ov ttfo yells near Terre Navte far to the West o 1

of this nortion Fam

ad ry bd 1 “495 - Yi 5 r Jotes. The oil develorments of importance are too vecent to nave —- - a se 7 or 5 s? - 7 — - do - 7. +. as yet much literature. Further citations aprear later under natural

. 4 1 ca 4 . ee . - I: ¥ , + : . - ve Gas in Indiana, to which attention is directed, esnecially as regards ‘

(" : ?P . 7 Ian mY 4. 1. j G+ a4 (s yy at Oe 6 canad 1Cct - J etrolevuyin Th g: Ind qu Me las 1 Wes Ann. Ney . OLA er Gaolofis Ls oO Ze ra) ; x eute a at om e Ae py IN Ba PP. 3 16-326 (Bafor Qa the sry" 2A CLLSCOV arias) . my CC a CO) aL tty gc OT naa Liesst ee es A i i C T es fF ¢) Le @ Hunt Un the Oil sells O07 aa errs MAULEe, 1 YiCl e Lhe J . we ae -- @

Tir ENNTSKILLEN FIRFLD lies in western Ontario, a few miles sast of

Port Huron. The oil is obtained from the Corniferovs limestone 370-500

ft. from the surface, and about 65 ft. below its top. There are two

districts, Petrolia and Oil Sprinzss, of limited extent separated by a

marked synecline. The oil is sulphurous, and heavy, 31-35 B. It as the

first limestone oil developed in North America (1867) and suggessed the axplanationzsof 7. S. Hunt wn origin, which were earlier cited. ‘the

Enniskillen fisld is thought to be approaching exhaustion.

LITERATUR: ote. Canadian Geological Survey Reports give annual roviewWs.

R. Bell. Petroleum Field of Ontario. Trans, Roy. Soc. of Can. Vols ¥.

H. P. H. Crvumell. On Natural Gas Petroleum in Ontaric prior to 1691. Geol. Surv. Can. 1890-91. . 5-91 & Bibliography. Rec. See also Ren. for 1858-89, 77 s.

" Gsolozy of Mat. Gas & Petrol. in S$. VY. Ontario, and Notes on Pe- troleum in Gasns. Bull. Geol. Soc. Aner. IV. 225-244.

7, S. Hunt. On the Geology of Southwestern Ontario. wescribes petro- lsum in thie article. — A J. S. dip MEV. 355. Many eariaer peppers by Dr. Hunt will be found cited In Yeresrence of Frumell's above.

A. Winehell. Note on the Geol. of Petroleum in Canada est. A. J. S. 1 bor ge SS a

—, <i)

Se ee ee oe se at - ——— ae : Ss . ae aoe via — i —— as ae Si Sey eS Ts —— Se a es mat gE me a aE oer Te ap ag : ; ores ata a —— a — aS Sa at a4: te Lanta dT a AE ae a er: ye ee 8 ae TT : Ae 32 ae OS See 6 a ater’ oS on

etree . deat. Abate ai ie La a eee en a

rh par eiae is ie. Labatbtha iia Gris a ee : ese ake ae ty ‘ : i . Ese eras. a s a ee aah EAL - .

esetsLt asain aesiasiane) eae oo ei$e

2 ee

ee —

ae -

NOTE. Some indications of 011 elsewhere in Canada have been met; they are not yet shown to be serious but a few references are appended.

Re Boll. Petrolevm in the Northwest Territories of British America - on the Athabasca and elsewhere. Proc. of the Can. Inst. new ser. Lig. eres, Ge

i, PP, H, Brumell. On Natural Gas and Petrolevm in Ontario prior to 1891. C. G. S. 1890-91, q. See also other citations under Bru- mell ahove.

R, €. licConnell. Oi1 in Athabasca. Geol. Surv. Can. 1890-91, 66 D.

be

THE FLORENCE, COLO. FIRELD is of limited extent and lies on the

easterly edze of the syncline which contains ths coal of the Canon City coll field (yn. 41). The oil is somewhat exceptional in its geological relations being ina great basin and not on an arch. It has accumulaé-

ed, apparently from enclosing bituminous shales, in the more sandy layers of the formation, and is accompanied by variable amounts of gas, and practically no water, salt or fresk. The geological horizon is the Pierre, the upper member of the Montana zgrovp in the middle Cretaceous. The wells are from 1,000-2,000 ft. deep, and the oil is rather heavy, 51 b. The production appears to be falling off.

Literature:

2, 1892. Rees 1875, pe SLT.

vey lo. State School

Eldridge. The Florence Oil Field. Ti. BE. XX. 44 FP, Ms. Endlich. Section at Florence, Col. Haydens Surv 1. 63 Iselsenz. The Canon City O11 Sield.. <Ann. Hep, -Co of Mines, 28S5, 75; Rec. os-Noewberry. The 022 BPietads of Col. ‘SS, oT. Danke ois Che Ee. ds Dec. 15, L868) pm. 279%

THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA FIELD is is many PeePSees exceptional and peculiar. The oil is heavy and as a general thing has an asphaltic base, not one of paraffine. It is found in highly inetaaied gtrata and is collected in thin sandstones in t

themselves. Tne dip is often as hizh as 75 ad districts are in narrow canons whose walls sc the drilling riz. Tunnels have been resorted stead of wells, because tne ae dips make trouble in keeping the holes straight. The productive fields are in L seles and Ventura Co's. The latter contains the Santa Pala district, 39 miles west of Newhall, the former the Pico and Muente districts. Productive wells have lately been drilled in the city of Los Angeles. The oils are heavy, 26-32 B, and do not yield as much illuminants as cur eastern product, so that they are largely used for fvel in the crude state. The Geological age of the productive strata is considered ifiocene Tertiary. There are other small districts in San Mateo Co. on the coast, and in Fresno Co. and Kern Co. in the central valley (the Sunset district) but their ovt- put is not serious. Kern Co. has afforded oil as low as 12 DB.

and the productive cely afford a perch for o in not a few cases in-

t ) . his he midst of shales or in the shales ef

Litrrature:

J. J, Crawford. 12th Rep. State Mi

— en ae ——- a0 Sa —— ae — eae ca ——

-— at “an ry & mr “se a - a re ee EERE DAR a wi & .

nin 5 Co ae ‘cS

oa 7+ a

ee,

Ao ie — . a “ “ a ae A -

5 oe ——

ye

W. A. Goodyear. Cal. State llineralogist Rep. 1887. J. Marcow. Wheelers Ann. Rep. 1876, p. 164. BE. North. The Pico Canon 041 Field. 10th Ann. Rep. State Min. Calif. 283, 1890. S. F. Peckham. Rep. Geol. Survey of Cal. Geol. JI. App. pp. 48-90. "Amer. Chem. IV. 6G. ” "Foes, Amietia, Jeiiie “Soe. A. abe " 10th Census, Vol. X. £5258. " Petroleum in Sovthern Calif. Science Feb. 9, 1894, 74. W. L. Watts. Gas and Petroleum Yielding Formations of the central val- ley, Calif. State Mining bureau, Bulletin 3, 1894.

a

Minor Oil Fields, which ars as yet only prospects or of small pro- duction are known in many places. Favorable anticlines exist in Ala- hama and some small quantities have been obtained from the Trenton lime stone (M. R. 1893, 509, 1890, 363). In Dickson Co. Tenn. oil was dis- covered in small amounts in 1865 but no serious production was ever at-= tained. In Barron Co. southern central Kentucky, there is a small field near Glasgow that yields a few thousand barrels. Other prospects exist in Pulaski and Russell Co's. further east. As early as 1829 a salt well at Sburkesville in Cumberland Co. had a brief but phenomenal production of petroleum which flooded the Cumberland river with a stream of oil that caught fire 40 miles below the well (Orton, Pstroe leum Gas and Asphalt in Ky. p. 144). Orton reviews a long series of unsuccessful ventures.: Illinois produces a lubricating oil in small a- mounts at Litchfield, Montgomery Co. On the Western border of Missouri (Bates Co.) and in the neighboring nart of Kanses (Miami Co.) small quantities of a heavy lubricating oil, 23.5 B have been obtained. In Wilson Co. southeastern Kansas more promising vields of oil and gas

J

vere obtained in 1894. Texas has furnished heavy oils in Bexar Co. Wyoming contains some rather promisin

rious results have been attained. Of greater importance to the western coast is the new Peruvian oil field, which extends also northward into Equador. The wells center abovt Negritos and are 500 ft. and less in depth. ‘The oil is of good grade, 38-39 8B. and it is stated that it is to go to Pacific ports as a fuel. 350,000 . were produced in 1890 (M. R. E93, p. 516. C. Ochsenius Chemiker Zeitung 1891, XV. No. 102).

country but as Yet no very se-

J

Natural Gas. Genfral Literature:

shburner. The Geology of Natural Gas. M. E. 14. 428. “ The Geological Distribution of Natural Gas in the U. S. i 505. E, & M. Jan. 15. 22. 87. 58. Prelim. Paper. E. & M. Nove G, 86 p. 332. fie tie Nance. The Anticlanal Theory of Natural Gas. 2 ak ny Sa 2 General Review to 1887. Amer. Man. & Iron World. Supplement. Dec. 39, 1887. Papers by Ashburner, Carll, and Phinney, especially good xo for Indiana. Goetz. Notes on Fuel Gas. HM. E. Wash.

Meeting Feb. 1890.

Je F. Kamp. On the precipitation of -etallic Sulphides by Natural Gas. He ee Sew Weta LSE eso.

We. J, MeGee. Rock-Gas and Related Bitumens. lith Ann. Rep. Dir. U. S. Gas wy, Leos

ineral Resgovrces. The volumes contain Annval Reviews.

Ee. Orton. Admirable general Essays in Geol. of Ohio. Vol. VI.- Ann, Rep. for 1890, Ohio Geol. Survey. Petroleum, Gas and Asphalt in oy LSI. bit Ants apie a. VO. Uy Ge bods ene Let

™ (Ofagin of “the netk- Prsssute ior Gas. Builds, Geol. Soc. emer. Loci Ay ds So “Pa, RARIRY 596). Rac

I, 0. White. States the Anticlinal Theory. Science June 26, 1585. A.

de Sy Shite Asoely S065 Budd. GebiisvSocs Amer. wlibla LS

The Zensralities regarding tne geology of natural gas have ijilready been set ferth. They are practically the same as those of petroleun and the productive regions are closely related. Gas however is found in © many localities which show no ssriovs amounts of oil.

The early oil=-<wells and the still earlier salt=-tells often liber- ated great quantities of gas whose inflammability was known and which was in rare instances utilized. On the Kanawha river, W. Va. it Was employed to evanorate brines at a very early date: at Fredonia, !. Y. it was used in the illumination of ths togn and elsewhere it was burned With an insufficisnt amount of air so as to deposit a fine grade cf lamp-black. Lut vast quantities were allowed to run to waste and some timidity was felt about its exnlosive capabilities and the apparently vuneontrollable pressure at which it smerged. It was first piped in Pub ier o.8Pa> in lero, bit. not call 1873 was it extensively used in manufacturing, and not till oe So was it taken to Pattsburz. Then the industry tock great stride its was much accelarated by tne vells of northwestern Ghio (1284), SH Later on othsrs in Indwana Natural ZaS 18 incomparably the best of natural fuels. Fifteen Ghowsand eet of gas are about equal to one ton of coal. The search for it has been prosecuted in all parts of the country and in addition to being sources of gas, the wells have added enormously te our geological knowledge.

The valve of the gas produced in tha states tha Vielded over

S100, O00 in 1693 s as follows.

ou 1695 . , L893

ri

Pennsylvania, - - - - $6,488,000. New York, - S210, O00.

Padiana 2 4. 2 ais 5718000. West Pie 123,000

Ohio, - - +-1,510,000. Other State -- - 2+ -- dt ~GoU. Total, - 5 fia 346 9550.

Statistics show a steady decrease from the maximum of 322,629,875 in 1lucs, of which Pannsylvania contributed SAO, Boon 35

aa —

a

O w

NEW YORK. F"nsrgetic search has has developed productive wells i the gas in the same geolofical relat oil. The gas is piped to Buffalo. small amounts have been sc met in the counties west, and in the rsgion around Buffalo, and near Oswego, from-various faleozoic horizons. Gas from wells in Ontario about 10 miles from Fort Frie has also bsen introduced in Buffalo.

tfed-on in Mew York and dof Alteshany Co. with Ta

Ina! a)

i. O m9

st ju fl

ay)

MH aD

1 tha

m ©

(Qa CO H+ cp

cf oD

- Fo pe eg meme eae - ——os ——— saiinanapiegliped

eee ee - amet numer 4A , — he — ‘ wk - ee at —— Ff ae Pesta aay Se BS on ee A neeee Pas/

- et ee Be tats SAIS! EATS SEE te a a sen al “AC I eT, Sc amen

— Se ee ee .

C. A. Ashburner. -Geol. of Buffalo a

Ss related to Nat. Gas. Expl. along arty . ate Be lachiw. OS

“ Ctr — e " Fetrolcum & Natursd Gas in Ni ¥, State. M.m XVI. 906. " Natural Gas Explorations in the Fastern Ontario Pa. If. #. Oct.

H. Se Williams. Geology of Southwestern N. Y. Petroleum Age. June, 1Se7.,° Dp. IT642.. Bradford. Pa.

PENNSYLVANIA. The Vradford and neighbor ing oil regions produ x which

consid2ranle for local use The svupply for Pittsbereg, which is the sreutest single market, is webtained from Adis along the Alleghany riv- er to the north of the city and from Vashington Co. on the sovthvest.

The Furrvsville, Tarentum and Graneville wells Were famovs in th:3ir dav, and yielded gas at 500 lbs. pressure to th: square inch. Ts zas 1s now CGhisfly sold for domestic use. The same strata furnish it, as Yield ths o11 of the region.

()

Litrratura

J. H Uaril and B.C. Phiddtings. Oil andi Gas. Rezion of Pa. Ann. Rep. Pa. Geol. Survey, 1886. See also Carll's county reports in Pa. Survey for local dstails.

J, H. Cummins. Geology of the Natvral Gas Fields abovt Pittsburg. E. oe My Jound: dp sO. 92,7 p.. 206.

J. P. Leslsy Pressure etc. of Rock Gas. Ann. Rep. 2nd Pa. Surv.

HIO. The Ohio gas is mostly derived from the Trenton limastone in the Lima field, but other smaller supplies are obtaingsd in the east- ern portion of thse stats from the Berea Grit, and lately large vields ave been tapped from the Clinton limestone north of Columbus, to which city 1t is piped. A small anticlinal has occasioned the storage. In the northwestern hed Aah , along the Cincinnati arch, phenomenal wells have been drilled at Findlay, and trans further north. They reached their zenith in 1cde9 ee have declined steadily to date. ths gas is piped to ths towns along lake Brie. The anticline runs to the north and has Deen tapped in Ontario as well be later noted.

Literature:

He Orton. Prelim. Rept. Columbus. 1887. " Ann. Rep. State Geologist, 1890. " Vol. VI. Ohio Geol. Survey. Rec. " @th Anns Rep. Dire Ui Bon is Ss ates " The recently discovered sources of Natural Gas and Petroleum in N. Wie Oba tin in a ‘ Vol. 34, ahs DOs WOO & " The horizon of Psa & Gas tn Ohao. “A. Av iA te.

Ks on of trolevm and inflammabl Vol. 35, p..397; 1884

“ Origin of the Rock Pressure of the N. G. of the Trenton Limesto of 0. Oty PTC Al eithn Sign Debden eG Beets J. S. Newberry. On Ohio & other Gas Wells. A. J. 8S. idi. V. 225.

“ - -— ee ar on I

r x em oe A a 5 AM ca Sy tet~- . : . eu — P — 3 - a a

FS ae eae ay a ere te eee re Z : amet (aa as see : : —— ma

RS Se ag am (Sieh hate) of on aie oa abel A toed) dlp er aed Tay - oa a tv — oe i oe Sarat a — — r + Pent wn cab “Se ae —— ae ari lets i ss Sig act - ‘ i

pati naa oaetSR Sa Te aT! SERGE DEAT ee

Tha —— —

eae oF - —— ae Pa atl —eap a a a ance -

INDIANA has dav2zlopsd into a clos3 rival of Pannsylvania. All its gas is chtain:d from the Trenton limeston> in a west .rly extension of the Ohic fields. It anpo2ars that the Cincinnati Arch forks and sends a branch into Indiana, and along the anticlines in the eastern cesntral part of ths state, the pools ar: found. The gas is piped to all sure rounding towns and sven to Ch hicago. The walls ranz2 somewhat under 1,000 fe3t.The gas is idsntical in composition with that obtain2d in Ohio.

Literature:

S. S. Gordy. Rap. on the Gas of Indiana. Ind. Geol. Surv. 15th Ann. Rep. 1686, p. 228. Also in subsequent rancrts thro’ No. 18. This last contains a good stats> map.

F. Levarstt. Studies in the Indiana Natural Gas Fisld. Amer. Geol. Te 6

fe Orton. Cth Ann. Rap. Director U. 5. G. S. 483.

A. J. Phinney. Nat. Gas in Indiana. Am. ’anuf. and Iron Yorld, Aug.

" Nat. Gas in Indiana. Ann. Ren. Dirs U. S. G. S. 579;

ONTARIO, CAN. Thare are two important fields in this provines. One in Welland Co. opposite Buffalo obtains supplies from the i edina and Clinton horizons, anoths2r in Essex Co. opposite Detroit taps the Clinton limestone.

LITERATURE: C. A. Ashburner. Natural Gas Explorations in ths Fastern Ontario Peo

1 23 S ninsuvla. MM. E. Ottawa Mesting, Oct. “89. See also RF. & M. J. Mar. 15, 1890, 313. Mineral Resources. 1891, p. 443. R. Boll] and H. P. Brumell as cited unde Annval reViews are given in Rep's

PatYolaum in Ontario) 4 Geol (Suiwew.

een struck in which takes (Orton, Pe-=

OTHREP DISTRICTS. Kentucky. A small gas Freid he 2S I

Meade Co. on the Ohio river, 25-40 miles

its supply from a black Devonian shale a O

,Q - @O

troleum Nat. Gas & Asphalt in Ky. p. 170). Shnevisrat le pant Teaes are obtained in West Vi irginia in the re Ya A fe if ds, In Missourt, Iowa, Itinn.e sota, Kansas, Utah, California, in fact in almost all the states some little Zas .as been obtained and some explorations ‘ave been made.

Full reviews of these are given in the volume of the Census on Mineral Industries, so far as they ware developed in 1890. In addition the following references may he noted.

Colo. R.@. Hills. Notes on the Racent Discovary of Natural Gas in Pitkin. Cos Colo. Prot. Colo. Sei. Soey EE Pt. atu p., 106.

Ili, T. we. Comstock. Of and Natural Gas in Pid. Gang. &% Surveyors Assoc. of Ill. Jan. 26-28, 1827.

lowWaw (Oe Be Kevea. Dat. Gasuce Ob an tas obese. Ready Stik Lo Iss. De Glos

"P.M, Wilter. The Gas Wells near Letts, Iowa - in Drift. Ia. A-

ead Stir i. part Th. oh. 6s. Minn. N. H. Winehell. Natural Gas in Minn. Bull. 5, Minn. Geol. Surv.

i Fah Se SS Erg Mt ee —

a eee we, Faces ne ‘ a - a ee - — i . et oe ee eh a oa, . : - at es a Sea ae — : : : t “are - mS or are na a ate 3 z as a ‘ a 2 hy 1 SSS er ee aaa oS Past ses . es i

— Hae ts ee FEA I=. amis ay . oer,

ca 7 eee — - - es so os, — 4 ea Ey “s J came,

MAUTHA. Tarry fluids ars not uncommon in Small amounts in lime- stonss ard bituminous sandstones: So-called "“tarsprirgs" ooze from

them, and the bituminous substance is also spoken of as Baie asphalt. Only in southern California are they of practical value, and while not

afew localities ars known in Santa Barbara and other paaees the chisf developments are at the Lan Conthas mine on the ocsan near Car-= penteria. The maltha impregnates a clean .vaternary beach sand, which may pean 20 to 60 fest in thickness. A strongly bitumimous shale un- Gerlies it and from this the maltha exudes. The crude sand contains about 20 d bitumen, but the rafined reaches 95 Ae The daposit is des- cribed in the 7th Ann. Kep. Calif. Stats Mineralogist, p- 89% the 12th do nm. S1 and in M, R. 1893 pe 6350. It is employed in softening solid asphalt and as a coating against moisture. Brea is a name often ap- YPlisd to malitha or liguid asphalt.

ASPHALT. The loss of the more volatile constituents of some pe~ troleums and c3rtain polymeric changes not well understood, lead to the production of asphalt, a residve, solid at ordinary temperatures. More or less wat3r, sand and clay are always mixed with it as it occurs in the natural state, and it may also impregnate limestone. Its groat em ployment is for strest-paving, and other uses such as coating reser~ voirs, Cellars, and the like. For these purposes it has a Wide and srowing field. Ths in¢reasing intsarest in good paving for city high- ways has opened an inexhaustible market for it. Asphalts differ much in their properties and not all hav> the n>cessary "bond" for an endur- ing street surface. They shade by imperceptible gradations into brit- tle, shining coali-like substances which are here specially treated as asphaltic coals. The latter have different uses of their own. The chemistry is however so complex, that elementary analyses throw little light upon the question, and whether important groups of definite and characteristic hydrocarbons are to be separated and recognized in the future, only the future will reveal.

Genfral Litrrature:

We Be Blake Uintaite, Albertite, Grahamite and Asphaltum, M. E. Feb. 1890. Ree.

G, C. Broadhead. Centennial Rep'ts and Awards Gp. I. pe. 2. On As- phalt Bitumen, Petroleum &c.

FeV. Greene. Asphalt and its Uses. M. E. XVII. 595+ o Male. Guide Pratique pour la Pape ieetion et L'application de l'as-

phalte at des bitumes. Paris, 1877. P. Nercy. Les Bitumes. Lille, France, 1889. Rec. S. F. Peckham. Notes on the Origin of Bitumens with exp'ts &c. Am. PHid. Sots. %. 445,.. Also Abs, A, oe Se Dl 48, SP. ete " Tenth Census, Vol. XV. Rept. on Petroleum & Bitumens in generale " Petroleum in its relations to Asphaltic Pavement. A. J. S. Jan. 1894, p. 28. : S. P. Pratt. Geological Position of the Bitumen used in Asphalt Pave- ments, “Os. ce Wear Sos elas ote H. Wurtz. A Theory of Asphalts. E. & M. Jour. July 27 ‘89 p. 73.

Within the United States only two or three regions are of notable (102)

importance although from abroad large quantities are imported.

Kentucky. In Breckenridge and Crayson Co.s, southwest of Louis- Ville, ter snrings hawz2 been long known and to their associated sul- Mhvrovs waters medicinal virtues have been attributed. In the same ro-=

Zion sandstones outcrop which are saturated with asphalt and which have of late been smployed for strest paving in sevaral Ohio cities, with favorable r2sults according to Prof. Orton. (Ky. Geol. Survey, Petrole- um, Gas and Asphalt rock. pp. 206-221.)

toxas. In Uvalde Co. sovthwvest rn Texas, a shell limestone is found which contains about 20 4 of bitumen and is called litho-carbon. Tha asphalt ic product is raportod to have gr:at elasticity and propara- tions have basn made to utilize it. (See "Current Lit :rature" Sept.

Ld

1891, r 131. M. R. 1893, p. 637.)

Utah. A bituminous limestons has bee2n quarried in ths north2rn part of Emery Co. on th> Rio Grande and Vestern R. R. and sold for ‘strjat pr peving in th> interior cities (ii, R. 1892. 702 - 1293, 636.)

Lig, sont icn is made at this point of gilscnit; and vintaite but thoy are

pote

California is tha chief source of asphalt within the limits of the tos. Tho same gZ3ane2ral region that has alraady bean reof2rred

aiwv

to under prztrolevm and maltha likswise yields both asphalt and asphalt~- ic rock, which ars the foundations of important and growing industries.

At ths mine called La Patera 12 miles west of Santa Barbara some hun-

dreds of acres yield an asphalt, which has mingled with it abovt 40

of quartz sand as an impurity. When softened with the maltha mentioned

above and mixa3d with Se ote sand or limestone it is ie Ree oed for

paving. Anothr2r important asphelt district lies in th. great valloy cf

California in Kern Co. at the town of Asphalto. A large vein that runs carly 80 % pure bitumen has b2an opened up, but the freights are more

me! Ne expensive than for deposits on the sea-coast.

Asphaltic rock that is used without refining by morely warming up ant rolling, is mined in very large quantitics nsoar Santa Cruz, in the county of ths same name. The asphalt impregnates a sandstone. Other dsposits are vtilized in San Luis Obispo and in Monterey Co.s. Several

aspheltic coals from California are mentioned later.

Literature:

J. Jo Crawford. 12th Ann. Rep. Calif. Stats Mineralogist. 1594, pe 2 R

LAC .%6 Wine Denton. On the asphalt beds near Los Angeles Cal. c¢ its ecntainad Posdadey “Bur Secs) Nev Hy AVili Ric Tey

E. W. Hilgard: Min. Resovrces U. SS. 2eS5-84; ‘p. 93S " Asphalt in Ventura Co. Calif. Stats Minoralog 1890, p. 763.

Yims J, Iroelan. Calif.Min. Rep. 1857, Pp. 5QO. Good Zaneral account

ii, Wo Parkers Qn Calif. Asphalts. Ms R. 2695, 629. Hoe.

Wa L. Watts. Gas and Potrol. Formations in Cantral Calif. S5ull. 3. Cal. State Mining Bureav. 1894, p. 41. (On Kern Co.}

7 103) Poo!

- hl ta! 4 $s rt ! arene —— hee Dt ae ol a - ns bes ih sil SS afer a ent in anita teal 2 a

Trinidad. The island of Trinidad, lying just off the coast of Venezuzla is the princtrpal sovrce of asphalt for the eastern coast of America. The so-called "pitch-lLake" is regarded by some as the crater of an old mud-volcano. It is at all events a basin 114 acres in extent thre> miles from the sea and filled with asphalt to a depth reported to be 78 f323t in the middle and 18 ft. at the sides. Blue clav lies box noath it, and in the hollows of the surface are pools of water. About 40 % of the crude mat2zrial is pure bitumen, tna remainder being tater (16-17 %), vegetable remains (9-10 %) and fine sand and clay (34 %). Outside of tha lake proper are ancient overflow deposits Whose quality is r2garded as inferior. All the productive territory is now under one control and all the asphalt is sold by this central management to other users. Inre23fining, the crude material is heated at a low temperaturs; to rsmove the water, and allow the sand in part to settle and th> veg- etable material to be skimmed off. The percy2ntage of bitumen is raised to abovt 60. In paving this is tnorouvghly incorporated with 4-7 times as much fine sand and laid. The asphalt has also applications as 4a mortar, and as a non-conductor, ‘Yhe analysis of the pure bitumen is given on p. 86.

LiTERATURE: W. O. Crosby. Natural Bitum2n and the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. Am.

Nats Los wee. M. Cum2nze. Giseme2nts de Charbon et d

od

e Bitume de la Trinidad. Annales

des "ines. dJult 1882. Other deposits than the Pitch Lake are noted.

Pe Ve Gresne. ‘Asphalt and ate Uses. ny E. AVIZE, -655.. Rees

Neo S66 Mavross, Notice of the Pitch hak: of Tranidad. Ax dis se 50bk. 204

Pierce (U. S. Consul). Asphalt of Trinidad Consular Reports on Commerce

Manufactures etc. 145 Oct. 92, p. 169. Ree.

C. Richardson. Deascription of present ownorship and of Technology. MU.

R, 1693. 640. Roc. n

Wall. Rert. on Trinidad Asphalt. 9. J. Geol. Soc. AVI. 467.

fH

An asphalt is also obtained near Maturin in Venezuela which is Called Bernuidez asphalt and runs higher in volatile oils than that of Trinidad. At Pedernales, an island in the delta of the Orinoco, are other deposits of great purity, and near Maracaibo, Merida, and Coro inexhaustible quantities are roaported (M. R. 1893, 666). Cuba has af+ forded asphalts which have been used for paving without much success. The same is true of Mexico. Considerable bituminous limestone from the Val de Travers, Switz>,rland and from Seyssel, France, have been import-+ ed into this country. They contain 7-11 % bitumen and are powdered, heated, mixed with some residual petroleum and laid.

The g2nsral technology of all these asphaltic pavements is Well discussed in the IM. R. 1893, pp. 640-669.

ASPHALTIC COALS. This name although widely used is doubtless not the best collective one but will be employed here because it suggests the solid nature of the minerals and tnzir analogy to glance-coal. Th3y ar2 a stage bayond asphalt as the term is used above. They have

(104)

- - Ss Ss i — . : papa e. : -- a ee a ee sare : pees —— —— —— is i — eer a aerate Pe ee ee oa A —-s z " Se ete tet pall i Rat Ke cabe IG, ae ech Lilies ieee! +2 ml ace pan a rE ——— —S Se eara Dc cuilele acento wig Saal ae a a ee ea Tg Bats — sa as om we pend AS

ae aces ea ; “ ee 4 —— C & fs a ais aes i SP ere Sas ba ae et ee) a ame Tata naan gre SS) Liz re — ee eee epee ¥

esaciS oa! te Sa, Se ws i ee ped anwar SSS ae

served as gas—~enriche rs from basis of coach varnishes, discovered at Hillsborovgn, coal-likea substance called Was situated and latar

yot was ina fissuré cutting reccesnized

an asphalt.

a as

ih La

Sie. N,

AOE Ste Tok ance of opinion for some years

having resulted from petroleum and tha mine h

an early date, and of later yoars as a Before 1850 a true fissure vVeln Was

Bb. , Whieh wes filled wath, a shining ALbsrt Uoal” from the County in whieh zt

It was the subject of much differ=

, beacause it appeared to be a coal and Devonian strata. Finally it was ganerally as being essentially much pFlzed as a

was

eG Ct “glia proedwet

@as enricher. Analyses are given on p. &S6. Ten years later a similar Voin was met in Wood Co. West Virginia, which vas described by J. P. Losley in 1865, and subsequently another in Ritchie Co., whose sub- stance TAS called “Grahoamite” by Br. Hye Wurte im seo... The Wood 66, voin was a3 of a mile long and 4-5 ft. thick. kbesley recognized the

true mathod of origin from pe found in laxas, that has

been called

coal has since been but the quan-

fn asphaltic Greahamite by Dumble,

trolsum.

Ciy Ls InsigniPicant.. (M. 2. AXE. 601.9 Or s¥eater* importenca. ts the

laYrz>2 v3in on tne Indian reservation in northeastern Utah, whose

filling has been named Uintaite by W. P. Blake. The vein from 3-4 feet

wide runs for two or three miles, and is near Fort Duchesne. The mate-

rial has proved so valvable for varnishes and insuviators that despite

the necessity of haviing Lb 2 miles be tne xa yaw, ON ge 5000 tons

yoariy ere sold. In the trades 2h ds caltad “Giles was . Another as-

phalti® minsrael from the same region but of different properties has

bean nared by ee “Wurteityeet, Ik fseists ordinary solvents, for

LoS biCeMSshs: Ls lastic and 1 slated to elatzarite. Kimball has report-

ed grahamite from sisoe Cste,;, im the State of Vera Urug, tiskies. Speca=

mens, closely resembling the originai Albartite have been received at

the Columbia Scheolk of Mines. feom near Honda. UU. &. of Colt?mbia. And

the matsrial is said to occur in large quantities These solid asphalts

are likely to appsar in almost any petroleum or bituminous district. LITERATURE. NEW BRUNSWTCK

Note. ea opinions on the nature of Aibertite, expressed br vari- ous geologists of seinen te in the ante history of the minsral, cox Le ae SS later relations to tariff classifications have “bean ox= pr3sssed and printed and are on rile 3 the library of the tteolog. Dept. Columbia Collage.

Bailey On Albertite. Gah. Geol. Survasy. IS76- DB p. 204.

We. P. Blake. M. B. XVIII. 567, raviews Albartite with c itat ions.

J. W. Dawson. On the Albsart Ming, Hillsborough, N. B 0) dice tSO6s Vou So. ire ey. Sess see also Acadian Geology.

H, Hind. Prilim. Rept. on the Geology of New Brunswick. Chap.V.

C. HH. Hitencoek Ths Albert Coal or Atbaertite of N. B Rie wig fae) LS XAXIA, 257

S- Ff, Peckham n the Probable OYigin of Albertite & allied Minerals. Nin viscbee EOP SASSY Tae Many Ke, -siarst

TRSLT WISGLNIA Wm, Ms Foncaine. Notes o WY, Va. Asphalium lepows Lye, shy Saediidt, i. 409 108

ie ae bere Sieh de sah ghtien el

sane — Se Fane mn : pawn see

ee a en er ee roe

nan Asphaltic Coal Vrin in Vestorn Va. Am. Phil. Sce,

H. “Iurtz. On #323 “Grahamit ar WV. Vea. cand ths mor Cod. KResitnormd. A.

Ay Sis TE6S, Wok. 28, pe 184% " On Grahamit;>. A. Jd. S. ii. XLIT. 420. " Roop. to ths Ritchie Mineral. Resin and O22 Co. Leés

,

be Pp Bbalko.., ‘Wihtkaliiizes 7. o@t. dasiieG w26- LOGS. “AS We 5, Sitirbeceerre 25 Ls. eis “Retell aie StO. . Whores) Lato ron thse Uinta. , Po Ra als 22904 Y NUintadties,, Albsrihitie,. Grahamit’s “and. Asphaltumy oe. 5 BF. SVELL, espe Ry “. Claynols: Gilsonits or Uintahitse. Amer. & IM OST s

‘

a iES C te

2. ol

“y lls. Description of an Asrhalt-like *ineral from Asphalt,

ri Wibans lx oCa! Coke Dele VCRs, Chibi Teeth le tier ee

cok3. Gilsonit: or Uintahit: a Nav Variaty of Asphaltum fron:

inta triste “tate 255 CR, Gri. 1G

are. Grahamite in Col. S.

vriond. Not: on a Sr-cimnen of G

Dee wiht, QCNET Tz aS

Note on ths Asphaltum of Utah and Coles A. v@, Se. BLT

se eeeirs

Honr v7 art 2 Vortz ries. or Nuri zits. 0p 6S de IS TOO 625 S:> also pp. 566, G85 sam: volume; and Jour. Franklin Inst. Jan.

Ly 2a. ene Vets 2 2 begs

Uintahit a varveoty of Grahamite: ", BM. Jour. Aue. BOQ cos ona

114,

Y rn

1 aug Sara am 2 SRY BO BET Sas its from Uintah Co. Utah.

Meaico

EG On th: occurrencs of Grehanit. Ses BE ths bsGlogy oF that ASTON. os on ;

in the Fouost cea Mex: ye TT Mr & na Daposit of Grahamit: known as t

See De Ded Uae wa hike

ort he Cristo Coal ‘ine, LE76: OZOCTRITH is ganerally dascrib:d as a natural ed ee ie Dslonzing chumicelly to the paraffine or marsh Zas s3ries and embracing such cf 3 hat ain tha formele, GC. tees nm would be 24 to

its 4}igher m-. 4] Ar

50% Otiers hays 5 lieved that the olefins ssrisas (C,. H>-) was 3lso Psanrosontsd and that. His07oZoesarite ts) a ,mixturs,, Dr. He Wertz. rszards CZ0C irits: as bslonzing with theo olefines. Ths 3lementary analys3s both cof the Galician (Austrian) product and that of the Utah mines indicat> Very nari ;

OFS Qa ™ ct HM ©)

ZC and 14-15 %H. There is no doubt that ozocorite has 2S dorivod from Yevrolsum sithse by thse Loss of it's more tusnts or by a polymeric roarrangament of atoms, or vices a occurs in r3gions of oil, and in cracks and cavitiss nd shales There are but two productiva districts the World over the older and larger is in the Austrian province, Ga- ITeC1a4, ths h2r whos.o d>velopment began in 1588, is near Pleasant Val- lay dunetion, Utah. From 25-150 tons are annvally afforded. The ozo- (106)

Da pShy chraees

VOLEE aS both. rae in sxandston>2

?

,

Cj

$

ct O.. ja )

we

a

to

hie ey ae Se ee

ln ee alee i:

cme li:

a en

ee

ee ee ee eS ee da gee de ae pe ete ee — Soo ae ee

NT a i a a ee ee i ee Leg gag See : “1 ‘a creel ed Saaa Sr

- ae ™ ral be ne ¥ ee 9 375 te a oi a rary ah Th ef 9 up” ely A a Ss er, 2 a fate a Ae,

spieraee =A. i 3 ren : eae a sg a mt ne oe ate — ss E SSRARE thee mewnease SEBS tol wa

c-rit> answors noarly all th. purposes of b:x2swax, and 1s in addition of gr:zat valu> as an insulator and for many oth>2r adaptations. Largo amounts are also import oad.

LITFRATURE: Anonymous. Ozok>rit2. Harpor's Wrxkly. Feb. 16, 1889, p. 132.

W. Le Lay. General Occurreanc>s in Burop> and America. Trans. N. Y. hedds. Sein. Wool. £i. L883, ne 435

Rlaterite or Mineral Wax. E. M. Jour. July 6, 1ES2. p.2. ... ditterad Vas. oF. culls Jour, Joule 6, Mest. te Se biktse. eee also Mar. 14, 1885. Re Bs Gosling. . Treatise on Ozoesritea. Sch. oF Mines. Nvarteriw, AVE. 41, Nov. 1694. Contains a good bibliography.

5. lsttherry. aoc MM. dour. oayeo7, Perey pe 649s An din Sie Seis XVII. 340.

Ti. Wurtes. Utah Mineral Nax. ls. hh aie. Bab, D5. ,0879,, pw Je. lees

Se as Be BIS" Apis Dy bovole Ws soos Mth ee ea ee Be voi

tTheorysot Asphaita Genesis. Hioe. HM. Jour. Jal 27 Les) pe. Fos

Fossil Cums And Resins.

enated hydrocarbons in the form of amber, gum copal ane. others have some useful applications and are found in considerable quantities in some parts of the world: Though resinovs substances are not uncormon in western coals, and, as interesting minerals, have been met with elsewhere they are, so far as known, of no practical impors tance in either of the- Americas. ‘there found they occur usvally as de- tached lumps in beach sands and have been derived from the gummy exnhu- dations of extinct trees. Yhey are useful as ornaments and as a base for varnish.

Graphite.

The final stage in the metamorphism of all carbonaceovs minerals is graphite. It results alike from the coal series and the petroleum series, but as mined is perhaps more often derived from the latter.

The grapritie slates and coal of Rhode Island were earlier referred to (p. 78). Graphitic schists ocevr in various cther places throughceut the regionally metamorphosed districts of New Brunswick, Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wyoming, but they are seldom pure enough to be valuable. It is also a result of contact metamorphism. The historic region for graphite in the United States is near Ticonderoga, N. Y. Many ye2ars ago veins Were worked north of the tovm that afforded considerable quantities and made the locality known. They are fissvre veins, that cut squarely across the laminations’ of the gneiss that forms the walls, are vertical and filled with pegmatitic matter, feldspar, quartz, py- roxene, apatite, calcite and graphite. They were long ago worked down to a depth, that made the mining too expensive. The present source of Braphite is radically different. About five miles west of Lake George, in the town of Hague, a graphitic quartzite is found in a bed from 6-15 ft. thick, in garnetiferovus gneiss. It strikes east and west, dips (107)

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i5°S. and is faulted so as to give two ovtcrops. Almost nothing else except quartz and graphite are in the rock. It affords 8-10 % of the latter and is mined, crushed in a California stamp battery, and washed, the light matsrial being saved. Graphite also oceurs in limestone in the eastern Aderondacks but is not utilized. Most of ovr bette grades are immorted from Ceylon, where it occurs in veins with precisely the sane mineralogy as in the older Ticonderoga mines, as may be seen by referring to the papers by Sandberger and Walther cited below. There is little doubt that the gsranhite has been derived from some hydrocar-~ bons of the nature of p2trolevm or asphalt. ‘Ye produce 300-4C0 tons annually and import 10-14,000.

Graphite deposits that have received some attention also occur in the apatite district of Quebec and Ontario Canada, and a small mine Yas

opened years ago in St. John, HU. B.

AMBSRICAN LITGRATURE: Denosits of Graphite in New Brunsviek. <A. J. Ss, las ALV,

R,. Bock & W. Luzi. Jeber die Bildung von Grophit.bei der CUchtactmeta- morphose. N. J. 1891, II. 2&8. Abundant references to German work.

J. We. Dawson. On the Graphite of Laurentian of Canada. 9. J. G, &. AXV,, 406° aliso 2869,.p. di2, werd As Je Gs csi ASOk. 6c.

P. Fraser. Relations of the Graphite deposits of Chester Co. Pa. to the geology of the rocks containing them. M. E. 9, 7350.

Ch. Heoffrann. hem. Contrib. to the Geol. of Canada. On Can. Graph- ities. Rep. Prog. Can. Surv. 1876-77, pp. 489-512.

F. Le. Nason. On old mines Ticonderoga. Buli. 4, p. 12. N. Y. State tus 2um.

Jo So Newberry. Origin of Graphite. S. of M. %. VEIT, S354.

H. G. Vennor. G. in Buckingham, Ottawa Co. Geol. Canada, 1876-77, p. 308. Also 1873-74, 103.

J. A, Walker. General Article. ‘Good One. & & Me Jour, Sept. 22; SS, p. LS6.

Vacation Notes on N. WN. Y. Ticonderoga Graphite. "%. & FH.

Jour, Auge 24, 89... pe BOS:

Cb Lo

Ferguson. Plumbago Industry of Csylon. Colombo 1881.

Ve Richthofen. Zerdsaud. Ge Gy XP Sis,

Je Wab-“nere Gs de ad GeiG, Xie S595. 2689. Nanes: Jahoba 2890, £25 2 his

oir H. Tennent. Ceylon.

F. Sandberger. Beitrag zur Kemmtniss des Graphits von Ceylon, und Senter Besleters News 1a, ie cb2:

CHAPTER V. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, INCLUDING BUILDING STONE, SLATE, LITNTES AND CHMENTS.

INTRODUCTORY. Almost ell the common and some of the uncommon (108)

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kinds of rock are used as building material and yet the reasons for ~such selection vary widely. We may say that the influences governiné a choice are usually the following in this order of importance. 1, Cost. 2, Strength. 3, Durability. 4, Beauty. 5, Fashion. The cost depends on a variety of causes such as nearness of quarries, development of the quarry industry, the structure and texture of the stone, and the like. the first of these is &@ question of transportation and .is influenced also by Water or rail connections. The second involves the preparatior of the stone. An old establiShed industry though at a distance may af- ford cheaper material because it has dressing machinery, skilled labor~ ers, and 2verything developed. Quarries are exyvensive enterprises to + inaugurate as they require much dead work. Quincy, Mass. granite for instance has been taken to Minnesota with economy via the lakes and Du- luth, although there are local granites between Duluth and MinneAvolis. The structure and texture of the stone are incidents of quarrying and working. By the former we mean the larger physical structure, whether stratified or métssive, whether supplied or not with convenient joints that facilitate the removal cf goodly blocks and save dressing, whether splitting easily or not. By the latter we understand the adaptability to tool treatment and hand dressing and it especially concerns stone in its ornamental employment as in carving and polishing. A homogeneous texture is often of vital moment. The strength is an important factor in the choice of a stone for any structure but in small edifaces it does not signify as much. It is usually expressed in the number of pounds per square inch under which the stone crushes in a testing ma- Chine. lrecavtions are to be observed in this estimation as follows. The blocks should be fairly true cubes, though not necessarily an inch on an edge and the opposite faces must be parallel. To give an even pressure some medium is interposed between the faces of the machine and the blocks, such as plaster of paris, sheet lead, cr book binders board, In the School of Mines testing the method is to polish the faces that Come next the jaws of the crusher to parallelism within .005 of an inch and to crush with no medium interposed. Two inch cubes are now most commonly employed. A higher result is also gained with larger than with smaller cubes and the readings may be reduced according to Gill- more's formula (y=pyX wherein pressure per square inch in block of desired size. length of edge of block required in terms of sdge of block tested. crushing strength in pounds per square inch of block tested. Expsrience in the School of lines does not corroborate this formula). The crushed block yields an approximation to two opposing paraboloids and a variety of side flakes. It makes some difference al- so whether the cubes are crushed across or along the bedding if there be one and the first direction should be sought. The general range is from the extreme minimum of 3-4000 lbs. per sq. inch for Weak sand- stones vp to 15000-25000 and the extreme maximum of 34000 for sranites. The last figures are from so called blue granite or elaeolite syenite of Fourche Mountain, Ark. The specific gravity is another point of valve in this connection. It is usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot, or in cubic feet per ton. The first is of covrse obtained by multiplying the specific aravity by 62.5, the weight of a cubic foot of water. This ranges from an extreme minimum of 120 (sp. gr. about 1.92) for very loose sandstone, to 180 (sp. gr. about 2.9) for basic traps. Granites run generally 160-170. The higher valves make of course some- (109)

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what heavier material to handle. The absorption of water is also an important point, for a high absorption is a bad thing in cold climates. It is expressed in the ratio of the Weight of Water absorbed to the weight of the dry block. It varies with the texture of the stone; por= ous sandstones are very high, reaching 1/10 or more, While compact crystalline rocks may be 1/300 or less. It is obtained by weighing dry and then soaking until an approximately constant weight results and de= termining the increment. Rounded pieces of 1-2 ounces are used, and are allowed to soak 24 hovrs. They are then dried quickly with filter paper and Weighed. A second soaking for 24 hovrs follows and a new weighing. If the two results are approximately the same the last is taken for the calculation.

Durability is a v3ry important point in 2xpensive structures which are meart to last. Our climates is a trying one on stone and matsrial thet lasts indefinitely ina clear dry air and equabls temperature, scales rapidly here, as has Deen the case with the obelisk. fFrcest is

the greetest agent of disintegration and acts through the agency of YWa- ter. YTorouvus stone thus is objectionable. The expansion and contrac- ticn from quick and extreme changes in temperature are also impor*ant

causes of internal strain: Tanz artificial tests have been mentioned -: as trials of these, such as soaking the sp2cimen in a solution of some easily srystallizing salt (i.e. Na SO ) and drying. Then spraving

off the disintegrated material and weighing it. The specimen may be soaked and frozen and for this purpose in warm veather, cold storage warehouses may b2 used with advantage in cities where they are avail=- able. “%xpe2riments by L. Mel, Luquer, to be published in the School of Mines Quarterly for 1895, indicate that the sulphate of soda test is a Severe one, as compared with frozen water. The specimen may also be heated and chilled and watched. But the best test of all is experience and if an old building can be found, or a tombstone, or the ovtcrop of the quarry somes useful data may bs obtained. The process of decay or weathering will be described under each kind of rock. The atmosphere of citiss is comparatively severe on stone. The sulphvrouvs fumes from burning coal seem to have their effect in the long run especially on limestones. The growth of mosses and other vegetation also gives rise to organic acids which in damp corners cause injury. Several artifie cial preservatives hav; been designed as preventives but their mention is hardly appropriate here. Resistance to fire has become of increas= ing importance in mod2rn times. Ths nearer a rock approximates pure quartz the mors refractory it is. Granites fuse in severe conflagra- tions ard limestones spall off or calcine. Sandstones in these Yres- pects are l3ast fusible and of sandstones, those with siliceous cement- ing material.

Beauty in a stone is a great point in i seriously Considered when Limitations of 2xp special f2atures of individual kinds can h:3 particular treatment.

t

s favor and the item is nse do not prevent. Aas st St

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Fashion largely datermines the choice of a stone. Years ago New York used whits marble, while today the large buildings are prevailing- ly granite, or brick wit th stone trimmings. But evidence is not lacking that marble is again coming into favor.

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Litfraturr®:

VY. He, C. Bartlett. On contraction and expansion in building Stone. A. ie Seals Ue, tose.

R. M. Coffall. VYreservation of Luilding Stone with Paratfine as used am the. ¥. Obetieks “Eifans,. Ma Ye Acad. seia, Hows, 2b, qlews

He A, Cuttines, Dorahrizty sm baiiding stotie., Asada 8. Lite ck e200:

Tl. Egleston. On the Decay of Building Stones. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. XV. Leb.

Cilimore. Kept. on the, Conn, Strength, op. Jer. oo Ratac.et Ab=

sorption of Building Stones tin the U.S: Off. Rept. Chief of “ngineers 1875. (Van Nostrand.)

J. L. Greenleaf. Building Stones, Their Properties and Uses. S. of I. Ouartieritvs Nok. La 27s 325

Rs G, Hetfield. Tasts of Building Stone. Jour. Franklin Inst. Jar. Leés.

: eek ? Bet as Havies & Merrill. 10th Census. Vol. X. “sp ly Recom.

oO. A 3

Uenry Joseph. Gn the mode of testing Building Materials and an account or white marble ns ed. tm the Sst ensitonm Of thee, so. Mane Ala wit vie Ti, Ves" 1304

Me Hull. A Treatise on the Building and Ornamental Stones of Grsat Britain Foreign Copntrice. Reve A. di. Se ELE, 62 S62. qT. S. Hunt. On Porosity of Building Stone. Chem. & Geol. Essars, n- Indiana Geol. Survey. Report 1878, SS. A. W. Jackson. Building Stone of Calif. Rept. of State !‘ineralogist, L5ES, ps Seo W. KR, Johnson. Comparison of Expsriments on Am. and Foreign Buildirg STheCTET See coe) Utes Galee (Shomer deh ys eae ombe As Aw Julien. Dacay of) Sualding Stone in HN. ¥. City: Trans. iy Y. Acad. Sei. 1633, \61.'\) Tenth Caenegus, %.. 564. cl, luguer. The optical Recognition and Economic Importance cf the Common Minerals found) in, Building Stone. S. of 7. . July, 1894, pe 265. Bibliography. G, P. Merrill. The Collection of Building & Ornamental Stones ia the U. S. Nat'l. Museum. Smithsonian hept Leoveous, Tobe, dul Wine ie 648. Reference to separate works etc. on p. 519. Especially Ree. Stenes for building @ decoration. Wiley. UU. Y. 1891. Biblioz- raphy. Js Neth rry. Repts. & Avards. Cantennial ii To Vas RCs top eio Me EET Ses als. Art. on Building Stone. Johnson's “ncyclonedia, 1386. Bibliography. Ee Orton. Ohio Geol. Survey, V. 577. Rec; President s Messaze 32 Congress, 2nd Session, 1952. Ne_Prime. Rep. D3 Vol. I. 138, 2nd Geol. Surv. Pa. SLates Report of Com. on Ia. Capitol Building Stcne. Des Moines 1871. - of Tests made at the Watertown Arsenal for Phila. Com. 1582. C. B, Richards. On the Crushing Resistance of Stone. Trans. A. S. C, Be Une ob Gye Tao 4 Vee. Jan. "Se. TSS. ie heim Pe W. Sperr. Methods of Working Slate. 10th Census, Vol. 10, pp. 35-42. istons."” Journal devoted to the OSuarry Industry. Published in Indian~ apolis.

if

i‘athods of VYorking

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Truesdell. Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc. June, 1885,°-302.

M. Ee Wadsworth. Some Instances of Atmospheric Action on Sandstones. Proc, Boal. Soc Wi Har se, Feb.oy, 85." As OLS. PLL. S82 466.

N. H. Winchell. Comp. Strength of Minn. & New Mngland Granites. A. A, A. S. Minneapolis Meeting. 12th Ann. Rep. iinn. Geol. 14. Final Rept. on Minn. Geology, I. Chap. III.

In the discussion of building stones, the general geological cClassificetion of rocks is followed. Accordingly the igneous rocks, including however the gneisses, are first taken up; and next the sedi. mentary ard metamorphic in this order, the sandstones, clays and slates; the limestones, marbles and serpentines. As a general rule un- der each, the eastern or more fully developed states are first trsataead, and afterwards the western. Very full details of localities are siven in Vol. X, of the 10th Census, in G. P. Merrill's valuable treatise en- titled Stones for Building and Decoration (Wiley, 1891), and in the volume on i:‘ineral Industry, lith Census, article Stone by ‘wm. C. Daz, There are very complete collections at the Uattonal Museum, Vas :

D. C., and in the American Iuseum of Natural History, Central Park, N.Y.

Sorte idea of the amount and rslative importance of the industries in the varicus kinds of stone may bé gained from the Census ‘which related to 1859, and reported a total of 53,035,620 of stone. This is an enormous increase over 1879, which was less than 319,000,000. The recent hard times made the total for 1893, 333,885,573. The seviral stones renked as in the table.

689% Aad. Limestone. 919,095,179 (tLos 947, 225 Granite. 14,464,095 &,508 ,934 Sandstone. LO, 66,05 7 Spas Ao hopes hak Marble. SACS LTO 2,411,092 Slate. 5,482,513 PPB iN al Bluestone. ; 1,609,606 A 1,000,000

355,055 ,620 (YD 9 OOD goo

Eluestone is a trade name for the flagstone used in New York-and neighboring states.ivIt really is a sandstone.

IGNHOUS. ‘he Orthceclase Rocks end Gneisses. These cccur as knobs, bosses and great intrusions cr surface in all geclogical formations, but especially in the Archean. Thei'e BES been hovever in the past a gen2ral tendency to regard granites and gneisses as Archean, although they may prove later. As regards building purposes, granites are much the most ‘ridely used. Gneiss, whieh in its cormmcenest variety differs from granite, principally in the laminated or anded arrange- ment of its minsrals, is placed in the same group because it is called granite in the trade. Gnsiss seems often to have been formed from granite by the great pressure attendant on mountain upheaval.

Granites ares thoroughly crystalline roeks, of a general even or uniform texture due to the constituent minerals being all of the same Size. This is varied sometimes by the exceptionally large #ize of in- dividual feldspars, or by the segregation of dark silicates in J usnpal, nroporticns. The constituent i i=: are feldspar, orthoclase and

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oligoclase and at times albite, quartz, and biotite, muscovite or horn~ blends. Of the last three, biotite is much the most common. It is ofte en accormyanied by muscovite. Hornblende may be practically withovt the other dark silicates but it is usually has biotite with it. In addi-e tion to theseca little pyroxene occasionally appears, small grains of magnetite are alvays present, and microscopic zircous, agraatites and ti-~ tanites are almost invariable. Pyrite is net vnfortunitaly not rare in small amounts, and is the constituent specially injvriovs. On chemical analysis granites arse found to contain from about 65 % Si Oy, as a gene ral minimum to about 75 Z as a maximum, although botn limits may ba passed in exceptional instances. Alumina ranges from a maximum of ata bout sy a4 in those low in silica, to a minimum of 11 or 12 then tyre sik ica is high. The iron oxides are both present and from 1.5 % to less than 5%. Lima vari3s from less than one to about 6S. Magnesia s2ldom reaches 2%. The alkalies, potash and soda, range from CN ae oe Se hs. sometimes ons sometimes the other being in excess. Fresh granites af- ford less than Ty oe water. There may b2 a fev} hundredths of one per cent of sulphur, and a few tenths of manganese. In judging of analy- ses, practically no sulphur, and other things being equal high silica, are advantages. Of the constituent minsrals the feldspar is the mosve abundant and inflvential and on its color the color of the stone chief- ly depends. It may be white, gray or red. Quattz exerts but slight influence, for it simply transmits the colors of the others. Bictite and hornblends tend to give the stone a darker shade but thay are less potent than the feldspar except in very basic granites. When in undue ageregates they occasion unsightly blemishes. The quartz and feldspar take th: best polish, mica is of small value for this and hornblende or pyroxine are apt to rub out because of easy cleavage. Yhe texture va~ ries from coars? to fine, but fine granit?s are apt to be more durable, although less beautiful. The greatest excellence is a homogeneous and uniform texture.

In the quarry granites are notable for the even rectangular joints or planes of weakness that traverse them and that facilitate the remov~ al of the blocks. The stronger of the two vertical ones is called the rift, the weaker the cut off and the horizontal one the lift. The caus2 of these is not well understood but Rk. S. Tarr has found that mi- croscopic cracks cross the component minerals in corresponding lines (A. J. S. Apr. 1891, p. 267). Granites also have a peculiar tendency to develop exfoliation on a grand scale and to come off in horizontal sheets. These are referred to expansion and contraction from the sun's heat. They afford the benches familiar in all quarries. Granites al~ ter under the atmospheric agencies by the physical action of frost and by the chemical change of the component minerals. The feldspar, a sil- icate of potash and alumina, becomes fine scaly muscovite, or kaolin, the latter a hydrated silicate of alumins. They lose their crystalline character and change to earthy aggregates. The dark silicates alter to chlorite and their iron affords limonite. The rock tends to crumble a- way or scale off and in nature affords finally the grains of quartz sand for sandstones and the earthy materials of clays. The decay of the feldspar was called by Dolomieu the "maladie du granit", a much quoted phrase. Nevertheless granite as rocks go, is one of ovr most durable stones. It is also the strongest and has now the preference for large buildings.

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The greater part of the granite is produced in the New England states and ten years ago the statement had even greater-force-thar to- day. Eut the accompanying figures will be most suggestive.

1889 1593 ~=6©1889 1893 Massachusetts $2,503,503 $1,631,204 New Jersey 9425 ,623 $373,147 Maine 2,225,839 1,274,954 Minnesota 356,782 270,296 California L,ooad 01S 531,522 Virginia 352,040 103,703 Connecticut L~jV6L, 22 652,459 Colorado 414,673 In plese Rhode Island 931,216 509,799 South Dakota 304,673 27,328 Georgia 752,481 476,387 ‘Wisconsin 266,095 133,220 New Yampshire Vid Tone. 442,424 New York ee aa 181,449 Pennsylvania 625,202 206,493 Delavare 211,194 215,964 Vermont 581,870 778,459 Worth Carolina 146,627 Lae OF Missouri 500,642 388,803 Others 199,014 150,279 Maryland 447,489 260,855 Total $14,464,095 8,908, 934

Although we ordinarily think of granite chiefly as a building stons, yet the statement has been made that, the world over, the great- er portion of that quarried, is broken up for paving blocks. In 1889 about one-third of the output of America was used in this way. The Quarries along the Atlantic Coast are first taken up.

Nev Brunswick and Nova Scotia. At St. George, Kings Co., north of St. John, a red granite is quarried which is usually called Bay of Fun- dy granite. It has been to a small degrees imported into the United States, but is apparently but slig-tly worked today. Gray granite has_ also bean obtained in minor amounts at Shelburne and-elsewhere in Hali- fax Co. G. HF. Matthew. Granite at St. George, N. B. Geol. Survey Canada, 1876

“77, 345.

Maine. Great intrusions of granite are found all along th: sea- coast of Maine, and on its numerous islands. The stone lies in such convenisnt situation for economical shipment to Atlantic ports that it has been extensively opened in many places. Ned granite, is obtained at Jonesborough and Calais, far to the sastward, but the general run is sray or slightly. pink. Blocks of enormous size are obtained.Merrill m mentions one 300'x20'x6’ to 10'. Many other Maine quarries furnish blocks as large. Dix Island granite was a famous one in its way but is now worked ovt. The Hallowell biotite-muscovite granite is espscially adapted to monuments being of very homogeneous texture, Many otpner cuct quarries far too numerous to mention line the sea coast. Paving stones are also an important portion of the quarry putput. The refuse when sufficiently large is worked vp into them.

G. P. Merrill. Stones for Building and Decoration contains the best account of Maine granite, p. 184.

New Hampshire, is popularly known as the "Granite State" from the large proportion of it that is formed by this rock. The best known quarries are near Concerd and-yield a light gray stone that-splits with

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great case and regularity and is extremely homogeneous. It is a musco- vite-biotite granite and is specially adapted to monuments but is also employed in building. There are many smaller openings elsewher3 in the state and much gneiss is locally used.

G. W. Hawes. Geology of N.. H. Vol. III. Mineralogy and Lithology.

Vermont. Granite occurs as intruded masses in Vermont Which are thought by Hitchcock to be not earlier than the Upper Silurian. The largest workings are at Barre and are very extensive. The stone is re- markably homogeneous and is prized for monuments and decorative work. It is a biotite-granite. Excellent granite of a light gray color is obtained near Battleboro in the Black Mountain quarries. It breaks in rectangular blocks and has a fine color, lvmerous other granite quar- ries ars operated to a less degree and some in gneiss. Vermont is best known for its marbie and slate.

Massachusetts. The quarry industry is important along the ccast. Cape Ann contains many openings. The granites are hornblendic and are often called svenites especially at OSvincy. The Gloucester and Kock- port stone is gray to greenish, the Ouinecy is a bluish or greenish gray. The latter is rather coarsely crystalline and has a péculiar transparent effect when polisned. One seems able to see several inches into it. It is the most used of any monumental stone. The quarries at Quiney and West Quincy yield mors granite annvally than any other equal American tract. Many other towns ne Ave quarries of minor importance. An epidote granite is quarried at Dedham - an exceptional mineralogical composition. A finely crystalline granite of a bluish gray color, and of exceptional strength is obtained at Chester in the central part of the state. Gneiss has more than local importance at Monson on the New London Northern R. KR. It splits with wonder ful facility. W. H. Niles mentions a block taken ovt in 1869, 354' x 11' x 4’ When free from its bed it expanded ii /2™ and could not have have been put back, show- ing a local strain in the rocks,

J, F, Kemp. Note on the Chester Granite. Trans. WN. Y. Acad. Sci, Al, 126, 1892.

M. E, Wadsworth. Nots on the Petrography of Quiney and Rockport, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. XX. 309, 1878.

G. Pe Morrill. On. ef. pe 194.

N.S. Shaler. Geology of Cape Ann. Ninth Ann. Rep. Dir. U. &. G 5S. De O57.

Rhode Island. The principal quarry perry centers about Westor- ly. remarkably homozgencovs stone is afforded which in its best grades is only used for monuments and the like. “Tt is a biotite-gran- ite. The same rock ovtcrops at Niantic and not a few local quarries are opened in other sections.

Connecticut. Long Island Sound furnishes water transportation for

many quarries along the coast. The stone afforded is alse 01 an excel- lent eharacter and in several places is quite largely taken ovt. Mill- stone Point near New London is the seat of a large industry. The rock

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is a fine-grained, light gray stone. local quarrisas in gneiss-are nv- merous throvghovt the ggZate. At Lyme, near the movth of the Connecti- cut river, a beautiful red porphyritic granite was formerly quarried but its feldspar was so coarse that it flaked off on sharp edges. A red granite from Stony Creek just east of New Haven is considerably em ployed.

George Rich. The Granite Industry of New England. New England Mazga-~ Zine, Feb. 1892, p. 742.

New York. Some quarrying is done on the granites and gneisses of the Highlands along the Hudson River and many paving blocks are made. The rock is gray and appears to be a very good stone. The knobs of granite that constitute ‘ts. Adam and Eve near Warwick in Orange Co. have bsen developed to some extent in late years. Quarrying operations have also been instituted in the green plagioclase rocks of the Adiron- dacks near Keesville which although not properly coming under the cr- theclase division yet pass as granite in the trade. They furnish a very beautiful stone that is of an apple green color, somewhat marred in large blocks by spots of dark silicates. Among the Thousand Islands are some? exposures of granite which are extensively worked. Thoss on Grindstons Island are best known and afford a hornblende-granit> with great amounts of red orthoclase, that gives the stone a beautiful warm red color, when polished. The markets are in the West and Canada.

J. F. Kemp and Arthur Hallick. The Granite at Its. Adam and Evs and its contact Phenomina. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. VII. 638, 1894.

J.C. Smock. Building Stone in the State of New York. FEull. Vol. No 3, Ne Ya State Mesa pe 2a Vole £1. Now 20%. Bags

Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware although containing much gneiss produce it only for local use. Marvland has numerous openings in gneiss and one biotite-granite at Woodstock near Baltimore. It is much employed in the neighboring cities.

Virginia contains many exposures of granite so quite extensively quarried. The productive regions and Dinwiddie Counties near Richmond. The stone is i of a gray color much resembling those of New England. fi and Navy building in Washington is built of Virginia eral

e of which are

are in Chesterfield a tite-granite re Stat War ite.

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North Carolina, is rich in granites of many kinds but as yoat they are only quarried for local use. G. P. Merrill in the work oftsn re- ferred to gives a number of localities. Much the same is true of South Carolina but the icead~demand for the stone has not prompted as yet ecx- tended developments.

Georgia. A very extensive granite industry has sprung up at Stone Mountain and Lithonia, 20 miles or so cast of Atlanta. Croat domelike knobs of bare granite and low, rounded bosses furnish inexhaustible supplies of a gray varicty that splits with remarkable exactness into cubical blocks. its develonment has placed Georgia sixth on the list of producers.

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Wisconsin and Minnesota. Archéan exposures of granite are promi~ nent in the states around Lake Superior and in Wisconsin end Minnesota have been wrought. The available outcrops are however long distances

from the lake shore. Montello, Wis., which is in the western centrel

part of the state affords a hard pink granite. Vast areas are formed

cf granite and related rocks in Minnesota. The quarries as yet opened are at St. Cloud on the Mississippi above Minneapolis. S5Both gray and

red granites are afforded. j

T. GC. Chamberlain. Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. I. _p. 66.

Truesdell. Euilding Stone of Minn. Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc. June 1885, Ga “OU

Il, H. Winchell. Comparative Strength of Minn. and New England sranite. A. A. A. S. Minneapolis Meeting, 12th Ann. Rep. Minn, Geol. Surv, ps 24, Pital- Pepe, bo. Vaiw Le pw B22;

Missouri. The granites and porphyries of southeastern Missouri are prolific sources of stone. They are mostly red in color although gray varieties occur. They are poor in dark silicates and are chiefly orthoclase and quartz. Very large quarries are in operation at Gran- iteville, Iron county and at Knob Lick, St. Francois Co. These gran- ites are also of extreme value in the large cities neighboring to them for street paving. They are the only hard rocks within easy reach and are nuch used under heavy traffic. For the general zeology of the re~ Zion see pp- 59-61.

EH. Haworth. On the general Petrogrophy of the Region. Amer. Geologist {ys 280 & B65. Geol. Survs Mos Bull. 7, S99. See also Iron Mtn, Atlas Sheet and accompanying description by Haworth and. llason, p. 13, 1894.

Arkensas. The syenites of Fourche Tits. near Little Rock are im-= portant sources of building stone. They are the strongest granite rock yet tested in America and are being extensively developed. They supply: a gray and a blue of excellent character. The rocks are of -late—Creta-= eeous Age.

J, 0... Branner,. Stone, Oct<<2S89. Jo F. Williams. Igneous Rocks of Arkansas. Ann. Rep. Ark. Geol. Surv. 1890. Vol, Il. p. 39.

Outerops of granite occur in Indian Ty. not yet utilized and in Texas ‘She latter have been quarried to some extent for state build- ings in Austin. The granite is a gray biotite-granite. In Burnett Co, is a Well known coarse red granite. .

Granites are abundant in the Rocky mountains but have been only slightly utilized. A coarse gray biotite-granite from Littie Cotton= wood Canon has been given some fame by having been employed in the con struction of the Mormon Temple at Sait liake City. It is an excellent stone and can be oktained in great quantity from loose boulders before the ledge is touched. ~In the other states of the Cordillera region granites ars known to occur in inexhausvible amounts but the building of large structures has not yet Eee then.

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California is an exception. Quarries have bean operated for many years

at Rocklin and Penrhyn, Placer Co. along the line of the Central Pacific

2o miles east of Sacramento. At Penrhyn it is a hornblende biotite gran-

ite, at Rocklin a muscovite biotite granite. California imrorts from the

east and Scotland great quantities as ‘vell.

A, WV. Jackson. Building Stone of California, Rept.of the State Mineral-

ogist for 1068, p.685. J. d. Crawford. l2th Annvial Rept. State Min. 15894 p.584

Canada of course contains in its extended Archacan exposures vast resources of franite. These are utilized in a number of places. In ‘the

Same region as the quarries on Grindstone Island, N.Y. are others in Can-

ada affording red granit es. A red hornblende eranite well known along the

Atlantic seaboard is the so-callec Bay of Fundy pranite from St. Ceorse,

Kine's County, .B., as has been earlier mentioned. If resembles the

familiar Scotch sranite from Peterhead Scotland that also enters cur

ports. ‘granite is imported from Aberdeen, Scotland.

On Scotch and English granites Harris,G.",. Granite and our Granite In- dustries. London, Crosby,hockwood & Son,100c,. Also "Building Construction" in South Kensir igston Educational Series. Pt.ilIl Material, London, 13872.

Tes Fplagioclase Rocks.

These are much contrasted ith granite because of their dai ors. Trey are also seldom provided with Lhe eouentont planes

that facilitate the quarrying of granite in so marked degr dark colors tend to give a very sombre tone to the buildings int:

snter. They are thus far less used althoush in instances where a dark color is desired for certain effects as in monuments they are employ-

Diabase, diorite and norite constitute the varisties. The on portant source of norite, Kesseville,N.Y. has ealready been mentioned. Diabase is chiefly produced at Addison, lie. and to a less degree at Vinalhaven and Tenants Harbor. It goes by the name oF block granite and ddison breaks well in the quarry, The Triassic diabases along the Atlantic seacoast are the other chief sources of thes6é rocks but they are only worked in a very subordinate way. Their chief value lies in their adaptability to paving blocks and macadamizing material. For these pur-~ poses, especially the latter they serve admirably. A gneissoid sabbro is taizen out in Delaware and ee somewhat extensively shipped. A gabbro is somewhat extensively broken near Duluth and placed on the market as Duluth sranite. Certain aieriees on the Hudson River have likewise at% racted some prospecting but except in the localities referred to, the

dark rocks are cnly used for local rough work and paving.

THE SEIT SNTARS ROCKS. These are treated under the following heads: Sandstones, Clays, and Slate, Limestones, including Varble; Serpentine. The met amorphic derivatives are thus placed with their originals So far as amount and value are conce sxyned the limestones are the prominent building stones of 311 the rocks. They are obtained almost

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of the sedimentary series, and s Sandstones are often called free mit to tool treatment. In extre materials under pressure, but in grades are sufficisatly strong for all ordinary uses. Some varieties are soft when quarried and may almost be sawn out, but on exposure they harden to durable rock. The quarry

water is thus an important element in working. In cold climates quarry

portion of them, With which they sub eaakest or rock

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operations are suspended in winter as a frozen stone is almost unworkable Sandstones in most cone consist of quartz grains but with these are of- ten Tound grains of feldspar, mica and tie common reck making minerals. Extremely ey Ray: varieties are called arkose. The grains at times give some clue to the criginal rock mass that furnished them, The grains are in all cases held together by a cement which is either siliceous, calcareous or Terruginous. The first named is due to a secondary deposit of quartz and this. often continues the crystallographic propertiss of the original grain. It forms the most durable cement and is the one to be preferred when available. A calcareous cement is due te a secondary depos- it of calcite. It indicates its presence by effervescing with acids. ft is the weakest and least durable cement. Ferruginous deposits also bind grains together in rarer instances and thon give the stone a strong red or yellow color. In deep colored sandstones thea ircn oxide enters into the silica or calcite that furnishes the chief Ponies Racks it may be lLit-

tla more than a coloring eB

¢ andstones are whit bluish-gray,green- sh, brown, red and buff, du we £ a

WJ LA the absence or time Pike 2 of iron, Feo: es blues; Fe , Oz owas, reds and buffs. Sandstones with much are lacecus matter break readily into thi in but tough slabs and yield flag- nes. The quarry districts are tak in order from cast to west. New England. There are few ava tle sandstones in this section 6é the crystalline rocks so Largely pr i ite near Burlington, Vt. supplies n c estuary deposit however, that nnec ticut valley to the Vermont 1 hat ship stone all over the count stone of our Atlantic Le fine-griuined and. easily wrought stone is of rather finer eradse t

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quarries are very extensive at Belleville, a subur>d of Wewark and at seic. The stone varies somewhat in the different beds and the good material is separated by shaly layers, 20'-30' in all of available stone are obtained. Some quarrying is also done in New Jersey along the Dela- ware River, and then as the Triassic exposures cross into Pennsylvania very important industries are based on them. A series of openings are found near the river but the largest quarries are to the southwest, at Hummelstown, in Dauphin County, near Harrisburg. As much as 70 ft. of available stone are exposed in some. The rock is quarried at one point in Ifaryland and furnishes a very good grade. This is in ifontgomery Co. at the mouth of Seneca Creek. Virginia sontains openings in the same forn- ation near ftlanassas and on other Triassic belts in North Carolina some stone is taken out.

New York. There are three important sandstones in New York, one Potsdam, in the Cambrian; another, the Medina, at the base of the upper Silurian; and the third, the North River blue stone in the Devonian, chiefly Hamilton. The Potsdam is a very hard red quartzite and is ob- tained on the western or northwestern flanks of the Adirondacks. It breaks in the quarries by natural joints and . bedding planes and re- quires little dressing, which is fortunate as it is extremely hard. It has long been regarded as the ideal of building stone in strength, dura, bility and.fire resisting quality. The Medina sandstone forms the scuth shore of Lake Ontario from Oswego to Lewiston. The best stone begins however at Holley, 20 miles west of Rochester and extends to Lockport but increases in hardness toward the west. The available rock varies some=- ywhat in thickness at different points reaching as a maximum 50’. It is rostl: a pleasing pink, but shades to white and has a moderate iardness. It is one of the most beautiful and admirable of building stones and as the quarries are generally between the N.Y.Central Railway and the Lrie Canal, transportation facilities are good. Almost all of it goes west and strangely it is never seen in New York. All the refuse of the quar- ries is broken for paving stone.

The North River blue stone or flagstone comes mostly from the Han- titon series of the Devonian, although found as well in the Portage. The larger quarries are situated in Ulster and Sullivan Counties, but avail- able stone is found further west and also in Pennsylvania. The stone is a very argillaceous sandstone and owes its thin bedding to the clayey material present in it. The good rock is in the midst of useless shales and is exposed by stripping. It lies very flat and is merely pried up. Wnen thick it may be used for underpinning. Essentially the same rock is obtained in Wyoming Co., Penn. and known as Vyoming stone.

J. GC. Smock. Building Stone in New York. Bull.5, State Museum, Albany 1886. Bulletin 10. 1890.

PENYMSYLVANIA. The principal stones of Pennsylvania are the Triassic brown stone already referred to and the blue stone just mentioned. some local stone in the carboniferous system is good and at several places, &s for instance Curwensville in Clearfield Co. is quarried and shipped to a distance. .

OHIO is the only other state east of the Mississippi possessing sandstones worthy of mention in this connection, but its quarries ire the most productive in the country. The Beren Grit of the Subcarboniferous is the principal formation and affords the stone of northern Ohio. It

(120)

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outcrops as an cld abandoned l17ke shore south of Lake Erie and presents very convenient exposures. The stone is light colored and quite soft. It has little cementing material and in its softest examples is vorked into grindstones., Some 50' are available for one purpose or the other favorable exposures. Amherst, Berea, Hast Cleveland, Elyria and Inde- pendence are the chief centers. At times the stone is buff. In south- eastern Ohio near Marietta another sandstone in the upper Garboniferous is much used,

KE. Orton. Economic Geology of Ohic, Vol.V.

—

INT IANA. Much sandstone for local use is produced in Indiana from the base of the Coal Measures. J. Collett. Twelfth Ann. Rept. State Geol. 1802.

WISCONSIN AND MICHIGAN. The red sandstones that form the shores of Lake Surerior on the south side have lately proved important sources of a fine building stone. South of Bayfield in Wisconsin they are extensive ly wrought. Again on Keweenaw Point at the eastern entrance to the Port- age Lake Ship Canal there are very large openings. Nine feet of solid stone occur amid shaley layers. The color is a warm red, at tines mot- tled vith white. H. G. Rothwell. Sandstones of Lake Superior.

MINNESOTA. has much good sandstone. At Ford du Lac are excellent ones of a red col@r and in the southwest are purplish red quartzites which though hard give beautiful effects when polished.

N. H.~. Winchell. Final Rept. Vol.l1.

COLORADO. has of late years been developing extensive wauarries. They are mostly of red sandstone from the Trias beds which are so well exposed in the eastern foot-hills near Manitou. Further north in Larimer Co. the stone becomes cream colored. Other Triassic stone of a salmon color comes from Glencoe near Golden and is shipped even to Chicago. Light colored stone from the Cretaceous is obtained near Longmont in : Boulder Co. and near Canon City. Excellent red Triassic stone isS_quarricu along the Midland R.R., on Frying Pan Creek in the western mountains.

red

SOUTH DAKOTA furnishes a good grade of,quartzite from near Sioux Falls that is very hard and durable. The Hdgmont Stone Company in the Black Hills region have a warm yellow sandstone of pleasing color.

CALIFORNIA has many beds of fine sandstones. They are beginning to be extensively developed and descriptions by A. W. Jackson will be found in the Report of the State Mineralogist for 1887 & 1888. The quar- ries of other: states are not important enough to deserve further mention here, but much fuller details will be found in G. P. Merrill's "Stones for Building and Decoration" Wiley. “o91

NEV BRUNSWICK. Considerable amounts of an olive green sandstone from the lower Carboniferous beds of Dorchester, N.B. are imported along the Atlantic seaboard and considerable also of red sandstone comes from Dum- friesshire, Scotland, being shipped Shea Carlisle.

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Clays And Slates.

General papers. Local References follow unaer localities.

Brackett & Williams. Newtonite and Rectorite, two new minerals of the Kaclinite Group A.J.S., July, 1891.p.11.

W. H. Brewer. Suspension and Sedimentation of clays, Awl.S. iii, XXIX, 1.

G.H.Cook and J.C.Smock. Report on New Jersey Clay beds; 1878.

W.O.Crosby. Composition of the Till or Boulder Clay, Boston Soc.Nat.Hist. AV, LLG, LE90.

C.T.Davis. Bricks Tiles and Terra Cotta.

R.T.Hill. Clay Materials of the United States, M-R. 1892.-p;712

Johnson & Blake. Kaolinite and Pholerite, A.J.S. ii, XLIII,1867, p.351.

G.A.Koenig. Supplement to the Encycl.Brittanica, Vol.II p.127.Article Clay. Rec.

R.B.Morrison. Brick Makers Manual.

.Orton Sr. & E.Orton Jr. Clays and Clay Industries of Ohio.Geol.Sury.Qhio Vol. VII, 45-254, 1695. Rec.

H. Ries. Afticle on Clays. Hineral Industry,I1I, 165, 1894. Rec.

Forthcoming Report on the Clays of New York, 1895.

Clays are of two gencral kinds as resards origin, sedimentary and residual. The latter as the name implies are the less soluble materials that remain behind . in the weathering and removal in solution of the substances in rocks which are more easily attacked. Limestones afford them and they often mark as well the position of former granitic masses. Sedimentary clays are formed by the finest products of erosion which are the ones that remain in suspension until the transporting water becomes quite still. But in these fine sediments in over to bring about a true clay there must be a sufficient proportion of a hydrated silicate of alu- mina tc give them plasticity. Excessive amounts of quartz and other min- erals however fine lack this property and afford fine sands, gritty clays or mud all of which with increasing coarseness pass into shales, grey- wackes and sandstones.

The distinguishéng physical feature then of a clay is plasticity and the cause of it is the mineral,commonly called Kaolin. Microscopic in- vestisations have shown that Kaolin crystallizes in exceedingly ninutec, rhombic, hexagonal or rounded scaly crystals, to which has usually and with some reason, been given the name Kaolinite, and their composition has been formulated as Al; 0;, 2510. , 2H,0O. corresponding to Si0; 46.50, Al-O: 39.57 H.O0 13.93. In the paper by Brackett & Williams cited above will te found a discussion of the Kaolinite group and the discovery of two new members in a series of four possible silicates. There always has been some difficulty in making analyses of exceptionally pure clays fit the Kaolinite formula and it is probable that other hydrated silicates of alumina are present in not a few. In the process of analysis it is dif- ficult: to separate the amount of silica present as comminuted quartz from that combined with the alumina and in very fine clays the mechanical means of differential settlings is not applicable. In coarser, sritty clays much free quartz can in this way be washed out, but even in the finest slimes some will remain. the investigation of boulder clay re- ferred to avove Crosby divided it into four products; one, gravel, which would not pass a 12 mesh sieve, two, sand, which would not pass a 50 mesh

‘m sieve, three, Rock-flour palpably gritty and mostly. comminused quartz , four, clay, not gritty (or noarly so) and losing at least lez. (122)

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Te rd ee a Be Ee Apa yrs a be ee ae ap coed idy: tee, aoe tea) ace ie fae po arate ' “Figs : ae! ee es mire eyo ae oe a ro 7 ai 0 Seems sta" ‘ate i ites

combined H, 0 on ignition. The last two were separated from each other by repeated decantation. All clays contain some free quartz, altnouzh in New Jersey in instances the very fat clays have as low as 052%. Other rock making minerals are present mechanically involved such as mica,felda- spar, iron oxides and curiously enough rutile (TiO. ) to an almost invari- able amount of 1.% in New Jersey fire clay. Rutile has been long known as a constant ingredient of slates. More or less carbonaceous matter appears in clays in the form of lignite. Balls or concretions of pyrite are also common. Carbonate of lime is frequently so abundant in brick clay as to readily effervesce, and its concretions or clay-dogs are found in almost every brick yard.

Sedimentary clays are either soft beds that have never hardened and that thus belong to the more recent geological formations (many occur in the deposits of the Glacial period) or else they are the mellowed out- crops of clay beds which are perhaps of older formation and anly hard under cover. In their chemical composition clays contain 610., Al. O: ,and H.O in largest amount, and with these are variable but smaller quantities of iron oxides or sulphides, lime, magnesia, potash, soda and titanium oxide. Their presents affects the uses of the clay whether for common brick, pottery, drain tile, fire brick, etc. Where a high refactory prop- erty is needed the ideal brick approximates as much as possible pure Kaolinite which is even less fusible’ than quartz. But as such a fat clay shrinks and checks in firing it has to be tempered by the addition of guartz. Titanium oxide has no bad effect and by itself iron oxide is less deleterious than the others. Lime, magnesia, potash and soda tend to make fusible double silicates with the alumina or with one another

and thus injure the refactory property. Many years ago Bischoff sug- gested the following formula as convenient for expressing the excellence of fire clays Alc Bio. AY Veto in which the several molecules

iy FS ‘s Racer ae indicate the percentages of ‘them afforded by analysis. R stands for the other basés; thus the excellence of a clay varies directly as the square of the percentage in Al-O;and inversely as the other basés and the silica. When values are supplied in this formula it is found that the most refactory clays give results as high as 14, while ordinary fire clays may be as low as 4 or even l. The work of H. A. Wheeler on the fire clays of Missouri has shown that this expression does not always hold good and that it is incomplete. Bischoff's formula: calls for high percentages of Al-O. for the best refactory results, whereas Wheeler has found that clays high in SiO. exhibit fire resisting powers not at all inferior. Wheeler shows that the other oxides or "detrimentals® as he calls them, are the great agents in promoting the fusibility, and that the density and finenessof the clay are also important factors. The formula that he recommends for cluys of about tne same fine” and whose specific gravities do not differ more than 0.2 is Fusibility Factor or PL Psir in which N represents the non-detrimentals, $10:,AL_02,T1i0;, H-@, CO:, D represents the total of detrimentals, or the Fe,0,,Fe0,0a0, Mg0,K.0, NazO, S and SO,. D' is the alkalies alone, they being of ess pecially bad influence, If there is great difference in grain and spec- ific gravity, a constant has to be added to the denominator. Values of the latter are given in the original paper (Sec. E.li.Jour.Mar.10,1694.p. 224,and forthcoming report of Mo.Geol.Surv.on Clays.) Fire clays are the most valuable clays,and in connection with them chemical analysis 15 AaSs~ pecially important. In the best clays the alkalies should be not over 1p; iron oxide may be as much or a trifle more, and of the rest still less; of all these,however,the less the better.

(123)

; - i arr ; oy Se pein feegore wee Se ey bee ‘ a lew t =e, alt cm ia Ma OS Zp seria ig 7

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by yS are the most impure but the puli re clay. : ut 5000-5500 lbs. to the cu.yd. The specific gravity 2.45 It is higher in the quartzos e varieties. BRICK CLAYS. eae adapted to brick making are accessible to nearly Link our large cities. In the north they are commonly derived from the finer sediments chat apse in the floods which followed the melting of the riekapter ice sheet of the Glacial Period. They are impure clays and even in 3 ecmmon kiln often use. The clay is at times in thin beds separated by a little coat of sand that prevents them mellowing together and that marks the more troubled Trieste rs of the seasons of floods when the clays were depos-= ited. Again the clay iS in a solid mass not marked by much bedding. The clay is tempered with sand to give stiffness and is often submisted to heavy pressure in the moulds in order to obtain the even surfac2 of press— ed brick. The quality of the tempering sand is important. It should con-+ sist of quartz fragments but there are not a few regions of limestones and calcareous shales where quartz sands are unknown. In such tempering material or in the clay itself are often limestone fragments that calcine in the kiln and afford quicklime which may cause the bricks to spall off after being laid in the wall. The absorption of moisture and the conse- quent explosive slaking is the reason of it. Central New York suffers in this respect. Ordinary brick clay is extremely variable in chemical composition. The 810¢ ranses from below 40 to over 80%, and the Al;O,z 10 to 20%. The amount of iron oxide in clays used ioe ordinary red brick averages 3-64, but as a deeper color may increase the price per 1000 very materially, this is sometimes artificially increas rie the effect of the iron is in- fluenced also by the amount of lime present with which the iron forms a light colored silicate. Thus the cream colored ™ilwaukee bricks are made of a clay not especially low in Fe,0, (2.83-3.04) but high in lime-(15.45 -13.24). Lime usually ranges from less than 1% £6. Lk0 or Mndte< 2 bt is not Left in the brick as lumps of quick lime it does no especial harm. ilagnesia is rarely as much as 5% and the alkalies are senerally not far trom. 5. Af NAG ine test of a clay is a safer indication of its value than is an analysis. In the kiln the green brick is brought up gradually to a sintered but not thoroughly vitrified Seen es H. Ries states that a good brick should fulfil the following conditions. It should be fairly dense, of a good color, of parallel agar and sharp edges. To yield this a clay is required that will not check or irre sularly shrink in firing. It/should be compact and uniform in texture and give a clear, ringing sound when struck. This is largely a function of the moulding. It Should not absorb over 10-15% of water; it should have a specific gravity of <.Or more, and a crushing strength of at least 3000 LOG per square in. Shales nave been ground in a few Rego ater ee and then moulded into bricks and baked. They have given very satisfactory results both for building purposes and as later noted ror paving. The Devonian shales in southern New York have such applications. It is unnecessary to mention in detail the localities of brick clay. They are especially found in New York and New England in the deposits of the Champlain Epoch which are wonderfully developed in the valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut rivers. Near New York the brick yards are found along the Hudson River and in the (124)

Shed analyses are fewe

cn

re,

SRREASO RCA mists Sato hem WES Se ra; as sar: <Sue Spores a en tae

estuary of the Hackensack River west of the Palis Se

Nagerd ois to the recent report of H. Ries the Ological section involLy the clays is,: 2). Dritt.. 2, Delta Deposits : C flowing

into the Eudson Valley from east and west). 3, Estuary Deposits of fine

ade or Berceen Hill Rid

Stratified sand, and of blue and buff clays. They all date back to the close of the Glacial times and have been some'yvhat elevated since. The clays may be 100 ft.or more thi@k or may sink to amere trace. 7

found from Sing Sing to Albany with a break where the H river. The clays Quite calcareous and furnis! ¥ e

billion br Bob: are dus from the banks and to a less degree

AL ) ry ct W EH On 4 e .4 ao Os , (D ee, a h oa kro 3. Os SG %) Bhca. Se S Oo oO 4 Ss 2 wi 9 64) cr (! @) pet

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she Hudson Miver Valley,etc. 7 a

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The terminal moraine crosses the Delaware River north of Trenton and runs thence northwesterly across Pennsylvania. Tne clays south of it are 1f earlier ets than the Glacial times. A most important belt of them passes sovthwestvardly through New Jersey of Cretaceous Age and appears in the banks of the Delaware from Trenton to Philadelrhia and thence south. Hither these clays or the Glacial beds further north have been re- deposited to form the Quarternary brick clay of Philadelphia from which are made the excellent presse d bricks Tor which the locality is famous. The Cretaceous clays are nowever imrortant further south near Baltimore, VWasninzton and alsewhere . They are often red in natural color.

1. Heilprin. Chapter on Philade vhia Brick in Town Geolory. 1885. Repts.of 2nd.Penn.Geol.surv. ; med ep C&. Excellent bricks are mad But acia

clays. In Ohio the trata and are n brick are also furn-

ater under reLrractory c: S cal impor-

ished. Indiana places great quantities of brick of more than Lo

tance on the markets. They are obtained from resions, southeast of Chicago

and afford pressed brick of high grads. Milwaukee has given its name to

a cream colored brick of interesting properties. While one might inter

that the crude clay lacked iron such is not the case, but as earlier

stated the iron that is present fuses with the Lime. and alkalies to a

white double silicate.

Reports of the Bureau of Statistics of Indiana,1880, 61,62,85,etc.

E. T. Sweet. Milwaukee clays and bricks, AJJ.S.,iii1, AXIV, 15%.

N. H. Winehell. WMinn.Geol.Surv. Miscellaneous Publications, No.8, A.J.5.

TTT MTD bs ial a — + Se : am a ote - - i ate .

Dh otable increase of interest in good roads and paving has led to the develonrment of the vitrified bricit industry. This material is often available in vecions remote from ervstalline rocks or others hard enough for street traffic, and has grown greatly in late years. A clay or shale is needed that will vitrify without losing its shape, when the fire of the kiln is pushed beyond the sintering stage needed for building brick.

f

" Se ee a Se — 8 Se en eer ee eee, eee

i : r ae oe feacews — a — ah ee ee a Se a lige ae cr ee ee ad aS . er aaa — ae — 5 seve ee eee — ———s a al a oa ee ere: . 7 ik aes be at a

et Bases ey ae sete “hal we ? L.

The cost is much less than asphalt or granite and the raw material is more widely spread. lear Syracuse,N.Y,, Charleston W.Va. and in the West are many works. The analyses range much as in brick claybut not all of the latter clays give good vitrified brick.

Cy. £2. Chase. Brick Pavement. LOO 3

i. W. Gibson, Vitrified Brick for Street Pavements- Rep.of Rureau of Mines, Ontaric,1895. 5S of If.Quarterly,Jan.1895. p.149.

ZH. Orton Jr. Geology of Ohio. VII. keg.

PIRE-CLAY. The general properties of fire-clay have already been outlined, It remains to speak of the princi Aes sources of fire brick. NEV JERSEY. The belt of Cretaceous deposits that cross New Jersey

from Staten Island to Trenton, as the northern boundary, consist of a northern and underlyins belt of clays and G southern overlying one of

marls and greensands. The clays are lower Cretaceous and afford several varieties... In & the beds consist of fire-clay, potters clay, brick clay ety Lligni ue and are some 550* thick in all. Althoush they contain

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many land plan they are irine deposits as is shown by the molluscs. The beds strike northeast. ine clays have many varieties, some being

Suitec to stoneware, some to pipes, some for firebrick, some, which are

pure ea ae for paper adulteration, and some, that are pure kaolin, are called feldspar. rhe fire brick has a very high reputation and in in-

J i stances has stood bet Hes vests than any other. Analyses show that the fire clays approximate kaolin put have somewhat less than the theoretical ‘ Ne Ne 9: %

(A

)

percentage of sup reae. “the Other varieties run much higher. Woodbridge

and Anhboy contain the most extensive pits

Sixth Annual Report Bureau of Labor and Statistics of New Jersey.

G. H. Cook and J: C. Smock. WN yJ.Geol,Surv. Report on Clays, 2678:.

Js DO. Hevberry. On the Raritan Chays of Nido A. APALS., 1868:

da Us “Smock ining Clay, Trans.tlin.Ene.,ILI,p.2ll Fire Clays and Plas= Cie (Claeys Of Nids, 2A Vig by ys CMe Js ers 25438764 Porters Clay, Aes yap ee jis ies 198+

e t 3 irsely from the beds which un- derlie coal seams and are l in the Coal ifeasures. The principal states producing such are Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio and ltissouri. In Pennsylvania excellent fire brick is made in Clearfield Co., at Wood- Jand. The clay Ss der the Brookville coai seam, or seam A, and just over the Fottsville Conglomerate. VERELS 2S Ont under bed B, are oarnt at Johnstown in Cambria Co. and still others near Pittsburs. Clay at Mt.

pavage, lid. in the Cumberland coal basin also affords an excellent brick. Ohio is abundantly provided with fire clays in the area of the coal mea- sures. At idineral Point, Akron and many other places Kilns are in opera- t10n. Cheltenham, a suburb of St. Louis is one of the best known of our

CLAVS.c.. ye) gs available for glass pots and for this few others are adapt-

ed. It is often associated with a thin coal seam.

Maryland. R. A. Cook. The manufacture of fire brick at Mount Savage,id. Miz. Feb.1886.

Pennsylvania. See Rep 1d, p.167. HH on Cambria Co.

ther local reports.

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The structure has been imitated artificially. In nature, only extremely homogeneous clays have produced sood slates. Where for any reason the rock is more silicious or coarse it has failed of the cleavase and such layers preserved the crumpled folds with no cleavaze. They are troubles in the quarry and are called curly slates Another drawback is met in the quartzZ veinlets that especially favor Slate distrists. They spoil the cleavare. Pyrite too is a bad feature when present. All such imperfections cause enormous waste and all slate quarries give the vis- itor the impression of the vast quantity of material necessarily handled to provide the output. It may be from five to twenty fiva times. Many endeavors have been made to utilize this refuse. It has been ground

for paint, and serves very well. It has also been ground and with clay baked into servicéable brick. slates are used for roofin; and of later years for all inanner of applications such as marbleized mantels, billiard tables, wash tubs, steps in stairways etc. When too thicic For aa the slabs are easily dressed, planed, sawed and worked int Sor roofing it is ate Lo of Slate from a sufficie ant quarry to avoid weathered outcrops. If not cood it is ap aviay to mud on Sp ES: f

cere in the to

Slates are mostly drab or blue-olack, but there are also red and gereen varieties. nese colors appear as times in tne Same quarry.

Under the microscope it is seen that fine kaclin makes up a good portion of the slide, but that quartz and feldspar are also present. Mica some- times appears and rutile in excessively minute needles is common. AS

eo ek, Slate shade into phyllites and mica and sornblende schists. they are by the "square" which means the slate including overlaps, which is needea to cover one hundred square feet of roof. ;

NEY ENGLAND AND NEW YORE, Maine affords small quantities of slate from exposures not extensively developed. "hey are in Piscataquis Co New Hampshire has some near Hanover The most prominent districs of New 2neland lies alongs the juncture of Vermont and Tew York There are Slates of two ages. One belt is in the Georgia series cf e Cumbrian and the other is the Hudson River Stare of the Lower Silurian. The former furnishes purplish or sreen slate, the latter red ane fsreen. The former is most productive and its product is adapted to all the applica- tions of slatss. The réad variety hovever crings a higher price. Engineering and lfining Journal, IX, 19, tiay 10th,187

manufacturers and Builders, Circ

Js Cio Smock. Bulls Hdev-Lvorc St

GC. Dy Vatleott,, fhe 15 5OE Tatra: oye 1888, with a se

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em of Emmons etc., A.J.S. Narch and April

PENNSYLVA'MA. Slates are of some importance at Newton, New Jersey, but in Pennsylvania they are a valuable pear iete: There are two produc- tive points, one is regarded as Huronian, is principally developed in York Co. and is known as the Peach Bottom Slate The belt also extends into Maryland. It really is a very fissile, carbonaceous schist. It dips at a high angle and is valuable in b f

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but a few vards across. A . io’

The larger area is in the slates of Huds Aree, in Lehizh and North

ampton Counties. The belt is 7 to le mi nad much folded. The anticlines and synclines often show in the quarries. The slates are dark blue or bluish black, and furnish our chief supplies

Pennsylvania Geolosical Report (Survey) D3. Engineering News January SLSTsLE85; P.67.

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VIRCINIA. has some notable quarries in Bingham County.

GEORGIA. Slates are also commercially important in ncrthwestern Georsia near the town of Rockmart, but they have not been sivstenatically worked until recent years.

MICHIGAN. Excellent slate of Huronian age, occurs near L'Ause in

the Upper Peninsula. It has not been utilized in re LIMES TONS INCLUDING MARBLES. Limestones occur in all geological formations a

rh gad

ones they are not always firm enous abundant than sandstones but at times less altered forms they consist of sous maserials which have hardened to a sclid mass. alumina and ma Sia are always present.

ients, especially the alumina marks Those high in masnesia without so

Gdolornit Limestones are both thick and layers a foot thick to be of much

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bout a importance, Spee can be utilized if thicker is not available. rately strong stone as a general thing and in heres wall up into the figures of granite. Limestone even texture and often take a Tine polisn. Their ab sandstone as a general thing but is hisher than gran gravity ma - drop to 2.40 (150 lbs.to the cubic fcot) 2.70 rLth an average for marble not far from that of Where limestones have been subjected to regiona foldings and geological disturbances they become cry

argillaceous m@gterial are ca

cent years.

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1 metamorph stalline and are

called marbles They admit of a high polish and often afford a stone of surpassins beauty. Whatever carbonaceous matter was in the original limestone bacomes graphitic and affords the lines in veined narbles.Othner SULSTABURE as well as orsanic matter itself sive all manner of colors, some harder metamorphic minerals, such as tremolite are at times formed and furnish imperfections in the stone Marble or limestone breccias With veriously colored cements afford a strangely mottled stone.

Tre weatnering action on limestones is chiefly in the nature of so- lution of calciun carbonate. Acid gases and plant srovth affect then seriously. The carbonic acid in the atmosphere when dissolved in rain Water exercises a solvent effect, and is their greatest enemy. Its ef- fects are inanifested by pitted surfuces. Clay seams in the stone and ir- resularities of texture sometimes appear on exposure. Atmospheric waters have also a profound effec: on the stone before opened in quarries nd occasionally workings mest with fissures and imrerfections that curtail tne amount of available good material. Joints speedily becom3 larser from circulating waters and may appear in the quarry face as insightly cracks filled "ith red, residual clay. Limestones are not esvecially good Tire resisters, for theycrack and calcine under sreat nOaS

WESTERN NEY ENGLAND AD NEY JOR, The most important marble quar- ries of America are found ae the 4reen mountains, and are in various beds of limestone: of Camb ilurian Ase that have been metamorphosed by the upheaval of this sreat a4 aoe ai the close of the Lower Silurian Per- iod. The most productive section begins in Dorset, Vt. on the south and extenas through Vallinzford, “est Rptland, Proctor (formerly called Suth-

(129)

on ae 5. ——7 - se ae SS —— —— — eS ———Se SE

Dine pale ee ee eee (aie. Sanaa tes ee a a aad a aera aetna oe

ere eee pe oe See be en a er ae

erland Falls) Pittsford, Brandon and Middlebury. It lies on the flank of

the Green ftlountains. The geological structure is very complicated and not well understood, but near the West Rutland quarries, Chazy fossils have been found, while further east at Pine Hill and again at Rutland J. E. Wolff announces Cambrian fossils. The section varies much and partic- ular beds have particular excellences. There are blue, white; veined and other varieties. The thickest are at Dorset from which point they thin to the north but afford a better grade of stone. The marble is loosened by channeling machines and wedged off. No powder is employed. The work- ings are enormous and much ingenious machinery is utilized. Further north, above Burlington, red mottled marble is obtained called Winooski. It. belongs in the "red sand rock", as the formation was cabled. by the early Vermont Survey before its Cambrian Age was known. It oatcrops on ifallet's Eay and at St. Albans and Swanton, but is a very siliceous vari- ety and hard to work. Still further west on Isle la Motte, one of the islands in the northern part of Lake Champlain are quarries furnishing a marble of dark gray ground mass, which is variegatad by lighter colored fossil shells distributed throuch it. ‘ Brainerd & Seely. The Marble Border of Yestern New England, Proc. Mid- dlLebury Hist. S6c5, Volwiy Fixit, i665. J. D. Dana. On the Age of the Marbles. A.J.S.,iii, XIII, 332-547,405-419 KH. Hitchcock. Geology of Vermont, Vol. II. FE. Perkins. On Winooski Marble, Amer. Naturalist, Feb. 1881. EH. Wolff. On the Lower Cambrian Ags of the Stockbridge Limestone. Geos, SOC. Amer oD psoas

—S— 3x O_o

C4 fo

MASSACHUSETTS. The Taconic Range in Massachusetts contains beds of metamorphosed limestones analogous to those of Vermont. In earlier years Quite extensive quarries were worked at Lees, Sheffield and other towns. The marble contained more or less tremolite and is less used than former~ lv, The same pelt extends into northwest Connecticut and has been util- ized, at Canaan.

NEY YORK. Marbles are obtained on the west shore of Lake Champlain, in the southeastern corner of Westchester County and in the western con- Tines of the Adirondacks. The first named region furnishes a variety of marbles. ‘the ‘vell known dove colored "Lepanto" with its mottlings of pink and ‘white fossils is quarried near Plattsburgh and in the township of Chazy. Further south in the townshir of lioriah the limestones are strongly magnssian and contain much disseminated serpentine. They are thus white and green mottled and are known as iloriah marble, verd antique Ophite or ophicalcite. G. P. Morrill has shown that the serpentine has resulted from decomposed pyroxene. This is a beautiful stone aid resem- bles granite at a distancs. A Similar varisty is obtained at Rvegate and Cavendish, Vt: At Glens Falls, N.Y. black marble is quarri3d of sreat beauty. In Vestchsster County the same dolomite beds app3ar as in Connecticut. They afford fine quarries at Pleasantville and Tuckahoe as the coarsely crystalline stone gives a snowflake effect. They ire not much worked at present. On the west of the Adirondacks in the town of Gouverneur, beautiful white and blue mottled marbles arse obtained and ex- tensively quarried. Limestones not marbles, strictly speaking are local- jy worked in many places. The Lower Silurian in Central New York north of Utica is prolific and in the unmetamorphosed portions around Lake Champlain. At Greenport, Columbia Co. the Lower Silurian limestones are

(130)

again largely quarried.

Higher in the geological series the Niagara and to a less -derree—the. Clinton limestones are available from Lockport to Niagara. Lockport is best known for a crinoidal variety that takes a fine polish and is called marble, but best exposures by far are across the Niagara River at St. Davids in Canada, where unusually thick and homogeneous beds occur in the crest of the escarpment . The Lower Helderberg contains some limestones Locally employed for building southwest of Albany but is better xnown as a source of cement rock. The rocks of the Corniferous Period afford two important beds, the Onondaga gray limestone and the Corniferous. The former is much used in the vicinity of Syracuse, the latter in the north- ern outskirts of Buffalo. Above this horizon the Tully limestone is the only one in New York but it has no development worth mention.

J. S. Newberry. Reports of Judges Centennial Exposition, Vol.III. J. C. Smock. Building Stone of New York, Bull.3, N.Y.State Museum, March

1888, pp.94-134. Bull.10.

PENNSYLVANIA. Marbles are afforded by the Lower Silurian limestones of Montgomery County, and from other exposures in southwestern Pennsylva nia. In instances they are of great strength. A statuary grade is re-~- ported at Avondale.

MARYLAND derives limestone or marble from an isolated Lower Silurian exposure near Cockeysville and also produces the famous Calizo or Potomac marble from Point of Rocks. The last is Triassic.

VIRGINIA is known to contain great stores of marbles in the metamor-~ phosed Cambro-Silurian limestones of the Great Valley. They await extend- ed development although now locally employed. The same will doubtless prove true for North Carolina.

TENVESSHE. One of the largest marble industries of the country is based on the Lower Silurian limestones of the Great Valiey near Knoxville in eastern Tennessee. A variety of color is found,but the one for which the section is best known is mottled with pink and white. It is a very strong and heavy stone,(160 lbs.to the Cubic foot) and is much used for decorations. Tennessee has great outcrops of limestones in the Nashville Valley as well.

Safford. Geology of Tennessee. GHORGIA. Much attention has been of late given to the marbles of fia. The northwestern part of the state has many exposures of varied

Ss anc they have been extensively sold in the north.

FLORIDA. Large quantities of a soft, fragmental shell and coral rock, called coquina were earlier quarried in Florida, but of late years wooden houses have proved so much drier that its use has pass3d away. OHIO, Limestones are of extended occurence in Ohio but have little

ornamental walue. They are used for rough work,and strata of Carbonifer- ous, Devonian, Upper Silurian and Lower Silurian are utilized. EK. Orton. Ohio Geol. Survey, Vol.V.

Il! DIANA. Several Carboniferous and Upper Silurian limestones are locally used, but the most important industry of this nature in the state is based on a belt of @olitic Limestone, of the St.Louis division of the Lower Carboniferous. This extends from Kentucky northward for about 100 miles through central Indiana and is extensively quarried from Bedford on the south nearly to Greencastle on the north. The stratum runs about 40

t and is attacked wherever small valleys or gulches have made le without stripping . The stone is called"Indiana limestone"

(131)

5 a z eS eT Ln — en Em Pee Sa . ete Kd Po we . eo se ty 5 Bes 2 ee a es pe eee : — : Se he es oe Le t cea ee 7 Sa 7 ace" ey teens RS 5

——

RG, ee ip bw od te ttre me Kyeeds SPor em os "ov Gs ees "Woe,

SAE GEE SES? a PES ey re eae ead

or"Bedford stone” or "Oolitic stone”. The stratum scarcely shows a bedding plane, and can be cut out in blocks or monoliths of any desired size. There are tio varieties, a clue and a buff. they shade into each other, and some quarries have both. The buff appears to be a Slightly weathered form of blue. The limestone is homogeneous to an

exceptional degree; it cuts with adaptability to tool treatment. millions of dollars annually, and the st

Ne

ereat favility The indus try

ed Tor its to several shipped even

and is not now amounts

one.is extensively

to New York.

J. Collett. Ann. Keport State Geol. Indiana, 1878, p.686. 188182 p.cod Ann d5 S501 FE. vy: See

iM. Thompson. Report on Indiana Building Stone, 17th Report State Geol.

Ind. Rec. stone runs

promising but

1891. pp.18-114. The belt of oolitic are refaraued as ILLIOIS. The state is rich i where buried in drift. he Carb are all represented.

limestone of the Upper Silurian. and very ona DaRiteya tes quality in Scale at Lemont and Joliet. Though not specially durable when exp amount yearly, being easily wrought. Silurian stone is obtained and elsewnere D. D. Conover. Tenth Census, ZX, p.261.

MISSOURI. The limestones of : or Cambro-Silurian. The former are Lovis stare) southwestern Silurian to some extent southe is locally used and developments G. C. Broadhead. Trades

IOWA. part. for local quarries. is iferous strata,

Minnesota

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32)

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important source the Niagara quarried of a whit poco

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CALIFORNIA has some notable occurences of marbles. The openings near the town of Keeler, in Inyo Co. seem the most beautiful and tid fair to furnish extensive amounts of superior srade. The colors vary from murs ‘Filte to mottlings of other tints, and in instances are unigue in “2¢tarn. Banded travertines akin to the so-called Mexico onyx are quar- .isd In San Luis, Obispo Co. See the Seventh, Highth, Tenth and Twelfth Annual Reports of the Califor- nia State Mineralogist, especially the last, p.390.

ARIZONA. Quarries of stalagmitic limestone of beautiful banded structure, like Mexican onyx, have been lately opened in Big Bug Creek, thirty miles from Prescott, Arizona. They have been already introduced tO SOME SCXTENT.

J. F. Blandy.Big Bug Onyx Quarries,Arizona. E.& M.dJ.,Mar.26,1892, p.548.

IMEXICO. From two localities in Mexico beautiful banded marbles, the s0=called"Mexican Onyx", are shipped to the United States. the one first opened is in the state of Puebla; and is a continuation of an industry that throve under the Aztecs. The stone usually lies in detached bould- ers of varying size, buried in red clay. These are sawn up and where checks or defects appear they are artificially remedied. Ihe price in- ereases rapidly with the size of the slab. The so-called onyx also oc- curs as veins in a cherty BOT’ Needless to say, -the "onyx" is calcite and not the mineral properly called onyx, wnose tandings are, nowever, closely imitated. More recently large deposits have alsc been opened in Lower California. They lie in the interior valley of the peninsula and near the 5Oth parallel of latitude. About 100 feet of alternating beds of travertine Pec ee at rte calcareous conglomerate, fill a narrow ravine, which has beén eroded in sandstone. The travertine is a hot spring dep- osit. Eeautiful slabs cae small pillars are obtained. The company is called the New Padrara Onyx Co.

On the Puebla Ponte oes See Eng.& Mining ees Dec .26, On the New Padrara Quarries, See Emmons and Mérrill,Geol. California, But Boel. Soe, Anan, V. 489, and es SRS 508.

Foreign marbles especially colored varities are imported in consid-

erable quantities. Various points in Italy, ortugal, Spain, France

Peg. pA res. ketch of Lower

no oOo

fb and Northern Africa supply them. They have their special names, a list of which with descriptions will be fo and in the paper by J.S.Newberry, Reports and Awards, Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia. J.B.Lippincott, p.145. The same names have been adopted in instances by American deal-

ers Tor local martles.

Serpentine.

The ophicalcite marbles agar occur in the eastern Adirondacks were earlier referred to, p. 130. They are closely akin to serpentine and of- ten contain lumps of this mineral of ehabic Size. Serpentine supplies a beautiful ornamental stone when it can be had in sufficient purity. It takes a high polish and affords mottled greens and reds that have been prized from remote ant iquity. The best grades are called precious ser- pentine. Specimens are obtained at Newburyport, Mass. and at llont ville, W.J. The massive rock is used as an ordinary building stone in Philadel- shia. Although outcrops ars met near New York, the stone 1s not solid enough for building purposes

(133)

eae sae ae il Se ee a ae es —-s se . ee — —— — a a a et : a Se ea a TSS es . ee netione 2 Se Sa et . i ml - a i - Ee - pee SS - —— : - is, — : “ a ,' aol 7 Saas ie Talla elon as at eed f=: — —- : ; — : —— , - ‘ oe ee —— ome — a ml A . B. Ms ; o rt ee en ee Ss —— —=-1 —=t 7 ; me - : : 7

ae tae

G.P.Merrill. Ophicalite of Thurman; Warren (Co., A.J.S. Mar.1889. p.189. " Serpentinous Rocks of Essex Co., Proc.U.S.Nat'l.Museum,XII. 1890, 595. . . Montville do. do. L888: 105;

Limes Nd Ements .

Limes and cements are classed ie Sandal. Gillmore into four classé6s; -.fat Limes, 2..Meager Limes, 3..Hydraulic Limes, 4..Hydraulic Coment. They each depend upon the composition of the crude rock. If this is a nearly pure carbonate of lime, the fat limes are afforded. If the alum- inous impurities reach 8 or 10 % hydraulic properties begin to be devel- oped and at 16 to 20 the product has to be ground to a fine powder be- fore it will slake. The varying amounts of these ingredients determine the uses of the stone. In this country we have chiefly to do with Nos.1l and 4. The so-called impurities consist of carbonate of magnesium, car- bonate and oxides of iron, clay, sSilicates, ane sand. Of these the mag-

re

nesium carbonate does not destroy the charact of fat lime although present in very large amount. Its effect needs investigation and would furnish an interseting subject for a thesis, as authorities differ. Ceée- ments have received so much at tention that common limes have nad but lit- tle. It is thought by some that maznesia makes the lime set more slowly and such is the recorded experience with the lime obtained years ago in the upper parts of Ifanhattan Island. Iron does no especial nae in ce-~ ments but in Limes, par icularly if used for interior plastering it de- stroys the whiteness. The argillaceous ingredients are Sresent. in fairly

la ee gGuantities in all cement rocks. LIMES. The following analyses of quicklime will give an idea of the ranze

several limestones employed for they vary from nearly pure calcic carbom ict nes

composition. It appears that ate to those high in magnesia.

thi cr eatly ahs emed but the n many natural stones.

Oyster shells afford a very pure produ

U)

analysis shows that they have more mag

CaCO 2 ii [gO . 103 %en0 2 HoO Insol. 1. Glens Falls, N.Y, 96.46 0.64 Der INAS 2. Hardistonville, N.dJ, 92.50 2.88 O55 1.80 o. Denieville,Arkansas 98.43 O.95 0.28 4. See below. lay weit} rasa ae N.Y. 54.49 43.62 O.9L 6. oven efield, Ohio. 54.165 44.57 0.56 0.65 LS “By Prof. J.H.Appleton, for the company. 2. N.dJ.G@eol.Surv.1868

p.404, contains also quartz and Broun es Ths AOS 3. Geol.Surv.Ark. 1890 IV eet 4, Opacser Shells, CaO 44.4. MgO 1.3, Alkalies .4, CO 55.4,

i 5 tin OP Te, &, Gl ks Dette matter 3. Total 100.1 N.d,

Ceol. Surv.

PaQs .1, 50 di agara lime S

868 p.405. 5. Quoted by Ark.Geol.Surv.1890.IV.211. 6. Ni- tone, Geol.of Ohio.V1I.716.

Separate utatistics are not available wherewith to illustrate the relative importance of the states because the lime industry is classed in with those for cementr, building stone and iron flux, but in a general way it may be said that in amounts in 1889 the more important states rank- 6d in the following order: Pennsylvania, Maine, Ohio, New York,Wisconsin,

Missouri India ana; all beinz over one million barrels. The value of

Maine*s product is greatest. Lime is put up in barrels of 200 lbs. each,

Lime kilns are so common and lime is so generally produced through- out the country that particular regions hardly deserve mention. In the east the principal gsological horizons are the Cambro=Silurian inchuding the Trenton; the Niagara; the Lower Helderbere and the Carboniferous. In the Mississippi Valley the Subcarboniferous limestones are abundant and in the prairie states the Cretaceous. In Pennsylvania some thin beds in the Carboniferous are calcined for fertilizing material. The principal sources for New York City are Glens Falls, N.Y., where the Trenton lime- stone very accessible; Rockland, Maine; and St. John, N.B. where

tian limestones furnish the suppliss. ley. Lime in New Brunswick, Mineral Industry, II. 451.

k. Limestones and Limes of N.J. N.J.Geol.Surv. 1868. p. 387. Q.A.Gillmore. lLimes,Hydraulic Cements and Mortars. Van Nostrand, 1672. T.C.Hopkins. Report on Ark.Marbles,Geol.Surv.Ark.1890.1V.144. Describes

technology. On Limes-ifineral Industry, 11.445.1893. Alex. M'Ava. On Limes and Cements. Proc.Phil.Soc. Glasgow, XXIII.24. Mineral Resources. Statistical Papers in all tne volumes. More than 50 analyses of Kansas limestones in the Vol. for 18935. p.563. EZ. Orton.Production of Lime in Ohio.Geol.Ohio.VI.705-711.Good general discussion. Rec.

CEMENTS. There are two kinds of cements which are important in this country, hydraulic or natural rock cement and Portland cement. The form- er is manufactured direct from an arsillaceous limestone, while the lat- ter is an artificial mixture, whose proportions are determined by analy- Sis. In addition to these their are hydraulic limes, referred to above under lime, and pozzuolana a name used for artificial mixtures of ground, blast furnace slag and slacked lime. The name pozzuolana was originally applied to a leucitic tufa from Pozzuol ar Naples, and for a similar rock from the Fine Valley the name trass has been used. All these sub- stances owe their hydraulicity to the formation during the process of burning of basic silicates and aluminates of lime or of lime and magnesia which, together with some calcic hydrate, crystallize gradually when ex- posed to water, and afford the necessary hond of cement. Some powdered rocks and slags possess this property Without calcination. Natural rock cement sets more quickly but is less strong than Portland. The latter continues to harden even for a term of years. 4+

Od Oq

NATURAL ROCK CEMENTS are manufactured at numerous points but of these only the most important are selected. Much the largest is the dis- trict around Rondout, Ulster Co. generally called the Rosendale district

by which name the cement is also known. Its production is nearly three million barrels annually Next to this is the region near Jouisville,Ky. with from one-half to two-thirds as much. Next follovs a belt from oyra- cuse to Buffa A105 N.Y. with somewhat over one million Mev eg then the Lehigh Valley,Penn., Milwaukee,WVis., Utica and Lasalle,Ills. and Cumber- land ,Md. The. others are very much less important. The general composi- tion of rock and cement is shown oy the annexed table.

0acO. Meco. Sid0- Al;0. ,#e, 0; H,O,etc.

1. Rosendale, N. Y¥. ABS Pete TUBS y 11.38 1.20 2. Louisville, Ky. 50.45 16.67 Ze Do Lato BIE DS, 9 WARY Olly. Dis det Oh. a0 19.26 oo .80 B84 6.82 4. Corlay, Penn. 67.14 mo. 90 18,34 7,49 o.94 5. Milwaukee, Wis. £5, 64. 2.46 by AME ge. L.4) -3i05

6, Utioea, DLLs: 42.25 ol. 98 et lng Lie dhe 3.002 7. Cumberland, tid £1.50 8.60 24.74 16.74 6.50 6.16

fy SS

(155

at — —_—"s 3 or ee — - - — i i aie i ; 4 a>. : - a; - an vee ie Se oe, : “sy — Pe ara —- J a 2 La rs — atin ree — a a tb Fer eS wo — Oller 3 Poa m Bel 5 as + - al 2 Je we ee te Se i a adil ae f Cr ee et ae eed tian ve a aie ise te os ee errs, ome 3D + a — — pa - ——— — tm ea ee wot — - " Sa ey ea ets 2S so ; ; r3 IES Si “ + a - jee phir ’ ee taa> eae : . — ah a on ne eS te Set gas. Sant 2! peter ey ree og i ee ee

Nos. 1. 4. 5. and 6. from paper by W.A.Smith, Mineral Industry

I. 49. No.2. Geol.Surv.Ky. A OGhem.Anals,.Pt.2. pv. 134. No.3. Gillmore, Limes, Hortars ete. p.12é5 6.18 7 of last column iS given as alkaline chlorides. Noo’. GeqLyon dhro, Wi. 67S.

Ca Oy, Meo. Sid,. Al, Ox , Fe, 02. H, Oetc.

1. Rosendale Cement o7.60 Le. 6.5 ie ah 16.70 6.30 HOWLSVilTe: 41.80 Lé.2? 24.40 6.20 11.41 o. Akron 0 eh se Ge eae: OK i 4. Coplay M 69.18 1.98 es aL oO is .88 S UphGa betes. ; 00.67 20.98 05.43 9.92

Nos. 1. 4. and 5. from paper by W.A.Smith,Mineral Industry, I. 50. No.g. Geol.Ohio. VI.674., No.6. Cement Rock and eypsum Deposits in

ee M.mb. Oct.1888.

A anes shudy oe! the first table of analyses brings out the great Variability in the composition of the erude rock. Lime and silica seem to be the chief essentials, because as in No.4. magnesia may fall very jow and as in No.6. Al-O: may almost disappear. The second table shows nearly as much variability but it is more significant as it represents the finished product. The figures indicate that MeO is the only one not a real essential. This inference is corroborated by experience with Portland cements in which not over ie MgO is allowed in the usual spec- ifications.

B.C,Clarke. Experiments with Rosendale and Portland Cements. Trans.Ameér poc.Civ.ing. April 1885. See also June 21 and Nov.1885 .for orficial tests.

Q.A.Gillmore. Limes, Mortars and Cements, 1888.

P.Giron. Methods of Burning. Proc.Engineers Club of Phila. KX. July 1893.

H.Kinchling. On Cement Mortar rs. Appendix Ann.Report Hxec.Board of City

of ‘Rochester, tkSs7.

e Chatelier. Procédésd'Hnaé des Maténaux hydravliques. Ann. des Mines

1893. 252. Good review 100 pp. Translated ih M.E.Aug’ 93 N.W.Lord. Natural and Artificial Cement. Geol. Ohio. VI. 6745 5.B.Newberry. Mineral Resources. 1893. p.618. Mineral Industry 1893p.84 ~Ccientific American Supplement April 21, 1894:

Wm.Allen Smith. On Cements, Mineral Industry, I. 49. 1892.

NEW YORK. The New York Acdrene Te Taneebonbe are almost ald derived from the Waterline beds which are now placed at the top of the Salina,

In the Rosendale region these Occur just above the Climton quartzite and

form two beds, from 7 to 25 feet thick and separated by a few feet of

sandstone. The workings are now, in almost all cases underground, and the beds dip at all angles up to the vertical. For illustrations of stratigraphical disturbances the region is noted as one of the best in the Bast. Folds and unconformities are both admirably exposed. Roseneé.2 dale, Binnewater, Lawrenceville and Rondout are the chief centers.

From Syracuse west to Buffalo are not a few additional quarries, which are based on the "Waterline" stratum, the transition member between the Salina and in this case the corniferous, The bed mined near Buffalo is 56 to 8 feet thick, and the product goes by the name of Akron cement.

Mushrooms are grown in the abandoned tunnels and the same is true of ates to some extent, YT

ba tc

Utied, Tits. The cement rock enters Ohio and i but the state is more important as a producer of (136)

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Sees, TSANG pitas Sates eRe

ood ee te i Sor eget Tiel Seay —

T N.Dake. Geol.Cement Quarries. AvJvS.tii< AVI. 293. L679.

W.M.Davis. On the Geology near Rondout. see A,J.S.iii.XXVI.1665. 589. Bull. Mus... Comp... 2o0o02;, Vile .oLt.

Lindsley. Geol.of Cement Quarries. Poughkeepsie Soc.Nat.Science.1I.44-

37}

A ab .

F.L.Nason. Econ.Geol. Ulster Co. Rep.of State Geol. N.Y. 1895. p.d75d. See also N.H.Darton Geol. Ulster Co. Idem. 291.

J.Pohlman. Cement Rock and Gypsum Deposits near Buffalo, IM. H.Oct. 1888. On the cultivation of Mushrooms-see paper by W.Y¥.Warren, same reference.

KENTUCKY. The second area in productiveness lies near Lou which name the cement is known. It is derived from beds, near of the Ohio.

ee Kentucky Geol. Survey, New Series, IV. 404.

PENNSYLVANIA. Contains a very important district in Lehigh Valley. The chief developments are near Coplay and the rock is obtained from open

cuts in limestone of the Trenton.

see Penns Sylvania Geol. Survey DD. 59

WISCONSIN . The quarries of cement rock are in the city of Milwaukee and are based on beds belonging to the Hamilton Period of the Devonian Age. The cement has a high reputation

Vea. Geot or Wisconsin Py S92.

ILLIZO01S. Near Utica and Lasalle are exposures referred to the Cal- ciferous of the Lower Silurian. Six or eight feet of good rocx afford the crude stone which yields an annual output of over half a million bar- rels.

See H.S.Freeman. Hydraulic Cement Works of the Utica Cement Co. Lasalle,

Liles ME. sods. re. Although small quantities of hydraulic cement have been made in not a few other states, yet the only one deserving special mention is I land, where at Cumberland in Allegany Co. about a quarter of a million tons are annually obtained.

PORTLAND CEMENT receives its name from th nglis h town associated with its manufacture. It is made from an artificial mixture of clay or marl an some form of carbonate of lime. chalk is most prized for this, but shell marls and limestones have also been employed. Anything with magnesia is however carefully avoided. fhe materials are usually dried, sround together, moistened, moulded into bricks ana calcined to clinker. The clinker is then ground up to cement, A process has been started in this country to mix wet and then calcine and grind once for all, but. has not yet been established on a commercial basis. There is an attract- ive market for the local product for as yet this is scarcely more than 10 % of the imports. The composition runs quite uniformly as the annexed tables show and it is vigorously under the control of the chemist in charge of the works. Abroad the industry has grown enormously in late years, espetvially in Germany.

cad MgO S104 Al 20

@ Ud

wt Se iat

‘g

g76,03

1. English 60.0 1.00 25.00 12.00 2.00 2. German 59.98 0.356 24.90 LWewr DOR o. Coplay, Penn 62512 Sal Gr 20.64 6.99) 5.41 Sitouk 4. Esypt, Penn. 60.13 22.90 Tee 4.87 5. Near Syracuse, N.Y. 65.00 OF 22-10 6.84 2.10 4.99

(137)

rr cg ee tea tee i Soiree eee, : — : a ee ae ae, 0 oa i ae a. a ——— - — te Srl a ee ie a hua ersaee Sh. 2 ee ok nals @ Ne ieoadics el el eee ptm qe - : 2 2 ‘ 7 i ro Fe AS et ms —s ar as Sey ee - es eg i ee he - ie a a ie me a 7 [a a fa peel ol eet te be ; ee oe ; ee 3a a at i — aos ae é eh bag pT ne ay ; ee a ay eS yr er es, ya aoe #3 Aer, se - : : 2 Ses — 2 a : eae 1 ee ae Pol Kee harce — ae ie ee iJ ae Sere Ise ay ae ae So (a ee at ee eee : + z . ae a etre an a a ete : Se a ee af ey Fg 4 a8 . on : ie cal — ood —s ee ee cow) ; ees Oe 5 ee Te Se eee - ae eT ae ores eer bi egg ee ean eee ee Gee On eee : Be age she ge hy

oe es eee

All these are taken from W, A. Smith's paper in the Mineral Industry I. Of. In ho.4. the igO is included in the last figure given- 4.87.

the Lehigh Valley, Penn. is as yet the most productive district. ihe raw stone employed for hydraulic cement as cited above is dressed up to Portland grade with pure limestone. Near Syracuse, N.Y. and in Ohio, shell es and clay are used. The industry will no doubt grow in the next Lea years. For papers on the Tee cath see citations above under feneral Liter ees especially S. B. Newberry, also H. Reid, Science and Art of anit 1c tur “of Portland Cement, etc. H.& F.N.Spon-18 Supple- ments of Scie ntific American, Nos. 64, 84, 231, 350, 386, wie Nn are cited by J.C. Branner in a brief paper in Geol.Ark. 18868. II. 291

GYPSUM. sypsun is used both as plaster of paris (when calcined) and as fer-

er (when sround raw, i.e. land

composition, but alumina, oxides of it. The dark earth varieties ars 2 pure material furnishes the cement. enite oecur in all the quarries in

native sulphur derived by the alter: Massive sypsum is alabaster and is

Cov

sround

Hak

Le. is C450: ? Silica sometim land- eeetar rystalline plates amount and almost always some on of gypsum coats the cracks. Pure easily recognizable, but the imrure

~plaster). its iron and tor

Clear

d)

2H.9 in es containinate and the white, called sel-

cy A o ke

varieties closely resemble limestone In the kilnsor rather pots the waver is driven off and the resulting anhydrous sulphate has the strong avidity to reabsorb it and set, that gives the mineral its value, but the temrerature of dehydration must not be raised above 250F. else the plas- ter will not set. Gypsum deposits are often in series of strata that contain rock salt and that have been formed by the drying away of isol- ated bodies of water, but it also seems to be Tormed 2 the altsration of limestone The gypsum beds of 1tral New York have been refer-ved by

of Ta ted

sulphuy finally.

action ‘lemons t

he United States the of Grand Rapids, Hich. Strata of Subc

roam

from

low the s es ft. pea iw be te /

or LO two pedas 5

Lower

Fi

@)

in

mt

ine [fords

on area of urface and bed

ae i? ei a t

color

+ Tew

York dark in valina for it was Weert p.402, 18 quarries sypsum is oO by & A. Whi

we

Ous ,

probably

"3

K

ke Oo

in 1 rj rc

untie midd

Aks

ypsur- 1s Barbcur

a) iG

(03

3 Of

Ui}

pest

a VY

ov

7 Ww?

Al

cD

—

)

ey)

—

o>)

ct 0) <9)

oO bots G2

ep.

most productive region

square an

both land=-pla

OO total product are

springs on Dinee bone This is how-

is in the vicinity Are supply the raw miles. The sypsum lies from 2'~70' upper of 8' and a lower of 12’ with vorked. It is creamy pink and ster and stucco. Next 17 pee extending from the mouth of Cayuga all ground for land-plaster. referred to the Lower Helder- fold overlooked

arboniferous

Ls

eG 3 ’ and 1

although

g Tork or Low

Vile

a Ded ol me Vas

Wae as &

84),

he headquarters the Des Moines Kiver the Subcarbonifer- the Cretaceous and

ww

t

growing impor-

Saline, Dickinson in a slightly ior plaster

River come eds of salt, fault fis-=

Le

be

OT Catt Sine or cl

aoc

feiss

fertilizer.

The gypsum district of Ohio centers about Sandusky, but the quarries are at the town of Gypsum, ten miles west The mineral is in strata of the Lower Helderberg. The bed worked.is 7 feet thick and lies about 24

feet below the surface, The

land-plaster, about 40 %

mineral is being applied to the former purpose and 60

worked up into both stucco and

to

the latter. The rock is of excellent grade and purity, but this district is overshadowed by the output of the Grand Rapids region.

Utah has become in the last few years an important source of the mineral, it beings found there in Juab,Beaver,San Pete and Iron counties. Considerable plaster of Paris is also produced at Colorado City, near Colorado Springs,Colo.; and another region deserving mention is Santa Barbara County, Cal. Small amounts are quarried from South Dakota and

Wyoming and the relative

production:

importance

Production of (Short) Tons. Value.

is shown by the following table of Gypsum in 1893. Tons. Value.

LOW span CORA Bp Ade? Or'55, BSR New Mom ye Cities oa 36,126 $65,392. KANSAS Se vie a ata ois 43,631 181,599; South Dakotas: wh san Ba hoi "be ows WY Chipeta on. 124,590 SOS RIT RVers a de 7,014 24,359. Large quantities of gypsum are annually imported into the cities of the Atlantic seaboard from Nova Scotia. The mineral is derived from the Windsor and Cheverie districts on the Bay of Mines. Its geological age is Lower Carboniferous. The best of it is ground at New York City and Newburgh, N-Y¥.,for terra alba, a cheap white pigment. CANADA. R.Brown. On the Gypsiferous Strata of Cape Dauphin, Cane Breton r Journal Geol. Vol.II eres 1847. A.Gesner. On the Gypsum of N.S. V.344,50¢., VoL.V.i.p.229, Te49" T.S.,Hunt. Note sur les Sources Acides et les Gypses du haut Can- d ada. Comptes Rendus, dune 25.1855. B On the Formation of Gypsunms & Dolomite,Q.J.G.5.16.152. it On some Reactions of the Salts of Lime and Magnesia ‘ and on the Formation of Gypsums and Magnesia Rocks. H Aw? lS.” If. 26. 270 also 365 J.B.Tyrrell Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba,Can.Rec.Sci.IIl. P 653. April 1889. See also July 1889. LOWA C.R.Keyes. Gypsum in Iowa. Monthly Review Iowa Weather and Crop M Service, IV. No.3. pp.2-4.1893. Also Proc.Iowa Acad. 4 pct. Ld pttiss, 29-22. Hess, C.A.White. Gypsum in Iowa. Geol.of Iowa. II. 295. MICHIGAN. C.E.Wright. Gypsum in Michigan. Rep.of Commissioner of iiineral 4 Statistics for Michigan, 1861 pp.3-20. see also 4 C.Rominger, Geol. Mich. III. 100. NEW YORK. W.C.Clarke Gypsum Industry, N.Y. Bull.N.Y.State ifuseum IIl. H Aprads POS TOs tT. ds Hunt, On,the Acid Spriness and the Gypsum Deposits of the H Onontare talieG p,. nda. be 7G cies L. Vanuxem. Gy psuin in New York. Geol,of Third District,p.98. 0.G.Williams se010e ical Relations of ths Gypsum Deposits in : Cayusa Comins. c a CAI SALES SUielZh Seevatss i ALASALS SRP DE. 202 DRBS4 OHIO. B. Orton Gyosum or Landplaster in Ohio. Geol.Ohio VI. 696 5 Vomr lso Newberr ! Poe He vee also u Uf 1 S rp nied.

Se ne Bie ote —— : — a Pee ci or SSee - - — ‘ : oe J : e , 4 z : - " 7 a ar — a er sie ee Fe Pee eae Se ele op ean 2 - Sales Ves Sores ae LP ee OS 8 ee “ 7 lee c 4 - r — Fr OE SP TIS ' ” a” : 4 me 7 v : owen. aad ce Sn oe es c —g "rk oT eo a) FY Ta EPS ene FS a : ;

is oe he ee PO SS Oe ST nS w San tl eel ‘ ms

oe ae to -

er et i ae eater pee ee + toe ee earn mars r=) em cay

ee P'S Sa ates ROMS YE : : r Se ee eee ee es oe ae hae tao — Sse ee ea tes ie SUE ce REI nn ase oe Ser

Chapter Vi. Water And Salines.

Any good treatise on geology will furnish the generalities about th. circulation and storage of water. Dana's Manual, and Geikie's Textbook are especially bo be recommended, and numerous instructive analyses will be found Justus Roth's Allgemeine und Chemische Geologie,Vol T. As a brief <omiary it may be said that water is the universal solvent. As it percolutes everywhere throughout the rocks and soil, it gathers mineral matter in solution and its action is much intensified by the COs which it. holds in solution. The chief elemsnts affected are calcium, magnesiun, iron, potassium, sodium and silicon. Organic matter is also found but is rather of sanitary than geologic importance. The common salts in solution are carbonate, sulphates and chlorides. Limestones including the magne- sian varieties and calcareous shales furnish hard water, granites,slates, Quartz sandstones and crystalline rocks in general furnish the purest. Lakes with no outlets, as the Great Salt Lake and others of the Great Basin, become strong brines. Some marine sandstones that still hold s6a water afford brines or at least alkaline well water. For large supplies, rivers are found to be on the whole the purest. In the analyses below the general range of various waters is indicated and a series is set forth from rain water,oceanic water,etc.,to rock salt,the final residue.-

. ‘ ‘ . ine € & & 6 im "St @ 10u's 6 meee £4 ie Are Oe ie Sal Ws oes 40 ie abe, 16 BTU ead er a 6\e 6; . fa” & Perret te a rar tbe odie tis ‘ ww 2 te "en's 26 1.18 @ 7

Delaware River: ‘Great ; -Saginaw: Rock Salt:

Rain o- LD i GOO ;>Ocean Average: Salt ‘Syracuse: Mich Warsaw

; parts water ‘ hake: Brines: *Srines Ney;

COs 1.77 Gatos Oxe2s HeaQ $6.5 85.006: 83.574 TS ieo08 “126 : N. 0.6447: MgCO. 0.152 NaC) 2.685. 21) Bes: Pessoik 2 A .SLOT Ses495' 6 5 O; On5376%..1550,, @.032 MgCle 0.315 LL 49027 WOnst4sa 2 DeD6G2 Weeeo- & oo ewes G Nass0e - - MgSOn, 0.216 0 9G. Se POS SS OS ES dissolved: K.CQz, 0.029 CasO, 0.175 OOS OBR “G,OS8s Beeece gases per: Na;CO,. - - - :K Cl 0.140 0,086 OOO I, UA FOOSE oA Se litre. Nagi 0,018 : NaBr 0.035 - - - - - -- --- ¢ K Ci 0G Dnite 50) fe ea 0.536 SUR eR Re ee Se 910: 0.085 :°CaCls - Spm et OLNSS. 2. 22645. “Osbse, tt Fe,O0s 0,005.75 Mek it ee OOO a =ser xe. SORE e0CO;s 0,004 : O,LO4 :

A comparison of the above analyses brings out the fact that the car- bomates, sulphates and chlorides of the alkalies or alkaline earths are much the commonést and most abundant of the dissolved mineral salts and of these in the end the sod

ium chloride becomes the chief.In this connec- tion G. K, Gilbert brought up an iz ag pte point at the Boston Meeting of the Geological Society of America, Dec.lé 8 and which he has under

roc

investigation. lG@iis that analyses of ks indicate sodium and potas-

Sium in the earth's crust in practically el amounts, (respectively 2.28 and ee according) to F. W. Clarke, Bull.78, U.S.G.8.34.) yet in alkaline

sae eae ts, brines etc., the sodium is in reat excess A possible explan- ation will be given in his final pap r when published (140)

es Wwe WN ee ee . rt - ° — 7 . — “ - et d a Fe PS a - ee ae cae one SORA ign — aa — Se : - . 9 at Cy - é oe - pe Ae PPAL Shea i x — a af so . . #. ee a Oey ee ee oo ae - — Sd es ea ¥ S aiaiicas - ceweeee —. ened “ - — ert ,-ore eee ee f we a — e - 5 ams ee wad Re ed aes See eee 7 ea - + na “ - “GD €

ro aaa Fe aA. Sora

Water in all parts of the world has a quite constant and defimate level at which it cima below the surface and affords wells. This was referred to earlier in speaking of the alteration of mineral ve ins, Deke Water also circulates along cracks and fissures and where there is suf~ ficient head it is forced out at the surface, in the form of springs. Joints afford the commonest water courses. Porous strata, such as open sandstones which lie between impervious layers, also supply the necessary conditions and are fruitful sources for artesian wells. Artesian wells are artificial springs and are of sreat importance in many portions of the country. The several conditions of success are best illustrated in the paper by T.C.Chamberlin,referred to below. These wells are of more importance in the regions of feeble rainfall such as the prairies than in the east although they are often economical as avoiding water rates. In thickly settled districts, if they draw their supplies from the immediate neighborhood,the water is only fit for steam’or some such use. (New York) The necessary conditions for flowing artesian wells are a porous stratum with a higher outcrop to serve as conduit and reservoir, an impervious cap and aL Ge ron each side of the porous stratum, and no lower natural outlet. ynelinal basins afford these. In drilling cases have occurred where a Flow has been obtained but on deepening the well it has been lost This is due to making connections with a lower lying porous stratum with an outcrop below the mouth of the well. In sucn cases the well is plugged below the first pocous stratum. If the head is insuffic#ent pumping is necessary. Artesian wells have attracted great attention in the prairie states and official commissions have been appointed in sever~ al to investigate the subject. They are of especial importance where the rainfall is slight and haves been regarded as possible sources for irriga-

ct

: 2€

ting surplies. In general the latter SXROREATELOD has failed of fulfill- ment because of the insufficient amount and of the salines in solution. The continual deposit of these destroys fertili Ey as has been found in India where the waters were comparatively pure (Medlicott and Blanford, Manuel of the Geology of India, pp.415-415).

The referencesgiven below will afford access to the literature of those localities in the several states, where investigations have been carried on. Along the coastal plain much attention has been given to the

+

subject and the xeolopy is now fairly well outlined in its relations to artesian wells. They have proved successful in a great number of local- ities and being long distances from any marked elevations have been ex- tremely serviceable for water supply. The principal drawback in connect- ion with all artesian wells is the occassonal sulphurous or alkaline water afforded by them. Pyrite and much organic matter in the norizon of supply, and old brines contained in former marine deposits are “she main causes of contamination. The wells of the coastal plain draw their sup- rlres from various beds of gravel and s from the Cretaceous upward.

In the SPeree ay watered areas of the pr: ie states and of the Great Basin, artesian wells have likewise been of the greatest importance Minnesota sale Obtained considerable from the Drift, and from sandstones in the Lower Silurian and Cambrian. Many of the prairie states top the Dakota sandst one which outcrops around the Black Hills and Rocky Moun-

f9 ct

fe

)

nd iY 8) G

tains and seems to draw its supplies often eon a surprisingly remote OUuTeErop.. Dt ee Gi eee sly too often yields a weees prins antwater too Saline for general use. The water may emergs under sufficient head to operates an inverted turbine Kansas has wells in tha sandstones of the

oe pr are ie ; rs sages jeer tO ry F ra - Se z a a —— “ - zi 7 : oS 2a a . . a et oe ll — ; . pS — " 7 : Si : ‘ a + ee cw eh — 33 mee mal Saree 4 ae pia’ aang at 2a eee Seda See aw - : : ae Ta z- a : — . — : he ha iat en ae a fae! . ‘ . a ‘ - : - : AN aR a rape aie Babe ene Bier a8 rye EE* i a ae aieie es aie Sante ee a ca anaes

AE Se — SOIT DSEa aR PSIE IS sear

- pet ae ee a a Ere. SS 7 tee -

Dakota,Trias and Carboniferous. In Colorado, wells near Denver obtain extraordinarily pure water from Laramie sandstones. The general struct- ure of the foothills is favorable to wells. In Texas great efforts have been put forth and the states has been carefully studied in these reza~ tions. The hopes that artesian wells would supply water for irrigation have seldom been realized, because the amount has proved insufficient or the dissolved salts have in the long run been deposited by evaporation to such an extent as to destroy fertility.

LITERATURE. GENERAL. T.C.Chamberlin. The Requisite and Qualifying Conditions of Artesian Yells. 5th Ann.Rep.Dir.U.S.G.5.pp.

W.Q.,Crosby. On the normal chlorine in sources of water supply from the Drift. Proc. of Boston Society Nat. Hist... Volstxv. pulse. A;H.Hunt.é@ GLH .Cclanpp. The Impurities: of Water, Manly. S68. T.9.Hunt. Contributions to the Chemistry of Natural Waters A.J.S. II. 40-43. also 193. h.W.Morley. The Volumetric Composition of YWater.A.J.S. iii. ls wee Mery saves C.W.Rolfe. Artesian Water from the Drift. A.G. VI. 32. Tenth Annual Report of the Director of the U. S&S. Geol. Surv. on the subject of Irrigation in the West, Thirteenth Ann. Report. Vol.III. Contains a paper by J.D.Whitney. The U.S.Supplementary Volume. Boston,1894.p.25 Treats of irrigation and the water supply of the several states. Rec. ARIZONA, W.P.Blake. Note upon some results of the Storage of Water in Arigona. MoE. Feb. 2869. CALIVORNIA. C.E.Grunsky. Notes on Artesian Vater and the effect of ir- rigation on subsurface water in the San Joa- quin Valley. Tech.Soc.of the Pac.Coast ow Na wiis, Bel opel Cross

COLORADO, nauvenet. The Artesian Wells of Denver. eq

WD i

F t .Chauvenet. Got, Ser - son. Ls Fes Wess,

Pi. Van Diesty C.¢G¢.Slack. Notes on the Artesian Wells of Denver.

Coe. Set, See. Vel. Gl, Pte Pi pp. sea6e. DAKOTA. G.H.Culver. On Artesian Wells in Dakota. Published by the University of South Dakota. W.Upham. Artesian Wells in North and South Dakota. Amer. Geol. Oct.1890, p/2ll. See also Resources of Dako- ta.,by the Territorial Commission of Immigration

LBS. IOWA. R.E.Call. Artesian Wells in Iowa. Towa Acad.Sci. I. pt.Il. p.57. Gives a map. i Artesian Wells in Iowa. Iowa Acad.Sci. Proc.Vol.l pt. Il.p.24, June 25 1892. KANSAS. Robt.Hay. Artesian Yells in Kansas and Causes of their Flow AcGs Wo 296.

(742)

*Ttimtmanm : Linnsso Ta

rol Artesian aX. Bull .Miny XXIX.1890. 26:

W. Hall. ae G eee ve Conditions eS Cc Well- pet ig in Southeastern Minne Acad.Sci. Piz, 128. also eines

pee under Hewitt.

Y.Hewitt.The Water of Artesian Wells; its Quality and Pos: Sibility of its becoming a source of ian: Bubi Minn Acad Ser. LIL. heb.

Artesian Wells in New Jersey. Geol.Surv.ofN.J.

TBBISSS. TEIO;26o"., WEIl.ges. SIA eo. IBIS 390'7.

ISYLVANIA.O.C.S.Carter.Artesian Wells. Jour.Franklin Inst. OXXXVI. Bow,

Good short account of Phila. neighborhood)

urence of Artesian and other Undersround Yat-

Texas, N. MN.& Indian Territory. Artesian investigations of the Dept.of Agri

eton, 1892.

sian Vlells of the Gulf Coastal Slope-.Geol.

Nurv.Toxas, -ourth Ann. Rep 1692... p,. 87.

J.A.Taff. Artesian Vells in the Cretaceous Area North of

tT?

mot ct

Cq

Colo.River. Fourth Ann.Rep.Tex.Geol.surv. eee VIRGINIA. N.H.Darton. Artesian Well prospects in Mastern Virginia,Mary land and Delaware M.#.,Feb.1894. WYOMING. J.D.Conley. Artesian Wells of Southern Wyoming. Bull.20 Wyo- ming xp. Station, Oct. 1894.

a ct ) ie U2 +0 cs GC ) Py @) i) bt) cr CD iit. ‘@) Kh fae os)

Vk

MINERAL SPRINGS. are abundant in many au:

is rs . C : portance as medicinal agents. In tnese latter applications they furnish an important Raeeai ion to the annual amount of mineral resources. Of lates they have att acted not a little attention and have been esteemed oOo: surtfticient a erent to deserve formal descriptions at the hands “of our seqlogical surveys. In their geological rélations they are not essential ly different from ordinary sprinses, but when they come up in regions of sreat geological disturbance or of dying igneous activity, they are ofter highly heated. The dissolved mineral matter consists chiefly of alkaline salts such as carbonates, sulphates, .chigrrdcsiand the like, with at times alkaline sulphides, sulphuretted hydrogen, and even compounds of iron and the other but less conmon materials. Silica is likewise fre- quently present and carbonic acid eas sives to many an agreeable taste. In thsir scientifie relations mineral springs have a close connection With the origin of the ore and gangue minerals and in this connaction tney have been quite carefully studied.

the best known regions of springs in the east are Saratoga, N. Y. and the mountains of West Virginia and Virginia. Great resorts have grown up around 6ach. In the central part of the country, the srabber localities are very> numerous and in itissouri and Arkansas the state sur- veys have issued special reports on the subject. The Yellowstone Park is the greatest of our localities for hot springs and their unique and ex- plosive variety, es seysers,; give them peculiar claims to scientifie in- terest. In Colorado, Idaho Springs, Manitou and Glenwood are well known resorts, while in New ftiexico, Las Vegas attracks visitors even from the Hast. In Nevada the famous Steamboat Springs have been important ards in the interpretation of ore denosits, and in California, Sulphur sank has been of even sreater sisnificancs.

ae ee a Sas Se ee enone write es

ante uae owt Eo ee ore a ett °

c [797MM 3 r es oe Ear Lat lde qd ti t if Paul Schyv aye ne in summary i: may be added that Prof. Paul Schweitzer has published m hs he, , ee ae Ste Sed r L ] 1 To 4 a re Pe - - af im tne rererence given below tne llowing classification of mineral

econtainin: ivan se sodium ehlorides, vith it are nesian chlorides and calcium and maenesium sul- 3 Tes ak. Wy ch J ar die ore atric Grd CG 1 LU] Lid MelATles Lum hall.

pn

e. Alkaline YVaters, containing sodium carbonate or masnesium carbon- ate

o. wulphatiec Vaters, containing one or more sulphates as their main Sons nts.

5 e Vaters, containing ferrouscarbonate and usually other “‘ponates and sulphates, h ,

ee

Ld Le

Le a a I a a ey) ct Co j~2 qa oi

LITERATUR: - DQ Th) a a Tis as ae (il 7 a Laal=e pu “ + hetwtPrackKetce. Mineral Vaters ot Arkansas. Geol .burv-Ark:. 1891.1; im Tal Tals aT pid a 7 f- it 7 - ae ae io pn ; eT f 1 OPE y al ne tiineral Springs of Saratoga. Proc.Amer.Phar.Ass. 1880.

i ne S

a ie ly x" Vila af. ait ah. TE 7 1 os, a aah qj i te 7 1

Gooch 26 Whitt he bal. Analyses o faters of Yedlowstons. Nagé']) Fark ry 7 i ry — ited

Bull, 47, U.S. Geol. Survey

f m7 ie! af - ape - le im : 5" ya T AsC.Feale. Lists and Analyses of the tlineral Springs of the U.S. es ei ZO T a mi Doaanar aur EU “ate ae notes RERES Slee oy. a "T a + nates] mitt. am THs 7 find “ad FF ot ‘es oy 7 ‘Ih a 7] oc Paul Schweitzer. The tflineral Sprines of Missouri. Mo.Geol.Surv.111.1892.

ct D

fa f

Trke chief sources of salt (NaCl) are ocean waters, salt lakes, sub- ranean brines, and beds of rock sa The-first- named is such a weak t 2 COUnLTY. TI

ais Fes Curing th Ss tl

Oe? tote

ry

OO rc ped

re are works in Gott leee seca — 1 upplies are ob- or Ss res Island in the West Indies the in- nian up aA an occasional cargo reaches the United eee Lakes are of importance in the rézion of the Great Basin, and thei bottoms or the salty strand b r oscillations afford cha

minéral. Subterranean brines are o tes wells. They are

t le 5 entombed in mar- Of beds OD Fock chier Sources’ aL by admitting

cr

ji

Cd

fy ct

it) 5 ey ct

of 'e. aS OO cr

BI elsrwhere more economica. iit

fy 02 & ct Ls ta

O beat - +

te)

cr sy mh ey cD

pe jH- eT

rated sea-wat

S Yr iments, Or else are formed by the natural lease 7 Ns

cr

ers rap,

American clear wate Rock salt i Western Ontar tle doubt dérived

S te

[3 en) het a e D net J

ay t + eT ) — MO FT tT 7 io . ec

ra

cn ris ae a U

of rock salt and pumping of chief commerctal imvoi ] Louisiana The salt in ee ocean has bee n the wasn of the land and almost all lar Oofrock salt have enselves been Pee rom more or less bodies of the ocean It was formerly customary to explain them as der- ived from bays or ounds which had been Bees ely cut off Trom 2 16 parent n

S are a oe - Sea EA aoe oy are often imitated artifica - ah

ct

Cf ct

He te

t cf &) Ss ( - ae

cD

O “ae

Hb

body and which had besn then evaporated. ae cillations of the-coast-and repetitions Ne process were regarded as the cause of successive: beds when accompe mn the long run by a seneral submergence. The -develop- EDU of depo vast thickness, and of fairly pure rock salt has’ made e Pp

this simpl tion Ssem unlikely. At Petite Anssiia., over 1000 ft. ed and “in Prusste Ss cnc as LOO fe. A it would re- tC

have becn penetra S E cyt Ts 55 4 Tl. + au os & oan ps Ee a wT Uire about tnirty to forty times this depth of sea-water to provide the

(144)

at ag ter a ee — i" ee ee ee : a — a 1 —— Sanka —T See ee ; 3 ‘ F Ss E i ee” oe a i ae Lt Sehlees a Fe at . i er See ee ea 2 Se ie en : at cn et ee oe als u j Rare, ai, eS a — - a tt Dm a. —— - ¥ 7 : a , yr ——4 : Sk ape eet — ’ : Se

esr a oe i aS Tye #.

“sf -— a t- nm fives ; 2 on re

Asie g a Mare sto) Foals SEA

Se os jaa tA al pe - : ee ee

- — aa + + ¢ Tet+nr Arnis cre awn fe . LAI A +5 me SAMS MY s seal 2 QAmMmout . abet ty & 5 LSQOLa UD Weld a: ments SC em Open LO OD JEC bLOsS . let el @ Pt eval ri one “a LQ. on 7 arr na neh pele “TO - c Tt. men of ‘ — oe : - 1 é + ~rx ome , VCHS S bi Ad ne 5 . S LCG ho weV ot o me AN ears Cc &O ari CAYNLANA Fiabe! EL PCL uu S GSMs TO S - Ws " an 7 + +55 pay . Rot ma oO oe é hoa — ‘ : 5 ao ryy-en C7 Tit the case much verter. He conceives or a bar of sand or some such ob-=

struction off the mouth of an estuary. Provided th estiary is not

- Vv let nes / subject to excessive inflow of fresh water from land drainage, it would evaporates and be kept full by inflow from the ocean over whe bar. The “ —— —— are oy Rw HAC OUT . en ee ee lan 3 tr Sear lt Pan ey ats awe more concentrated brines would sink ee the inflow itself from standing on the shallows of the obstruction rould also be exposed to concentration. In time the lower portions of the waver LH Gs y would reach the

ee ope, ee

Ys le cs, Lua!

te and later on of rock

esh pein eu yield a small layer of gypsum or ™

te my

rh

- PP te 7 © anhydrite and in the end a thick bed, chiefly rock salt would result, imited onlv ov the rinal denth of th estuary or bv this and the Pe. 12 101 only i sj VWUse A Ori final CLS h or Wt LOE yw vv Acie 9 + /y wiil wW L424 Wa . . 2 4 te Le a ee : r- a -, progressive submergence of the coast and the teas nuance Of favorable conditions. The residua of mother liquors would contain the most soluble Salts which if ecipitated, would yield a final eee Shentee con taining

ct Be ae uss

pr - 4 sas oik ten eaiean lel ites aS ‘Tt “ “nesium and potassium compounds, etc. This lays ou U

rap)

(T) 2, 1k O cl?

Ke mm ied

pale UY) 40) Oy ¢ ct Of

!

aor Nc a4 wmerzican deposi hn — lA af ale! a ee - a .

Ca at uILG wool Low Ol prec

4 . Te AK? 4 ee z le , “J + , , f arpillaceous sediment are to be expected, from the pe

ct ©) — ke: w

' ct ap

'

be Oo O

riTyn 272% A

PA =v) Met LAJSS . LJ

— mn (y cr

no med cr ( cy ' 2 Sayts Cy bh rr

— ct % se ©

ft &

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Es ne ’ q

)

P a ©

ae Cc)

— a floods of inflowins streams or dust blown by winds. There are also pos- sibilities of some variations in the chemical relations of the layers, as is set forth in some detail by Ochsenius in the second citation given below. This explanation, usually called the"S3ar wear is worthy of much confidence, and has llustrations now in progress. r)

bie fs

c SWYNIr 3 ; ‘ 1 He ; ao earypu, PQ torn lh ; arm bats Y) f ag Posepny in the citation below has advocated the accumulation of salt -WS i3ac a + 5 ors ma - yg hy a:F 5 + \Tr y - b ee h (27 nr 7 at a a j TY) r. n the desert regions of our western states Lrom n@avine been oLown in as i

oe:

: 4 Inge cS aas he air and leave finely divided salt in SuSpeneS puis but that this sever gives rise to deposits of any size is extremely doubtful. LITERATURE. sie Rees T.1.Chatard. Saltmaking processes in the JU. S. 7th Ann.Rep. Director Ue, eee - 491 DOD.

F.H.Engelhardt. General Paper. E.& M,Jour. Jan.2.1892. p.46. Rec. C.A.Gaessman. Contributions to the Chem. of Common Salt, with particular

reference to our home resources. A.J.S. ITI. 49. 75. Rec. T.S.Hunt. On the Extraction of Salts from Sea-Vater. A.J.S.II.25.561. C.Ochsenius. Die Bildung der Steinsalzlager Halle. 1877.

" Bedentune des orographischen Blementes "Barre" in Hinsicht auf Bildungen und Verdnderunsen von Lagerstatten und Ges- teine Zeitsche. f. prakt. Geolosie. May.1695. 189.June.cl7. tne paper cites earlier ones.

’.Posepny. Zur Genesis der Salzablagerungen, besonders Jener im Nord- Amerikanischen Westen. Sitz.d.k. Akad. d. Wiss. Vienna.LXxVI. July 1877. N.S.Shaler. Note on the Value of Saliferous Deposits on evidences of former Climatal Conditions. 3B.5.N.H. 24 500. Toula. Salzsebiree und Meer. Vienna. 1591.

!

y)

H

ae hatch a (tiptoe — % ered + 2 a -

Re et eats EP ee a Oe

a ase

i t sae a orn 0 ete oa Se et ee el us S

roduction in 1893,

j-

r

ee

Barrels of ir

New Oaeie - —- —- 5,66 O74 7. West Vire ta=- — 2Z2LO.736 Michigan- - - - 3 898 . bDoUISIana- - - 191.430

rc

Sere ,180 Ohio- - - - California- - -

Pennsylvania-

Lexa Se ee SS PS. eo) 965 10. Utani 108.570 .658 11. Illino: a9. 161 045 12. Nevada 6,359

te

oF

TM OF ds GIO

on an-3 ax

NQwoOHt QO MY

MHrHwmonand

Total 11.816.772---valuse $4.054.668. Statistics from the Minera 1 esources=1395.. 72l.

Brines were early developed by the pioneer settlers of the eastern states because as Bee Jeft ths coast salt becams one of ths prime nec- essaries of life Recoeds of the brines at Syracuse dats pack to 1646, and when develored in fairly large degree, over 150 years later, the wells we1e acquired by the state lest so indispensacle a substance should fall into the hands of a monopoly Natural salt springs or "salt licks” are not uncommon in the Appalachians, and the earliest wells drilled for brine led to the discovery of oil and gas-(see p.99.). The statistics indicate the rélative importance of the producers Of these, New York Kansas and Louisiana have great beds of commercially developed rock salt, and with these should be mentioned Ontario, but the others are largely dependent uron brines.

Litheratur=., New York.

+-+ + - Salt Deposits of N. Y. H.& M.dJour. Feb.1889, 1535. +- - - N.Y.State Assembly Documents 1683.Vol.III.No.35-p.17. Tr, NO.3S4. AlSO all the Annual Reports of the e t O

ndasa Reservation $0 6 the Leg- 7 1s lat ur

D: oth Reptt State Geologist, N.Y.1

ROE Ay; Report to the Sup't.Onondaga Salt Re

189)

oO

J

+

Sd cuse, Jan.il2tr,1891. Kec. oshua Forman. Remarks upon the Salt “ormati

SI 6m ofsalina N,yY. and Other places. A.J.S. I. 19 4

2 2, lt b-

C.A,Gaessman. Sel On the Brines of Onon aga- Syracuse Dec.6.1862 : Rep't.on the Manufacture of Solar Salt from them do. peonhees 1663. ‘ Contributions to ths Chem.of the ifineral Springs of

Onondaga N. YY. A.J.S.1TI.XLIL.211,.568.and XOIVi77.

oo 7

J .dacfar lane. .z Discovery of Rock fh: t at Wyco.in Western N.Y%.Syracuse Journal, June 29th,187& A.egvS. LIL. AVE, aes.

Pods Bi Merril. salt and Gypsum Industries cf N.Y. Bull. N.Y¥.State Mus III Nov,J2 Aprid 1895 Rec

J.S.Newberry Rock Salt Deposits of the Salina Group in Yestern Ney York. Trans.N.Y.26ad-S@i+ 1639-090. .¥o1.IX p.52.

e Salt Deposits of N.Y Gecl.Position &c. N.Y.Acad.

Sci. 1684.-85 5.54 Bide i. Korid bho ss

C.S5.Frosser The Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of Western Central New York- Amer. Geol. VI. 199.

Reese sie Tho salt of “lev York is all obtained from tha beds of tne salina Series + exists in these as rock salt dm vast amounts which have only lately besn opened wv} The beds of thé Safina, like c1¢ asso- Slated strata have 2 sout ‘a lin cf about 25 to 40 feet to the mile.

- SS 2 ee - a2

SL eat Ac a 2 Ts ae eae te

0, So ae —— P . Soo al va ae ee ees rt owt Ao ANNE os One - ° as res Se eR ee Se —— ne) SEA a —— a : ae Siombeees oe ee Abert re oeae.” - - - - ™ . uf ys TY on ae ait ad Cat errs M —s Fpewsincors aeqrleelorsec teapot a na ret ee ae ary BS a Pea aweeet een : ‘ 4 + é is Jette - oy ap fare er ote Se ste pees oe

a a ae Ee EE DR En Ste eee

Their outcrop nearly follows the’ direct line~of the New York Central R.F from Syracuse to Buffalo, but of course is only shown by shales from which the rock salt has been leached. From 25 to 50 milés south of this the wells have struck rock salt. The greatest thickness yet found is at Ithaca where some 252 feet were cut in & beds, the uppermost 2244 feet from the surface and the lowest 2672 fT. Some 20 miles north a salt works is now in operation at Aurora and 75 miles west in the Genesee and Wyoming valleys some extensive mining by shafts as well as pumping from wells is in operation at Warsaw, Piffard and other towns. One of the most interesting developments is in the town of Tully some 20 mites or s: south of Syracuse. Ths Solvay Co., of Syracuse have sunk about 20 wells from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep. They bring into these fresh water from Crooked Lake with a fall of 500 ft. It sinks in the wells, rises of its own pressure as saturated brine and flows to the works in Syracuse some 500 ft. lower than the top of the wells. The brines controlled by the state are obtained from bore holss which are sunk 300 to 400 ft. in grav el. The gravel 15isn the filling of an abandoned river channel, a relic of the post-glacial drainage of the Great Lakes out through the Mohawk and the Hudson and as it cuts the outcrops of the Onondaga Salt Series (i.e. The Salina) it is filled with the brine which percolates from them This brine is weaker than those from the rock salt wells and as a result the state has offered its reservation for sale.

MICHIGAN. Rock salt in the Salina strata has been found on both sides of the Lower Peninsula at depths ranging from 1600-2200 ft., but the great source of brine is the Napoleon Sandstone of the Lower Carbon- iferous. It is a taxonomic equivalent of the Berea Grit of Uhio which i later mentioned. The most productive region is around Hast Saginaw on Saginaw Bay, an arm of Lake Huron. The brines of Bay City are referred to the Coal Measures. The success of the industry is due to the cheap fuels which the lumber mills furnish in waste slabs, sawdust, etc. Up to recent years the output of Michigan salt has been much in excess of any other state, but the developments of New York rock salt has now placed it far in the lead. As noted later under Bromine some Michigan brines contain notable quantities.

- - -Geol,.Surv.of Mich. LIL. 1873=76 App. B. p.Ll7l.

- - - - - -Mineral Statistics of Mich. Annual Volumes after 1882.

A.Winchell. On the Saliferous Rocks and Salt Springs of Mich. A.J.8. II 54. 507. Also Geological Studies. Chapter on Salt.

ONTARIO. In close geological relation with those of Michigan are the deposits of this province. Great beds of rock salt have been shown t exist in the Salina strata under the town of Goderich which is opposite and south of Saginaw Bay on Lake Huron, 156 ft. of salt were found in siz. beds, beginning at 1028 and ending at 1400. The salt is developed to a considerable extent for the Canadian market.

John Gibson. On the Salt Deposits of W. Ontario. A.d.S. ID. 5. 362. C.A.Goessman.Salt Resources of Goderich.,Ont. Syracuse,N.Y. Jan.16.1868. O.J.Heinrich.The Manhattan Salt Mine. Goderich,Can. M.E. VI. 125. I.5.Hunt. Rep.on Goderich Salt Region. Geol.Surv.Can. 1870.

a O

te

: Goderich Salt Region. Can.Geol.Surv, 1876-77 p.1935. ; The Goderich Salt District Ontario. M.E. V. 538. See also Geol. Surv.Can. 1867. 69. J.L.Smith. History aad Statistics of Canadian Salt. Can.Geol,Surv.

, - tin 7, ns J cke r F

— E kL. f i i a i

a as Fira ue ng ge ston ahh tea ae oS relay BaCEy ees

es eee a

Ce ———

qiemanepatanacaata Sroeaae eee ays Masarseinwe:

OHIO. The Ohio brines like the oil, gas, and building stone of the eastern portion of the state are derived from the Berea Grit of the Sub- carboniferous. The wells are situated in the eastern central portion and usually in the neighborhood of coal with which they are evaporated.

Meigs, Tuscarawas, Columbiana, Guernsey and Morgan counties contain the plants. The brines are not specially strong or pure and are severely crowded by the Michigan and New York wells.Some are productive of bromine. W.J.Root. The Manufacture of Salt and Bromine. Geol.Surv.Ohio. Vol.VI653

ILLINOIS. Brines are obtained from Lower Carboniferous strata in several counties and are utilized to a small extent. They were formerly of greater relative importance. Local descriptions,now rather antiquated, will be found in the chapters of the state geological reports on county geology.

PENNSYLVANIA AND WEST VIRGINIA. are in close geographical and geol- Ogical associationswith Ohio. In the former the brines are utilized in the western portion ard in much the same district that supplies oil and gas. The lower oil sands are the chief productive horizons. In West Vir- ginia the plants are mostly located along the Kanawha River and in Mason Co. on the OhioFrom both these states supplies of bromine have been ob-= tained Kdw.Stieren. Observations on the Saltwaters of the Alleghany and Keske- minstas Valleys. A.J.S. II. 34. 46.

The Mountain State-Pamphlet on the Resources of West Virginia. Distrib- L uted at Chicago, 1893. p.73.

VIRGINIA. Beds of ak are known along the Holston River in the southwest corner of the state. There is some uncertainty about their geological relations. C.R.Boyd thinks they lie along some great fault fissures in Carboniferous and Silurian strata. Lesley speaks of them as Tertiary. The same region was mentioned under Gypsum, p.138. The output is not great.

C.R.Boyd. Resources of Southwest Virginia.

C.B.Hayden. On the Rock Salt and Salines of the Hobston A.J.S.I.XLIV.173

H.D.Rogers. Report on the Salt and Gypsum of the Preston Salt Valley and Holston, River, Va... Boston. 2854. A.d.S. Ti. AVIDL: 273.

KANSAS. The greatest recent growth of the salt industry is in Kan- sas. From 75 to 250 ft. of rock salt have peen found at depths from 450 to 1000 ft. and in the following counties, Hlisworth, Reno Kingman and Barton, shafts are in operation in the first (town of Kanopolis) the sec- ond (Lyons) and the fourth (Kingman). The salt lies near the contact of Lae Permian and Triassic. Mr. Hay gives a good section in the American

Geologist, V. 65. The counties form a north and south belt in southern central Kansas. E.H.S.Bailey.On the Newly Discovered Salt Beds in Hllsworth Co. Kansas. Kansas Academy of Science, Al. §. R.Hay. Salt; its discovery and manufacture in Kansas. 6th Bien.Rep. Kan.State Board of Agriculture. Amer.Geol. IV. 309. Notes on a Kansas Salt Mine. Amer. Geol. V. 665. ‘ Geol.of Kan.Salt. Separate reprint 1891.S5ee also M.R.1888 LOUISIANA. The well known rock salt bed on the island of Petite

Anse, near New Iberia, is one of the largest deposits in the United States. It is on the shores of the Gulf and lies in greatest part below tide Drillings show it to be over 1000 ft. thick. It is capable of an

(148)

Se ae es mee eee - a .

; Pe PSs ee 2a : pe oF ite ; 7 ay : wy , pad eae Sieaed g “ upety aa vars ems a 2 el es a! ots ah, aoe rat were, ex i i inn +] so n J a Lite Cao 2, oe oti , Aa ee et,

peer aad eines ce St Done ae Se ere

enormous output but up to the introduction of recent improvements it

caked after grinding and hence labored at a disadvantage Its geological

age has been variously called Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary. Re-

cently (April 1895) other deposits no less extensive have been reported

On a neighooring island, and brines are not infrequent further north in

Louisiana.

H.C.Bolton. Notes on the Salt Deposits of Petite Anse, La. Trans. N.Y. Read. pet. AWEhs ae. ee

C.A.Goessman.On the Rock Salt Deposits of Petite Anse, La. Amer.Bureau of Mines.-also A.J.S. I1. XLIII. 284.

E.W.Hilgard. On the Geol. of the Miss. Delta and the Salt Deposits of Petite Anse.-A.A.A.S. 17th Ifeeting. Published in Abstract in A.d.S. II. XLVII. 77. See also M.R. 1889. 554.

Jos.Leidy. Notice of some tammalian Remains from the Salt line of Pe- tite Anse.La. Trans.WagnerFreeInst.of Sci.Phila.Vol.1I1.33~-40 R.Owen. On the Deposit of Rock Salt at New Iberia,La. Trans.St.Louis

Acad. wel, Lis 250% Aaa see LL ab £20" R.A.Pomeroy. The Petite Anse Salt Mine. M.E. XVII. 107. Petiz: Anse Mine. HEH. & M. Jour. Oct.6.1888. p.280. Vermillion Rock Salt Mine at Petite Anse, La. A.J.S. II. 36. 308.

TEXAS. Both brines and rock salt are known in Texas and are util- ized extensively. Beds 140 ft. thick are cut at Colorado,lfitchell Co., on the Texas Pacific R. R. in the northwestern portion of the state and the brines obtained from there are pumped up by windmills. The salt is 1000 ft. down. The seological age is Permian. Various salines occur elsewhere and are locally important.

W7.F.Cummins. Salt in Northwestern Texas. 2nd Ann.Rep.Tex.Geol.Surv. 444. Other volumes of the survey contain occasional local mention.

UTAH. Much salt is obtained around the shores of the Great Salt Lake. In dry seasons and with falling lake level it is precipitated on the beaches as a natural mineral, but in the commercial production shal- low ponds are walled off on the beach, and are filled with the lake water by pumps. Solar evaporation ensues and at the close of the dry season the crory is gathered. On account of the variability of the weather, es- pecially toward the close of the season there is some uncertainty con- nected vith the business. Nephi, Juab Co., and Salina, Sevier %o., both south of the lake afford beds of rock salt that are the basis of quarries Mineral Resources. 1888. 605.

CALIFORNIA. The chief portion of California's very considerable output is obtained from sea-water on the shores of San Francisco Day. Ponds of fifty acres or more are cut off by dikes and filled about once a month at high tide. As the brine concentrates it is pumped by windmills into interior ponds and finally the salt is obtained and the bitterns are run off. It is used as domestic salt and for the chlorination process in the gold region. Salt is also obtained in the outlying portion of the Great Basin that reaches into southern California. The district lies be- low séa level and was flooded a few years ago by the Colorado Hiver. Salton is a productive point and further south at Daggett in the Mojave desert rock salt is obtained for Arizona metallurgical works.

Ilineral Resources. 1885. 480.

VIII Annual Report California State Mineralogist 30,1888. XII. 1394.408. In Nevada from the salines of the Great Basin resion small amounts are obtained, which fluctuates with the prosperity of thse silver mines. 4:

ee ene hata 6 a sees me a ——— —-, Teron 09 a2 a ne Secs Ss x Pa oS -

anes

On San Domingo, in the West Indies good beds of rock salt are known, and along the west coast of South America there is an abundance in many places, aside from oceanic brines.

J,.H.Gibbon. A visit to the Salt Works of Zipaquera near Bogota, New Grenada, AvJd.S. AAXNILT. 89.

Robt.Peele Jr. A Peruvian Salt Mine- S.of M.Quarterly. Apr.1894. 219. F.Ruschhauft. On the Salt Mines of San Domingo. SOE e0.Q.3.G.5 .XXV.256 Reference should also be made to the Drepire ae deposits. In England the industry is an old and important one especially in Cheshire,

east of Liverpool. Until recently great quantities have been imported into the United States. The brines are chiefly Triassic. On the contin- ent are the most famous deposits of rock salt in the world. The deep well at Sperenbere near Berlin pierced some 1300 meters, nearly all of rock salt of the Permian (Dyas). The similar beds at Strassfurth are 330 meters and contain in their upper portions t*é potassium and other salts earlier mentioned in connection with the "Bar theory" of Ochsenius. At Salzburg, in the Tyrolese Alps, are great beds, of much historic interest and often visited by tourists. They belong to the Keuper of the Trias. At Wieliczka, in Poland, Tertiary rock salt is reported at over 1400 me- ters. In Algiers and many other points in Africa, and likewise in the far Hast other rich deposits are not Le icking.

BROMIMIWN #. The manufacture of bromine is auxiliary to the salt industry and is carried on where the mother liquors contain this element in sufficient

quantity. In Ohio and at Syracuse, N. Y. the brines and bitterns or pickle have the following composition: - anal Dover-O. Pomeroy-O. : Syracuse,N.Y, Brine Bittern Brine Bittern : Brine Pickle Water 89.545 BD. o60 90.472 69.000 : 83.5747 73.3488 SOlids 10.455 9.528 9.3528 61.000) 216.4285 T6.65hk2 Composition of SSE Las : NaCl 71.645 g0\ 126 TO .R1O (2603.2 LD <bSLT® CECT eo9 MeBr AM GA .592 .097 429 : 0024 .0039 Nal ORS .024 .O1L2 037 5 - - - The two Ohio analyses are from the Geol.Surv.of Ohio, Vol.VI. pp.662,665,

It is to be noted that the last three values in each colit=m are percent- ages of the total solids and not of the original brine. The analyses from Syracuse are from Bull. N.Y.State Museum. III.No.11.p.41. and the last percentages refer to the original brine. For a rough comparison with the corresponding values under Ohio, they should be multiplied by 6. Even with this increase, Ohio brines will be seen to be much richer in bromine. According to the Mineral Industry, Vol.II. p.78, the following is the production for 1893-in pounds.

Ohio. Penn. W. Va. fich. Total. 18935 1135 5575.5 Jil,403-5 80,852 ie nee 048.399 The price rangeécs from 25-35 cents.

At Pomeroy and Canal Dover, Ohio, Midland,Mich., and in Pennsylvania and West Virginia salt districts mentioned above, the bromine is a by- product in the salt industry. Details of the methods of manufacture will

(150)

SSSR EE pS pees Te ——

be found in the paper cited below by W. J. Root. No attempt seems to have been made as yet to produce iodine in this country.

W.J.Root. The m'f't'r.of Salt and Bromine in’Ohio. Geol.of O.VI.653. Rec. ~tatistical and descriptive papers also appear in the volumes of the Min- eral Resources and the Mineral Industry.

Sodium Carbonath Or Soda.

There are two places in the west where carbonate of soda is produced from natural sources, but in addition to these, it is known in many other localities in the arid region of the Great Basin. At RAGTOWN,NEV. there are two ponds, which together are rather less than 300 acres. One of these is filled with water and the other is dry. Both were regarded by

the geologists of the 40th Parallel Survey as spring basins, but Russell has since shown that they are old craters. They probably received their supplies of sodium salts from the leaching of the soda-lime feldspars of the igneous rocks. Analyses of the waters of these and of two other lakes of present or prospective importance are appended.

Ragtown. Owens Lake Albert Lake.

wpecific Gravity T0995 1.045 4 OSELF The Solids Contained. 910; 24 a he 39

MgC0-2 73 36 gee 575 3.44 Need 00.44 04.60 Na ,50, 14.86 18.45 NaB lO, -OL .o9 a a a ee soe Na CO, 13.08 34.33 27.09 NaHO0; 11.61 8.20 12.44 (Al ,Fe,)0., ha 005 + ee

cn

Cc oO

Go nN

Caco : : x 09 Asie Ragtown- by Chatard, Bull.60, U. S.Geol.Surv. p.49 spec.grav.at 19.8° C Owens Lake- do. ao. , 8a, do. spec.grav. at L5s5"'C. Albert Laka- do. do... b5, do. spec.grav. at/19.8° 0.

It appears that all have common salt in largest amount, followed by the two forms of car pone te. by the sulphate and various subordinate salts. Of these the sulphate is the most objectionable in the processes of crys- tallization. At Ragtown, in the Big Lake, the brines are impounded,evap- orated by solar heat, and transferred from vat to vat as the concentra- tion increases until the final crop of crystals is harvested, after which the mother liquors are run back into the lake. Essentially the same pro- cess is followed on a much largér scale at Lake Owens. At Little hake, Ragtown, the solid deposit left by previous natural evaporation is redis- solved in pure water and evaporated by solar heat, through the summer.

As cold weather sets in, the chilling of the solution causes a crop of Cr} stals, called "winter soda" to deposit. Their composition is Na,C0;

10 H,O as against les teen Bae "summer soda" of Big Lake, which has a

composition of Na,C0O, ,NaHCO; .2H.0, or of the mineral urao. The economic points of manufacture are fully set forth by Dr. Chatard in the reference ziven. The product of the Ragtown works has reached 750 tons yearly, but

Chatard thinks it could be doubled.

oon ) .M.Chatard.Natural Soda. Bull.60, U.S.Geol.Surv. 1888. p.c?. C .King. 40th Parallel Survey Vol.I. p.5120.See also A.Hague. I1.746.

[.C Russell.Geol.Hist.of Lake Lahontan. Monograph Xl. WO aes. iO te (151)

BN ae

Een SF — . %, r ——— : : ae - i Oe FS me ee ore 2 - Sa Lx - a iS Rs eee Se a r : so " . os a Ts Pe ie 5 Se -. - om of — - Po le bs 2 CD FOI 29 oe ser Ym 5 a “Tee el eS ee oe ee were

a te ee ee hs Se ae Oe SE La er

surrounding region belongs to the Great Basin and région, but the lake itself is 17 miles long, 9 miles broad and has a maximum depth of 51 ft. t 18 Without an outlet and is supplied by the Owens River and various smaller streams. The surrounding country is volcanic and hot springs are not lacking. beyond question the leaching of the soda-lime Teldspars the volcanic rocks has been the source of ths soda, shown by the SEED is ven above. extensive works are situated on the lake and the annual duct of soda may reach beyond 20° RODE Oscar Loew of Wheelers Sur- +

OWHIS LAKE, CALIFORNIA lies in Inyo County in the southeast portion. £

jal

+!

ca tos

oO Oy rs jo oy

vey estimated that the lake contained 22,000,000 tons sodium carbonate and it is the larsest source of supply yet discovere FOL. a LATS Couey The process Gar manufacture is well described by Foster in the reference

aa Sie Co +

T.M.Chatard. Natural Soda. Bull.60, U.S.G.S. HYL.N.Foster. Production of Carbo

Owens Lake. Col W.A.Goodyear. On Owens Lake VI

o View OL

UT. 4 oA 7 Waters or

SS ct @ a mg (9 od HA

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T ae on T et ™ a0 fl TT ea ie =5, + +, a at re eo A, ALBERT LAKE, OREGON Liss in the somthéastern part of the state and 7 co, +" + to 7 KF ? Pome! ’ a al : ay : am a a 77 a ? 7 yr Within the areca of the Great basin. [ nm One of the troughs Tormed om La

Lts Ln & Lava raur broad at Les Wiest s of samples having

iG

1's map shows it to be t It averages ten itie erayiey ot LOS of which Reatsy 40 fh were sult shate The lake is

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t ) bicarbonate o ; w sodium as yet too remote from railways to be of commercial value In the desert region of the Great Basin in Nevada, Oregon and Calif- rnia are numbers of solid saline deposits, usually varying mixtures of he same alkaline salts that ars given in the analyses ak ove Lists or he S will be found in Chat .5bd5-56.

ee See ee vue ae else

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oe oo cr ‘ab [ a CD

Ba eh tah ay) eo t ana naif a ae 2,

in }—4 rer te f Ca ct W bk bt ‘s) + oO

sd under rene next topic. ile. On Albert Lake. - Seq, On Aibert Lake. OW.

joe. ad. EAGAN eho,

Annual Report U.S. @.-8. 4365

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VENEZUBSLA. In the province of Maracaibo, forty-eight miles from eérida is a small lake as describtded-by Faxar (quoted by Chatard) Pf ws 600- 700 feet long and about S350 broad, not over 9 or 10 fest desarp. n wae weather urao Na ,CO,,NaHCOs2n c—cerystallizes on its bottom and is brought up by divers The suppty-is—25-40 tons a year AlLth Jugsh alkal- ine deposits are frequent alone -the-west coast of South america they are chiefly of importance for nitrates der which head they will be men-

tTionec tT .M.Ghatard. Balletinm 6. i: ree Gs SS. m. wen

5 : WT ae rs a P.Faxar. nn i oo. AN! LE 2. aahke. om hy Seta ee oe ee a oy ke re —, + mi a a Lat 12 ECT 5 -h The natural carbonate is obtained abroad at SszZercdin; nungary, In - ‘ ‘ : , nen te dank 7 pe i na —, Ste 4 s fHeypt, and in Armenia. aA tric? sketch of which with pbioliograpny il] de ae mit es fe eee found in Chatard’s parser. fon Seen Lt

- een ° - “ 2 - — 2 ofl - — tn ml SELES : Se TS gs ee er tg Se OSS SOPE SEE EQS FE LF

Misa Lloegr El Ey Otis Fei Ag

Sodium Sulphate.

This compound has been often mentioned above as an associate of the carbonate both in the solid deposits and in natural solutions. It is of chief practical importance in Wyoming, in which state it forms important deposits in several counties. The ones earliest developed are in Albany County and the most important lie southwest and west of Laramie. They are called the Union, Pacific and are connected with Laramie by rail.

The so-called soda-lakes are dry in summer but have a thin sheet of water in Winter. The chief compound present is the sulphate, and the process

employed to utilize it was calcination with coal and subsequent leaching

of the carbonate according to the familiar soda ash process. Some tech-

nical difficulty ensued, said to be the removal of the water of crystal-

lization and the works are now idle. Caustic soda was at one time made,

but the chief product has been used in glass manufacture. Carbon County

and Natrona County also have lakes;

W.C Knight. Bull.14. Wyo.Agric. -Expt.Station Oct.1893. p.179.

L.D.Ricketts.Ann. Rep. Geol.of Wyoming. 1888-1889. Cheyenne 1890. See also Mineral Resources-Annual volumes,especially 1885 550). -- - Ss Fe eee ee

SODIUM NITRATE, (and Po:assium Nitrate.)

Sodium nitrate is the chief natural product, potassium nitrate being far less abundant. The former is called nitratiwe in strict mineralogi- cal nomenclature, the latter niter. The word saltpeter is most correctly applied to the potassium salt; while in distinction, the sodium nitrate is called Chili saltpeter. The process of nitrification in nature is somewhat obscure but it has been shown that nitrates form on exposed crags and thence pass into the general drainage in very small quantities. Where, however, guano or other nitrogenous organic matter is in associa~ tion with alkaline deposits, and in dry climates, the largest amounts are produced. The excrements of bats and of other animals in caves lead to a similar reaction in the cave dirt. Cave deposits have been a minor source of the mineral in several places in this country, of which the Mammoth Cave is chief. Nitrates also form in surface soils exposed to decaying organic matter.

In the alkaline deserts of the west, saltpeter is not entirely lack- ing, although it does not yet appear demonstrat ed that the deposits are workable. The mineral is known at Forty-mile Desert, Humboldt Co., Nev., but has not yet been developed. Small amounts have been shipped from the Calico District of San Bernardino Co., California. Discoveries have also been reported from Springville, Utah Co., Utah, and near Milford in Bea- ver Co., Utah, and in Southern New Mexico.

The principal source of sodium nitrate today is that portion of Chili lying inland from Iquique, along the northern coast near the Peru- vian line. The region is practically rainless and is hot. East of the range that forms the rampart of the coast, is an elevated valley forming the desert of Atacama which lies between the coast range and the Andes

a ta

Y“

proper. On the western slopes of this valley are enormous deposits of sodium nitrate The crude material is called caliche- and contains about

25D % of the nitrate, mixed with common salt, sodium sulphate, water and

insoluble materials. Great beds of guano also occur and it seems proba-

ble that the reaction of nitrogenous products from these on the usual

sodium salines have produced the nitrate. Chili exports nearly a million (153

Ss arte at a : me eal a ae, ee ee ee a PST Sst to oe pat he 2 os Ea : — yank Bg es ee Sa a a rte Ls ee Sieg a te te es me ee es ae ee wi Se needa a A Te ees ee ee Ares 4 "oe Oe Se ee a ri - at “ ' Deeb — 8 1 SSS tad; BE of eee, eee OP ore

— TS 27 a haat i eae ee OT ge tae es a a

: at : tons yearly, of which rather more than 10 % is brought to the United States .

Chilian Nitrates. BE. & M. Jour. Aur. 25th 1888. June 22nd,1883.

The Nitrate Deposit and Trade of Chili. BE. & M. Jour Aug.9.1890.164. after a recent report by Consul Gen. See

3.Child. The Nitrate Deposit of Tarapaca. Harpers Weekly S3p.13.1890, Le East Rees

W.C.Day. Articles on Potassium Salts and Sodium Salts in tiv R. 1887 644-657. See also M. R. 1882. 597. 599.

B.F,.Gray. On Nitrification. Smithsonian Contributions. 1851.

Kraut. On Chili 4eitsehe. d.ds. Geols Ges. XVIII, 130. 1866.

Vero; “tudie der Salpeterwueste und ihrer Industrie. Mitth. aus

dem Naturwissen. Verein f. New Vorpommern und Ruezen in Greifswald. 1892.38. Good paper. May be found in Library N. ¥. Acad. Sciences.

Noellner. On Chili. Jour. ff. prak. CGhemis: GIT. 459. 1867.

C.Ochsenius. Die Bildung des enon ters aus Ifutterlaugensalzen. Zeit. f. prak. Geol. Feb.189 60.

A.Pissis. Nitrate and Guano Hapaed ts in the desert of Atacama. Lon- don. 1878.

A.H.Worthen. Saltpeter Caves. Jackson Co, Ills. Geol. ILLS. III. 80.

B QR Ax, This useful product is obtained in the Great Basin region, as are the previously mentioned salines, and is of an importance that increases

yearly. Its earliest source in America was native borax or tinkal Na.0.2B; 0+ ee with B,0,,36.65 %. It occurs withother alkaline salts

in saline AEE shes which will be shortly mentioned. With it are tufts of acicular crysta ve of ulexite or “ceott on-ball porax", a calcium sodium borate NaCaBsO0- + 5H.0, with Sa Cx 429.7 This is less easy to treat.

; oy 2 je

More recently very extensive deposits of calcium borate, have been devel- Oped in the Calico district of San Bernardino Co. California, and in late years they have yielded the greater part of the borax. They appear to be Old lake or marsh deposits that have been tilted up at high angles by

folding so that they are now mined by underground workings like any vein. When well crystallized the mineral has been called colemanite, but in the

massive form priceite. It needs subsequent ee eee ee to change it to the sodium borate of commerce. Pandermite from Asia Minor is a closely re-

lated calcium borate. Stassfurtite produced in Head amounts at the Stassfurt salteomines is a magnesian borate

The borax marshes, the former sole source of the mineral are situ- ated in Esmeralda Co., Nev., south of the Ragtown lakes referred to on p. 151., and in San Bernardino and Inyo Counties California. There are four in Nevada, called Seels, Columbus, Fish Lake and Rhodes. All are confined in valleys whose .drainage evaporates instead of running off. The surface is sometimes coated with a boracic efflorescence that works up by cappilary attraction and after removal it renews the supply in the course of three or four years. Ulexite, priceite and tinkal are all met, and with them more or less dust, gypsum, halite, soda, sodium sulphate etc. Under the surface there is standing water as shown by artesian wells. The region contains many volcanic eruptions and probably hot springs Stimulated by these, supplied the borax to the original lakes. There is

(154)

Fa wh es —— I rr at~ SRS ent ee a . : Er as ye ee ve ¥ : eee ae ee ee See eee —— ieee eee er “ . —s - ae Kater — a ge. a nite

a Y a ce — io es omen “ Pa — ie Kp: . m 7 — : re FE ew oo

—

oe a Persea RPS AO Ss poeta oo 3 - w a

a et ie Roa rt a

an additional. marsh at Salt Wells, Churchill Co., Nev. In Inyo. Co. Cal. there are thres, the Saline Valley, the Armargosa, and the Furnace Creck; in San Bernardino Co. there is one, the State Range or Searles. Some years ago some borax was obtained at Little Borax Lake, near Clear Lake, 80 miles north of San Francisco. SBoracic salts are shown by analysis in the large lakes, such as Owens (see p.151) and, to a less degree, Mono. Large isolated masses of priceite have been dug from the soil at Chetco, Curry Co. Oregon, and some notable amounts have been shipped to San Fran- cisco. Morthern Chili also contains deposits of calcium borates, at two points, Maricunga and Ascutan. They are elevated and remote but consid- erable ulexite is shipped to Germany. Smaller amounts are also exported from Argentina. The other foreign sources are the deposits of pandermite at Suzurlu, Asia Minor, the Tuscan hot springs, which afford sassolite, H;B0., and Thibet, whence small quantities are shipped over the Homalayas on the backs of she eep.

In California and Nevada the Pacific Coast Borax Co. is much the largest operator. Recent production is shown by the following table from

the Mineral Industry. 1895. p.76, Amounts are given in pounds . California. Nevada. 1889 1,959,650 5,905,482 L892 11,050,495 1,487,701 1893 7,499,562 1,199,458 California-Nevada. Chemical News-1886. 54. 1891. Feb.15. Analyses Chemiker Zeitung Repertorium 1886. 355d. Annales des

Mines. 1885-No.6. Ifineral Resources. 1882.).566. Re Oil Paint and Drug Reporter, Mar.1891. 10, 25 Anals.

For Histor; of American Borax see #. & I,Journal eee

H.DeGroot. In San Bernardino Co. Report of Calif.State lfineralogist1890

H.L.Fleming. Chemical News, Febd.15.1891.

'.A.Goodyear.Borax in Lake Co. Calif. Rept.of Cal.State aL eee 1890

H.G.Hanks. Third Ann.Rept.Cal.State Ilineralogist 1883 partI1.Good-Kec.

Hoke. Journal of the Saka hk In dustry. 1889. 854.

J.F.Kemy The Mineral Industry 189 43. General Review.

W.H.Storms On the deep mining of a lith Ann.Rep.Cal.State ifin.

4&5. 1892.

J.D.,Whitney. On B. in €, ‘@e0h oF Cal. 2:96. AvdJB. Dh. 422. Kab:

C.G.Yale, Mineral Resources 1889-1890 p.494. Rec.

Chili.

Darapsky. Die Borax industrie in Chili. Chemiker Zeitung. 1387.No.40 see also 1885. 9.1505 LSSS. VS O05

Italy.

H.Bechi, On the Boracic Acid Compounds of thr Tuscan Lagoons- B. & N G's. Oct.1lSth, L854. Rid c: Seo ae me udee

J .powring. The Boracic Acid Lagoons of Tuscany. A.J.S. 1. XXXVII. 270.

The Lagoons of Tuscany. A.J.S. II. 9. 4351. from the Bull.Soc.Geob. de

Prance. Dec. 1848. 147. Ses also V.P.Jarvis and if!.Rice in

3. California Min.Rep. 1883. p. 68 &70.

CRYOLITS. This mineral is an important source of sodium compounds and should (155)

a iret ae " SAL a

— a ; ecg Te aan ott ae parent

eae ea SS es 3 SPS et ee ae het oe RAE - ; :

a ; Py Seen a ees aes ie Srringe serye a. Bale: a ge : a See a Oe ea a wes eat eee ee eee tel ye eam pa : a A cet —

oe ee Bs at Se ee ee Se fp es 7 lanes bes re , B ooeatens SaaS. as

ro

38 Prine eae in this connection. Its composition is 3NaF.AlT,, that is

ouble fluoride of sodium and aluminium. At only one locality does it

a occur in commercial quantities. This is Ivigtuk on the Arksuit Fjord, latitude 61° 135', west coast of Greenland, near _the southern end. it forms a vast bed or vein 80 feet thick in gneiss and dips at 15° . The present quarry is 600 x 200' and over 100! RGEn Niderite. galena,bhéndd and a few rarer minerals are the sole admixture. It is shipped to Phil- adelphia, and thence to the Pennsylvania Salt Co. at Natrona, near Pitts- la

?

burgh where it is turned into sal-soda, bicarbonate, caustic soda, alum ind aluminiwia As a rare mineral cryolite is also Known at Miask in the Urals Riise at Pikes Peak Colo.

a. Hagermann. On some minerals associated with cryolite, in Greenland. Amer.Jour.Science ii. XLII/ 93. C Hart. On the Cryolite Deposit-Jour.Anal.& Applied Chem. Oct.1892 Kryolite Pamphlet issued by the Penn.Salt M'f'2.Co. Natrona Pa.1893. C.dJ.Lukens. Cryolite, Where found, Nature uses. The Manufacturer and Builder p.80.(Full reference not at hand. 1880-90) J.W.Taylor. Cryolite of Evigtok. Quar.Jour.Geol.Soc: XII. 140. AD WD) Bh When clays or shales contain pyrite, it decomposes and affords sul- phuric acid, which in turn reacts on the aluminous silicates present, and

yields the double sulphates of alumina and some alkaline element, that we call alum. These "“alum-shales" are not as yet of commercial importance in this country, but abroad have becn leached to obtain the mineral. Our sole commercial sources are at present bauxite and cryolite and the treat ment involves ee formatiom and solution of aluminum sulphate with sul- phuric acid, after which an alkaline sulphate is added and the resulting double sulphate is crystallized out Deposits of native alum nave been reported at a great many localities, especially in the west but no one has ever been commercially operated. As an interesting mineral, natural alum is very common at the points where sulphurous springs emerge from ee and the frequent association of shales or clays with pyrite in nature could not but lead to its frequent formation. For lists of lLo- alities, see Wineral Resources. 1885-84. 949. 1866. 681. and the idineral industry Leys... 5.

P. Blake. Alunozen and Bauxite of New Mexico. M.#.Oct. 1894. CHAPTER—VII. Utes FPERTELIZERS, and MINERAL PAINTS

a - a he

All soils are produced b

- a . 4 a co metamorphic or if 16 0U S5 DU FT the last. unless, as in tne ¢

y ecomposition of rocks, sedimentary, he first two must ultimately be referred to 3 f calcareous rocks and a few siliceous

infusorians, their substance has been abstracted from the ocean, where it may have been in solution since the condensation of the water. The meta- morphic rocks are either alterred igneous or altered sedimentary vari- eties, so that we are logically led back to the igneous for the original material, and are forced to find in their minerals the sources of all the others. These minerals are comparatively few when only the essential ones are considered. Quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, Olivine, lencite, nepheline and magnetite make up the list These decay under atmospheric agents and pass into hydrated silicates, carbonates and hydrous oxides, all but quartz which is practically inert and only breaks up mechanically. It thus forms the major portion of the fragmental rocks. Add to these products the limestones, including dolo- mites and the principal rocks producing soils are before us. There are gereat differences in them and Bene resulting soils differ. Pure quartz sand has little fertility and needs calcareous and aluminous additions. Fairly pure aluminous ay th aatee like clay are so tough and cold that they need sands and calcareous materials. Further, chemical elements which are taken by plants and removed in the harvesting have to be restored in order to keep land in good condition. Such elements are chiefly nitrogen phorphorus and potash and one of the great services of modern chemistry has been the light it has thrown on these points. We know that erowing buds and young shoots in the spring contain phosphorus and nitrogen in comparatively large amount but later these elements disappear from the leaves and collect in the seed and, are harvested. Other mineral matter gives stiffness to stalks and remains in the ash after calcination. Thus wood ashes afford potash or lye and are valuable fertilizer

At the same time some decaying orsanic matter is also necessary for the best results of plant growth, for its organic acids aid in an import- ant way in making mineral matters soluble. And it is also to be born in mind that the physical nature of the soil as a retainer of moisture or a

fu 7p)

quick drainer is a factor not to be overlooked, but it is the aim at this point to emphasize the mineral matters so as to bring out the part played by mineral fertilizers.

It has been the aim of modern ag the soil, either the necessary ingredal or those that have been exhausted by pP the former the addition.of lime breaks up the toughness and intractabil-

ity of clays, and ten percent will sometimes change their character.

The same is true of soils from many shales and samdstones so that their seams of limestone, such as occur in the coal measures of Pennsylvania, have considerable agricultural importance. Gypsum answers a similar pur- pose. In the second case the plantsremove mineral salts and these have to be artificially returned. Tobacco, for instance, with its excessive amount of ash, is an exhausting crop for potash and soon destroys the land unless fertilizers replace the missing elements. The so-called "old fields" of Virginia, exhausted by earlier methods of tobacco culture are familiar examples of tnduced barrenness.

In connection with soils attention should also be directed to their relations to the underlying rock In that portion of the country south of the terminal moraine, the superficial deposits are chiefly made up of the alteration products ‘of the underlying rock, The soils are indigenous and the float material give a clew to the geology of the solid strata. The varying character of these sireia.leneety determines the diversity of

(ettoae

ultural chemistry to supply to S which were originally lacking, t

sri dien 1a srowth. As an illustration of

.o N n J

me - : . ae . he — : . “ - b 7 Sac ee z rae ae . ls a - ww ‘oOo az Lr eS " 2 A Y — — oa - - a u

Oe RO. oO ow Bos

es SS eae . - a eer oS ae as oes — — a Pe ee 7 a sce ie ee hea ee —— one — HT. 2 “Tt

SRR a ae iS ote hes ALAS SSE ae aa NE

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the Siluro-Cambrian limestones have made the Great Valley he eastern states, but the Devonian and Carboniferous Sandstones and shales, to the west of it are a PEORLOL an In indigenous soils we distinguish three layer bed rock, subsoil and veritable mouid. the second consists largely ae fragments Of she Firat; the third of small comminuted derivitives of the second toszether with ds- caying vegitation. Above the line of the terminal morains we have to consider not alone the detomposedckountry rock, but also sands, clays and gravels that may have had their home in localities far to the north. Un- ader these superficial materials the bed rock is smooth and clean as it was scraped by the ice. Such deposits of foreign origin afford trans- ported soils. Wind-blown sands and dirt are important in many regions, and volcanic ashes or lappilli may spread to sreat distances.

These brief introductory remarks are intended to lead up to the fol- Lowine topics of “Fertilizers” . The search for mineral fertilizers has ee some important industries aS Which as a form of natural re- source of no minor marnitude at ion Will next be given.

Books On agriculture, or BE ULt ural chemistry and the reports of the recently established experi me stations make up a fairly prolific literature. The following two ci ions afford sood general accounts. N.H.Shaler. The Origin and Nature of Soils. Twelfth Annual Report Dir.

U. S. Geol, Survey. 5.¢G.Williams.Applied Geology. Chapter VI. 101. Gives bibliography.

Soils. Lhnus the garden o

PHARTLIUIZERS. G/PSUL GREENSANDS . The use of gypsum in this connection nas been referred to on pp. 158-159 where the literature is cited. The employment

of Cretaceous gnadnsands and marls in New Jersey is also important. Their general geological relations were outlined in speaking of the underlying clays p.tle6. The maris are later Cretaceous and cover a large area in 2outh Central New Jersey. Thev afford a valuable material and are also prolific in fossils. The name greensand has been given on account of

tne presence of gslauconite, a sreen hydrated silicate of iron and potas- sium. Greensands also contain some phosphoric acid and a large amount of shell remains. It has been shown, especially by the naturalists of the Challenger expedition that greensand forms on the sea bottom at no great dgistanca from the coast and in those places where foraminiferal remains exist together with feldspathic sediments from off shore drainage. The roraminifera become filled with silt and reactions probably from the . presence of sulphur and iron, result,which lead to the formation of the glauconite, the potash being ‘derived from neighboring feldspar. Green- sands are known of all seological ages, and to them have besn even refer- ed the great iron ore deposits of the Mesani range, but they are only dug for fertilizers in New Berar:

J.7.Bailey. On the Orisin Greensand and its Formation in the Ocean of the present ee A. dishes bb eae ee erin Proc.Boston Doc, Nat. Hist. WW. Be

W.B.Clark. Orisin and Classification of the Greensands of New Jersey.

if. 161, 1894. Rec. Preliminary Report on the New Jersey. Report of

JOT OL Geol, Bi Oretacsous and Tertiary Formations of

Pra

State Geol. for 1892. 169. Both theses papers sive valuable biblilosraph; 5 .H.cock Geolory of New Jersey, 1868. +.-261. (153)

7 7 eee wes art

oe Sew - , - —w eeu a - — : AS ties es - : —— on - —— Pence ree i hae a ’ae at re r- SES atest — Ee ce int . eters Ot ete ee ated ir -" Soe ee a oe 7 Sah aS i Saeeeeiene StS 3. es eee ee ee is aes Gm JagEN Ls alee 8 oe in! ae RI — 4. Se ae

De la Beche. Phosphates of Lime & Greensand and Marl. G Pree. May Te<eo "po beers Aadicio. Lidia Bn “seu

>.P.,Sharpless. On Some Rocks and Other Dredrings from the Gulf Stream. Aeris, AGIs ak Deis

R.P.Whitfiekd. Brachiopoda and Lamellibranchiata of the Raritan Clays. .and Greensand HMarls of N.J. U.S.Geo0l,Surv. Monograph IX.

PHOSPHATSS . Phosphatof of calcium in one form or another is the basis of commercial phosphates. It is obtained as the crystalline miner-— al apatite which contains also calcium chloride or fluoride; as nodules and coOncretionary or massive forms which seem often to have replaced

l

limestone Which also contain fluorine; and as the more or less recent ex- crements of birds in the form of guano. Fossil exereéements or coprolites aré @beo of value abroad. The crude material is subjected to some pre- paratory treatment to make the phosphates soluble in water, and in this sulphuric acid is so important an agent that the vitriol industry is

closely Linked with that of the ek sphates. Paap standards of rich- ness are established in the ois eee Yoductive regions whien must be

The richness is usually stated ef, Ca,P,0,, also called bone where P O- is expressed

attained to make the crude rock s on the basis of tribasic calcic phosphates, of which P, 05 forms

SHO Oo.

eae ee. 409 wm So a) gins

ee 2 oH Com &

32 Bo oO , +.

h

rs

Ca

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en by analysis, the Lore eaponding tribasic phosphate is in round numbers a Letile Lass chan’ hee! /Ei mes 1tSs amount No crude rock under 50 ys tribas- ic phosp! hate is merchantable. Canadian apatite has been usually shipped at 60 4 of this c ompound . At the same time certain other ingredients should be as Oe as possiopis. Insoluble materials of which silica is chief should bé washed out and reduced in amount, for they are simply — inert. Alumina pee ferric oxide are objectionable because after the for- mation of the fertilizer itself they tend to change a portion of the ohosphoric acid to an insoluble form, or to "revert" it, as it is called. Calciec carbonate is bad because it neutralizes to no purpose the vitriol ed in the manufacture. Crude rock and fertilizers in bulk are now sold on the basis of analysis, sO tnat other deleterious ingredients being sufficiently low,so much per unit of P,0O¢ is paid. South Carolina and Florida phosphates have ransed from 35.50 to $5. per ton in the last few years at the mines, which is not over half the price that prevailed a few years earlier, Phosphate of Lime. E.& M.dJour.June & 1878. p.595. W.H.Adams. List of Commercial Phosphates. M.E,.Oct.1889. LS aCna par. Phosphate Chemistry as it concerns the Mines.ii.E.FeblLé92 W.2.M.Davidsom. Notes on the Geological Origin of Phosphates of Lime in the United States and Canada. “HELE, Peb.1892. C.C.Hoyer Millar.Phosphates. Relates to Canada,S.C.& Fla.-Sci.Pub.Co.N.Y. C.G.ilemminger. General Article. Mineral Ladustry. 169s. 251 Mineral Statistics of the United States. ALL the Volumes R.F.Penrose The Nature and Origin of Deposits of Phosphates of Lime. Contains a full Bibliographs p.129 Bull.46.U.5.G.85. Rec, W.B.Phillips . A list of Minerals containing at least 1 % Phosphoric Acid. M.S.Feb.138 oe. J.otewart. Lauren tian low-frade Phosphate Ores. M.a.Feb.169¢. YP Wyatet. Phosphates of Aaerica. WM. ¥. 1891. Rec.

(159)

Apatitr

ATITE. Workable deposits of apatite are practically limited to the Archaean rocks, and to the older formations among these. In this side of the ocean they occur in the Laurentian heights of Ontario and Quebec. They occupy a section which includes the counties of Leeds, Lanark, Frontenac, Addington and Renfrew in Ontario, just north of King-

ston and west of the Ottawa River, and which extends across the river in. to Ottawa Co. Quebec. The apatite is prevailing green ar oe re ed and irreg-

ular although individual crystals of great size and perfection also occur especially in crystalline calcite, It is generally associated with pyr- oxene rock, called by Hunt pyroxénite, but which Harrington has shown to be quits variable and to contain considerable quartz and orthoclase as well. Adams and Lawson have likewise identified scapolite-bearing amph- ibolites and diorites in a few localities and have thus recosnized in

opment of the

a phosphates has ruined the industry and the mines ars no longer

Canada, rocks which are related to the characteristic associate of apa- tite in Norway, where these scapolite rocks are called "Geflecter Gabbro! and "Apatitbrinser". Feldspathic rock and crystalline calcite also occur in close connection with the apatite of Canada. The apatite is found in véins or what may be described as veins, that are often irresular and pockety but that in several instances run several milss across the coun- try. The commonest gangue minerals are pyroxene and calcite Hornblende titanite, mica, Zircon and Others are met often in crystals of extraor- dinary size and perfection. The . aptite is mixed in with the gangue in more or less intimate relations. It was cobbed out to a high grade pro- duct, 60 % tribasic calcic phosphate, and in this purity was shipped abroad while-the industry flourished. Great quantitiss of low srade rock were cast aside, and no method of preparation has yet been dev ised for utilizing it although the problem is an inviting one. The specific srav- itisés of all the minerals in thé mixture are so close that wet mechanical seps tion is impracticable. But in recent years the deve-

Pl. 3] r

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igsin of these bodies is very obscure, 17.5,Hunt regarded them AS veins, analogous tO vein granites or pegsmatites. Hs opposed the idea that they were necessarily connected with organic life and his attitude was abundantly justified, for even in igneous rocks of all ages, apatite as a microscopic acesssory is the most wide-spread of all the rock making minerals except perhaps magnetite. Those Swe lets who are predisposed to find in the Laurentian the traces of life, have cited apatite as one of the strong forms of evidence sir J.. Villiam aes is the most prom- inent upho lder of these views, but the thesis is a difficult one and the reolog¢ical occurrence and associations give but slight encouragement. In Norway the similar apatite enrichments have been viewed as secregations from an igneous magma, and connected thus with intrusions of basic plu- tonic rock. Such was the view of Brogger and Reusch cited below, and the sams has received SuRDOPS more recently from J. H. L. Vogt.

LITERATURE. CANADA, Canadian Apatite. BE. & M. Jour. Feb. 24th, 1885. p. 105. F.0.Adams. On the Occurence of the Norwesian Apatit-bringer in Can with a few notes on the microscopic characters of some Laurentian amphibolites. Geol.Mag.Vol.I. p.olsd.

Sa SSS F

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stewart. fF Dorrance.

S04.

Fraser TorrenceReport on Apatite 4 yp

:

_G¢.Vennor.

sLawson. On some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolites with a Tew Notes on Soms Rocks associated with the Apatite De-

posits. Canadian Record of Science p.185. Cireu.18g0 con-

taining a good bibliosraphy;

On th

i@ mode of Ocevrence of Apatite in Canada. EF. & M, Journal eee 2: SLO, Lesa eee tateoy TT. Hand. Dee ies. ALV. 495-7. 1886.

On the tode of Qecurence Of Apatite in Canada. HEH .de dl. Jor es nek Wee Se dees. peels

Apatite Deposits of Lanark Co. Ont.Can. Good Account,

Phosphates of the Laurentian and Cambrian Rocks of Canada. Ot cla (lb aoe wee

Vanes on Canadian Fluor Anat if. Jour. Dee .4 1686. ,.4092 HES,

ie ho bo ee) — co

a ct cD I 3 oo

ft saree OF Dinte... Hs. ‘cs prot ori

.On Canadian Apatite C.G.S. 1877-75 G1. Analyses by C.G.

Hoffman H l. Report on the Veins of Ottawa nocks=- and iliner Montreal 18579. Geol. Survey of Canada. 16578.

Guano the Origin OF the Apatite of Rideau Can. A.A SAS. reali

ue na

s of some of the Pe eee luebec. With notss on miscellaneous Suliss . (Se ECIO., era Od eae Le NGR,

eR {Hi aF ja Ld F D ct ae, PB ul ‘S) i) eae ca

rey A! el orl

C) Cy] Ho

fo Se one a) oF) fH ct en) (a o ae t: ep F-= i ba

a tr] Cul ay R3 C9]

Oo Sr ay —! 1.8)

fos

posits of Nada Sanikee.oe1. [5 p.6e

The Apatite Deposits of Canada. MsE. 22, 459. H.& M, Jour.Canadian Apatits Feb.1883 p.165. Apatite Mining in Canada &E. & TM. Jour. Oct. L888- Future of Phosphates in the United States and Canada EE, & MN. Jour. Jan.26th, 1869

and Feb. p.18l.

Note on the Apatite Resion of Canada M. HH. 14. 495 Apatite in Canada ‘lest near Perth--Boston Society Natural Fist. Vol ~l2s pase. Be68—69..

Nature and Orisin of Deposits of Phosphate of Lime. Bull 26. JW), te ue Bo, RG,

Canadian Apatite. The Can.Inst.Proc. Vol.V. Sericscs III Pp. .o0we,, LSEBE: Phosphate Mines of Ca Betts Haursntian Low Grade Phosphate Ores. Report on Apatite 5 ra C

ant “73 7 Os. bee. de

ip

a0) Yolo Cys

iS ot

j sits Ottawa Co.Quebec. Rep.Prog.Can.

Survey 1582-84 pp.J.3-32 Report on Survey in Renfrew, Pontiac and Ottawa, with note

On Iron Ores, Apatite Plumbaso Deposits of Ottawa County Report Pros. Canada Survey 1876-77 pp.244=320. Apatite and Graphite of Templeton and Portland Townships Utstawa County Canada Survey Report 1873-74.

(161)

rom Ps-.:

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.a,Vennor Canadian Mining Review Jan. 1884. A.J.S. III. 28. 74, NON AY. brogger ¢ Reusch. Apatite Veins a Bs ay 2.0.0. ¢g0e.XKVIL. 646 1875,

Oo re —

rv .1894. 382.

é. NJ

am) ap oY ry G2 eo) O So és

Dr. HE. Emmons, while engaged in the early work

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of the New York State Survey, discovered a variety of EDAUL Le near Crown Point, that hé called eupyrchroits from its phosphorescenc Some un- successful attempts were made to mine it. Itis ina eniekod zone along a fault that is chiefly filled with chloritic decomposition products of ensiss In the same region thse marnetites that are excessively rich in apatise and that are called "red ores" were also early mined and sub- jected to magnetic treatment for the apatite, -but all the operations passéd in time into iron mines.

Some attention has besn directed to low prade masnetite rich in phosphorus, in c tion With magnetic concentration. The by-products

n ty

separator

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are unfortunately so rich in hornblende, pyroxene and small value in this connection. There is slight pro-

quartZ as to be of mise of success. W,P.Blake Contribution to the early History of the Industry of phos- phate of Lime in the United States. M.B. Feb. 1892. KE. gmmon On Lupyrchroite- 2nd Ann.Rap.N.¥.Surv. p. 1338, Final Report on 2nd District 16542.286. see also Beck's Report on Mineralogy of N.Y. 1642-240 and J./.Kemp Rep.of N.YeOtate Geol. 1693, 459 C.T.Jackson Or Eupyrechroite of Crown Foint, N.¥i- A.J sselDides 73 also N.¥.Rept. on :fineralory p.24C. Description and analysis of Phosphorite from Croyn Point, jsty- Proe=Bos Soc. Nat.His.Vol.iI1l1l.p.47.1856.see also p.264 AHOEPHOUS= or HON-GRY TALLIE PHOSPHATSS. Thess are produced in the Unitsd Statss in largest eons alone the sea-coast of South Carolina and an the western shores or at no great distance inland in Florida. Minor dsposits are known in North Carolina, Georcsia, Alabama and Tsnnessee. The South Carolina phosphates have been worked since 1867, but those of Flor- ida are of muck mors recent development. Ths tennessee discovsries are Still more recent, n addition there are suano and phosphate rock depos- its on several of thse West Indies and on the islands of the Pacific SOUTH CAROLINA. The phosphates are distributed over an area about 60 miles long, and extending back 20 miles from the coast yome mines are near the ocean while in other places the phosphatic stratum is near the surface at a considerabls distance inland. Beaufort on the southwest and Charleston on the northeast, mark the limits in a general way. The coast is Low, the surface being seldom mors than 10-15 feet above tide, and it is cut by a network of estuaries and rivers characteristic of this section Ths strata underlyine the phosphates are Hocene, Te sees and in 1548 were classified by Tuomey which srouping is accepted by ‘¥.5.Clark in 1891, into 1. Buhrstone, 2. Santec Beds, 35. Ashley and Meares Beds, (Bult. Sa. UvS:4G8S. pp.5i. 62) They are all sands, clays, maris, shell beds, stc. tha buhrstono itself that gives a name to the lowest stratum, being insisnirficant Many fossils such as vertrebrae, teeth etc., are scattered throuch them. The Ashley Beds are the highest of the series and upon these after an intervening bed of sand and clay, of no great thickness, rests the phosphate deposit itself. This has been usually called Eocene, and has bean thought to have been formed by the wash of earlier Bocens beds ,rocent dstorminations by Dall,lead to the conclusion

[5 )

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that it is Upper Miocene (Amer.Jour.Sci.0ct,1894.p.301). The bed in-~ cludes many fossil teeth, bones etc., phosphatic nodules and concretions buried in sand and clay. The bed varies from a few inches to two and a half Teet, with a general average under one foot. About a dozen differ- ent varieties of nodules are recognized, the variations being due to col- or, luster, hardness and the nature of the foreign materials such as Shells, sand ete., cemented by the ph 1osphate. The yield per acre varies from 400 to 1200 tons. On the land the bed is dug by systematic trench- ing and the nodules are then washed thoroughly and calcine Bight or nine feet of stripping are about the maximum of profitable working y Lhe nodules are also dredged from the river bottoms by large dredging eens ines of various kinds. The industry has suffered in recent ysars from the competition of the Florida phosphates and the works experisnced preat damage from the hurricane and floods of August 1895. Wevertheless the production in 1693, of 502,564 tons was in excess of tnat of Florida by over 60,000 tons. Prices nave fallen also to such a point that proerits are much lower than in former years. The origin of these deposits has been a puzzling problem. There tc be little doubt that the phosphoric acid was derived from excre and decaying animal matter deposited along a shore lins.it may thei rey laced earbonate of lime in nodules cf marl or limestone,or forme) ions of lime phosphates, or in instances, as urged py N.S.chaler, Qllected in the bottoms Of swamps. However originating, they were nds concentrated into the bed and river bottoms where now met. North Carolina beds are of much less importance and supply less acc tons yearly. They are in part like those of South Carolina,bu a

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astle Hayne where the chief mini is done, they form conglomerate Six feet thick, of rolled nodule bones and other pebbles.

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FAROLINA. Phosphate Rocks in S.C. E. &i. Jour. rick On the Local Geolosy & .65 oe Phosphatic Rock of the Ash science Oct. 1894. 3 F.S.Holmes. The Phosphatic Rocks Noticed tnd .B. ALE, 2. 4206 Mineral Resources U.S.G.S. Excellent Annual Review-Hspecially 1882 paper py O.A.Lioses.

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South Carolina Charilsston is70:

R.A... Penrose. Bull,46. U.S.o.S). p,60. EBiblisteraphy to 168s. 229.) Rec.

G Lneese. Influence of Swamp Waters in the Formation of Phosphate Nodwuies ofS. A doe. Mas bese peeve

N.o.onaler. On the Phosphate Beds of &.C:. Proc. Bos .soc,t Yat.HisxIII.22:

C.N.Shepard Sr.Note on the Origin of the Phosphatic Formation. A.J,5. tie esl) oc

C.N.Shepard Jr.Notes on the Occurence and Composition of the Nodular Phosphates of South Carolina. A.d.8.di. KLVII. 4054.

hr rT ry ATs 7 wT A 1N ORTH PF op ‘OU INA it

C.W.Dabnsy Report North Carolina Agricultural Experimental Station £6655 Bi

W.8. PRs North Garolina Phosphates. Wilmington N. Cc. 1856.

A.Winslow Phosphate: Deposits of North Carolina.

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cases it will probably prove a valuable material for local fertilizer manufacturies. The age of the phosphate rock is Devonian. Above the black Devonian shale (called also the Chattanooga shale) lies a blue sub- carboniferous shale, named the Harpeth. In the lower part of the latter is a layer of phosphate nodules, of low srade, and of small promiss at present. More recently than the above discoveries there have been found in Perry Co., just west of Hickman, beds of white phosphate, high in sil- ica, and bettveen 25 and 355 % tribasic phosphate, interstratified and mixed with Carboniferous chert. Ths phosphate appears to have replaced limestone. Along the slopes of the cliffs near the creeks, and at about the horizon of the Chattanooga shale, a surface deposit is also met which consists of a chert-breccia cemented by pnosphats. The crude breccia yields about 40 % lime phosphate, but when cleaned of the chert, the an- alysis shows over 60 %. Its utilization seems feasible. It has been

formed on the surface by the leaching of the neighboring phosphatic strata. C.W.Hayes. The White Phosphates of Tennessee. WM. &. March 1895.

’.C.Meadows & Tytle Brown. Phosphates of Tenn. M.2.0ct.1894. 4.& M.Jour. VGb.eUth, KeYe, S55. W.B.Phillips. Phosphate Rock of Tenn, E. & HM. Jour. May 5.1894. 417. Mineral Industry, 1893, 5387.

J.M.Safford. Phosphate Beds of Tenn. BE. & M. Jour. Febp.24.18394. p.366.

Phosphatic nodules are occasionally met at other geological horizons and elsewhere? in America, although none have attracted serious attention for economic purposes. W.D.Mathew has described some interesting ones from the Cambrian of New Brunswick and gives a good review of methods of Origin. (On phosphate Nodules from the Cambrian of Southern New Bruns- wick, Trans. N. ¥. Acad. Sci. XII. 108, 1893.)

GUANO, superficial deposits of éxcrementa, chiefly of waterfowl are called suano. Fenrose divides them into two classes- 1. Solubplé, 2. Leached. Under the first head are to be placed those a¢cumulations of recent time and in regiens of such scanty rainfall that their soluble Salts, such as ammoniacal and other alkaline compounds, have never- been lost. They are or were especially abundant along the west coast of South America, in Peru and on the neighboring islands. Much nitrogen was also present, and through the excrements were bones and dead bodies of fish, birds and marine mammals. The beds nave been chiefly exhausted as they were limited and aS mining has been in operation for over fifty years. An analysis, quoted by Penrose (Bull.46 U.S.¢G.S. p. 121) from The Cultiv- ator 1644, is as follows:

Vater and Volatile, Amonia=- & - Lod

sii

Y ©

Organic Matter and Ammonical Salts- - - - - - 61.44 Chloride and Sulphate of Soda - 6.50 In soluble Siliceous Matter - - - --- 0,57 Phosphate of lime and phosphate of Magnesia - - 21.11 Carbonates of Lime and Magnesia - - 6.11 LO,

The leached guano is obtained on a number of the islands of the West Indies and presents some anomalies of composition. Where the island is formed of limestone a calcic phosphate is met. This may be in loose ma- terial, with occasional nodules or may form a hard crust upon the lime- stone below, from which it is blasted. Penrose citss Sombrero, Navassa, Turk, St. Martin, Aruba, Curacoa, Orchillas, Arenas, Roncador, Swan and Cat or Guanahani Islands, ths Pedro ath Morant Keys and the reefs of

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Monees and AVES 1é inhess extend almost en- tirely around the Caribbéan Sea. Ihe island of Redonda, in the eastern eroup of the west Indies, wields a nhosnphate of alumina and iron; known as redondite. It occurs as a cementing material in and around masses of basalt, and contains buat Little Lime the composition offers disadvan- tages Trom the presence of these two bases, on account of the tendency Or the produet: to "revert C.H.Aitehneock considers that the local sceolosy does not admit of svano as a source of tne phosphate, but rather that it is somehow linked with the volcanic origin igneous rock. This iNVOLMeSs PELrooSical da piacikta eS.

Guano deposits were also formerly worked on a srour of islands over a thousand miles due south of the Sandwich Islands. They were under the protection of the United States and were of coral formation. They are called America Islands on the maps, and formed a small archipelago, pro- jectine to a limited neight above the sea, and coated with superficial looses phosphates and underlying crusts. Notes wpon them will be found in the civatcon-erem ¢, i. Shepard dr. LITERATURE il Bh Ghee ee ul On the Guano of Peru. Comptes Rendues, LAXVI. 1265 Peis. Aah Ge) aoe Py ly GLE We, Outlines of the Geology of the N.E&.West India. Islands Annuad. NeY. Acad. Sens im ie, e823 See also Roy. Swed Acad, .seiences: 12% No.2. de7l-purely cecological paper. u.V,D'Invilliers.Phosphate Deposits af the Island of Navassa. GRerawesy al Tite Whee J.D.,Hacue On Phosphatic Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. A.J.5S. Jay ae, wat. C..HyHatehecock The Redonda (Leeward Is.) Phosphate. G.S.A. I]. 6. Treats of Guano & Phosphates. perhaps volcanic in origin A.A.Julien. Various Phosphates from the Key of Sombrero. A.J.8. Ji. tien SOCK Dr .S.Knéeland. The Mineralized Phosphates & Guanos of the Equatorial Pacttie Islands. Boston soc, Nat Hist. Aah, gio Wa tte eae ee R.A.F.Penrose. The Nature and Orisin of Deposits of Phosphates of Limes, Bude 26. Usa Gs 3. on Guanos 117. Bibliography p.129. Tain PHI Son The Phosphatic Rock from the Island of Sombrero,Y.1I.with observations on same by A.A.Julien-A.J.S.ii.A44V1.424., ©°.P,Sharpless. Turks Island and the Guano Caves of the Caicos Islands. Prog, Bos .Nat. Hist.soc. NIL. 242. 1882. C.N. Shepard, Jr. Poréien Phosphates, Ler. C.N.Shepard, Sr. Phosphate Minerals on the Islands of Mona, and Moneta. A eee Wess Oe also C.N.Shepard dr.-A.J.5.Jan.1378. PEQVSFPRATIO SEAS Phosphatss for fertilizers have been also sup- plied by ths slass from thé basic, Bessemer converters. These are merely ground to a great fineness, 100 to 150 mesh, and spread on land without further treatment. K.Jensen Zeitsch.ftr Angewandte Chemie. June ist, 1889. W.H.Morris. Basic Slags as Fertilizers. MH. #. Pebruary 1é22. WB bd pps: Phosphates Slag. Mo &. May Lee.

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MINERAL PAINTS: On Mineral Paints in general, consult the volumes of the Mineral Re sources, The Mineral Industry, and the Enginesrins & Mining Journal, Jan. Fea AS 8S

Mineral paints may be divided into two classes, those produced from metallic minerals or ores and those-from non-metallic or earthy minerals The former are chiefly the ores of iron, bimonite (called also brown hematite and bog ore) red hematite, and the mixtures of limonite and clay known as oOchres, but in which the ors gives the color. With these are also classified puddle cinder, white tead,-red lead and zinc white. The non-metallic paints include barite, slate refuse, soapstone, tzraphite, ultra marine, etc.

LI? ONITE AND OCHRE. The long succession of Siluro-Cambrian limo- ites on the New York and New England border and southward in the great

ey has afforded suitable material for paint in a number of localitie:

Works were early established at Brandon, Vt. and still remain in somewha:’ deésultory operation. The ore is dus and dried in small sheds much as are bricks, and-is then ground. It affords in the crude state yellow or yel- lowish brown colors, but when roasted givss various shades of red and darker brown. Small developments have also been made near Hoosic Falls, N.Y. All these limonites are mixed with more or less ochreous clay that soes to waste when the ore is mined for iron. The locality most produc- tive of paint from what may be called an iron ore is in the southern part of Carbon Co.Pa. A bed of a bluish rock that affords on analysis 29-35 % metallic iron and varying amounts of silica,alumina,lime and nagnesia is found just over the Oriskany sandstone. The iron is probably present as a carbonate. The ore or rock is hand-picked to rid it of slats and is then roasted and ground. It affords a rich,dark reddish-brown pigment.

C.u.Hesse. The Paint Ore Mines at Lehigh Gap Pa. M.H. Oct. 1890. F.A.Hill. Report on the iietallic Paint Ores along the Lehizh River.

Annual Report Penn.Geol.Surv.1886.Part IV.p.1386-1408.

OCHRE. is a name distinctively applied to soft clay-liks or powdery material not possessing that solidity of limonite proper, but being es- sentially a very impure iron ore. This occurs in many places and is of itself a valuable product in Pennsylvania,Georgia,Vireinia & faryland.The deposit at Bermuda Hundred,Va. affords an excellent grade and numerous others occur with the Siluro-Cambrian limonites referred to above. A large deposit of high grade has been reported by Dr.E.S.F.Arnold,of the N.¥.Acad.Sci.,on the St.John's River,Fla.(Trans.XIII.22)but is not yet developed. Largs amounts are also imported, especially from France, Italy and England. The tests of a good ochre are depth and strength of color afforded by the paint and the amount of oil required in grinding;the less Ooil,the more valuable the ochre, other things being squal.The oil is the most expensive ingredient. Umber is essentially an ochre of a brown color containing oxide of manganese,that gives it its peculiar tint. The best srades, and in fact nearly all the supply comes from Italy. Sienna is another variety of this ferrugineous clay, with a different color.

RED HEMATIT=. Within the last few years red hematite iron ore has been growing in favor as a pigment, and is now ground in large quantities in various parts of the country. The chief source of the mineral is the Clinton ore, or as it called in different sections, fossil ore, dyestone ore, oolitic ore, flaxseed ors, ee This forms a series of beds in

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Shales of the “linton stage of the Upper Silurian, reyarkahly extended and persistent iron ore deposit. It outcrops in Wisconsin, Ohio New York and down the Appalachians to Alabama. It is utilized for paint at Clinton, N. Y. where ten to twenty tons are sround daily, and is em- ployed in the same way in the South.

SLAG. Puddle slag and heating cinder have been recently utilized at Boonton, N. J. for paint. They afford what is practically an iron ore of about 50 % iron, and in convenient shape for utilization.

Axel Sahlin. The utilization of Puddle-and Reheatinge-Slags for Paint- stock. Mh, AX. ooe,

RARITE, Barite (barytes) , or heavy spar, is the natural sulphate of barium. It is a dense white mineral easily scratched with a knife ard of extraordinarily high specific gravity, 4.5. Barite is a frequent gangus in mineral veins and is especially found in connection with gsalena and zine blende. It also occurs alone as 2 vein-filli: and in pockets in many limestone districts, so de these two forms of SOROS ss are its chief commercial source, It reac tne market from two princivdal dis- tricts, the largest being in sou Vircsinia and North Carolina, the Other in eastern !fis nounts come also from Illinois. The mining is in general is carried on in Missouri, by farmers in off-times. The min known a6 "LET". Tn eariier years a vein near Hopewell, N. vive. Sey ¢e01.Surv.186¢c.

0.225). The same is true of a vein ie Sandstone at Cheshire,Ct. which had mine rals With it and a wonderful barite crystals. Workable d ave been announced On fi Journal Sept. orth, IC. Barytes of the should be free from im-

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TRIPOLI is a name sometimes applied to diatomaceous earth, but also

used Tor powdery silicsous residues or "rotten stone” that are left by the decay of silicesus iimestones and cherts. Such have been developed near Seneca, Newton Co., Missouri, and are very extensive. The material iS emplauyéa or water-Tilters as well as for polishing powder. H.O.Hovey. Study of the Cherts of Missouri. A. J. 8S. Nov.3894, 401. ilineral Resources. 1892. 752.

PUMICH is produced in small quantities at Lake Merced, near San Francisco, California:

HARD ABRASIVES==CORUNDUM AND EMERY .’ Corundum is crystallized Al, 0, and 18 the mineral of hardness 9, in the common scale. The varieties with vitreous ee and light colors are called sapphire, the duller, more

smoky colors still of pre eete us luster, corundum, and the variety mixed With more or Teas magnetite, hematite, spinel, etc. and appearing Jike a powdered iron ore is oe emery. these varieties are tne comnon abrad-

ing agents when great hardness is required.

Corundum or emery is found in the United States at Chester, Mass., near Peekskill, N.Y., and in North Carolina and Georgia. At Chester it occurs as a bed or vein in gneiss near its contact with mica schist and is quite persistent for a considerable distance. Much tale especially in the pinched portions of the vein, and the usval minerals, marsarite, cor- undophilite, diaspore, e6tc., are found associated with it. It was dis- covered about 1864, in propesting for iron ore,and led to the establish- ment of an incustry which later spread to other portions of the country. The exact geolofical relations, as t0 whether it is a contact develop- ment along an igneous intrusion, need further clucidation. Near Peeks- kill, N. ¥. small deposits of impure emery have been mined on a small

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scale. The material consists of hercynite, a sreen spinel, maznetite, garnet and corundum, and occurs along the contacts of the intrusive rocks of the Cortlandt series and the neichboringe schists. Operations have

recently ceased.

Beautiful crystals of red corundum have been obtained in Sussex Co. NW. J. ain the limestone belt containing the zine ores . at Franklin Furnace and Ogdensburg, but never in commercial amounts. In Chester Co: Pa., corundum was first discovered in this country, (1845). Large masses

a

were found on the surface, but mining did not develop important quanti- t1es. Lhe ‘corundum Ls known Over a Stus cae of five miles, and is said by 7. D. Rand, to occur as loose crystals in a granite or syenitic-Tock: Corundum has also been met in Delaware and Virginia, but North Carolina and Georria are the only states of economic importancs. North Carolina

aes

is the chief producer and the mines are located in Macon and Jackson Cos. The mineral oceurs in a variety of rocks, said by B. W. Parker to embrace ene iss, talc, chlorite and mica schists, massive anthophyllite, olivine

and ssrpentinized rocks. It appears that some form of fresh or serpen~

tinized peridovwite or pyroxene 156 chi efly associated and the same is true of Georsia. The rai VEE are found in both states along a crystalline belt, characte rized by these intrusions. arge masses, sometimes several hun-

ia

dred pounds in lon and small crysta. Occur, mostly enclosed in hy-

Le t ie

drated micaseous minerals. Some of these micaceous minerals are eminent-

ly characterictia of emery or corundum mines ia all parts of the world.

In Georria accordine to F. fF. King, all the corundum deposits are in

basic marnesian icveks, slither peridotite or its close relatives. They

form igneous .uteresioue in sneiss and schist. Hornblends-gneiss always

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forms one wall of the intrusion, and near this, in the peridotite the veins of corundum are invariably found. The associates are limesoda feldspar, quartz, hydrated micaceous minerals and hornblends, and octino- lite in variable proportions. The chief counties are Rabun, Towns, Hab- ersham and Union, but Rabun is as yet the only Serious producer. (Corun- dum has also been reported in Alabama, California and Colorado. Some prospecting has been attempted in the last named. Rather vigorous gravel washings have been in operation in the last ten years near Helena, Mont., where corundum pebbles of a good enough grade to furnish gems have peen Obtained. Some thousands of tons ofemery are annually imported, mostly from Asia Minor where it is found in crystalline limestone near contacts with mica schist.

The origin of the corundum in North Carolina and Georgia has been discussed by Julien and Chatard and that of other deposits of emery in the classic papers of Dr. J. Lawrence Smith. It appears that the chlor- itic minerals crystallized at the same time with the corundum, and that in the southern states ferro-masnesian solutions from the peridotites probably reacted on aluminous ones from the geneiss, and that heated al- kaline waters as indicated by neighboring pesmatite veins in North Caro- lina may have had their influence. Alumina in some way crystallized out by itself. Caution is necessary in order to distinguish contemporaneous erystallizations associated with the corundum from alteration products from it. The late Dr. Geuth has described a considerable and very inter- esting series of the latter.

General Papers.T.M.Chatard. On Corundum. M.R. 1883-84. 714. See also under North Carolina belov.

F.A.Geuth. See below under North Carolina.

Pa a FLEE ee On Dr. Geuth's Researcher on Corundum and its associated Minerals. Bos.Soc.Nat.Hist. Vol.16 Didoe. LBT4.

aT O.Faret. Hmery and Other Abrasives. Jour.Franklin

Inst. GXXXVII. 353. 4221. 1894. cited by King as below under Georgia. 7.O.Rooper. On the manufacture of Emery Wheels and Emery wheel Machinery. Iron Oct.24th, 1894. J.L.Smith. On the Seolosy of Emery and Corundum. A.A.A. S. VI. 274. Essay in separate volume en- titled "Original Researches" p.1. 1884. vee also A.J.5.1850.554. Annales des Mines 1850 noes NOUV

ASia ifinor. Jaznaux. Analyses of Emery. Zeit.X%. tab.X. 637. J.L.65mith. Emery Formations of Asia Minor.A.J.S.VI1. 11.

2383. List of iinerals with A.J.S. Pi.124.269. Memoir on Hmery Pt.1I. Geol.& Min.of Bmery from obs. made in Asia Minor A.J.S.ii.X1.565. ii. KX. 554.

tevens. Emery ifines of Asia Minor. E.& M.Jour.June 6 1886 p.410. If.R. 1885.429 from Consular Re- ports of approximately this dats.

VW.B.Smith. Noted in iineralogical Notes. 2. Proc.Colo.

Sei.Soc. II. p.164. near Calumet,Colorado.

ane

wu

Colorado.

“ Ta ee Fae my as TV db - 7 ry nt, a Att Georeia. BP Ae Corundum Deposits of Ga. Bull.2. Gool.curvey A A eT. s a ae 12, r Ga, 1894. Bibliorraphy 11s. Rec.

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Pennsylvania.

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Corundum at Pelham Mass.

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On the Discovery of Emery at Che , has

Avd.8. ib: KXAIX. 87. Chem.Analks.of Minerals

Associated with Emery of Chester Ss. St

soc.Nat.His.Vol.10.p,.321.1864-66 A.J 5S. ii.

Corundum Associates at Chester Mase

ii; 2c, aor ees

On the Emery Mine -of Chester Ham

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W1lth remarks on the nature of & vy and its associate imineral.——A.d.8. Dis 42... 3435.

On Aluminous Magnetic Iron Ore and its uses in iron metallurgy. Mar. 1874, Amer. Chemist

H.Vvilliams.Norites of the Cortlandt Series on the Huason Riv, near Peekskid) N.Y. Asd wa dd RAIL 293. li, Chatard. The dnei ss Dunyte contacts of Corundum Hill N.C. in relation to tne Corundun. U.5.G.8. Bull. NO.46 p.45-65 Bibliography p.45. EH. & TL. Jour. ahaiy <i. Lesa, 46. North Carolina Corundum. Min.Res.1583-84 p. oles Rec. .P,Cooke. Corunds m ee gece OME wie Cuda Aes, Baad etal td oh weirs A. Geuth. Corund ixs Alterations and Asso. Minerals Proc. Am: PRI. Soc. Sepie be. leva dmby Vera ys AUS LGGe, acd Suaddis, Wily. “Gila eA Sey i & W.0.Kerr. Minerals of N.C eee L385.26. WeJencks. Corundum and its Gems. bE. & M. Jou ur Nov.e. '78 Pol. Rec. See also Aoeiabied Lie renee 8 Be ee Poe. oS A.,A.Julien. Duny Beds of N.C. Bos .Sog. Nose, AXEL ISL ASS win Wear. si “Ht... 187c Vol.I. Supplement 64. .W.Raymond. Corundum iline Macon Co.N.C. U.E.7. 83. .W.Shepard Sr. On the Corundum Region of N.C, & Ga. with Gases. Aod.wDy Geis PV.) OS. aeeKe:. .D.omith. Ge0L.0n NO. Viol... Appen D275. Voda. J eee Ls Smithy Notes on the Corundum of N.C. Ga. & Mont. with a description of the Gem Variety of the Corundum from these localities. A.J.8.i1:2.V1. 180, Rec. See also several papers in second series A.J.5. as per index. .C.Trautwine.Corundum with Diaspore, Culsagee Mine. Jour. Franklin, Test, UV . TT. eS Creed byt Peake WILLGOR, Corundum in Noe Proe. Phila Acad, Nat.Se2. LB7a. 22a. cae by vB ne. .o.ceal, corundum in Chester County Penna. A.d.s. Li.

.ollliman.

Ae wey

Corundum at Unionville Penns. ei aety. Mees WeeboToes pty

eee tee —— AP a Rereee red aed we cpameaovT> es ey — oe - ™t

; - San, Via eo Pg OM ans! ye Tm th et aS

Ape

CARBORUNDUM the artificial compound of carbon and silicon, CSi, has ed considerable prominence as an abrasive which is still harder

than corundum, and nearly as hard as the diamond. It has been recently

discovered? by #.G,Acheson, and is produced by passing a powerful electric

t through a mixture of sand, powdered coke and salt.

k.G.Acheson. Carporuncum= its History, Manufacture and Uses. Journal

Wranklin lnstitute, September 1893.

Carborundum- its History, Physical Properties and Chemis-

a evs

: co A 4 J A.Mattyews.

try 5 S&S. of M, Quarterly, XVI. 75. Nov. 1894. High caroon steel i¢ also crushed and sold under the name of steel emery. It is a very serviceable abrasive, being tough as well as hard, GARNET has in recent years besn mined in considerabls quantity in

that portion of New York State lying west of Ticonderoga. It occurs in laminated peckets associated with hornblende and feldspar and in the southern Adirondacks. The variety mined is nearly 8 in hardness. Its cleavage planes and cracks afford very sharp angular grains, much super- ior to quartz for sandpaper and polishing powders for wood and leather. F,C.Hooper. Garnet as an Abrasive. 5.of M.Quarterly Jan.1895.XV1I.124.

QUARTZ. is more Jargely produced for plass and pottery works than as an abrasive. It is afforded by veins either of the pure mineral or of pégmatite or coarse granitic mixtures, It has been quarried at Bedford, N.Y. and Mystic, Conn. Natural sands’ are too common for extended mention and will be again referred to under glass materials.

The SOLID ABRASIVES are buhrstones grinds stones and whetstonss. Buhrstones or Se Tiahanee require a tough, hard, rough rock that will not wear smooth. celiular structure is best adapted because the con- tinual opening of new cavities keeps the surface rough. Granular yet firm sandstones have been used and the familiar term Millstone Grit for the Great Congs.omerate of the Coai Measures suggests at once this employ- ment. The Oneida Conglomerate is used also along Esopus Creek, N.Y. and is a well known stons. Another from Pennsylvania is called Cocalico, while still a thixsd from North Carolina is the "North Carolina Grit". A weathered Silurian chert from Tennessee has been employed and also an Ohio stone from the Carboniferous. Ths cellular chert with fossils from the Tertiary of the Paris Basin is the typical buhrstone. It consists of a deposit of chalcedonic silica Which has replaced fossiliferous lime- stone and whose cavities are due to the original presence of organic re- mains. A cellular Sateie lava from near Cologne on the Rhine is also employed, and even garnetiferous mica schist has been used in Norway. The grooving of millstones is a neat operation in stone cutting and re- quires egereat care, but stones are rapidly giving away before the new rol- ler processes for grinding grain.

ah nl oo.

za

SD se

F.L.Nason. Millstones in Ulster County New York. Report of State Geclogist New York, E893. 7. 393.

J sHvvatiord. Judges Reports and Awards Group I. Centonnial Exposition tt eR bg

INDSTONES are manufactured from rather soft, gritty sandstones. :

8 essary pe me: are the following. The stone should wear away With sufficient rapidity to preserve the roughness or "tooth" and should thus not glaze, and at the same time should not be so soft as to go too rapialy. ihe

principal localities for the production of grindstones ara

i , " it ; : he meee - Tet 5 in the neighborhood of Gleveland, and sisewhers in Ohio, and Grindstone fegeree)

Se ea

ees WY Bree Ee.

peace Aah -

te

mty, Heron Co. Mich. In tas former, certain lavers in the sa

rm

ndstone ; mentioned on yp. Le0, 121. are specially adapted to this purpose ndence , Berea, Amherst and Peninsula all supply suitable material rast "a

Berea Grit of the Lower Carboniferous. Further south at Massil- 29n, Larietta and Constitution, ledges in the Coal Measures proper are uvilized. In Michigan the sandstone is obtained in the Marshall Group of

the peoer eis bomiferous. sSinalleér amounts are taken out in South Dakota ifornia and in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia there are also quar-

rLes. Michigan, C.Rominger, Geol, of Michigan Dir, 72.

C. Weight oh 0 Dane, Geol. of Michteam WV, “Part <2. tush OFm.0:. 1,O0rton. Geol. of Ohio V. 582.583.586.588.592.607.

The Mineral Resources have annual reviews. The reports of E.D.Ingall in the Geological Survey of Canada give statistics of Canada.

WHETSTONES when applied to rough use are made from sharp gritty sandstones, or from such a rock as mica schist that is set with crystals of some hard gritty mineral like quartz, garnet or rutile. Such schists ars obtained in large quantity in the northern counties of New Hampshire

Grafton and Coos) at the towns of Piermont, Lisbon and Littleton. The stone is best known by the name Indian Pond. The stone is an argillitic mica schist containing minute garnets and rutile. (See Geology of N. H. Vol.III. Pt.4. p.222). Other quarries have been opened in Vermont, and to a iess degree in Massachusetts. Up to 1893 the output was controlled by the Pike Manufacturing Company, but at present some independent con- cerns are also working, old contracts having expired. Scythe-stones are the chief serade made. Near Cortlandt, N. ¥. on the shores of Labrador Lake, a fine grained, green argillaccous sandstone is quarried for whet- stones and is known as Labrador stone. At Berea, Ohio , and grindstone City, Michigan, scythe~stones of sandstone are manufactured. In Orange County Indiana, the Hindoostan stone is obtained and is a very fine erained sandstone. Near Pierce City, ilissouri, a fine yellow sandstone, called Adamscebite grit is manufactured to some extent.

Fine whetstones are practically all obtained in Arkansas, and are made from the extremely close-grained siliceous rock known as novaculite. It appears to be a hardened siliceous woze, throughout which are rhombo-= hedral cavities left by the removal of minute calcite crystais. These occasion the grit. variety with coarser cavities is called Onachita (or Washita), and a finer variety is called Arkansas. The individual erains are 0.01 min. and less in diameter, while the cavities reach about 8 times these dimensions. The novaculites form:a series of beds or a creat stratum about 500 feet thick, of geologic position in the Trenton. They extend as an eas} and west belt in western central Arkansas, and are. largely quarried near Hot Springs. The stone is so broken with joints, shaly streaks, quartz veins and cavities that much waste is made in get- tinge good materials. It is all shipped out of the state to be manufact- ved.

The authoritative American work on whetstones of all sorts is L. 5, Griswold's Report on Whetstones and Novaculites, Ann.Rep.ark.Geol.Survey Vol.III. 1892. Both foreign and domestic stones are treated and copious eitations of literature are afforded. Statistical papers appear year DIG) — 8 year in the Mineral Resources. See also J.J,.Sutton, "Washita and Arkan- sas Oilstones and Quarries" E & M. Journal October 12th, 1689.

- a — T —

it

;

er eae Se Fee

“Act Pg ee sia SS me SS

a

cD

ASBHST sbestos, in strict mineralorical definition is an an- hydrous silie cate, a variety of amphibole but the asbestos of commerce is chrysttile, a hydrated silicate of magnesia and small amounts of iron ox- ide, anda rane of serpentine. it always occurs in sérpentine and forms veins which the fibers lie transverse to the walls, f.

Asbestos ‘of interior quality is found in a number of localities in the United States, but these have never become important producers. Pelhan, i IRE Staten Island, N,Y., various places in the southern stater and in Colorado, ‘/yoming and California have at one time and another re- eeéived attention. The American mineral is only acapted to grinding up for paints felts and cements. The chisf source of the fibrous asbestos Suitable for weaving, was formerly Italy, but since 1879 the Canadian Mines near Thetford and Black Lake, Province of Quepec, just north of Vermont have become heavy producers. The mineral occurs in veins in ser- pentine, with the fibers perpendicular to the walls. Four grades are made; Ko.1l has fibers one inch long and upward, No.2 has fibers under one inch but still good for weaving, No.3 has bits cf gansue, etc., mixed with short fibers; and No.4 is the waste material good only for grinding. The American market is Pe supped) wits the Canadian asbestos. The price of asbestos has fallen off ereatly in the last few years and

curtailed operations in Canada materially. Bistorw ice. Gh se ti dours Nowy oS 2aey" pa ec. Z4eitsch d. Vereines deutsch Ingenieur en-AENV ML :695. Lares J.H,Adems Asbestos at Pelham llass. A.J,.5. ii. Khe L. J.F¥.Donald. Notes on Asbestos and some asso. Min erals. Oan,Reec,.Sei.Iv. 100. : R.W,2lis. Asbestos, Its History, Mose of Occurence and Uses. Ottawa

Naturalists Club-Vol.IV. pp.201-225. Mar. 1591. Asbestos in Quebec: -Can. Report.1888-8S? Vol.IV. p.139.

Jones. Asbestos, Its Properties and Secor London. 1890, Li. KLE2N.. The Canadian Asbestos Industry. The Canadian Mining and

Mechanical Review July 1892. p.1le22. Rec, The best industri- al sketch.

FLUORITE OR FLUOR SPAR. Fluor-spar (CaF.) is a common vein-=stone in ore deposits although not often utilized. It was an old time flux in led metallurgy and in this way received its name. Its principal use to- day is as a source of hydrofluoric acid which is a very valuable chemica, reagent and is prepared in this country practically chemically pure. Th One important source of the mineral is a district in Hardin Co., south- eastern Illinois along the Ohio River. Galena veins occur in the neigh- boring part of Kentucky, but in Illinois the principal filling is fluor- ite with very subordinate galena and blende. The veins are in the St. Louis limestone near the top of the Lower Carboniferous. The chief vein workec. is of large size and very persistent. It contains fluorite in thickness from 2'-1l2' with a clay selvage and at times a band of calcite next the wall. Comparatively few disseminations of galena and less blende and chalcopyrite are in the vein filling. The fluor is white or slightly iron stained and is mined, crushed jigged and ground. The mines are sometimes spoken of as near Shawneetown but this is some miles up the Ohio River. The nearest town is Rosiclairs.

G.J.Brush. Note on Illinois Fluorite. A.J.5.,i11.A41V.112. S.F.Hmmons. Fluor-spar Deposits of Southern Illinois. M.E. Heb.1892, XXT. S51. Complete et references are given. (176

, — Pe wa - - — ——— RR a aE ae"

gue — eae

Seeseon ane ere — Tg

P Sy Aa to me a 2 a ek 9 —

A.H.Worthen. Kconomical Geology of Illinois. Vol. I. 1882. p.309. See also Mineral Resources 1889-90 for applications.

GLASS SANDS. The chief raw materials for glass are SiOz and one or more metallic oxides. The former is supplied by very pure sands which have no staining impurities, the latter are soda, potash, lime and oxides of lead and zinc. Some other substances are added to correct existing impurities. Pure glass sands are the only ingredients mentioned here,and they are of importance because the various glasses contain from 50-60 per cent 5i0a. Glass sand should be white, angular and not too fine and should be nearly pure silica, with not over one or one and a half-of other materials. In the best grades marketed these are as low as 0.25 % and are little else than Al>O.;x. Iron is the element specially avoided. The color may not always be a sure test for some of the best KEngiish sand is slightly yellowish though very free from iron. Sandstones and even quartzites are ground up when available but the outcrop of such hard rock usually supplies mellowed and softer portions. The United States are richly endowed with suitable sands which leave little to be desired. The town of Chesire, near North Adams, in Berkshire County Massachusetts, be- tween Pittsfield and North Adams furnishes a very high grade (Si0.~ 99.78; Al-05 0.22) from Siluro-Cambrian (Taconic) quartzite. Juniata County,Pa. has other deposits (SiO, 98,84) in the Oriskany sandstone, that are ex- tensively worked. Fayette County, further west, yields an excellent pro- duct (SiOz 99.72) and Morgan County, W. Va. in the neighborhood of the Cumberland coal field, ships great quantities to Pittsbure. Ohio has some workable beds in the Coal Measures at Massillon, In Illinois the St. Peters sandstone southwest of Chicaso supplies a very pure material that goes by the name of Fox River sand. South of St. Louis along the line of the Iron Mountain R. R. the taxonomic equivalent of the St.Peters sandstone, called the Saccharoidal Sandstone yields a famous glass sand at Crystal City (Si0 99.62). The Geological Survey of Arkansas has re- cently located other deposits in that state of which no developments have been made as yet, but which are of great promise.

The clay for glass pots deserves a word. In former years it came from abroad in large part, but the Americam sources are gradually supply- ing the demand. The Cheltenham clay near St. Louis,(p.126) is much prized and is brought to eastern glass works. The demands on glass pots are severe and only the best clays are eaqual to them. It is worthy of remark that instead of sands foreign glass makers have used felsites or other igneous rocks that lack iron but are high in alkalies with advan- tage. The economy lies in saving soda or potash.

Mineral Resources, Especially 1885. p.544 5.G@.Williams. Applied Geology.

LITHOGRAPHIC LIMESTONE. Much attention has been given to the dis- covery of American sources of this valuable material. A limestone is re- quired of very even and homogeneous texture, with no quartz, pyrite, specks, veinlets or imperfections. The Bavarian quarries at Solenhofen (Upper Jurassic) now produce but little of the best grade and their out- put of this is all absorbed abroad. Clay and Overton Counties Tennessee, have furnisned a little and new enterprises are being pushed in Wyoming and Utah. There have also been some discoveries in Lawrence Co.,south- western Indiana; in Talladega Co.,Ala.; 40 miles east of Prescott, in Yavapai Co., Arizona; in Searcy Co., Arkansas; near Thebes, Illinois; Jones and Van Buren Co's., Iowa; Hardin, Estell, Kenton, Clinton, Kowan

(177)

Le ag 5 a - a . 2 — —— se. a . 7: oe .

ao - ne - ae tet my coe og a are ee pr tap Ris a oes a ew nighcnae re main ee rear

ioe ea

Series yak es ARSENE Lemar oT Fa er

and Wayne Co's., Kentucky; near Saverton, Ralls Co., Missouri; Burnet Co. Texas: and Fincastle, Virginia In Petersborough and Bruce Co's., Onta- rio, there are also openings. These localities are quoted from &.P.Mer~ cill's paper cited below. Although so numerous very Tew have as yet sup-

plied any serious aniount. The Arizona seems good but its location is

imaccessible. The Arkansas stone cost more to quarry than it was worth. Of the other American guarries only those in Tennessee appear to be of notable importance. Despite the interest in the Subject the Eleventh Census reported but about 108 tons of value $1945. as the product of ten years 1880-1889 In Canada tne industry appears to be more serious. Statistics for 1894 report $30,000 worth produced. From 70,000-100,000 dollars worth ere annually imported into the United States. Of late years no local statistics seis ee 6n gathered. I.C.Hopkins., Lithographic limestone

one in Arkansas. Ann.Rep.Ark.Geol.Sur.

1690. iV. 76 and elsewhere as per index,

GF Merriil. in Mineral Industry. i895. 453. Rec. See also Stone. III. VORA Published in Indianapolis.

Mineral Resources i3.886. 690. Also other numbers. :

.W.Parker. Hieventh Census. Mineral Industries. 761.

MICA. This mineral is the basis of one of the minor industries of the country, and one that is of somewhat increasing importance in connec- tion with electrical demands for insulators, Stove doors and similar ap- plications that require a transpsrent substance, which is not effected by high temperatures; lubricants; wall papers, anc a aumber of other adapta- tions take additional amounts. Both muscovite and phlogopite are employ- ed, but chiefly the former. Biotite has little commercial value. Sheets of light color and devoid of imperfections and cross cleavages are the ones desired, and to obtain such of good size, a vast amount of waste is made. In addition co the remarkable cleavage that gives the mineral its value, mica has others that cut across the plates and cause the sheets to break. Muscovite occurs in great, coarsely crystalline veins or dikes of the same Wiieralba that are characteristic of granite, viz., feldspar.

nm

1 +

tb

eS O

c J

and quartz. In addition they frequently have beryl, tourmaline, garnet, and some others which cont are earth. The mica is more or less ular aby vockety in bution. 'tlectrical” mica is now ined in Can amber colored phlogopite. J.I.Donald Lt must be n thickness and that a piece .OQl inch

bend to a cylinder of 3 inches diameter without cracking. ariel soe are in much the same district as those for apatite, vizZ., Renfrew Co's., Ontario, and Ottawa Co., Quebec. Phlogopite is iviably associated with limestone or pyroxenite.

) Gnited States, muscovite is obtained in Grafton Co. Wo ths

A belt ne arly 50 miles long contains the veins, in gneiss, Dut in 1893, only those at Alexandria and Groton were operated. Harlier openings at Acworth, Seren ae Co. and at other places made this section a famous min-

ba!

ct (D OW 3M

0 + a) x’ om Fh ta O oe, ¢ Ss 65 ct cts

yt

CD ery) Mul or er

— +

Q WwrAArA ng cq

41 ee pe 8) 2,

era region espewlally for beryl. The industry is a very old one. In 186 7 prehis Lorde. mines of the aboriginees were reopened in western North

mea lgelel ca and & considerable production was attained for about 20 years. The principal towns are Bakersville and Burnsville, but being’ 40 miles from oe over rough hale Bags roads the conditions are hard ones. A

LA PELs mica has been dug in Alabama, the Black Hills, New Mexico, south- ern Nevada and hahbred ice: aud of recent years very considerable imports have been brought from India in jing only about 4-5 % of the rough

™ od r

‘ ‘

rr

—— ra ———S i e+ Ra os srs 3 a hes eT a Ne ne i — . Sa a eye an at - (arr eee Set ROS ee Ve Ge a — : a npg ” ae - es a =n, Way Sa gle mel Sa eh ee : : zoe mien : awe Se Ss as oe 4 3 a ee : —. Ps - -. a en bate yer. - we See “ - rer Bas x . a ak Ve 3 —s 2 : ee x Sees -— . ; : SmBCMEM MD Medan RIE AD Sea? eee RT 7 neg TE ag: cm aes i mea “f —— . oun ath 4, 7 ve J . “ana - 4 4 ,

o”

i. areaniiens gs SRS Ss

mica, or at most 3-10 % is saved as the final product ihe price in- creases ereatiy for laree sizes ./.Donald. iineral industry 1895. 473.

L.d.Childs. Eleventh Census Report on Mineral Industries Wat co.

C.H.Henderson.ilica and Mica Mines, Popular Science Monthly Sept.1892. H. & Ii. Journal January 7th, 1893.

W.C.Ferr. liivea Mines of N.C. 2. .VITT 45 Hee iid Mar 20.7 6i.211

H.5.C,Nitze cround iiiea Industry in N.C. -E.& M.g.Séep.24.992.5.292.

- Note on tlica & Asbestos in N.Y. H.& lw.J.Nov.24.'88.p.459

E.W.Parker. ilineral Resources 1895.7+t See also other volumes of the iinsral Resources.

W.2.Phillips. Mica Nining in N.G: E.& if. Jeur.April 21 1886.p.286 also in following: 306,522,562, June 2.,9.,16:;. 456. sée abso iineral Resources 1887 and E.& BM. dour.Sepn.26.1885.

N.o.ohaler. Mica ilines of Ney Hneland. LOth Census, Vol.25. n.833.

V eh Smi th. fineral Industry 1692. p.539.

- tne Virginias; 1664, p.127. General short description.

MOULDING SAND. this useful variety is of value in several re- sions and is indispensible for foundries. A sand is required that has enough argillaceous matter mixed with it to make it take the shape of the pattern and hold it without baking or checking under impact and influence of the heated metal. At the sams time the mixture must be very intimate, so that each srain of sand is coated. Coarse sands are used for heavy castings, fine for lighter work. The principal locality ror moulding sands is in the vicinity of Albany, N.Y. Beds 6 inches to 5 ft. thick lie alcnz phe banks of the Hudson, under the surface

SOil and resting on heavy sands and gravel. According to Nason, to wnose y~yaper, these notes are chiefly due, 60,000-3a0, 000 tons are an-

nually shipped. f..Uason:; Reni. ¥. ee Geologist, 1893. p.e74, PRECIOUS STONES. No industry connected with mining precious

stones has proved a very serious eee in North America. In South Bmerica however the now exhausted diamond fields of Brazil were formerly impor- tant and the smeraid mines of Colombia are still quite largely operated. A number of minor Localities are systematically worked in both contin- ents to which brief reference will be made. A distinction is to be made between the precious stones or gems preperly so-called, and mineral Specimens which though obtained in notable quantities in not a few places, and sold for considerable sums are yet not treated. Only those that are serious contributors to national resources are here taken up.

i in ST American Gems and Precious Stones. Am.Nat. 18.65.

Gems & Precious Stones-E.& li.J. Nov.19.1887. p.s65.

T.T.Bruve. Notes on Gems Garnet Hyacinth smeralds or Hiddenites Zircons Sapphires etc.) Bos.Soc.Nat.,Hist. XXIII. p.3.

A.C.Hamlin. The Gems of the United States, A CASAS. LES Eae

G.Pf.Kunz. Gems & Precious Stones of North Americe. N.Y¥.1892. Annual Statistical Paper-Mineral Resources since 1882 but especially 1883-84. 1893. Also in 11th Census Mineral Industries-669. Precious stones gems etc.in Canada. Can. Geol. Surv .1887. Report on ffineral Statistics.

I .Lea Further Notes on Micesos Crystals in some Gems. sel a Bel Be Academy Science 1869 LLY

Th.Taber Practical Remarks on Gems. AL fh Mas, Roo Ses

H.T.Vulte Precious Stones. School of Mi Querterily Biin weds

Yo) are oer eee SSS. sake ee DN he es es ‘earns SS ere? Bea ee — A ie re eet: Awe ee ee SCALARS Scbueratsmnan= hy Sha

es es worm

PERYL, EMBRALD & HIDDENITH. A few clear beryls, or aquamarines are produced in North Gaxeiine of sufficient excellence to warrant cut- ting. A most interesting and as it proved valuable find of a green lithia spodumené later called Hiddenite, was made by lir.W.E.Hidden in 1880 at Stony Point, Alexander Co., N.C., where it was associated with emeralds. The ¢trystals yielded a beautifu 1 clear green gem, Which has been much prized. Onagabtons have fallen off in late years.

ining aor Gems at Stony Pcint Alexander Co., N. °@.

EB, & II, Journal December wae pP.o91. W.i2.Hidden.On euaealan, Hiddenite Ae nN.C,. Trans.N.¥.Acad.Sci. Jan.é& Mar.1882. Vol.I. 18 32. BOO! Rd 2. Lad wow a Po Less

G.F.Kuns. Emeralds from North rena tee A. J. S. Feb. 1884, p.154. DIALIONDS. The occurrence of diamonds as rare and interesting min- erals has been noted in not a few places in the United States. but as yet they are of no commercial importance. Mr. Kunz in the statistical papers cited above, gives full reviews. In Brazil, though no longer flourishing, the industry is an old one. Brazilian Diamonds and Carboms. BE. & HH. Het March 11.1882 p.ié2. Diasnond lining in Beha Of ilinas Geraes, Brazil. E.& M.J.O0ct.G6 '&3 p.216 O.4A.Derby. Geolosy of the Diamond, ted ee Ss III. Oe ae Geol.of the Diaman cirercus Resion of ths Prov. of Parana, Brazil. Amer. Rola, Veneeeen, e Deee we 16th, LEe7o. BOL OPAL.has been discovered in notable quantitiss in andesitic or basaltic dikes near the Snake River, Idaho, in Owyhse Co. The quality is considered excellent. Other finds have beén made near ifloscow in the same state and companies have been organized in each instance. Opals are obtained in quantity in the state of Queretaro ifexbco. The Opal Mines of Queretaro, Mexico. H.& M.J. Sept.6.1886. p.170. J.D.Dana.Precious Opal from near San Juan del Rio, Quaretaro, Mex. Bio abate Ss BRI. he AGG SAPPHIRE. Despite the abunda one e]

S nt corundum of North Carolina ae szeorzia, almost none of fem exc

encs nas been met. Waterworn crystals in the gravels of the Missouri Rapes. ad

have been known for years however near selena, Montana, and of late they have been systemativally washed, for goms. The gems prove of light colors, but of otherwise excellent

qualities.

TOUNUALINE has pesn mined for gems at Paris, Maine.

TURQUOISE is now the basis of our chief gem industry. It is ob- tained near Los Cerillos, and elsewhere in New Mexico. The mineral coat cracks in a decomposed voicanic rock, and yields a product whose value has reached 7200, 000, as the maximun for a year.

W.E.Hidden. Turquoise in New tiexico. Dwg. Da NOV. LTSE9S.. 200% On american gems in rene ral, the papers and large work of ifr. Kunz will

furnish all needed information.

SOAPSTONE AND TALC. Seaver one is a variety of serpentinous rock which is chiefly made up of fibrous or scaly crystals of talc. It has considerable utility as a material for wash-tubs, footwarmers, ¢etc., as well as for slates pencils and for granding to powder. In the quarries the drawbacks ars. tha Jack of homogen neity in the rock, especially as OGasioned by seams of quartz, bunches of pyrites, of hornblende, pyrox- ene, etc., which are harder than the stone itself and interfere with

ion both by savit a) ling

tCNS pi Ss th Lae

Ae fF 74 met ta

ty

and erindinge. Soaps tone is frequently the ADpalachians. The heaviest producer

Ct

SS I Se, we Ss

nett “ens - ee 2 oe Sn generat

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t : a ey ‘=e a a . <y% et gles g oe - ae . —<a"ye ee SO ee ee ee 355 iyitos a See + aie ; ; ie ieee as

enns,ivania from its southeastern portion, especially in the ser- rentine belt. New Hampshire follows second with a wide distribution especially in Hilllsboroush Co. New Jersey and Virginia are next and Vermont, larvland and North Carolina also have small industries. Soap- stones are in almost all cases, altered forms of amphibolés or pyroxenes, and mrobably in many instances were originally some form of basic lif- neous which has passed through an amphibolite stage. $e neral nesources Reamiet Volumes, especially 16 82- 1693. Y)

ae TD

saP Morrill. Stones for Building and Decoration

p.45, Rec.

TALC, of great purity and in fairly sharp contrast to the usual serpentine, is the basis of an important industry in St. Lawrence Co., i, 2. in the neishborhood of Gouverneur, which is the central point.

It Forms teds of considerable size in crystalline Limestone or marblés oelonging tO the Oswesatchie series of the Archacan, as named by ©. H. omyth, dr. The belt of marble is aboup sisnt miles lon by a mile wide and extenas throuch the towns of Edwards and Fowler. The tale is an alteration product of tremolite, and oftén contains considerable of this mineral the ground ah is cnfefly used for welshting paper pulp in the manufacture of paper, for which purposs its fit srous yharact- ter eminently Tits it. Ut Sree the paper also cervain excellences 80 that it is not altozether an adulterant. Smaller amounts are used in hard Torms of plaster for walls, and for various minor purposes. A,Sahlin. the tale industry of the rouvel meur Districry N. Y.

li. Be Oct... 2692: *lineral Industry, 1892. 435. C.H.Smyth,Jr.Annual Report New York State Geolosist, 1695. 511. Rec. C.A. /Aldo wineralk Industry 893. 605.

Annual Statistical Papers in thse itfineral Resources. pee also EH. Gil. Journal tfay 25. 1889. 475. Sy YU PH UR;

SULPHUR as such is almost invariably obtained from deposits of the native mineral. The only other source is in the accumulated alkali waste of the soda manufactories, which is treated by the Chance process in bneland and on the continent.

Native sulphur resembles the artificial product in all respects. It is yellow, with an occasional brownish cast from contained bituminous matter The presence of selenium also darkens the color. The hardness is 1.5 to 2.5; sp.sr. 2.07; the crystals are rather acute octahedra of the orthorhombric system, and arse often extremely rich in faces. The common mineral is, however, massive, and.the crystals only appear in cavities The native mineral kindles readily in a flame, yielding the characteristic suffocating odors

The geology of sulphur may be summed up under two rather simple

THE ee, TYPE--This is deposited directly from sulphurous gases, especially sulphuretted hydrogen (H.S) and sulphur dioxide (S02) Thess two see on ae other, most duickly in the presence of moisture, to produce water (H. and sulphur (3). As is well known, H:5 is a pow- erful reducing az ae These gases enamate in regions of expiring or active volcanoes and form solfataras. The sulphur collects in cracks in

he lava and in the tuffs, or in the kaolin and clay yielded by the cor- roding action of the acid fumes on the lavas. Gypsum, native alums,etc.,

(181)

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associates. Some vents, as Vesuvius, yield in much

Trequent the same way deposits of ferric chloride, whose yellow color at first suezests sulphur and deceives the hasty observer. Occasionally some arsenic is found with this volcanic sulphur, in the associated minerals orpiment Mase ey realgar (AsS). Such was the case on the island of Vuleano,. one of the Lipari sroup, off the coast of Italy, where for a time these mine oeaan ies sathered. The same association also occurs in the Yellow-

stone Park. Small traces Of selenium and tellurium have been detected in an orarnge-yellow Japanese varicsty.

20 Tar as can be learned, Japan and southern Utah are the only de- posits of this character that are now of much actual importance.

Ii. THE GYPSUiIl TYPE--The second typs results from the alteration of

sypsum through the reducing action of bituminous matter, and hence always Occurs in a series of sedimentary rocks, with .marls, shales, and lime- stones prominently developed. The seneral reactions involved are appar- ent from the following: Gypsum is CaSO¢ 2Hz,0. The reducing action of bituminous matter destroys the sulphate and yields calcium sulphides, car- bonic acid, waver, and the like. The further changes may take place elsewhere in case the calcium sulphide wanders away in solution. The oxygen Of the air, carbonic acid, and water react on this (according to Bischoff, at as low a temperature as 35°C.) so as to produce calcium car- bonate, sulphuretted hydrogen, and a polvsulphide of calcium. The poly- sulphids in its turn yields carbonate of calcium, native sulphur, and Sulphuretted hydrocsen. The original sypsum has, as a general thing, been deposited in the evaporation of isolated bodies of salt water, and it often nas great beds of rock salt, as in Sicily, associated. It isa remarkable fact that such deposits of sulphur-bearing strata aré very widespread in Europe and of uniform Tertiary (mostly Miocene) age. They are known in France, Spain, Sicily, northeastern Italy, Poland and Greece. In the Caucasus they are Jurassic. The beds in southwestern Lovisiana are in the Quaternary belt. The reports from western Texas are as yet too measer to warrant an inference as to peological age.

As of mineralogical interest it should be also noted that sulphur results from the alteration of pyrites, marcasite, and related sulphides, although it is doubtless true that here, as in the last case, the pres- sence of bituminous or organic matter is necessary. Masses of pyrite in limestone, as in the Calsiferous strata on Lake Champlain, may yield crusts Of sulphur an inch or so thick, and the decay of the same in coal seams, frequently affords, flaky coats. Gypsum is a common companion in both cases. In the oxidized zone or iron hat of veins of sulphurets, crystals of sulphur are found, often very prolific in faces.

MEX CO. For many years (it is said even from the time of the in- vasion of Cortez) sulphur has bean known to exist in the crater of Popo- catepetl. This voleano, whose crater is still supplied with the suilphur- depositing solfataras, is one of the three or four highest peaks on the North American continent, reaching 17780 feet above tide and 10500 feet above the City of -exico. The sulphur is obtained on the floor of the crater, some hundreds of feet below the summit, and is there deposited as a fine powder by burning jets of H,S. It is seraped up by the men of a tribe of Indians who, accustomed from childhood to climbing the moun- tain, are able to stand the faticue. When placed in bags the Indian

t¢ to the upper snow line, and then arranging himself and the bags t, he slides swiftly te the anes edce of the snow, and thence (152.

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carries it to the retorts, where it is purified and sent to the Cl tar .OF Mexico. Obviously this source is not likely to yield large amounts. MaRahden; "Popocatepeti" , New York Evening Post, Nov.o5th, 1892.

UNITED STATES. Although the United States forms the principal customer for the Sicilian product, its home sources are not as yet much developed. None the less the reports show that enormous bodies exist in Louisiana and in Texas, as yet ahdeves toned. and very rich deposits are opened in southern Utah, but too remote for the Hastern market. The Pac- ific Coast also imports from Japan.

ALASTA. For many years past it has been known that the volcanic islands off the coast of Alaska contains sulphur. Mr. Dall, in 1870, mentioned this mineral as being, next to coal and copper the chief re-

source Of the country. The lareest deposit, so far as kn iown, is on Ka- diak Island, but others are recorded on Akutan, on an island southeast of Aklum, etc, They are all of the solfatara type, and are yet to be worked,

WV .H.Dall Alaska and Its Resources, p.478, Boston. 1870.

CALIFORNIA. twenty years aro sulphur was obtained at Sulphur Bank, on Clear Lake, some forty miles north of San Francisco. It occured in the white siliceous residue of a basalt flow, that had been decomposed

by the uprising solfatara which deposited the sulphur. As development

went Gdeerer, however, the sulphur mine changed into a cinnaber mins, and as such had a brief cureer. sulphur deposits were also for a tine worked in vclusa County and a small refinery was erectec Sulphur also occurs in the San mons Vakley,; Kern Co., eps Sa ee soaeere. etc. W.ALsGood7e nhep.Vlal. State Lhineralo: Shes 390 "Take O6.,238:; Jolusals9 J.Leconte. "On Sulphur Bank" aie ie, Seci., July,1882,25. J.A,Phillips. "On Sulphur Bank” Philosoph SHOE #3 1871, 401.

IDARO, Spulphtir’' has been reported near Swan Lake, and also four

miles from Soda Springs, Oneida Co.

LOUISIANA. Probably the richest and geographically the most ac- Cece LOLs of the American localities is in southwestern Louisiana, 250 miles west of New Orleans and 12 miles from Lake Charles. The first hole which paveuted this sulphur was sunk in search of petroleum, of which the presence of oil and tarry matter on the surface were resarded, quite justly, as an indication. While more or less of these bituminous sub- stances were revealed by the drill, the Breat bed of sulphur is the main Object of interest. A number of noles have since been nut down with the results recorded velow, and they leave no doubt that there is 4a very large body which awaits exploitation. The first explorations were made by the Louisiana Petroleum and Coal Oil Co. It was succeeded by the Caleasieu Sulphur and ilining Co. The Louisiana Sulphur itining Co., foi-~ lowed, and notr the owners are the American Sulphur Co. The following 2h the record of the first peice Clay, Quicksand and sravel-3555 ft., Soft Rock-110, Sulphur bed(70-80 7% 4, sulphur) -108 ft., Gypsum and Sulphur-63s0, Total 1231 feet.

The difficulties in development lie in the quick sands and gravel, which are wet and soft, and in the soft rock which yields sulphurous wa- ters under a head at the surface of about 15 ft. The sulphur beds them-

selves wtce however, tight. A shaft on the Kind-Chaudron system was pro=-

posed some years aso, but has not DS been sunk. S5eyond all question

this is an : exceptionally rich deposit, and it ousht to have a future. As

the Sections skow, it belonss +6 the fypsum type, and has plainly been

formed by the alteration of the mypsum under the influence of the neigh- (183)

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rings Pe ag matter. The seological BOE kAnD is the Qu panes Tales A.Granet: Engineer's Report to the Louisiana Sulphur Company. Preussner: Zeitschrift der deutsch. Geol. Gesettank. 5 Loos x Aj, MNS NEVADA. oulphur has been reported from Humboldt House, and is des-

ibed by Kussell as filling the craters of one or two extinct hot spring ong With evpsum,etc. Its quantity is small. The mineral is also men- oned from the Sweetwater liountains, between Nevada and California, in tituds

latitude 36° 50°. The only important locality in Nevada is in the Rabbit Hole mines, on the eastern border of the Black Rock Desert. The sulphur charres a porous, rhyolitic turf, and lines cavities in it to the depth

at times of 5 or 6 feet. The impresnations lie alone a rreat fault line, and are clearly of the solfatara type. The ore was treated with super- heated steam and considerable quantities of sulphur were obtained in the past. Of late years the mines have not been vrorked. Very interesting sulphur crystals have been measured from them by E. S. Dana. £.3.Dana: "On the crystals from Rabbit Hole Iines", Amer:Jour.%3ci., (3), XXXTTII.586; Zeit.f.Kryst.,ZI1.,460. I.C,Russell,: "Sulphur Bepest te of Utah and Nevada" Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., L&62.1.168; reprinted in the Enz. & Minin=.Journal Jan .20th,1883 eS, Mr. Russell's valuable monograph on Lake Lahoutan (U.S.Geol.Surv.,liono.XI.) sives an excellent account of the geology of the region. TEXAS , Mention of deposits of sulphur has been made by the Texas Geological Survey (Second Annual Report, Ixxvi.) from Edwards %0., in the Llano Estacado, but as yet little of a definate character has been writ- ten, Northwestern Texas is known,however,to contain very extended depos- its, although the definite description of the area has not yet been made public. The heperts or the texas Survey make but passing mention of Sees UTAH, the larsest producer of any American locality is in Beaver County, southwestern Utah, near ths tiillard County line. The mines are 26 miles east of Black Rock, a station on the Utah Central Railroad, 204 miles south of Salt Lake City. From Slack Rock to the mines a wagon road traverses desert and Lava sheets. An old outpost of the Mormons called re Abe Creek Fort (also Ranch Fort) stands near the openings, and gives them their name-Cove Creek Ilines. The fort is on the eastern Limit of a SLein. which is bounded on the west by iiineral Range, twelve miles away, and on the east by Sulphur Range, a southern prolongation or wne Tushar Mountai Which themselves belong to the larcer Vasatch. the region is

my %

one of expiring volcanic activity, and the deposits, though pres senting some variations, all belong to the solfatara type. The name “cove” or- iginated in the crescentic depression of the Sulphur Range, with the con- vexity eastward, within which the mines are Situated. Between tne horns of thse cresent, and several miles northwest of one fort, is an extinct basaltic volcano 1000 feet high, with a cinder ne, on LtS top. .LALs is called the Cove Cresk crater Py Russell, “79 H ount Dickert by Vom Rath Subaerial gravels form the surface from the cone to the sastern hills, but at their base volcanic tuffs are developed. Most of the mines are alongs the junction of the sravels and tufas. It is stated by Russell (from whom this description is chiefly taken) that there are threes PANES UESE The first is the one now worked under the name of Cove Creek mine It is an extinct solfatara at least 1800 by LOOO feet, and with ae nies rock as much 28.60 feet. thick... The sul- (184)

a r ? ——, Md

: aes ro : ’ ieautieteanne-teanee : “ . ae Tey . . . 7 - we a Ls ae eens ac? aes Ses aN ae sunaroe oes ol Not ye Spee sae pore ans t — : 5 , naatetad SST . Wu rE AS Ser 7 —#,4 2 rye 4 et J10 LAR See ore “7 Steer 2 ” 7 ee ‘ 7 SVS yen ey” pe q : ave - ; : rs os Ce oy ee ee er OS er? ra . LA an Na nD Sf eR SEF LI Se SAIS San a — ew

phur ricrly impregnates sand, doubtless decomposed volcanic reck, lines cavities, and is associated with gypsum. After being mined out it is to some desrees reproduced by the fumes which constantly rise. The workings are noticeably hot. The second variety of deposit is an impresnation of turl and-of the alluvial deltas resting on it. The third variety is in Pissures in trachyte (andesite of vom Path) and in dark, car>oniferovs Limeston 1@, along a line of faulting. tfIfuch gsypsum has resulted from the

action of the fumes on the limestone Shales also appear in the section. Various claims are located on these last two forrys,of deposits, but the ally productive one is the first named, in connection with which there

rie

is a refinery worked on the steam principle, with \condé@énsers, grinders, Stc. Un to 2000 tons yearly are produced. Vom Rath estimates the ore at 75 to extend over 500,000 square meters up to 3 meters thick.

Utah also contains another mine, the Barnes, near Frisco. Descrip- tions have not yet been published. It was productive in 16559, but in 1892 the entire Utah product came from the Cove Cree!: Mines.

A.®.Du Faur: "The oer ean Deposits of Southern Utah" Trans. Amer Inst.

lin. Bag. VL Ss L6ss. H.C Myers: "The Sulphur Industry of the ‘fest, Amer. Jour Pharmacy 1887 p.16.

G.von Rath: wWeues Jahrb. 1864 1. .C.Russell: "Sulphur Deposits of Utah and Nevada Trans. N.Y.Acad. Sci. LSeey Lh... ESS The iineral Resources, published by the Geological Survey, contains fre- quent mention of the mines. WYOLIING. eos sulphur has been reported from several places in

this State, all quite remote. Thirty miles south of Evanston, on Salt Creek, is one, while another 1s in the western central part of Uinta Co.

The Wind River lLiountains are likevrise said to contain sulphur. Mr. W.H. Weed of the United States Geolocical pied has reported sulphur from a number of the smaller vents and fumaroles of the Yellowstone Park. Some

interestins crystals were yielded, but Ee deposits do not appear to be

of practical importance Orpiment and realsar were found in Similar re- Saueee i.C.unight: "Resources of Wyoming, in Bull. 14 of the State Experiment

Staten Lstsi.197 .

V.Pirsson "Occurrence of sulphur, orpiment and realgar in the Yellowstone National Park” Amer.Jour.Sci. Yov.*9l p.401.

VHS T NDIES.-GUADELOUPE-Sulphur deposits have been mentioned from this island, and one or two tons have bean exported to the United States. The stlphur occurs in an old crater along a Great fissure,from which emerge fumes and hot waters, that yield alum and sypsum as well. The crater is five or six miles from Basse Terrs, and about 4500 feet above tide. the amount does eta POeee to be either Laree or accessible. Sainte Claire Deville: "Sur-.le Gisement de Soufre, etc.; de la Guadel-

nets " Bull. de la Soc. Geol. de France, 1847(2) IV. 426:

WV iiwveed and L.

SABA, This island, a Dutch possession northwest of St. Christopher contains an extinct crater, with sulphur impresnations of the solfatara type. Attempts have been made to mine the sulphur, but the low grade of

Sypsums in which it occurs has discouraged the investment of capital.

.o.nieeins: Extract from a report on the propertiss, Amer .Jour.Sci. (2) ARLE, 28a S60,

NolensrafT: Geolory & Crystallosra

aphy, Zoitsch. f. Hryst.X1IV.46.1887-S6. ( (182

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In general it may be said of sulphur deposits that they are apt to be irregular, and that, thoush very rich in places, quite extended test- pits, Or drill=holes are desirable berore drawing too eenftident conciu— sions. In this country the principal employment of sulphur is in the Sulphuric-acid industry, and especially in connection with the manufact- ure of fertilizers and in refining petroleum. We are also using for the manufacture of vitriol an increasing amount of pyrites, as elsewhere set forth in this volume. Sulphur is also used aS an important ingredient of insecticides for vines and vegetables as a medicinal agent, and for vari- ous Other purposes. In the aggregate, as will be seen from the statistic.x, we use an enormous quantity, and the market is a tempting one for local producers. For an account of sulphur deposits of the world together With bibliography and sketch of methods of treatment see J.F.Kemp: Mineral Industry cape tt

ne ee ee -— +. . - aan’

— : ; ee 3 ess aay

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Se eer fee Sot mses Px.~ PS a. an - ’ i ae - ies ree x ae a 25Es - Sage ae 5 — ra ee + z . 4 — aw ai —s SSS. seg ay r=. Fz - —e wa

t + wv! ry Pee e : ot? - i ie pave yore + Sor S x5 etal tl as “ . ’ e bal . ex TN A DEA a a an oma

ak o ee

cine eeae A ae Ba Sa Sh SORE RSE SUIS Ma lh IAAL NINE NSS EE IE

A. Abrasivéas Abrasive Powders Acadian Field Alaska Sulphur Albutite New Brunswick Alum

(soft)

Apatite Apatite Literature of Apatite of New York

Appalachian Field Coal Appalachian Area Coal Asbestos Asphalt Asphalt of Trinadad Asphaltic Coals Asphalt West Virginia Asphalt Utah Asphalt California Assiniboia Coal

BE’. Barite Beryl Bituminovs Shales Borax Brick Clays Bromine

Buhrstons

California Sulphur Carborundum Cements Cements of Illinois Cements of

Cements Natural Rock Cemerts of N Cements of Pennsylvania Cements of Wisconsin Ceylon Plumbago

Chester ,tass. Emery Chester,Pa. Corundum Clays and Slates

Coal Coal Coal. Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal

Acadian Field Analyses of

or Arkansas

of Bozeman Field or British Columbia of Caliiornia Cannsi Carboniferous Cinnabar Field Classification or of Colorado Composition of Concluding Remarks Fisld Rules

Od

Index,

C. (contd)

Coal of Georgia 61 Coal of the Great Basin 34 CEet oF. Litas 56 Coal of Indiana 56 Coal of Indian Territory Ei), Coal of Ilowa 54 Coal of Kansas 52 Coal of Kentucky YVestern aT ‘Coal of Kentucky Eastern 69 Coal Literature of 14-28 Coal of Maryland gl Coal of Massachusetts 78 Coal of Mexico 47 Coal of Michigan 58 Coal of Missouri 5S Coal of Montana O6 Coal of New Brunswick 79 Coal of New Liexico 44 Coal of North Carolina 48 Coal of North Dakota 58 Coal of Nova Scotia 79 Coal of Ohio 69 Coal of Oregon Pe Coal of Pennsylvania fas Coal Producing Countries 64 Coal of Rhode Island 78 Coal Sampling 27 Coal Seams Geologic & topo- eraphic rélations of 18 Coal of South Dakota ot Coal of Tennessee 61 Coal of Texas Carboniferous 51 Coal of Texas Lignite 46 Coal Triassic 48 Coal of Utan 04-40 Coal Varieties Ze Coal of Virginia 48-60 Coal of Washington OL Coal Weathering of 26 Coal of West Virginia 67-68 Coal of Wyoming 38 Corundum Ea Corundum Literature of 172-L735 Cryolite 155 PIE Diamonds 180 E.

Emerald 180 Emery a Be aa FF.

Fertilizers 156 Fire Clay 126 Fluorite 176 Fossil Gums and Resins 107

eS orp ge see er a ag

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ees Tr Ee bes oS a, rag, Le

IWDEZ. {(eontinved)

o. shi, (con ta) zarnet as an abrasive 174 Lithorraphic Limestone L77-175 Gems L772 Louisiana Sulphur 183 Glass Sands BY ih Dae wouverneur N,. ¥. Tale 181 ifal tha 102 Granite Arkansas i A Da Marble Arkansas Errata for 132 aranite Connecticut Les Marble California 133 Granite Delaware L116 Marble Colorado 132 Granite Georcia 116 Marble Georgia 15] Granite laine L144 ifarble liaryland 1351 Granite Massachusett 115 Marble Massachusetts 130 uranits Minnesota L177 Marble ifexico 155 Granite Missouri 117 Marble New York 130 Granite New Brunswick 114 Marble Pennsylvania 131 Granite New Hampshire 114 Marple Tennessee 151 eran lite New Jersey 116 llarble Vermont 129 ranite New York L116 Marble Virginia No fl avatit te North Carolina DAY Mexican Onyx 153 Granite Nova Scotia 114 Mexico Grahamite 106 Granite Pennsylvania 116 “Mexico Sulphur 182 Granite Rhode Island PUB Mica L78 Granite Vermont a Na i Ifica Literature of 179 Granite Virginia 116 uineral Paints 168 Granite Wisconsin Le ly Mineral Springs 143 Graphite LO7 0ULdineg Sand Ee Graphite for Paint 169 ifuscovite hes szreensands 158 MN. Grindstones 174-175 Watural Gas ore) Guadeloupe-Sulphur Leb Natural Gas General Literature 96 Juano 166 Natural Gas Geology of 53 Gypsun 158 Natural Indiana 101 Gypsum ype Sulphur Deposits1&62 Natural Gas Nev York 99 Rt ee a Natural Gas Ohio 100 Hiddenite 180 Natural Gas Ontario 101 Ignsovs Rock Lis Natural Gas Pennsylvania 100 Inorganic Hypotheses-Oil 89 Natural Gas Various Districts 101 Kentucky Tar Springs 103 New iflexico Coal — ive Nevada Sulphur 184 Lignites or Srown Coals AH 0. Lignites Literature on 18 Ochre 168 Limes Analyses of 154 Ochsenius on Oil Brrata on 90 Timestones Arizona 155 Ochsenius on Sulphur " for 182 himesitoneas Arkansas Errata 132 Ohio Introductory remarks 56 Limes and Cements 134 Opal 180 Limesstones Florida 131. Organic Theories-Oil 89 Limnestones Illinois 1352 Ozocerite LO6 Limestones Indiana 131 Pr, Limestones lowa 152 Peat LO Limestonas Kansas a ees Peat Ashes 16 Limestones Minnesota 152 Peat bogs 15 Limestones liissouri LS2 Peat Chemical Composition of 12 himestones Nebraska 132 Peat Literature on L6 Time naz Ghic 131 Peskskill N. Y¥. Emery Lil Limestones Tennesses LS Pennsylvania Anthracite 74 ‘ones Utah 103 Petroleum 88

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TN DR xX (continued) P, eerie; Bee a ate 5. (con'd).

Petroleum Fields 93 Salt Pennsylvania 148 Petroleum California O77 salt Production 1893 146 Petroleum Colorado 97 Salt Texas 149 Petroleum Ennis Killen Field 96 Salt Utah 149 Petroleum General Literature 91 Salt Virginia 148 Petroleum Geology of 88 Salt West Virginia 148 Petroleum Illinois 98 sandstones California 121 Petroleum Indiana 95-96 Sandstones Colorado L2L. Petroleum Kansas 98 Sandstones New Brunswick 121 Petroleum Errata 98 yandstones Indiana ZL Petroleum Kentucky 98 Sandstones Michigan La Petroleum Lima Field 95 Sandstones Minnesota 121 Petroleum New York 93 Sandstones New York 120 Petroleum Ohio East 94 Sandstones Ohio 20 Petroleum Ohio North West 25 sandstones Pennsylvania 120 Petroleum Ontario 96 Sandstones South Dakota 121 Petroleum percentage 66 sandstones Wisconsin 121 Petroleum Pennsylvania 95 Sapphire 180 Petroleum Peru 98 Sedimentary Rocks 118 Petroleum Series 85 Serpentine 133 Petroleum Tennessee 98 Shales Literature on 82 Petroleum Texas 98 Slate 127-169 Petroleum West Virginia 95 Slate Georgia 129 Petroleum Wyoming 96 Slate Michigan 129 Phiogopite . Beige: Slate New England & New York 128 Phosphates 159 Slate Pennsylvania 128 Phosphates Alabama 165 Slate Virginia 129 Phosphates Amorphous 162 Soapstone 180 Phosphates Florida 164 sodium Carbonate 151 Phosphates Tennessee 165 Sodium Carbonate in California 152 Phosphatic Slags 167 Sodium Carbonate in Oregon 152 Plagicclase Rocks 118 Sodium Carbonate in Venezuela 152 Plant Tissue Ghemical Com- Sodium Nitrate 153 position of 4, Sodium Sulphate 15S Portland Cemént 137 Soils 156 Precious Stones Les Solfatara Type Sulphur Déeposits18l1 Pumice ; Lersk Stratigraphy Coals & Lignites 83

Q, Structural Materials 108 Guar tz : cay Structural Materials Literaturelll OvartZ as abrasive 174 Sulphur 181

Red Hematite 168 Tale 180

a. Texas Sulphur 184 Saba Sulphur 185 Tourmaline as Gems 180 St.Lawrence Co. N. Y. Tale 181 Tripoli A ieggela Salt 144 Turquoise 180 palt Brines 146 U. Salt California 149 Utan Sulphur 184 Salt Illinois 148 Mt palt Kansas 148 Vesetable Tissue Accumulation ud salt Literature on 145 Vitrified Brick 125 palt Louisiana £8 V. Salt Michigan 147 Vater and -.ulines L40 salt New York 146 Water and Salines Literature 142 Salt Ohio 1458 Whetstones 175 Salt Ontario 147 Wyoming Sulphur 186

(189)

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Abbreviations.

A.A.A.S.--Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancsment

of Science.

A.G@. or Amer ,.Geol.--American Geologist, Minneapolis, Lfinr.

A.d.5. or Amer.Jour.Sci.--American Towne of Scisnce-also known as Silliman's Journal. Fifty half-yearly vol- umes make a series- Tne Journal is now (1895) in the last year of the third series In the fer Ge the series is first giv- en in small type, then thse volume in capitals then the page in “numerals.

Am.Phil.Soc.--American Prhilosopnical Society, Philadelphia.

Ann. des tlines.--Annales des ifines, Paris, Francs.

Ann.Rep.--Annusl Report.

Sost.f0c.N.H Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History.

. und H.z2.--Berg-und Huettenmaennische Zeitung, Liepzig, Germany.

.9.--Canadian Geological Survey.

ii.d .--Eneineerins and Mining Journal.

A.--Bulletin Geological Socie ty of Ameri

.--Journal of Geolozsy.

.u.--1ransactions American Institute of Mining Engineers.

I.R.--iiineral Resources of the United States, Annual of the United

States Geological Survey. iin.Ind.--The iiineral Industry, Annual of the Engineering and Mining eOurnal. The Hleventh Census also issued a volume on the ifineral Industries. Neues Jahro.--Neues Jahrbuch fur iTineralogie. Geologis und Paleontol- omieé, often called Leonnard's Jahrbuch,Stutteart,Germany. poe Quay COE LY. Journal of tne Geological Society of London.

.G S.--United States Geological Survey. thse Survey issues Annual Reports of the Director; ilonographs; Bulletins, and the Ifineral Resources.

Zeit.d.d.@¢.Ges.--Zaitschrift der deutschen seologischen Gesellschaft,

Sserlin, German £6it.f.prak.Gecl.--Zéits chrift fur praktische Geologie .Berlin,Germany. Zeit.iuiryst.or Ztal.--Zeitschrift fur Krystallographis. Léipsiz,Germany.

C; ga tien ti

ba is

---rhe Other acobreviations are self explanatory---

SRAATA and ADDITIONS.

Ths errata are noted as follows--first number means page; second number, inches pore decimals of an inch of mistake below top of top line. 0 attempt is made to note ordinary and self evident typo- sraphical aKaGre , Of Which there are numbers.

cr J

oO my OS a a an 7 me - - - : i ay, €,.o, APter have, insert. lone 5, &.5, past, not pass. rz i we, Ate oc a. rs Fr ear ee w 5s 5 i orn a me a ras its i, a i ne! Of1 rl ned nHOoOG c Ori. 1 1 ay Gad, et # a 3 a 2 — scr + o- de + ae A ih 3 Pe 1s 0 S u ? 1 J he xu iy - xo Wa rf iat 3 L es 1” te nha 1 J oe L q ow § ex 108 ao —! i I:

ioe aoa rn FE pe aah: he. a : “: ee A a” _--s - a2 ee 2s 4 me oe raw oe Arve wget. HIF ——— OT a mse ons - - Seer teaaies ont eae al oo cu in $s Fa Te anes os ig a

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5, 6.7, Grand-Khury. Vip 4.25 GOeoloriea. 9, 6., Ueber. oy Geo. OF RAN, TO. 2d, Tener. 2, Soo, KEMera. 12, last line, last three numbers

: S should read 4.839; 54.14; 0.60. 15,5 last word of page, sramn. be. 2 tr, Net. Toy LY, Bee edvee “a. LS, Hastern States snovuld precede Literature. ES, .. Bb, Led net Dead. G 42,75 read divide tt Inte. Lo, 3,9, read, may be im the same situation. 19, 6.8, occasion Ady PaOy BOLSTER. zo, OU. 7s Geosynelines poy Ovg =RUEOnKOnLS . 22, 6-2, Glaugkohle. 20> Nhs Ls JDnis, NOR and. 2ty B@.7%, Gealide eLose:. iy Cio cee: oo Woy BEAMS, HOt rat. oes dots S00 eee, (net Ball.) V. 117, 1894 etc. belongs on the line above and is the reference or Dawson's paper roy Bue, GELhimatelLy, oul s 4, Kittitas Sig Ge After Field, insert Coke O2, o.2£, read Bailey Willis. Dory ees ¥ Os pM 41, (.25 DODrLS Bop Oley ORME OTD 27, Vu Hanross:. ela Bits, tees betel. 51, 0.35, Before Texas, insert THE “ESTREAN CANT RAL ARE 5S, 8.0, after Kansas insert "the Stratigraphy or the Kansas Coal Meas- ures, Kan. Univ. Quarterly, LI1,171;,21896. A Tull report ne abour to bs issued by the Kan.Geol.Surv. (June 1895) 55, 6.9, C.A. White. she , Field should be Area ov, DB.,50eLlide Which are noted below Ss, f.0, Hield should be Area Bey Meets Reavabehi 62, 5., Sequat- chi G25, Opes COLGOn 65, Usb. atid 65, 276, volatile BOG. eure, Killebrew. 68, 0.2, after Coks, insert Flat Top 74, 6.7, Mammoth not Monmouth, 78a, the duplication was not intentional Fics. ger 5 Area not Field. Gly 4.7, Vannel ton ol Pee F aera S25 erty Sea not 1st 82, 4.6, carbonaceous not car poniferous S4, l., Area not Fields 64, 1.6, Vespertine. Fy a tite, CELEE Dine ic, SPMoig: MN, G65 4.1; Cy Hyspe> NOt C Haste Oy Wis eee O45. He FF 6S, 5.6, first — word, Or not OF. 88 to 92, Reference Should be made To the views of Carl Ochssnius on the origin of petroiscum, and sulphur gas oy the re- actions taking place in the mother Jiqueurs of isolated and avapor sting estuaries of brines, between the salines end any orsanic matter, es- pecially of animal origin that might de pissent, See p.144 & 145, and reference there given. Also Zeit.f.prak.Geol,May,1895.197.and Geol. of MECHLEaN Vi, PAP dibs, Daze G1, 6.4, Hanns Hoefer. 91, 7,5, Reichsenstalt. EE ae yhs Keen Maberry. ol, 6.5, Mendelsjerr. OB, ats QUDEUT. 935, 7., Lawrence. a, a fe, we OB ign 38 ys ee Ot, 2.65 Buswoe Vos 97, 4.2,Hldredge. 98, 0.5, Marcou. - 99, insert at bottom of parce; Gas has recently been discovered at Fulton, N.Y. 99, 4.8, eae not was. 99, 6., after 1894 insert, E.Haworth-Oil and Gas in Kansas, A.A.A.S.ALIII.229.18094., LOLs “at. Toot 2nsert, Kansas. R,.Hay,Trans. Ka Acad .6ci.X. 57,1885, Hist. KR ,Havorth,O0il and Gas in Kansas ,A.A.A.5.X1 TIT. 229.1894. LOB, Ls, has not Lan 104, 4,8, Manross. 104, 6.5, Bermudez. 105, 4.5,Huasteca 105, 5.8, delide the second various. LOSa "6.l, arid) 6.4, cdedbige: ex= pressed and". 106, 5.5, Huasteca. 108, 0.8, Adirondacks. LOSS Tit Kenntniss. 108. 7.9, seiner Begleiter. 108, 8.4, CHAPTER VI.5 not. ¥

7, 6., Ve vx. 110; 2.83, for agent reaa cause. t10, 95 (One

4 1 of Mines Quarterly read Trans.Inst.Civil Engineers.1596

d of Kings Co. north of St.John, read Charlotte Co.

Halifax Co. add Nova Scotia. 114, 6.8, day, not way.

leboro. 11S, 6.6, Motes: Lis; 6.7%, GP. Merrit.

ck. 127, 1.75 Chamberlin. 117, 4., delide last sen-

sO%5 Charlotte, not Kings. 113, 8.5, delide Laver.

nee, not presents. 125, 2.7, after recommended inser

complete will appear in Mineral Resources for 1894. (iii)

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ERRATA and ADDITIONS (continaed) L275 Beas LOr second "“irem"rdad “or”; Lov, 6&3 by for Dormed meat Mine made up". LSU, 6,9, Merri.

132, 8.1, By an oversight the notes on Arkansas Marble were omit- ted. The state has sreat resources as yet only Slightly opened up. They promise to be of importance in the future. The report cited below, by fir. T.C.Hopkins is the best work on the utilization of limestone and marble, available for American readers, and is not limited to Arkansas. T.C.Hopkins. Marbles and Other Limestones.Ann.Rep.Gseol.Surv.of Ark. 16906, VaOLWEV, Ree,

Loo; 4.77 “and 8.2, Pedrara. 133, 5.4, insert, Aguilera and Bar- cena, omithsonian Bon, 16886. part II, 482. i!.Barcena Rocks known as Mexico Onyx. Phila.Acad Sei.Aus.29,1876.

1383, add at foot OE page, J.i#.Kemp. Crystalline Limestonss, Ophi- calcites, é6éte. of the Bastern Adirondacks , Gioeghe Vi. Beh. Leger lod, Unb, Oph oli te. ‘136, 2; 40 BALCH AINe 156, 5.3, Procedes d'Ks- sais des Materiaux. Meg Boece Waterline. Lo7s5 O20, barrels, not tons LS7s. 1405 PiLsorousLs,

L406, O,2y CHAPTNR Vil, net Vi. Leis WO Loy delete f.22.. i Ate) ee We delide Alxedeceo. eg: Coie, “EG! t2 4533 ne not Albert. OTs, cg ha, atl sert ¥.d.ite Gee, A Miniature esxtinet Volcano. .s.Avas8. ALILI 226. tee ba38s 86;, GRELELe, Aer, FIGs Aber e.

LSBs lsby CHAPTER Vint. men) aap. 158, 7., vegetable Ter Bu eee lis lapoli. L658, 7.5 “eferre@d, 258, 7.4, after versey, insert "and 6elsevlere in the coastal Plain” las, last Lene CAA cook BGs. OY 2's Torrance. 165, 6.2, insert V. de L. Benedict, Mining, Washing and Calcinins Land Phosphate. Bie it, Journal Tar.26th,isge.. Rec 165, 4.1%) #&.R,beG0UE. Loe Bits BBS Vag Mell ge. TOO

LYOs, di -65 CHAPTER 1%, mot VIII. the title shouid read, itvecelane= ous Minerals, viz. Abrasi WOR Asbestos; Fluorite; Glass Sands; Litho- eraphic Limestones; Mica; Moulding Sands; Precious Stones; Soapstone and Tale; Sulphur.

Liste Os dy, Betamolite:. Lf2; 4.8, 4.5 and 4.6, ‘Gonth Li 5°35 The reference srould read. Zeit. Xtal. Re hens L75, 4.45 Genth Li6, 6.85 deutscher. 176, 6., lead. L7S, owvSy BLTectvsd LP GS ey te he @arths 179, 3.1, indespensable. iiss Hebe es, TR oes Leg and Bouve Lies SO Ves ‘Micros. LOO nN Sty GOBbE- 180, 8,4, occasioned. 181, 5.2, character. 161, 8.3, emanate. 182, 5.5, A paragraph ought to have been inserted referring to the views of Ochsenius, regarding the formation of sulphyvr from the mother liquors of salt deposits formed by the "bar" or estuary process. (see p.145). He considers the alkaline sulphates left in the mother liquors to have been red ween by decaying organic matter and thus to have yielded sulphur in the origin al process of sedimentation. C.Ochssnius, Zeit.f.prak. Geol. June 1895, A

182, O.l, Caleizterous L535, Gig OCCCUPYTE. LBS. 0. Os, Sinners . 134, 5.5, Lanontan 186, 1.5, delide “as slsewhere set forth in this voluns" 186, 2.35, add@ at closa , "from which the above notes are taken",

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