Gypsum Deposits of the United States
Gypsum Deposits of the United States by Ralph Walter Stone (1920). Full text and reference in the Mountain Man Mining Library.
Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: archive.org.
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Depariment Of The Interior /V
JO Barton Payne, Secretary '~'r' '
United States Geological Survey
Qdrge Otis Suith, Director
Gypsum Deposits Of The Ubited States
E5 "i, STONE AND- OTHEES
(
Avashington
Government Printing Opficb
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Contents.
Page.
Part I. General discussion 15
Introduction, by R. W. Stone 15
Mineralogy and geology of gypsum, by R. W. Stone 16
Chemical and physical properties : 16
Distinctive features 16
Chemical composition 16
Hardness and specific gravity 16
Color 16
Crystallization 17
Solubility 17
Varieties 17
Anhydrite 18
General features 18
Occurrence 19
Classification of deposits 21
General discussion 21
Deposition from solutions 1 . . . 22
Deposition from sea water 22
Deposition from ground water 22
Deposits produced by alteration 25
Deposits produced by disintegration and mechanical reaccumula-
tion 25
Geologic age of deposits 26
Analyses of gypsum, by R. W. Stone 27
Errors in the chemical analysis of gypsum, by George Steiger 30
The gypsmn industry, by R. W. Stone 33
Historical sketch 33
Production 34
Producing localities 34
Production by States 35
Production by uses 36
Imports 38
Technology 38
Mining 38
Crushing 38
Calcining 39
Mixing 40
Arrangement and cost of plaster mills 40
Cost of gypsum plaster 41
Uses of gypsum 42
Uncalcined gypsum 42
Calcined gypsum 43
Part II. Gypsum deposits 47
Alaska, by E. F. Burchard 47
Arizona, by R. W. Stone 49
Development and character 49
Localities 49
4 Contents.
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued. Arizona — Continued.
Localities — Continued. Page.
CochiBe County 49
Douglas , 49
Benson 50
Land 50
Whetstone Mountains 51
Mohave County 51
Navajo County 51
Pima County 52
Serritas Mountains 52
Santa Rita Mountains - 52
Empire Mountains 52
Tucson 53
Pinal County ,... 54
Area along San Pedro River 54
Feldman 55
Arkansas, by H. D. Miser 57
California, by F. L. Hess 58
Distribution 58
Climate 58
Localities 59
. Fresno County 59
Paoli mine 59
Deposits near the Paoli mine 61
Coalinga deposits 61
Imperial County 63
Inyo County 63
Kern County 64
Sunflower Valley 64
Lost Hills 65
Deposits near McKittrick 67
California Gypsum & Mineral Co 67
Abbott & Hickox 68
Other deposits 69
Deposits near Maricopa 70
Deposits near Bakersfield 70
Cottonwood Creek 70
Kern Lake gypsite deposit 71
Buena Vista Lake 73
Cane Springs 73
Kings County 73
Kettleman Plains 73
Los Angeles County 75
Castaic 75
Palmdale 75
Orange County 77
Riverside Coimty 77
Corona 77
Palen Moimtains 78
Maria Moimtains 78
Mecca 79
Other deposits 79
San Benito County 79
Contents. 5
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued. California — Continued.
Localities — Continued. Page.
San Bernardino County 81
Amboy 81
Avawatz Mountains 82
San Luis Obispo County 83
Carrizo Plain 83
Alamo Creek 84
Santa Barbara County 84
Santa Barbara Creek , 84
Point Sal 84
Ventura County 85
Fillmore 85
South Mountain 85
French Point. 85
. Ojai Valley 85
Summary i 85
Colorado, by R. D. George 87
General character 87
Age 87
Localities 87
Larimer County 87
Jefferson County 88
Douglas County 88
El Paso County 89
Pueblo County 89
Fremont, Custer, Huerfano, and Chaffee counties 90
Park County 92
Summit County 92
Rio Blanco, Garfield, Eagle, and Pitkin counties 92
Gunnison County 93
Delta, Montrose, San Miguel, and Dolores counties 93
Florida, by R. W. Stone '. 95
Idaho, by R. W. Stone 99
Iowa, by R.. W. Stone and G. F. Kay ' 101
Gypsum at Fort Dodge, by R. W. Stone 101
Character and extent 101
Economic development 103
Geologic relations 104
Gypsum at Centerville, by G. F. Kay , 107
General relations 107
Development 107
Character 109
Summary 110
Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth Ill
Previous publication Ill
Geography Ill
Geology 112
Localities 112
Blue Rapids area 112
Central area - 114
Extent of the deposits 114
Solomon mine 114
Hope mine 115
Other exposures 115
6 Oomtkjnts.
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued. Kansas — Continued.
Localities — Continued. Page.
Medicine Lodge area 117
Gypsum crystals 118
Pennsylvanian shales 118
Cretaceous shales 119
Tertiary formations 119
The gypsum industry in Kansas 119
Origin of the gypsum of Kansas 120
Louisiana, by R. W. Stone 121
MichigMi, by R. A. Smith 122
Geologic occurrence 122
Chsuucter and extent 122
Economic development, by R. A. Smith and R. W. Stone 124
Grand Rapids-Grandville district 124
Alabast 127
JTumer 127
*St. Ignace 128
History 128
Mississippi, by R. W. Stone , 130
Montana, by R. W. Stone 131
Age an(J distribution 131
Localities 131
Cascade County 131
Millegan 131
Riceville 131
Goodman 132
Kibbey 133
Fergus County 134
Big Snowy Mountains 134
Heath 134
Hanover 135
Jefferson County. . . 1 136
Carbon County 137
Big Horn County...' 137
Madison County 138
Other localities 138
Nevada, by J. C. Jones 139
Character, extent, and development 139
Geology r 142
Deposits in western Nevada 142
Deposits in southern Nevada , 144
Origin of the deposits 144
Localities 146
Western Nevada 146
Lovelock 146
Table Mountain 150
Gerlach 150'
Mound House 150
Gypsite near Mound House 152
Ludwig 153
Hawthorne 155
Deposits in southern Nevada, by J. C. Jones and R. W. Stone. . 155
Arden 155
OONTEK'rS. 7
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued. Nevada — Continued . Localities — Continued.
'7 Deposits in southern Nevada — Continued. Page.
8 Gait 158
8 Moax)a 159
9 Las Vegas 159
9 Virgin River 160
) New Mexico, by N. H. Darton 16X
I Distribution 161
General geologic relations 161
Manzano group 161
Gypsum above Wingate sandstone 162
Gypsum of Quaternary age 163
Localities... 163
Gypsum in Manzano group 163
Mesa Lucero 164
Chupadera Mesa 164
East of Socorro 166
Phillips Hills 168
Sacramento Mountains 169
Vaughn region 170
Andio 171
San Andres Mountains 171
Caballos Mountains 172
Sierra Fra Cristobal 172
Rincon Colorado to Lamy 173
Pecos Valley 173
Gypsum overlying the Wingate sandstone 177
Los Cerrillos 177
Tonque 177
Tijeras Canyon 179
Rio Chama-(jallina region 179
Nacimiento uplift 181
Jemez region : 182
San Jose Valley 184
Deposits of Quaternary age 184
White sands 184
Pinos Wells 186
New York, by D. H. Newland and Henry Leighton 187
History of the gypsum industry in New York 187
Method of mining. 188
General geology 189
Age and distribution of the gypsum deposits 189
Stratigraphy of the Salina formation. 191
General relations 191
Bertie limestone member 192
Camillus shale member 192
Syracuse salt member : 193
Vernon shale member 193
Pittsford shale member 193
General structure of the Salina formation 193
Nature of the gypsum deposits 194
Localities 194
Hkimer County 194
Madison County
Onondaga County
8 Contents*
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued.
New York — Continued. Localities — Continued .
Onondaga County — Continued.
Geology 196
Clifford Miller quarry 196
Quarry of the National Wall Plaster Co 197
Quarries at Jamesville 197
Other quarries in Onondaga County 199
Cajruga County 20O
, Seneca County 201
Wayne County 201
Ontario County 202
Livingston County 203
Monroe County 203
Distribution and general character of the gypsum deposits. . . 203
Empire Gypsum Co 204
Garbutt Gypsum Co 205
Lycoming Calcining Co 206
Monarch Plaster Co 206
Consolidated Wheatland Plaster Co 206
Possible occurrences of gypsiun elsewhere in Monroe Coimty. 207
Genesee County 207
Distribution and development 207
United States Gypsum Co 207
Niagara Gypsum Co 208
Other occurrences in Genesee County 209
Erie County 209
Distribution of the gypsum deposits 209
American Gypsum Co 211
American Cement Plaster Co 211
Physical and chemical characters of the gypsum 213
Future of the gypsum industry 215
Origin of the deposits 216
Ohio, by J. A. Bownocker 218
Location and thickness of deposits 218
History of development 221
Development in 1918, by R. W. Stone 222
Oklahoma, by L. C. Snider 224
Character and extent 224
Geologic relations 224
Localities 225
Main line of gypsum hills 225
Gypsum deposits 225
Gypsite deposits 227
Second line of gypsum hills 227
Gypsum deposits 227
Gypsite deposits 228
Southwestern area 229
Gypsum deposits 229
Gypsite deposits 232
Economic development 232
General condition of the gypsum industry 232
Mills and quarries 233
Oron, byR. W. Stone 236
Location and character 236
Geologic relations 236
Economic development 237
Contents. 9
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Contmued. Page.
South Dakota, by J. G. Hutton 239
Structure and stratigraphy 239
Localities '. 242
West of Minnekahta 242
" If Minnekahta to Hot Springs 244
:l Rapid City to Sturgis 245
Sturgis to Spearfish 246
rj Chemical composition of shale and gypsum of Spearfish formation 248
fJJ Economic development 248
fj Texas, V R- W. Stone 250
Distribution 250
Economic development t 250
LocaUties 251
North-central Texas 251
Character and general relations of the gypsum deposits, 251
Geologic relations of the gypsiun beds, by W. E. Wrather 255
Culberson and Hudspeth counties 257
Southeastern Texas 258
Deeply buried deposits 258
Brooks County, by C. L. Baker 259
207 Other localities, by B. F. Hill 260
207 Utah, by It. W. StoneandC. T. Lupton 261
07 Distribution 261
'07 Localities in central and southern Utah, by R. W. Stone 261
'08 Nephi, Juab County 261
09 , Levan, Juab County 265
09 Manti, Sanpete County 266
)9 Mayfield, Sanpete County 266
1 Salina, Sevier County 267
1 Sigurd, Sevier County 267
J White Mountain, Millard County 268
) Cedar City, Iron County, to Glendale, Kane County 270
: St. George, Washington County 271
South Wash, Wayne and Garfield counties 272
Moab, Grand County, by F. L. Hess 273
Gypsum ,long the west flank of the San Rafael Swell, by C. T. 4
Lupton 273
Location and extent 273
Topography 274
Geology 275
General features of the gyi)sum deposits 275
Localities 276
South of Cedar Mountain 276
San Rafael Valley 276
Horn Silver Gulch 277
Cold Wash 278
Colt Gulch 278
Muddy Creek i 279
Last Chance Creek 280
Caineville 280
Notom 281
Other exposures 281
Character of the gyi)sum 281
Development ; 282
Virginia, oy G. W. Stose 283
Location
Topography
10 Contents.
Part II. Gypsum deposits — Continued.
Virginia — Continued. X'age.
Geology " 285
The rocks. 285
Structure 286
Origin of the deposits 289
Gypsum industry 292
Earlier development 292
Present operating mines 293
Wyoming, by R. W. Stone 295
Character and extent 295
Economic development 296
Localities 297
Black Hills 297
Big Horn Mountains 299
Distribution 299
East slope 299
Sheridan County 299
Buffalo 299
Crazy Woman Creek 300
Powder Biver 300
West slope 300
Shell , 301
Hyattville ! 301
Tensleep 301
Bigtrails 301
Redbank 301
No Wood 302
Big Horn Basin 302
Stucco 302
Greybull 302
Cody 302
Thermopolis 303
Owl Creek Mountains 303
Gros Ventre Range 303
Salt River Range 304
Wind River Range and vicinity 304
Fort Washakie 304
Lander 304
Hailey 304
Central Wyoming 304
Conant Creek 304
Rattlesnake, Green, and Ferris mountains 305
-Alcova 305
Southeastern Wyoming 305
Casper-Douglas area 305
Seminoe Mountains 305
Shirley Mountains and Freezeout Hills 306
Rawlins 306
Medicine Bow 306
Elk Mountains 307
Laramie Basin 307
Laramie Mountains 308
Part III. Bibliography 309
General references 309
References by States 309
Index 317
Illustrations.
Page. Plate I. Ay Syenite whidi has been llt and bent to show cleavage and
slight flexibility; -B, Selenite crysrtate 16
II. Ay Gypsum having serrate surface due to erosion by rain; B,
Eock gypsum that shows effects of solution 16
III. Ay Massive gypsum showing mottled txuctare; By Massive
gypsum showing banded structure 16
lY. Ay Fibrous gypsum or satin ihut &om a fissure in day; By Slab of selenite an indi thick, illustratii transparicy and indigent
deavage 17
y. Ay Aggrtate of impure gypsum crystaki from marl bed; By Spongy
gypsum formed as a secondary dKMdt 18
yi. M£4> of the United States showii locality which produce
gypsum 34
VII. A, Gypfflte deposit, Douglas, Ariz.; B, Mill of Arizona Gypsum
Plaster Co., at Douglas, Ariz 50
VIII. -i.. Gypsum quarry 3 miles west of Winslow, Ariz.; B, Gypsum bed at Plaster Bluff, on Little Missouri River 3 miles south- west of Murfreesboro, Ark *51
IX. Map showing distribution of gypsum deposits in California 58
X. Ay Mound of gypsum in the Lost Hilis, south of Tulare Lake, Calif. , made by the evaporation of wat seeping from the rocks below ; JJ, Gypsum deposit 4 miles northwest of Coalinga,' Calif . 66 XI. A. Gypsite workings in sec. 7, T. 32 S., R. 22 E,, on the Carrizo Plain, Calif. ; By Gypsum interbedded with clay shales miles
southwest of Pidmdale, Calif 76
XII. Ay Gypsum deposit in the bed of a periodic lake at Amboy, Calif. ; By Gypsite deposit 9 feet thick on the brow of a hill 1 J miles southwest of Pimdale, CaUf 77
XIII, Ay Bed of gypsum on mesa 15 miles north of King City, Calif. ; 5, . Gypsum outcrop on Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Rail- road half a mile south of Des Moines River near Dodge, Iowa 80
XIV. Gypsum quarry in Lykins f<ination, Lovekmd, Colo.; By
Thick bed of gypsum in Prry Pai±, Colo 88
XV. Thick bed of gypsum at entrance to Garden of the Gods, Colorado
Springs, Colo 89
XVI. Ay Mining gypsum, Port Dodge, Iowa; By Rock gypsum as it
comes from the mine, Fort Dodge, Iowa 104
XVII. Kaap showing gypsum deposits and approximate limits of the
Permian series in Kansas . . . ; '. 112
XVIII. Ay Gypsum bed in Best Bros, quarry, Kling, Kans. ; J?, Gypsum
quarry of United States Gypsum Co. at Alabaster, Mich 120
XIX. Map of New Mexico showing distribution of gypsum deposits 162
XX . -4 , Gypsum in north wall of Rincon Colorado east of Pedemal Peak , Torrance County, N. Mex. ; 5, Outcrop of gypsum near Rosario siding, west of Los Ceirillos, N. Mex 178
12 Illustbations.
Paee. Plate XXI. A, Gypsum on Wingate sandstone on bank of Gallina River, 14 miles north-northeast of Gallina, N. Mex.; J?, Gypsum capping
Cerro Blanco, 1 mile northwest of plaza of Gidlina, N. Mex 179
XXII. A, Cliffs of gypsum at edge of mesa 3 miles southwest of San Ysidro, N. Mex. ; B, Outcrop of bed of gypsimi 50 feet thick on north bank of San Jose River opposite pueblo of ElRito, on Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, 63 miles west of Albuquerque, N. Mex 184
XXIII. The white sands, wind-blown gypsum in desert west of Tularosa,
N. Mex 185
XXIV, A, Rock gypsum showing banding and selenite crystals, Akron,
N . Y. ; 5, Gypsum quarry near Lyndon, Onondaga County, N . Y. 196
XXV. Map showing location of gypsimi deposits in Ohio 218
XXVI. A, Mine of United States Gypsum Co. at Gypsum, Ohio; B, Rock
gypsum quarry of American Cement Plaster Co . , Watonga, Okla . 222
XXVII. Map showing location of gypsum deposits in Oklahoma 224
XXVIII. -4, Glass Mountain, Woods County, Okla., capped with massive gypsum; B, Escarpment capped with gypsum ledges Red
River valley, Greer Coimty, Okla 226
XXIX. A, Gypsum quarry and loading platform of aerial tramway, Gypsum, Or. ; jB, Gypsum outcrop 4 miles northwest of Minne-
kahta, S. Dak 236
XXX. A, Bluff showing gypsum bed 1 mile northwest of Hot Springs, S. Dak. ; B, Three gypsum beds in Hell Canyon, 20 miles south- west of Custer, S. Dak / 242
XXXI. A J Gypsum in Spearfish formation on east side of Spearfish Valley,
S. Dak. ; B, Close view of gypsum bed at Spearfish, S. Dak 243
XXXII. A, Gypsiun at Spearfish, S. Dak.; B, Gypsum quarry 2 miles east
ofNephi, Utah 246
XXXIII. Ay Polished block of gypsum from Nephi, Utah, showing mottled character of the rock; B, Polished block of gypsum from North Holston, Va., showing granular character and selenite pheno-
crysts.. . 2614
XXXIV. A, Gypsum quarry miles east of Levan, Utah; B, Gypsum bed
in Horn Silver Gulch, southeast of Ferron, Utah 265
XXXV. Map showing distribution of gypsum deposits on west flank of
San Rafael Swell. Utah 276
XXXVI. Map of Wyoming showing areas known to contain gypsum 296
XXXVII. Ay Butte of red beds of Spearfish formation capped with a 30-foot bed of gypsum east-northeast of Cambria, Wyo. ; By Method of
mining gypsite, Laramie, Wyo 298
Figure 1. Diagram showing faulted gypsum bed near Tucson, Ariz 54
2. Diagram showing edge of gypsum bed near Tucson, Ariz 55
3. Idealized section through gypsite deposit 4 miles northwest of
Coalinga, Calif 62
4. Idealized section across hills IJ miles southwest of Palmdale, Calif. ,
showing relations of g3rpsite and gypsum to the country rock. . 76
5. Map showing location of gypsum and gypsimi mills near Fort
Dodge, Iowa 105
6. Section at Great Western gypsum mine. Blue Rapids, Kans 113
7. Section at gypsum mine near Solomon, Kans 114
8. Outline map of Michigan showing gypsum deposits 123
Hxustrations. 13
Page. Figure 9. Map showing location of gypsum deposits in Nevada 140
10. Map showing geology of T. 27 N., R. 32 E., and location of old
gypsum quarries near Lovelock, Nev 148
' 11. Diagram of gypsum bed at entries of mine at Arden, Nev 156
12. Diagram showing relation of shale and gypsum in mine at Arden,
Nev 156
13. Gypsum and anhydrite from Arden, Nev., as seen under petro-
graphic microscope 157
14. Generalized columnar sectidn showing stratigraphic relations of
gypsum deposits in New Mexico 162
15. Section of east slope of Mesa Lucero, in Socorro County, 25 miles
southwest of Belen, N. Mex 164
16. Section across Chupadera Mesa, 35 miles east of Socorro, N. Mex . . . 165
17. Map of part of central New Mexico showing gypsum deposits 165
18. Section of strata in west face of Chupadera Mesa, 25 miles east of
' Carthage , N . Mex 166
19. Section of gypsmn and associated strata near Abo siding in the
northwest face of Chupadera Mesa, N. Mex 166
20. Columnar section of gypsum and associated beds in Arroyo de lao
Cafias east of the spring, 7 miles east-southeast of Socorro, N . Mex . 167
21. Columnar section showing relation of gypsum and associated beds
in Phillips Hills, 6 miles southwest of Oscuro, N . Mex 168
22. Columnar section of gypsum and iassociated strata about 2 miles
southeast of Salinas siding, 10 miles north of Tularosa, N . Mex . . . 169
23. Columnar section of gypsum and associated strata east of Tularosa,
N. Mex 169
24. Approximate section across Sacramento Mountains east from
Alamogordo, N. Mex 170
25. Columnar section showing relation of gypsmn deposits in Rhodes
Canyon, San Andres Mountains, 25 miles east-southeast of Engle, N. Mex 171
26. Section across San Andres Mountains, 18 miles northeast of Engle,
N. Mex 172
27. Columnar section showing relations of gypsum and associated
beds in Caballos Mountains 15 miles southwest of Engle, N. Mex . 173
28. Section across Caballos Mountains 15 miles southwest of Engle,
N. Mex. , showing structural relations of gypsimi 173
29. Record of boring in NE. i sec. 4, T. 22 S.,R. 28 E., east of Carlsbad,
N. Mex 176
30. Section showing relations of gypsum deposit east of Rosario siding,
7 miles west of Los Cerrillos, N. Mex 176
31. Columnar section showing relations of gypsum deposit on east
bank of Tonque Creek, 2 miles below the brick works, Sandoval County, N. Mex 177
32. Cross sections showing relations of gypsum in Tijeras Canyon
east of Albuquerque, N. Mex : 177
33. Outline map and section of part of the valley of Rio Chama, in
Rio Arriba County, N. Mex., showing outcrop and relations of
the gypsum bed 178
34. Columnar section of rocks in Rio Chama-Gallina region, N. Mex . . . 179
35. Map showing outcrop of gypsum bed along the west side of the
Nacimiento uplift from Rio Gallina to Rio Salado, Sandoval County, N. Mex 180
14 IliLXJSTRATIONS.
Page. FiQUBB 36. Sketch section at SeiMito, N. Mex., showing relations of gypsum
bed 181
37. Map and sections of Ihe south end of the Kacimiento uplift south-
west of Jemez, showing outcrop and relationsof g3rp8um bed 183
38. Section lowing relationfi of gypsum bed southwest of Jemez,
N. Mex 184
39. Section of rocks asBociatedwithgypsumbedatElRito,N.Mex 184
40. Section along north side of San Jose Valley nett Suwanee N. Mex.,
{Rowing relations of great gypsum bed in faulted blodos 185
41. Map showing outcrop of gypsum in San Jose Valley, N. Mex 185
42. Map of New York lowing distribution ol Salina lormaticm 190
43. Diagram showing relative position and linear extoit of the Silurian
strata in New York 192
44. Map showing Jamesville-'Fayetteville dizict, Onondaga County,
N.Y 197
45. Map showing Wheatland district, Monroe County, N.Y 205
46. Map showing Oakfid and Akron districts, Genesee and Erie
counties, N.Y - 208
47. Map showing the area that contains the gyp8um4>eaii] formation
in the Black HiUs, S. Dak 241
48. Map of Texas showing location of iincipal deposits olrodk gypsum.. 251
49. Columnar section iowing strata exposed along Double Mountain
Fork of Brazos Biver, from Flattop Mountain, Haskell Coimty,
to tc of Double Mountain, Stonewall County, Tex 254
50. Map showing distributicm of principal gypsum deposits in Utah. . . 262
51. Diagram showing geologic structure at gypsum quarry, Nephi,
Utah 264
52. Cross section of strata that lie betwewi gypsmn mill and quarry,
Nephi, Utah 264
53. Map lowing extent gypsum deposit at White Mountain, Utah. 269
54. ' Index map of southwestern Virginia 283
55. Geologic map of Holston Valley, in the vicinity of Saltville, Va. . . 284 66. Structure sections across Holston Valley, Va., along lines indicated
by letters on the margins of the geokc map 287
57. Structure sections across Holston Valley, Va. , along Hues indicated
by letters oh the margins of the geologic map 288
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
By E. W. Stone and others.
Part I. General Discussion.
INTROBtJCTION.
By R. W. Stone.
This report has been prepared to take the place of the Survey's Bulletin 223, "Gypsum deposits in the United States," which was published in 1904. The total value ojf crude and calcined gypsum produced in the United States increased from $2,750,000 in 1904 to more than $11,000,000 in 1918, or over 300 per cent. Since Bulletin 223 was published much information has been obtained as to the quantity and the distribution of the gypsum deposits of the country. A large part of this new information is contained in State and Fed- eral reports and in technical and scientific journals, but some of that which is given here has not previously bei published.
The sections of this report relating to the deposits in the individual States considered have been prepared by State geologists, by mem- bers of the United States Greological Survey, or by others who are familiar with the subject. For this reason the method of treatment is not uniform throughout the report. Other variations are due to differences in the conditions of the development of the gypsum industry from State to State. In the sections on States such as Florida and Oregon, practically all that is known about the deposits is given ; in those on others such as Iowa, New York, and Oklahoma, the information given is condensed from detailed reports.
Some of the material in the introductory chapter on the mineralogy and geology of gypsum is quoted almost literally from publications to which credit need not everywhere be given, because the material has been published many times in text books, encyclopedias, and State and Federal reports, with only slight changes in form, so that the original authorship is hard to determine.
The description of the processes of mining and milling gypsum is brief, because the discussion of technologic matter of this kind is thought to be outside the province of the United States Geological Survey. A paper on this subject, published by the Bureau of
Stone, R. W., Gypsum products, their preparation and uses : Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 165 1917.
16 ' gypsum: deposits of the united states.
Mines of the Department of the Interior in 1917, can be had on remitting 20 cents to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing X)ffice, Washington, D. C.
Mineralogy And Geology Of Gypsum.
By R. W. Stone. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PBOPEBTIES.
Distinctive features. — Gypsum is a common mineral, which occurs in both massive and crystalline form, and is widely distributed in the United States. Crystalline gypsum, known as selenite, can be split into layers, sheets, or plates much like mica (see PI. 1,-4), and any kind of gypsum is so soft that it can be scratched with the finger nail. Unlike the plates of mica, however, the plates of gypsum are not elastic. Gypsum is *of commercial value chiefly because, after it is calcined and then mixed with water, it will set or harden and can be used as wall plaster. It was used in this way by the Egyptians 4,000 years ago.
Chendcdl composition. — Gypsum is a hydrous calcium sulphate, having the chemical formula CaS04.2HO. This formula, reduced to its final components, is :
Gypsum, CaS04.2H20
Lime (CaO), 32.5 per cent. Sulphur trioxide (SOs), 46.6 . per cent.
'Calcium sulphate (CaS04), 79.1 per cent.
Water (H2O), 20.9 per cent.
Pure gypsum, the sulphate of lime with water of crystallization, is seldom found in nature, for nearly all gypsum deposits contain oxides of iron and aluminum, carbonates of calcium and magnesium, and other impurities. The anhydrous calcimn sulphate, anhydrite, which has the formula CaSO, is often associated with gypsum, either disseminated through it or occurring with or in it in separate
masses. ,
Hardness and specific gramty. — The crystalline form of gypsum, selenite, is the standard for the second degree (hardness 2) in the Mohs scale of hardness. Gypsum is so soft that it can be scratched with the finger nail, and it can thus easily be distinguished from other minerals that have a similar appearance. The specific gravity of the pure mineral ranges from 2.30 to 2.33— that is, 1 cubic foot of gypsum is 2.3 times as heavy as 1 cubic foot of water.
Color. — Pure rock gypsum is white and selenite is colorless and transparent or translucent. Owing to impurities, however, gypsum ranges through gray to black, from flesh pink to red and brown, and some is yellow or pale blue. Pure powdered gypsum is white.
6S7 Platb I
B. 3Blenite Crystals.
A. Gypsum Having Serrate Surface Due To Erosion Bv Rain.
S. Rock Gypsum That Shows Effects Of Solution.
U. 8. Geological
i. MASSIVE GYPSUM SHOWING MOTTLED STRUCTURE.
£. Massive Gypsum Showing Banded Structure.
J. a. osoLoaicAL survey BmiBTiN Wi pitb xt
Fibrous Gypsum Or Satin Spar From A Fissure In Clay.
MtNERALOGY AND GEOLOGY OF GYPSUM. 17
CrystaUieation, — Gypsum, as selenite, crystallizes in the forms peculiar to the monoclinic system. Typical gypsum crystals are . shown in Plate I, B, Selenite has a perfect cleavage parallel to the principal plane. It separates into thin plates along the cleavage planes, but these plates, although thin as paper, are only slightly flexible, not elastic. A very common form of the crystal is an elon- gated irregular diamond or oblique parallelogram. Single crystals differ greatly in size, but most crystals observed are less than 6 inches long. Crystals from 1 foot to 5 feet long have been found. Crystal aggregates occur in a variety of shapes, ranging from form- less masses to beautiful rosettes.
Solubility. — Gypsum is soluble in hydrochloric acid but does not effervesce or gelatinize. It does not dissolve in sulphuric acid. It is slightly soluble in water. At 32 F. (0 C.) one part of gypsum dissolves in 415 parts of water and at 75.2 F. (24° C.) one part of gypsum dissolves in 378 parts of water. In time, however, rain and ground water have a marked effect on gypsum, eating deeply into its outcrops, as shown in Plate II, and causing the formation of sinks and caves, in places of considerable extent.
Varieties.
Gypsum occurs as rock gypsum, gypsite, selenite, and satin spar.
Rock gypsum, or massive gypsum, the form in which the mineral is most commonly found, is the form, that is of the greatest eco- nomic value. This variety occurs interbedded with sedimentary rocks and is composed of minute, even microscopic crystals, which make a generally opaque rock. When pure it is white ; thick beds of gypsum in the Central and Western States are almost snow-white. Commonly, however, it contains impurities and may be pink, blue, green, gray, or brown. The color may be evenly distributed, banded, or mottled in the rock, as shown in Plate III, A and B. Kock gypsum that is very fine grained, white, slightly translucent, and suitable for carving and sculpturing is known as alabaster. Rock gypsum occurs in beds ranging from thin layers covering small areas to deposits 60 feet or more thick and extending for many miles.
Gypsite, or earthy gypsum, is soft, incoherent, impure gypsum formed at the surface by the evaporation of gypsiferous water. It is an efflorescent deposit and ranges from material so poWdery that it resembles wood ashes through sandy and earthy phases to a form that is slightly consolidated. In color gypsite is gray, mottled with white, buff or creamy, rusty, pink, or, where it con- tains much iron, red. The color is due largely to the clay and fine sand mixed in the deposit. Few deposits of gypsite are over 20 feet thick, and the largest cover only a few acres.
124567"— 20 2
18 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Selenite is a variety of gypsum which occuis in distinct crystals or in broad folia. The largest crystals known are over 4 feet long, but these are rare. Pure selenite is colorless and transparent Selenite splits easily into sheets, and therefore, as it is transparent, it is often mistaken for mica, but sheets of selenite are not elastic like mica. The cleavage, slight flexibility, and transparency of selenite are shown in Plates I, J., and IV, 5, and an aggregate of gypsum crystals is shown in Plate V, A.
Satin spar is a crystalline variety of gypsum made up of needle- like fibers. (See PI. IV, It occurs in narrow veins or seams, rarely over 3 or 4 inches thick, either in massive gypsum deposits or in the wall rocks near these deposits. It is nowhere sufficiently abundant to be commercially valuable. Satin spar is usually white or pink, and the fibers are perpendicular to the walls of the vein It is deposited by the evaporation of gypsiferous waters and usually li below a bed of gypsum.
ANHYDRITE. OENERALi FEATURES.
Deposits of the mineral anhydrite are found at many places in the United States in close association with deposits of gypsum. Anhydrite is calcium sulphate, the formula for whidi is CaS04, the same formula as that of dead-burned gypsum. In other words, it is of the same chemical composition as gypsum except that it con- tains no water of crystallization. By the absorption of two parts of water it turns to gypsum. This process actually takes place in nature and in some places has doubtless resulted in the alteration of beds of anhydrite to beds of gypsum.
Anhydrite may be formed from solutions of gypsum at various temperatures when the solutions contain sufficient quantities of cer- tain other salts. In a saturated solution of sodium chloride gypsum changes to anhydrite at a temperature of 30° C (86° F.), a tem- perature commonly reached in summer. This fact satisfactorily accounts for the formation of anhydrite in nature from concentrated sea water or lake brines.
The similarity of anhydrite to gypsum and limestone is so marked that doubtless it has been wrongly identified many times. Tlw simplest tests to distinguish them are those for hardness and specific gravity, for anhydrite is harder and heavier than gypsum. Some compact gypsum is so hard that it can not easily be scratched with the finger nail, but even if the two minerals can not be readily dis- tinguished by the difference in the ease of scratching they can be distinguished by the sound of scratching. The difference in specific gravity is very considerable. When heated in a closed tube, gyp-
n gives off water abundantly, but anhydrite yields little or none.
A. AGGREGiVTE OF IMPURE GYPSUM CRYSTALS FROM MARL BED.
£. SPONGY GYPSUM FORMED AS A SECONDARY DEPOSiT. :
MINEKAI.OGY A]SrD GEOLOGY OF GYPSUM,
-Anhydrite may be distinguished from gypsum by its crystalline cleavage, the planes of which intersect almost rectangularly in three directions, giving it a pseudocubic asi>ect. In the following table by Eogers the differences between the two minerals are contrasted:
Anhydrite CaSOA.
Orthorhombic. Cleavage, pseudocublc. Specific gravity, about 2.9. Hardness, 3 to 3i.
Fragments are square or rectangular, with parallel extinction.
High relief in clove oil or balsam
<<i=l,571 ; 1.614) . Double refraction, rather strong;
maximum value, 0.043. Soluble with difficulty in dilute HCl. Little or no water in closed tube.
Gypsum, CaSOi.2HiO,
Monoclinic.
Cleavage, perfect in one direction.
Specific gravity, about 2,3.
Hardness, li to 2.
Fragments are platy with oblique ex- tinction, or have aggregate polariza- tion.
Low relief in clove oil or balsam (a=1.520; 7=1.529).
Double refraction, ratlier weak ; maxi- mum value, 0.009.
Easily soluble in dilute HCl.
Abundant water (20.9 per cent) in closed tube.
The optical tests implied above may be made with crushed frag- ments as well as with thin sections.
The weathering of anhydrite is very different from that of selenite or of fine-grained gypsum, for it remains hard and white instead of breaking down to a soft incoherent powder as gypsum does. The surface of a weathered block of anhydrite is usually rough, being covered with innumerahle pits separated by thin sharp ridges,
Occttrrexce.
According to Rogers, the modes of occurrence of anhydrite are as follows: As a sedimentary rock, often associated with salt in inland-sea deposits; as a vein mineral or an associate of ores; as the metamorphic equivalent of sedimentary anhydrite; as a cavity filling in igneous rocks ; as a cavity filling in limestones ; as a replace- ment of limestone along with dolomite; as the dehydration product of gypsum. Numerous localities where anhydrite occurs in the United States are mentioned by Rogers in the paper cited above. Of these the ones where anhydrite is found in considerable quantity, together with others known to the present writer, are given below.
California, — In the Palen Mountains, Riverside County, inter- bedded anhydrite and crystalline gypsum alternate with layers of limestone. The differentiation of the gypsum and the anhydrite is thought to be due to original differences in composition.
Colorado, — In the region around Gypsum, Eagle County, where gypsum is abundant, anhydrite has been found near the Iron Nellie
1 Rogers, A. F., Notes on the occurrence of anhydrite in the United States : School of Mines Quart., vol. 36, p. 124, 1915. *Idem, p. 138.
20 Gypsum Peposits Of The United States.
mine. Rogers thinks it probable that all the gypsum in this region is a hydration product of the anhydrite.
Iowa, — At a depth of 542 feet in a drill hole at Centerville, Ap- panoose CSounty, there is a bed of anhydrite 5 feet thick, which is underlain by 5 feet of crystalline gypsum.
Louisiana. — Beds of anhydrite several feet thick have, been found at different depths in deep wells at Belle Isle and near Vinton.
Michigan. — At a number of places in the southern peninsula an- hydrite has been found in deep wells in beds from a few feet to 45 feet thick at depths ranging from 200 to 2.350 feet.
Nevada, — At the Ludwig mine, in Lyon County, anhydrite with a little gypsmn occurs on the 400-foot level, and on the surface its place is taken by gypsmn. Eogers believes that the anhydrite was formed by the metamorphism of an original sedimentary bed of anhydrite.
At Mound House, Lyon County, anhydrite occurs on the lowest levels of the main gypsum quarry, and Rogers says that the forma- tion of gypsum at the expense of anhydrite is unmistakable.
At Arden, Clark County, the present writer observed masses of anhydrite in the thick bed of gypsum and came to the conclusion that the deposit is the result of the hydration of an original anhy- drite deposit.
New Mexico, — Anhydrite in thick beds is not uncommonly asso- ciated with massive gypsum at a number of widely separated locali- ties. The two different mineral deposits are thought to be original and to be due to changes in temperature of the concentrated sea water from which the deposits were formed.
Ohio. — Massive rock gypsum is found at the surface near San- dusky, but a deep well near Cleveland encountered anhydrite below rock salt at depths of 2,154 and 2,300 feet. Here, as in Michigan, the occurrence of gypsum at or near the surface and of anhydrite at considerable depths is suggestive that the gypsum deposits are original beds of anhydrite altered by meteoric or ground water.
Oklahoma — A considerable bed of anhydrite occurs in the Medi- cine Lodge gypsum for 50 miles or more, with gypsum above and below it. L. C. Snider, of the Oklahoma Geological Survey, be- lieves this anhydrite is the result of original deposition and not of alteration.
Texas. — In a deep well at Spur, Dickens County, seven beds of gypsum, from 1 to 15 feet thick, occur in the upper 285 feet of the boring. Anhydrite is first found at 298 feet and occurs at in- tervals down to 4,105 feet in beds from a few feet to 73 feet thick. It is intimately associated with dolomite and is partly original and partly secondary. Udden believes that the anhydrite has formed in connection with the dolomitization of limestone by a reaction be-
Mineralogy And Geology Of Gypsum. 21
tween magnesium sulphate and calcium carbonate. The fact that all the beds of calcium sulphate within about 300 feet of the surface are gypsum suggests that they may be due to the hydration of de- posits originally laid down as anhydrite. They do not seem to be derived even indirectly from limestone, for the inclosing beds are shale and sandstone.
Utah, — At Nephi, in the middle of the upper part of the great quarry face, there is a large body of anhydrite surrounded by gypsum. As the geologic structure of the gypsum has not been de- termined definitely, there is some objection to the suggestion that the orginal deposit of ailhydrite has been hydrated except the core.
Virginia. — At Plasterco and North Holston much anhydrite is ad- mixed with the gypsum and the two minerals grade into each other. In one and perhaps in both of the mines the quantity of anhydrite seems to increase with depth, a condition which suggests the idea that the main deposit is anhydrite that has been altered to gypsum near the surface by hydration. This process may have been aided by circulation of water along a fault plane which cuts the bed of anhydrite and reduced part of it to a breccia of anhydrite and shale.
Classification Of Deposits.
General Discussion.
Gypsum deposits may be classified by their origin, mode of occur- rence, position with relation to the earth's surface, and in other ways. Gypsite and gypsum dunes are accumulations on the surface, whereas satin spar and rock gypsum occur within other rocks. Differentia- tion by mode of occurrence makes the following separation: Inter- bedded, efflorescent, and periodic-lake deposits, veins, dunes, and isolated crystals. This classification is simple and needs but a few explanatory paragraphs.
Interbedded deposits) are those bodies of gypsum interstratified with shales, sandstones, and limestones which have been laid down in seas or lakes. The study of the broader stratigraphic relations of the gypsum series usually shows that they were formed m local basins, and lack or scarcity of fossil remains indicates sea water which had reached a degree of concentration unfavorable to life.
Efflorescent deposits are formed on the surface by the evaporation of water that has percolated through massive gypsum or gypsif erous strata. The gypsum thus formed is the variety known as gypsite or earthy gypsum. It is made of microscopic plates of crystal- line gypsum.
Periodic-lake deposits are formed by the crystallization of gypsum from the waters of intermittent shallow lakes. The material of such a deposit is generally granular and crystalline, the particles
1 Hess, P. L., A reconnaissance of the gypsum deposits of California : U. S. Geol. Surv Bull. 413, p. 7, 1910.
22 Gypsum Deposits Of The Tjnited States.
ranging from minute specks to grains one-quarter of an incli in breadth, and thin in proportion. As it is derived laiely from shal- low water near the shore, where evaporation woidd be most rapid and the water would therefore be more highly saturated with gypsum, the gypsite d)osited by a periodic lake will be found around the old medial shore of the lake.
Veins of gypsum are generally composed of satin spar or selenite. They are formed of gypsum dissolved by water circulating through gypsum-bearing strata and redeposited in fissures, cradcs, and bed- ding planes.
Dunes of gypsum sand occur in some repons. The sand is the product of wind erosion and is derived from the disintegration of massive crystalline gypsum or from surf a( deposits of small gypsum crystals produced by evaporation of gypsif ous waters. This sand, for instance, may be swept up by the wind from playa lakes during drought. Soluble salts swept up with the gypsum by the wind are subsequently dissolved out of the dunes, leaving the less soluble material.
Isolated crystals and small flakes of gypsum, such as o5ur in many shale and clay deposits throughout the country, are supposed to have been formed by the decomposing of small quantities of pyrite and the resultant acid acting on calcium carbonate in the form of fossil shells. Iron sulphide yields sulphuric acid, which in contact with calcium carbonate gives calcium sulphate or gypsum.
Separation by origin ves the following classification : Deposition from solution in (a) sea water, (&) ground water; produced by alteration ; produced by disintegration and reaccumulation.
DBPOSmON FROM SOLUTIONS.
Deposition fToigfi sea water, — It is generally believed that most of the important deposits of rock gypsum of the world have been formed by the evaporation of sea water. This method of formation is inferred from the fact that the beds are usually interbedded with shales, sandstones, and limestones which have been deposited in seas or lakes. A scarcity or total absence of fossils in the gypsum-bear- ing rocks shows that the water in which they were deposited had reached a degree of concentration that was unfavorable to life. Sea water contains 3.5 per cent of mineral salts in solution. The most abundant salt is sodium chloride, which constitutes more than 77 per cent of the total solids, whereas calcium sulphate is only 3.6 per cent. Calcium sulphate is not precipitated until about 80 per cent of the water has been evaporated. With these facts in mind, it is difficult to account for the great thickness of some gypsum beds. The quan- of water of normal salinity which would have to be evaporated
make a gypsum deposit 30 or 60 feet or more thick is so great that
MCsTBRALOGY AKD GEOLOGY OF GYPSUIVL 23
no known ocean basin would hold it. From 1,000 feet of normal sea water about 0.7 foot of gypsum would be precipitated before the point of saturation for sodium chloride would be reached; to pre- cipitate 30 feet of gypsum would require about 43,000 feet of water. Beds of gypsum 40 to 50 feet thiflj: are not uncommon, requiring for their deposition continental depressions much greater than any now* known. These thick deposits, which are not of great extent and grade laterally into much thinner deposits covering wide areas, are accounted for by Branson's modified bar hypothesis. This hypothe- sis is stated as follows :
In the drying up of a large interior sea the might come to lie in separate basins if the bottom were uiven. Evaporation over the fuU expanse of the interior sea might be rapid enough to decrease the depth and area in spite of the inflow of some stream, but wlien considerable areas of bottom had become exposed the total evaporation would have become less and the inflow nearer to the amount of evaporation. Assuming that isolated basins would be formed, separated by low barriers, and tJiat the main streams would empty into the marnal basins, the inflow might be sufficient to cause ttiese basins to overflow and supply the minor basins tliat had no direct stream connections with highly charged waters as fast as their own waters evaporated.
A part of this modified bar hypothesis is the assumption that when the isolated seas were formed the sea water had already reached a considerable degree of concentration, and so the interior receiving basins would be supplied witJi highly concitrated waters instead of normal sea water. The greater thickness of a gypsum bed may also have resulted, too, from currents shifting the unconsolidated gypsum along the bottom.
Deposition from solution in ground water* — Water making its way through joints, fissures, and bedding planes of gypsum-bearing strata may take up calcium sulphate in solution. This water may come to rest in passageways in the gypsum beds or in the adjacent wall rock and the by evaporation deposit the gypsum as selenite or satin spar. These crystallizations in seams and veins are clearly secondary de- posits and of later origin, for tliey not uncommonly cut beds of gyp- sum. Gypsum beds and rocks adjacent to them are in many places veined and seamed by such secondary deposits. The passages thus filled may have been very narrow at first but became enlarged grad- ually by solution and possibly by the expansive force of the growing crystals.
Gypsite or gypsum earth is found in many places in the western States, usually in rons where beds of rock gyiJsum occur. Gypsite probably is derived from primary deposits through the circulation of ground water. The spring theory of origin is generally accepted for deposits of this class, for water percolating through gj-psum beds
1 Branson, E. B., Thick gypsum and salt deposits : Qeol. Soc. America Bull., yoI. 26, pr 235-237, 1915.
24 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
dissblves a portion of the rock and on issuing at a lower point as a spring redeposits the gypsum by evaporation, aided perhaps by the action of organic matter of decaying vegetation ; also water may come up through beds of rock gypsum and form gypsite at the surface di- rectly over the primary deposit. In either event a crust of minute gypsum crystals would be formed on the surface and increase grad- ually in thickness.
Microscopic examination shows that gypsite consists of small irreg- ular crystals and plates of gypsum. The deposits are so soft as to be easily worked with a spade, and some of the gypsite is very light and powdery. Gypsite deposits are thin and of little area — that is, they are rarely more than 15 feet thick and cover only a few acres. They are rather impure also, owing to the presence of sand,<clay, lime carbonate, and organic matter, brought in by surface agencies. .
Deposition from ground water is thought to be the mode of accu- mulation of certain other gypsum deposits. It has been found that some low dome-shaped mounds in Louisiana on the Gulf Coastal Plain are underlain by beds of salt and gypsum. Harris maintains that the domes are not due apparently to differential erosion but have been actually uplifted. Although uplift has been ascribed to gas pressure, water under great head, and igneous masses approaching the surface, Harris offers an entirely different explanation. He finds that the domes occur at the intersections of master faults and thinks the faults have served as channels along which saline solutions have ascended from great depths. Theoretically warm waters rising through the faulted strata would precipitate their salts as they cooled. The solvent power of water for sodium chloride decreases rapidly at a high temperature, so the main precipitation of this salt would be at considerable depth. There would be a tendency for the salt to form a cone with point up, and this cone as it grew broader and longer, by the expansive force of crystallization, might force the overlying mass upward. The solution from which the sodium chlo- ride had been precipitated would become cooler as it approached the surface and lose its calcium sulphate. Gypsum would therefore be found above the salt and near the surface. This relation has been noted in Louisiana and Texas.
Another idea of the origin of the domes of salt and gypsum on the Gulf Coastal Plain is that of G. S. Eogers, who believes
that the salt plugs are offshoots of deeply buried bedded deposits which have been subjected to great pressure or thrust and have been partially squeezed upward in a semiplastic condition along lines of weakness. As the region lies along a heavily loaded seacoast, the nature of the lateral thrust is not difficult to understand. The fact that the surface beds are undisturbed, except im-
Harris, G. D., Econ. Geology, vol. 4, pp. 12-34, 1909.
2 Rogers, G. S., Intrusive origin of the Gulf coast salt domes: Ecoti. Geology, voL 13, 447-485, 1918.
Mineralogy And Geology Of Gypsum. 25
oaedlately around the salt plugs, is explained by the nature of the section — a series of indurated and rigid formations overlain by a great thickness of rela- tively yielding and plastic sediments.
The origin of the gypsum and anhydrite that cap most of the domes is obscure. Rogers suggests that anhydrite overlies the bedded salt deposit from which the salt plugs were derived, and that when the salt was squeezed up a portion of an overlying anhydrite bed was brought up with it. Later action of circulating waters may have changed the shape of the mass considerably and converted part of the anhydrite into gypsum. The capping gypsum and anhydrite may also reasonably be ascribed to the action of ground water that percolated down through any one bed toward the sea and, finding its progress arrested by the salt plug and the uplifted sediments around it, rapidly ascended to a cooler zone where some of its dis- solved salts would be precipitated.
Deposits Produced By Alteration.
The origin of gypsum may be explained in a number of ways, each applicable to a particular kind of deposit and all based on the fact that gypsum is produced by the chemical action of sulphuric acid on calcium carbonate. Gypsum may thus be formed in the laboratory, the reaction stated in its simple form being
H2SO,+CaC03=CaS04+H20+C02.
Sulphuric acid dissolved in the water of thermal springs may pro- duce gypsum by acting on travertine. The acid is formed from sulphurous vapors which have been oxidized, and the materials acted upon are principally calcium and magnesium carbonates. The thermal waters on evaporating at the surface deposit the gypsum as layers of fine crystals.
The origin of some gypsum has been attributed to the alteration of limestone by the action of sulphuric acid in water from sulphur springs. The acid may be accounted for by the oxidation of sul- phureted hydrogen, and this acid, working through cracks, joints, and bedding planes in the limestone, reacts with calcium carbonate and forms calcium sulphate.
Gypsum is formed likewise by sulphurous acid, which escapes around the fumaroles of volcanoes and which, when it is converted into sulphuric acid, attacks rocks which contain lime.
Limestone may also be converted to gypsum by sulphuric acid derived by ground water from pyritic shales. A more or less con- stant supply of acid in the ground water might in time change bedded limestone to apparently bedded gypsum. This origin has been ascribed by some to the gypsum deposits in New York.
Individual crystals or small groups of crystals or plates of selenite are common in some clay and shale deposits but so scattered as to b
26 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
of no economic importance. These disseminated gypsum crystals may be formed by the decomposition of pyrite, which gives rise to sulphuric acid and soluble sulpljates that act upon any lime present, as in fossil shells, and convert it into gypsum.
Anhydrite alters to gypsum by taking up water and recrystallizing. In this reaction great pressure is developed, for there is an increase of 83 per cent in volume. The force of the expansion is sufficient to lift a considerable thickness of overlying strata and has been con- sidered to be the cause of the hummocky surface over some gypsxun deposits.
Anhydrite generally oecurs in sedimentary beds, but it is not commonly found at the surface. Outcrops of anhydrite in Okla- homa and New Mexico are exceptions to this rule. Most of the known occurrences oT massive anhydrite are in mines or deep wells. In a number of mines the large irregular massed of anhydrite com- pletely surrounded by gypsum and the increasing abundance of anhydrite with depth suggest that it was the original mineral of the deposit. That the gypsum in a number of mines is derived from anhydrite is proved conclusively by the microscopic structure of thin sections of the rock.
Deposits Produced By Disintegration And Mechanioal Reaccctmdu-
Lation.
Dunes of gypsmn sand are found in a number of places where wind erosion* is active. A large deposit of this sort is formed by the white sands in Tularosa Basin, New Mexico, which cover about 270 square miles. The sand is derived in part from the disintegra- tion of gypsum exposed at the surface. Furtheririore, the surface waters are highly impregnated with various salts. Evaporation is rapid and produces an efflorescence or crust which is disintegrated and blown by the wind into drifts. The sand derived from these two sources contains soluble salts, which are subsequently redissolved, leaving the dunes composed of practically pure gypsum.
Geologic Age Of Deposits.
The commercial deposits of gypsum that are being exploited in the United States range in age from Silurian to Quaternary. The age of some deposits, like that at Fort Dodge, Iowa, is so much in doubt that they are omitted from the subjoined table. Others, like tlie deposits near Bridger, Mont., and Empire Mountains, Ariz., are classified tentatively.
-Qe of gypsum deposits.
Quaternary Arizona, Douglas, Tucson; New Mexico, County of
Otero, white sands.
Tertiary California; Nevada, lacustrine deposits.
Cretaceous Arkansas.
r C
Analyses Ot Gypsum, 27
Jurassic Colorado; Montana, Heatb; New Mexico; Utah.
Triassic Montana, Bridger; Nevada, western area; South
Dakota ; Wyoming. Permian Arizona, Winslow; Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvanlan Arizona, Empire Mountains; Montana, Hanover,
Kibbey, and Riceville ; Nevada, southern area ;
New Mexico. Mississippian Iowa, Centerville; Michigan, southern peninsula;
Virginia. Silurian Michigan, northern peninsula ; New York ; Ohio.
It is noticeable that the most exte[nsive gypsum deposits in the omitry, those in the wem United States, occur only in the Penn- sylvanian, Triassic, and Jurassic rocks. In several places the gyp- rsum is closely associated with beds of salt, and the fact that both minerals occur in majsive and extensive beds is indicative of wide- spread aridity, Paleogeography shows that from Pennsylvanlan to late Jurassic time the sedimentary history of much of the western part of the United States ran an uneventful course with no physical changes of gret moment. During much of the time the sea was shut out and its place taken in part by inland seas or lakes. There were occasional invasions of the sea, so that the estuaries and .nland bodies were sometimes salt, sometimes brackish, and sometimes fresh. That the sea did come in is shown by beds of limestone with marine fossils, iuid exclusion of the sea and arid conditions are shown by the widespread deposits of salt and gypsum. Deposition took place in these bodies of water and in dry basins; and in large part the material was derived so extensively from deeply weathered surfaces that the sedimentary strata are pre- vailingly red. Hence tlie name "Eed Beds,'' which is closely asso- ciated with many of the western gypsum deposits.
Analyses Of Gypsum,
By R, W. Stone.
The following analyses are compiled from various sources. Some were made in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey from samples collected by members of the Survey. Some are taken from publications of State geological surveys. Others have been furnished by gypsum corapanies wiHiout information as to the analyst. The total calcium sulphate in each analysis has been com- puted by the writer from the sulphur trioxide. The significance of each analysis depends on the method of taking the sample, the method of preparing it for analysis, and other methods employed. As these are not known, a discussion of the analyses is not attempted.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
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Gypsum Miposits Of The United States.
Errors In The Chemical Anai.Ysis Of Gypsujb.
By Geobge S'miGEB.
Some difficulty was e:erienced with the determinations of water in the chemical analyses of gypsum made in connection with a rNort cm gypsum in California.
As is the custom in the cheanical laboratory of the United States Greolocal Survey the specimens were prepared for ,nalysis by long grinding, to bring the materials to a very fine state of division. The water content in several spedmens was so low as to throw dooibt <mi the determinations; -consequently, the figures were checked by tlie estimation of water the unground material. The new figures were several per cent higher than those previously fund.
Some experiments were then made on a sample of pure selemte, nd on one of very pure massive gypsum, each of which contsained the theoretical percentage of water. The results proved to be of suffi- cient interest to warrant their being noted in connection with the present paper, as they go to show the totally fallacious results which might be reported in an analysis of gypsum if proper attention is not paid to the preparation of the sample. Fine grinding of any !X)ck in pieparing ihe sampte for chemical analysis' is liable to cause serious error in determination of water, though usually not to the extent of the one in question,
The selenite was ground in a mechanical grinder and the water con- tent was determined from time to time by heating a gram portion to a temperature of 300° or 400° C. The extent of rehydration of this material wich had been ground and heated was then determined by allowing it to stand in a loosely covered crucible for various lengths of time. For lack of time the rydration of the ground material before heating was, unfortunately, not determined.
Extent af rehydration of ground and heated gypsum by ewposwre to Jr.
Time
Content of
Air
Water re-
ground.
water.
slacked.
absorbed.
Hows.
Percmt,
Days.
Percent.
16.66 ;
2"
i!53*'
t
,
l.SO
10.25 :
B
B
,
1.
1 Hesfi, P. I.., A reconnaissance eS. the gypsum deposits of California : U. S. Qeol. Sw- vey BuH. 418, 1910.
Hlllebrand, W. F., The influence of flnB grinding on the water and ferrous-iron content of minerals and rocks : Am. Chem. c. J'Wir., vol. 30*, p. 1120, 1908.
Errors Ik The Chemical Analysis Of Gypsum.
Potilitzin and Van't Hoif hold that " soluble anhydrite " will unite with water when exposed to ordinary air in such quantity as to form the half hydrate (CaSO.HgO) and that at this point the hydration will cease. Cloez determined the quantity of water absorbed by solu- ble aiAydrite to be 8 per cent, which is slightly in excess of the amount required to form the half hydrate — that is, 6.2 per cent
W. A, Davis has shown the woA of Cloez to be correct, but if the product is then exposed to dry air it will lose water to such an extent .as to leave a resulting material containing water closely approximat- ing the amount required for the half hydrate. From these data it may be concluded that for every 1 per cent of rehydration which has taken place, as shown in column headed " Water reabsorbed," 15.1 per cent of "soluble anhydrite" was present, the remainder havmg been there in the nonsetting condition.
Results of the same order were obtained from the sample of mas- sive gypsum, though this was not ground so long as the selenite.
The following table is given to show the extent to which the dehy- dration due to grinding might affect the results of the chemical analysis of a commercial gypsum:
Extent to which dehydration due to grinding may ajfeot analyses of gypsum.
Water in
Water in
coarse
fine
Difference.
grotmd.
gromid.
— .42
The material used for the determinations contained in the first column was crushed in a mortar only to a rather coarse powder; no grinding motion was used. These figures rresent the true per- centages of water held by the impure gypsums. In the second column will be found the percentages of water retained after con- tinued grinding of fresh portions of the same specimens, and in the third column the errors caused by the long grinding.
Standard methods"were used for the determination of CaO, SO3, etc, with the usual precautions. No diflfculties were exi)erienced.
As stated by Van't Hoff, if the dehydration of gypsum takes place below 107° C. anhydrite is formed without going through the half -hydrate stage. If the crude gypsums referred to in the earlier part of Bulletin 413 were formed by the dehydration of the dihy-
1 Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour., vol. 26, p. 727, 1907.
32 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
drate by the action of the desert sun, and if Van't Hoffs conclusions are to be accepted, we might expect to find no half hydrate, but only the original dihydrate and anhydrite. W. A. Davis, however, shows by experiments that dehydration takes place in two stages, the half hydrate being an intermediate product. If this theory is accepted, all three forms may be present.
Le Chatelier showed that at 155° C. the dehydration is incomplete, the half hydrate only being formed at this temperature. He states that the reduction to anhydrite requires a temperature of at least 163° C. Lacroix claims that gypsum can be completely dehydrated at 80° C, and Shensjione and Cundall observed that the water may be entirely driven off at 70° C.
The allotropic forms in which these compounds may occur, tneir relations one with another, and the contradictory results obtained by numerous experimenters, together with the unknown conditions un- der which the dehydration or deposition of the crude gypsums re- ferred to took place, throw doubt on any conclusions that would bo drawn from an ordinary chemical analysis as to the amount of plaster a particular specimen might yield.
In crude gypsums that have been produced by natural processes under circumstances which are not fully known, either by the dehy- dration of the dihydrate or by direct deposition in the partly hy- drated state, we wouIH expect to find mixtures containing the dihy- drate, the half hydrate, and the anhydrate, the last being partly in the soluble and partly in the nonsetting form From the bulk analysis of such material it is not possible to calculate the propor- tions of these compounds. All that can be done is to indicate the minimum quantity of plaster that might be produced by combining the entire amount of water (about 100° C.) to the dihydrate, pro- viding the material contains sufficient calcium sulphate.
Here again false conclusions may sometimes be drawn, for many crude gypsums contain admixed clay or other hydrated materials. If impurities of this character are present the amount of plaster the sample will yield, as shown by the above calculation, will appear too high. On the other hand, if the partly dehydrated material contains a quantity of the half hydrate or soluble anhydrite, the figures will be too low, as both of these forms are capable of producing plaster.
Experimental records on the constitution of hydraulic mortar, a Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour., vol. 26, p. 735, 1907.
See Clarke, F. W., The data of geochemistry, 4th ed. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 695, pp. 218, 242, 578, 1920.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States. 33
The Gypsum Industry.
By R. W. Stone. HISTORICAIi SKETCH.
Man has known the value of gypsum for certain purposes so long that the date of the discovery of its peculiar properties is unrecorded. The ancient Assyrians used alabaster for sculpture, and the Egyp- tians 4,000 years ago made plaster from calcined gypsum, the same as the plaster of Paris of the present time. Some of their plaster work done within the pyramids is hard and durable to-day. That the Greeks were familiar with gypsum is shown by the writings of Theophrastus (born 372 B. C), and Pliny the Elder (23-79 A. D.) speaks of it in his Historia naturalis.
The white rock gypsum known as alabaster has been used in Europe for centuries in the ornamentation of buildings, particularly those devoted to religious purposes, and continues to the present, large quantities being used in Italy for sculpture. Calcined gypsum has had no extensive use until within the past half century, although for several centuries it has been utilized for plaster and for making casts.
Gypsum has been quarried and used in the United States for some- what more than a century. The advancing tide of settlers found and first used the easternmost deposits — those in central New York — then those in Virginia, Michigan, Ohio, and Iowa. Gypsum was discov- ered in New York as early as 1792, and a stock company was organ- ized in 1808 to quarry the rock for land plaster, but not until 1892 was the first production of plaster in New York reported. The utilization of the gypsum of Virginia for land plaster was advocated in 1835. About 1840 the deposits near Grand Eapids, Mich., were discovered, and before 1850 gypsum was being obtained near San- dusky, Ohio. Iowa began to produce gypsum in 1872 and California in 1875. In 1895 the production of 265,503 tons of crude gypsum was reported from 13 States, and in 1915 eighteen States and Alaska were yielding nearly ten times as much crude g}"psum as in 1895, the amounts ranging from a few thousand tons in some of the States to more than one-half million tons in New York. The output of crude gypsum mined in the United States in 1918 was 2,057,015 short tons, and the total value of the crude and calcined gypsum sold was $11,470,854;
The most rapid development of the industry was between 1898 and 1903, when the increase in production was more than 350 per cent. At that time gypsum wall plaster began to be used extensively. Since its introduction as a building material the increase in use of gypsum for this purpose has been rapid and the industry has grown from $750,000 in 1898 to approximately $11,000,000 in 1918. There
Gypsum Ibposits Oy The United States,
were 57 gypsum mills in the United States in 1918. The largest producers are the United States Gypsum Co., Chicago, Ill.,#the Acme Cement Plaster Co., St. Louis, Mo., and the American Cement Plaster Co., Chicago, 111., each operating several mills and quarries in a number of States.
Two gypsum products of recent development, plaster board aJid gypsum tile, are adding impetus to modern sanitary fire-resistant or protective construction and seem to augiu* an appreciable increase in the g}sum industry.
Pboduction,
The following taMe the development of the industry : Crude gypsum mmed in the United States, 1880-1918.
Short tons.
1880 90, 600
1881 85, 000
i882_: 100, oeo
1883 90, Ooo
1884 90, 000
1885 90, 405
1886 95,250
1887 95,000
1888 no, 090
1889 267, 769
1890 182, 995
1891 208,126
1892 256, 259
Short toDB.
1893 253, 615
1894 239, 312
1895 265, 503
1896 224, 254
1897 288, 982
1898 291, 638
1899... 486, 235
1900 594, 462
1963 633, 791
1902 816, 478
1903 1, 041, 704
1904 940, 917
1905 1,D43. 202
PROnUGING LOCAIilTIES.
hort tons.
1906 1, 540, 585
1907 1, 751, 748
1908 1,721.829
1909 2, 252, 785
1910 2,379,057
1911 2, 323. 970
1912 2, 500, T57
1913 2, 599, 508
1914 2. 476. 465
1915 2, 447, 611
1916 2, 757, 730
1917 2, 696, 226
1918 2, 057, 015
Gypsum was mined and calcined in 1919 at plants located in the following places:
Arizona : Douglas. California: Amboy. Colorado: Loveland, Portland. Iowa: CenterviUe, Fort Dodge. Kansas : Blue Rapids, Medicine Lodge. Michigan: Alabaster, Grand Rapids,
Grandville. Montana : Hanover. Nevada: Arden, Mound House. New Mexico : Acme, Oriental. New York: Akron, Garbutt, Oakfield. Ohio: CastaUa, Gypsum, Port CUnton.
Gypsum from Nova Scotia is calcined at Brooklyn, New Brighton, Newburgh, and New York City, N. Y. ; at New Haven, Conn. ; and at Chester, Pa,
Twelve plants report the manufacture of Keenes cement, and 28 plants operated by the original producers of the gypsum report
aking gypsum block, tile, or board.
Oklahoma: Acme, Eldorado, Okeene, Southard.
Oregon: Gypsum.
South Dakota : Black Hawk, Pied- mont.
Texas : Acme, Plasterco.
Utah: Nephi, Sigurd.
Virginia: North Holston, Plasterco.
Washington: Tacoma (using Alaska gypsum ) .
Wyoming : Kane, Laramie, Red Buttes.
U. 8. OBOLOOICAl
BULLBTIN m PLATE YI
iw
The Gypsum Ikbustry.
The producing localities are shown on the accompanying map of tlie United States (PL VI). This map shows graphically that the industry is distributed, except in the southeastern part of the United States. South of Ohio River and east of the Mississippi there is only one locality, near Saltville, Va., where gypsum is mined.
At some of the localities listed above the deposits have been ATvorked for many years; at others the development .is recent. There are other localities in the United States where gypsum has been mined and calcined but which have been abandoned because of the exhaustion of easily available raw material, burning of the mill, or lack of markets.
Production By States.
Gypsum was produced in 18 States and in Alaska in 1918. New York was the largest producer of raw gypsum Iowa ranked second, and Michigan was third. Sales of gypsum products are credited to Illinois, Minnesota, Washington, and Wisconsin, although these States are not producers. This is the necessary result of the trend of the gypsum industry toward assembling calcined gypsum, re- tarder, fiber, and sand, and preparing plasters for the market at local mixing mills, from which they may be more readily and eco- nomically distributed to the trade territory. Sales reported to the Survey from mixing plants and warehouses are credited to the State in which the plants are located.
Gypsum produced and marketed in the United States, 1918.
State.
Arizona, California, Colorado. Illinois, o Miiiiiesota,a Mcm- tana. Nevada, New Mexico, Oregoai, South Dakota, Utah, Virginia, Wiwhkigtnn,gWis- consino
Iowa
Kansas
Michigan
New York
Ohio
Oklahoma
Texas
Wyoming
Num-
Total
ber of
quantity-
plants
mined
report- ing.
(short tons).
331,395
327,927
54,958
286,768
531,038
199,456
126,208
157,388
41,877
2,057,015
Sold without calcining.
Ground for land plaster.
Quan- tity (short tons).
40,428 10,546
(?) 5,892
3,139
4,391
64,571
Value.
$159,215 37,823
23,876 14,552 19,277
255,716
For Portland
cement, paint,
and other
purposes.
Quan- tity (short tons).
71,596 47,173
(&)
40,716
179,968
9,614
35,211
%]
405,621
Value.
$168,082 122,325
(P) 107,562
442,087
29,295
70,437
(J)
Sold as caldned plaster.
Quantity (short tons).
980,836
208,763 218, 178
46,710 207, 059 275,333 162,626
72,271 129,034
29,813
Value.
$1,515,
1,786,
343,
1,629,
2,213,
1,191,
567,
834,
195,
1, 328, 269| 10,234,302
Total value.
Jl, 1,
842,447 946,414 343, 749 761,149 670,099 239,649 637,644 834,560 195, 143
11,470,854
a No crude gypsum is produced in the State.
6 Some crude gypsum is included with calcined plaster.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The sum of the quantity sold without calcining and sold as cal- cined plaster does not equal the total quantity mined, principally because there is a loss of about 15 per cent by weight in calcining.
In the following table is given by States the quantity of gypsum mined from 1908 to 1918. It shows that New York has been the principal producer since 1909, and Iowa has ranked second since 1911.
Crude gypsum produced in the United States 1908-1918 in short tons.
state.
Alaska
Arizona
CaUfomia
Colorado
Iowa
Kansas
Midiigan
Montana
Nevada
New Mexico...
New York
Ohio
Oklahoma---'-.
Oregon
South Dakota .
Tex'-s
Utah
Virginia
Wyoming
Undistributed.
240,270 130, 184 327,810
1,721,829
2,252,785
(o)
45,901
45,820
322,713
135,088
357,174
162,788
188,559 46,279
607,396
2,379,057
43,855
26,226 354,204 122,579 347,296
472,834 108,653
2,323,970
47,741
411,186 131,081 384,297
122,406
506,996 262,551 135,074
160,863
36,581 302,029
2,500,767
State.
Alaska
Arizona
California
Colorado
Iowa
Kansas
Michigan
Montana..
Nevada
New Mexico...
New York
Ohio ,
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota .
Texas ,
Utah
Virginia
Wyoming
Undistributed
49,015
456,031 110,510 423,896
43,180 529,627 254,863 147,876
161,090
30,632 392,788
S
2,599,508 2,476,465
27,376
32,659
(°)
480,404
495,860
80,774
60,919
393,006
389,791
(a\
<a)
fOl
(o)
523,368
540,914
265,091
259,036
113,103
110,790
[:i
n
158,814
176,306
44,950
31,216
23,445
38,827
358,363
319,164
s
32,576
522,293
78,257
457,375
579,827 286,678 161,661
197,785
2,447,611
46,964 394,315
2,757,730
2,696,226 2,057,015
a To avoid giving the production of individual plants, the figures are included under " Undistiibuted/'
Production By Uses.
The quantity and value of gypsum marketed for different purposes is shown in the following table :
THE GYPStTM INDUSTEY.
Si o
faO
Pi
Itf
Os
1-4 1-4 1-4 r-5 ci
S'
1 i-H Q6
eooo i" '
S'
Pi
eooco
1-1 Pi Co
Pi
r4 1-4 1-4 c4 ci cc
SCO to op CO -H 1-1 WQ 1-1
O C4 cO CO 'O
00 O) C4 Ooco
lOiocOOOOOtO
1-5 r4 T-i 1-5 1-4 c4
S
Q Q Q Q Q
In
CHCICOCSIi
is;
'Co'
e Q O O Q
Ih 1-1 1—1 1-1 1-4
OS Oi OS OS OS
o
Cq
O
a
o
o
gs
o a
Pis
CO cot*- so o
to OQOOS trHOSOCO
ocsosScsi
t ti-
S8P*'
i04<-i9V it>.00C0N
lit?
Pi
0)
a o a
is!
Sfli
-a
Hi
Co 1-1 C0 1-1 Co 95
eo CO t- 1-1 OS Qo
©ootiSJgeo
Kooco S3
00 00 00 1— t CO
s
e4c4 U3D
Oocousos
coccvust*
- CO to CD 00 00
1 e5 CO iv.
OS OS OS o o
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States
Impob.Ts.
Gypsum imported into the United States comes almost wholly from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick and enters the ports of the New England and North Atlantic States, over one-half of it enter- ing the port of New York. The value of imports from 1889 to 1898 averaged about one-third of the value of domestic production, but , since 1899 the proportionate value of imports has become very small and seems to be steadily decreasing. It amounted to Icvss than one-twelfth of the value of domestic producticm in 1913, about one-fifteenth in 1914, and one seventy-ninth in 1918.
QypsiAtn imported and entered for consumption in the United States, 1913-1918*
Unground.
Ground or calcined.
Value of manufac- tured plaster of Paris.
Year.
Quantity (short tons).
Value.
Quantity (short tons).
Value.
Total value.
447,383 369,214 336,856 264,131 240,269 50,653
$473,594 392, 118 356,791 275,943 265,504 55,664
4,542 3,559 5,749 11,706 16,533 6,117
$31,277 27,931 22,873 72,345
109,732 70,028
$52,051
24,792
10,095
9,085
6,016
1,766
S556,S22
444, S41
389, 759
356,473
381,252
126, 77
a Figures compiled from records of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce.
Technoloot.
Mining, — The variety of gypsum ccnnmonly used is massive or rock gypsum, which is mined where it occurs in beds several feet thick. The first operation at all properties is quarrying from the outcrop. In some places a flat-lying bed is close to the surface, and quarrying is continued by stripping the overburden; in other places the overburden becomes excessive a short distance from the out- crop, and quarrying gives place to mining, either from adits driven in the quarry face or from shafts. Flat-lying beds are mined by the room and pillar system. Where the gypsum beds dip strongly a sloping shaft follows the bed underground, drifts are run out from it, and the rock is taken by stoping.
Rock gypsum is drilled and shot down with powder, broken into lumps that can be lifted by one man, and loaded into tram cars for delivery to the crusher.
At a number of places in the Western States gypsite or gypsum earth is used instead of rock gypsum. This soft pulverulent ma- terial is dug by hand, with horse scrapers, or with gasoline shovel, and hauled to the mill by wagon or tram.
('Tushing. — Gypsite is dumped into storage bins and sent to the kettles without further treatment, grinding being unnecessary. Rock
The Gypsum Industry. 39
gypsum is broken in a jaw crusher or nipper, from which it falls into a gyratory crushei\ Wlien reduced to pieces the size of coarse com, it is carried by belt conveyer to a dryer, a large rotating cylin- der, slightly inclined from the horizontal. Crush rock is fed into the upper end and dried by hot gases entering at the lower end. The rock is then pulverized in burr, emery, or roller mills or in disintegrators and elevated to storage bins in the top of the building.
Calcining, — In nearly all gypsum mills the pulverized rock is cal- cined, in kettles. A calcining kettle is a hoUoW cylinder of boiler plate, having a diameter of 8 to 14 feet and a depth of 6 to 10 feet. It has a convex iron or steel bottom. The kettle rests on a masonry fire box and is surrounded by a shell of brick. The gypsum is stirred by an agitator consisting of a gear-driven vertical shaft, to the bottom of which is attached a curved cross arm bearing several stirring paddles. A sheet-iron lid with loading doors covers the, kettle.
The gypsum, whether ground rock gypsum or gypsite, is fed slowly into the kettle, which is heated to 212° F. The temperature is raised gi-adually and the heat drives off the water of crystallization of the gypsum in the form of steam. The steam passing through the material floats it up and gives it the appearance of boiling. This stage is reached at 230° F. At about 10° higher the mass settles down, and if "first settle plaster' is desired, the contents of the kettle are drawn off at once through a gate near the bottom. For " second settle plaster " the temperature is raised, and at 270° F. the mass begins to boil violently again. At a temperature of about 350° F. the material is discharged through a gate into a fireproof bin or on to a floor, where it cools.
At a few mills gypsum is calcined in rotary kilns by the Cummer process. The rock ground by the gyratory crusher to pieces three- fourths of an inch in diameter is fed mechanically in regular quantity into a long, nearly horizontal, rotating cylinder, where it is partly calcined by hot gases from a fire box built beneath. Most of the free water is eliminated and some of the water of crystallization. It requires about 10 minutes for the gypsum to pass through the rotary calciner, and during this time it is constantly agitated by falling from lifting blades or shelves. As it leaves the calciner, it is steaming and heated uniformly to the desired temperature, which ranges from 400° to 600° F.
The hot steaming rock is elevated to brick or brick-lined calcin- ing bins, which are so constructed that the material in process of calcination is thoroughly ventilated, though the outside air is ex- cluded. The heat carried to these bins by the material from the rotary calciner rapidly disseminates itself through the mass and
40 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
completes the calcining process. To make the process continuous, four bins are required for each plant, the capacity of a single bin being equal to the daily output of the plant. While calcination is being completed in two bins, the third one is being discharged and the fourth is being filled. Plaster made by this process is pulverized after calcination.
In some very large and modem plants, calcining is completed in the rotary kiln, and the plaster goes direct to a cooling bin.
Calcined- plaster is screened or bolted, and the oversize is reground in burr mills or pulverizers of other types.* After screening and regrinding, the material is elevated to storage bins in the upper part of the mill over the mixing machines.
Mixing, — If pure material has been used this calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris will consist of calcium sulphate plus a residue of about one- fourth of the water in the gypsum. The ideal composition of plaster of Paris is represented by 'the formula CaSO.HgO, which calls for 93.8 per cent of calcium sulphate and 6.2 per cent of water. Plaster of Paris when mixed with water will set or harden. This is the principal characteristic from which gypsum derives its economic importance. Pure plaster of Paris of normal fineness (80 per cent passing 100 mesh) starts to set in about 6 minutes. There- fore in preparing gypsum plaster for the market for most uses a retarder must be added. The retarder commonly used in the United States is composed of hair, caustic soda, and lime. This retarder, together with other materials, such as sand and wood fiber, which may be added to the plaster for various purposes, is usually mixed with the plaster at the mill.
The mixing machine, which as a rule is installed on the first or shipping floor, consists of three parts — at the top a hopper that opens into the floor above, in the middle a mixing chamber in which are paddles that revolve in opposite directions, and below this a sacking chamber with several chutes for filling a number of sacks or bags simultaneously.
From the storage bins the cool calcined plaster is drawn by gravity through chutes to the hopper of the mixing machine. The other ingredients are carefully weighed and are added in the proper: pro- l)ortions, and the contents of the hopper are discharged into the mixing chamber. After mechanical mixing for a few minutes the plaster is dropped into the sacking chamber, from which it is fed into containers. It is then ready for use..
Arrangement and cost of plaster mills, — As plaster mills are gen- erally arranged the roek is received at one end of the mill, where the power plant is located and the crushing is done. The grinding and
The Gypsum Industry. 41
calcining department is in the middle of the building, and the mixing, sacking, and storage space is in the opposite end from the crusher. Local conditions vary the details of. arrangement. In some mills the crusher is on the ground floor at the end of the mill nearest the quarry, and the cracker is in an excavation directly below the crusher. In other mills, especially those at a lower elevation than the quarry, the crusher is on the second floor and the cracker below it on the first floor. The kettles, hot pit, power plant, and sacking and storage rooms are also on the ground floor. The second floor is occupied by the tops of the kettles, by the burr mills, and by the charging hopper of the mixing machine. Storage bins for the burr mills, kettles, and mixer occupy the third floor.
Several factors make considerable variation in the cost of a gypsum mill of given capacity. These factors include type of mill, availability and kind of building material, labor, and location with respect to transportation. Estimates of approximate cost of plaster mills, when constructed bf wood, including necessary mills, kettles, conveyors, building, and bins complete, ranged in 1916 from $7,000 to $10,000 for a capacity of 25 tons in 24 hours and a 60-horsepower steam plant and from $27,000 to $30,000 for a capacity of 100 tons in 24 hours and a 150-horsepower steam plant. A mill of steel con- struction, fireproof throughout, having a capacity of 200 tons in 24 hours and requiring a 300-horsepower plant, would cost complete $75,000 or more. In 1919 the cost of similar construction would be about double the estimated- cost in 1916.*
Cost of gypsum pluster. — The cost of producing and marketing gypsum plaster varies considerably, even in different plants op- erated by the same company. Local conditions affect cost of mining, fuel, and selling, and the season of the year is a large factor as well. Figures given by large producing companies and verified by the writer from their cost sheets are the basis for the following statements.
One company having a single plant reports that for the years 1911-1915 the average cost of production per ton of calcined plaster was $2.64. This company has cheap power, but the selling cost of the product was at times very high. With large production and low selling cost it has made plaster for $1.78, and with these con- ditions reversed it has cost $3.43 a ton.
Two of the largest gypsimi companies in the United States fur- nished the following figures of cost for 1915. The first company gave its average costs and the second its maximum and minimum costs per ton.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Cost of producing and selling neat gypsum plaster
in 1916.
First company.
Second comivuiy.
Average.
Minimum.
Maxlzniim.
Mininir
$0.65
$0.52
$1.10
Mining
Shrinkage
Repairs and supplies
On account of the increased cost of labor and of all supplies en- tering into the manufacture of gypsum plaster, the cost since 1915 has increased more than 80 per cent, but detailed figures are not available.
Uses Of Gypsum.
Vncalcined gypsum. — Nearly half a million tons of gypsum is sold annually without calcining. The bulk of this material is used as retarder for Portland cement. Raw gypsum crushed to pass througli a half-inch ring is added to the cement clinker as it comes from tlie roaster in the proportion of 2 per cent of gypsum to the total quan- tity of cement. The next largest use of raw gypsum and one of the earliest in this country is as land plaster or fertilizer. It has a very beneficial effect with some crops, especially clover and other legumes. The action of gypsum as a fertilizer is indirect, and not as a plant food itself. It is supposed to act on the double silicate ol magnesia and potash, setting those substances free to act as plant food. Land in the Western States which contains black alkali or which upon being irrigated develops it in excess, to the detriment of crops, is made usable by the application of gypsum. The carbon- ates of soda, potash, and magnesia, which form black alkali, are changed to sulphates, which are less injurious to plants.
Kaw ground gypsum or land plaster, if applied freely on manure piles and stable litter, acts as a disinfectant and also retains the am- monia, which is the valuable product of the barnyard manure heap. Gypsum reacts with the ammonia of the manure to form ammonium sulphate. This easily available plant food thereby is not given ofi into the air nor is it readily washed from the heap by rain, but it is saved until the manure is spread on the land.
Haw ground gypsum is used in making the common blackboard crayon, as base for paints, as a filler for cotton and in nearly all the finer grades of paper, and as a base for mixing with Paris green or other insecticides. It is sometimes added to water used for brewing.
The Gypsum Industry. 4S
Raw gypsum and gypsite are used successfully at a few places in arid sections of the Western States as road metal, and gypsum has; teen quarried in blocks for building material. Fine-grained semi- translucent rock gypsum or alabaster is used by sculptors and artists for statuary and other forms of decoration, but so far as the writer is aware it is not quarried in this country for this purpose.
Calcined gypsum, — The principal use of calcined gypsum, amount- ing to about a million and a half tons annually, is as wall plaster. gypsum wall plasters have other materials added to the calcined gypsum either before sacking or just before wetting for use. These plasters, of which there are many brands, commonly known as hard wall plaster, may be grouped in four classes: Cement plaster — cal- cined gypsum, retarder, with or without hair. Wood fiber plaster — calcined gypsum, retarder, wood fiber. Prepared plaster — calcined gypsum, retarder, sand, hair or wood fiber. Finishing plaster — calcined gypsum, with or without retarder, with or without hydrated
j lime.
! These plasters are used in the ordinary manner for covering walls and ceilings, being spread on wood or metal latlt, plaster board, tile, concrete, or other masonry. Because it is a poor conductor of heat and cold gypsum plaster is used as an insulating medium in cold- storage buildings, around steel frames of buildings, and as a covering
i , for heating plants and water pipes.
t An industry of recent development which is gwing rapidly is the
T making of gypsum plaster board, tile, and blocks.
Gypsum plaster lards are of various types, mainly consisting of gypsum plaster mixed with fibrous binding material to give strength
; ' and toughness for effective nailing. A type of plaster board iji com-
jit J mon use consists of four alternate layers of or felt with three
[, ; intermediate layers of gypsum. Other boards contain but two layers
. of felt with a gypsum layer between. In order to meet the joist and
stud spacing of standard construction, plaster boards are usually
32 by 36 inches (8 square feet) and are made one- fourth, thiee-
eighths, and one-half inch in thickness. The fibrous binding mate-
rial forming the outside surface of the plaster boards is an excel-
ilent bonding surface for gypsum plaster. Plaster boards are used jin place of wood or metal lath on surfaces that are to be plastered
jj ' and where liigh fire-i'esistive construction is required. In fireproof ; construction the plaster boards are fastened to metal studs or hangers
by metal clips. Plaster boards are used for deadening sound by being- laid between rough and finished floors; as sheathing boards by being nailed to the studding and behind the clapboards; as outside sliedth-
ing, which is waterproofed before application of outside stucco cov-
44 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
ering; as insulation and fire resistance under- wood shingles, in aij ducts, and in dumb-waiter shafts.
Gypsum floor screeds are used as a nailing sleeper for floors. Thej are 2 by 3 inches and 8 feet long and weigh 2 pounds per linear foot. They do not rot or bum.
Gypsum tile is made for partitions, floors, roofs, and furring. Partition tile, solid or hollow, is 12 by 30 inches wide and 2 to 8 inches thick. These tiles, laid with gypsum plaster, are used in the highest type of fireproof building for dividing and corridor parti- tions, in elevator and stairway inclosures, and in dumb-waiter shafts; they are light in weight, can be laid very rapidly, can be cut with a handsaw, and, when plastered with gypsum, make partitions of high heat-resistive value.
Gypsum floor tile is a hollow box or dome of reinforced gypsum plaster, used as a filler between concrete joist construction. These tiles are 19 inches wide and 24 inches long, 7, 9, 11, and 13 inches high, and weigh 24, 27, 30, and 33 pounds per linear foot; they aflFord a saving in dead weight of construction and provide a smooth, all- gypsum ceiling to plaster upon.
Gypsum roof tile is made 24 and 30 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 3 inches thick and is laid between supporting subpurlin T irons. Larger gypsum roof tile, reinforced and made of especially hard gypsum, are made to span 4 feet and are laid upon the main roof purlins. In 1916 a long-span beam in T and I section and as much as 10 feet in length was introduced and used. In 1917 an improved long-span gypsum tile with channel ( n ) section was introduced, gained favor, and is being used on factory roofs of large area and on large Government buildings, including naval gun shops, ammunition warehouses, and docks. The tile are made with reinforcing metal fabric on the broad face and reinforcing rods looped at the ends embedded in the sides. The tile are 15 to 22 inches wide, 6 to 10 feet long, 4 to 7 inches thick, and weigh 16 to 20 pounds per square foot They require less supporting steel than concrete roof decks and are quickly put in place at a low cost of erection. Common practice is to mold 6-foot tile at the mill, an J to mold longer tile where the building is to be erected. For field molding, however, an order of at least 50,000 square feet may be required.
Another type of gypsum roof deck is that which is cast in place, in the same manner as concrete. A roof cast in place is best poured in strips about 3 feet wide. One side of the strip must be bulkheaded and to the proper height, so that a screed moved along it will true the gypsum to the proper surface. Metal reinforcing rods may be placed in each T-beam stem and a 3-foot strip of wire mesh over the top. The finished deck is monolithic and can be covered with
The Gypsum Industry. 45
any type of roofing. The low heat conductivity of gypsum is an especially valuable quality in a roof deck. Slate or any other roof covering can be nailed or otherwise secured to the smooth decks of gypsum roof tile.
Gypsum furring tile are of the same character and general dimen- sions as the partition tile, are hollow or solid, and are 2 inches thick. They are fastened to the wall by nailing and are used for sound absorption and soundproofing, fire protection, insulation from heat or cold, and damp proofing.
Other uses for calcined gypsum which have been in practice longer than those just described are in making statuary and other art work, fi relief maps and models, molds for rubber stamps, molds for pottery and terra cotta, in bedding plate glass for polishing, in foundry f molds for special castings, and in making surgical casts. Calcined I: gypsum enters'into the composition of match heads, hat blocks, relief 'i decorations for walls and ceilings, and asbestos pipe covering, and it I is used for various other purposes.
F
50 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
it flows to a revolving tubular fine wire screen, which removes for- eign material and lumps of gypsum. From this screen the plaster flows directly to a bin over the mixer and sacker. There is no grind- ing machinery; the raw material is dumped directly into the cal- cining kettle, and the plaster is sacked after screening only.
Besides wall plaster this company makes solid and hollow gyj>sum plaster tile and blocks. The tile are used for partitions, roofing, and backing brick veneer; the blocks are used for walls, both interior and exterior. Blocks are made with either smooth, corrugated, or imita- tion rough stone face, and have been used for a number of years in Douglas as the main structural material in some houses, warehouses, and stores. The arid climate of southern Arizona makes possible the successful use of gypsum for exterior construction. A gypsum- block structure is estimated to cost 25 per cent less than brick, because cheaper labor can be used and the large size of the blocks makes walls go up faster. Blocks are made as large as 8 by 12 by 24 inches.
The Douglas Gypsum Block & Plaster Co., beginning in August, 1918, made gypsum products, mostly in the form of cast building blocks. Gypsite from a deposit 5 miles east of Douglas was used. Operations began with one kettle.
Benson, — Reports of extensive gypsum deposits at Benson were not confirmed by a visit to this railroad junction in the valley of San Pedro River. Two miles south of Benson and one-third of a mile west of the Benson-St. David highway there is a place in the bluff forming the valley rim where gypsum crystals are abundant. The locality may be recognized by boulders of grit 2 to 3 feet in diameter near the top of the bluff. The crystals, which are for the most i)art aggregates of platy selenite smaller than a man's hand, occur in red clay, which at this point underlies a grit that ontcrops in the boulders already mentioned. Where the crystals have weathered out in great- est number not more than a few bushels could be raked up. In other words, the deposit has no value.
There is, however, a, deposit about 9 miles south of Benson, which is similar to others in this river valley.
Land. — About 9 miles south of Benson and 1 mile west of Land, a station on a branch of the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad, there is a deposit of gypsum on which mining claims have been located. A cwnpany was formed and stock sold in it, but the writer failed to find any development work other than a little prospecting. The mesa is composed of clay, caliche, soft sandstone, and gravel, and in the bluff which forms its edge gypsum is exposed. Likewise the small outlying knobs and knolls are underlain by gypsum. These deposits are probably of Pliocene, or post-Pliocene age. The plaster ""--k, however, is so deeply weathered, and partly concealed by wash the overlying soft strata, that without digging the character
B. OEOLOGICAL aURVBY BiniBTIK 897 PLATE Va
A. Gyfsitb Deposit. Douglas. Ariz.
Loading is dons by hone aorapen I
HILL OF ARIZONA GYPSUM PLASTER CO. AT DOUGLAS. ARIZ. Gypsum block and tile yaid in fongcoiuHi. Phalograiih by R. W. SUme.
GYPSUM QUARHY S MILES WEST OF WIN8L0W, ARIZ. m ii blaated is
PhoUigraph bj J. A. Taff.
AftlZONA. 51
and thidoss of the <losit couid not be determined* Oenerftl indi- cations point' to a bed about 10 feet thick. The outlying knobs t)om- taining gj psum have little ovedbnrden Mid smaJl acreage. Re- oovering gypsum from the main body under the iisa would sm impracticable by Beason of the ovburden, whidi probably would increase in thickness back from, the outcax>p- Small selenite crystals are abundant in the soil in this vicinity.
Whetstone Muntmms. — In discussing ik agriculture of the bot- tom land of San Pedro Biver near Santa Catarina and Idie applica- tion of gypsum to the soil Oscar Loew says: " This useful mineral is foimd in the neighboring Wheatstone Mountains." This ref- erence probably is to the Whetstone Mountains, a few miks south of Bens<Hi, but no infoimation has been oblned in igard to the deposits.
Mohave Cjounty.
W. T. Lee observed an abundance of gypsum in Virgin Valley and mentions 2 it as follows:
Kie fining of this old valley is apparently composed of two distinct forma- tions, but their relation was not satisfactorily determined. The older one con- sists of alternating layers of sand and ctay and contains extMislve beds of gypsum. The gypsum and gypsiferouis day are c(ispicuosly exposed along the river, where they are dely dissected over a large area locaUy known as the badlands of the Virgin.
While at St. George, Utah, the writer was informed that thick ledges of massive gypsum are extensively exposed in South Mountain and in Quail Canyon, 15 to miles south of St. George. This local- ity is in the extreme northern part of Mohave County and west of Hurricane Cliff.
Kavajo Countt.
Gypsum occurs in the form of selenite in plates of considerable size on the Fort Apache Eeservation, in Navajo County. It is said to occur at three places in such quantity that it might be used in the construction of houses for the Indians.
Winslow, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe.Railway, in Navajo County, was for a number of years the shipping point for gypsum quarried in the vicinity. The raw rock was used at the Portland cement plant at Riverside, Calif., and some was calcined at Ix)s Ange- les. Shipments were discontinued in 1914, owing, it is said, to an increased freight rate. The deposit lies on both sides of the railroad miles west of town. Holdings of the Acme Cement Plaster Co. in sec. 15, T. 19 N., E. 15 E., are said and appear to be worked out. A much larger tract in sees. 16 and and neighboring
lU. S. Geog. and GeoL Surveys W. lOOth Mer. Final Rept., vol. 3, p. 591, 1875. *Lee, W. T., Geologic* reconnaissance of a part of western Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey BulL 862, p. 86, 190&
52 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
sections of the same township is held by the Navajo Gypsum & Fer- tilizer Co. It is reported that this deposit extends nearly 5 miles south from the railroad in a belt that is in places more than a mile wide. The gypsum is flat lying and close to the surface and needs only a little stripping. Both companies when operating obtained their rock by the same method. Large blocks of gypsum were blasted from the ledge (as shown on PI. VIII, J.), broken with sledges to lumps that could be lifted by hand, and loaded on tram cars for delivery at the loading platform on the railroad siding. The Navajo company used steel cars, which were hauled on the half mile of track between the quarry and the railroad by gasoline engine.
The bed, which lies flat, is from 4 inches to 4 feet thick and aver- ages about 18 inches, rests on red shale and is overlain in places by green shale in which there are many veinlets of satin spar. Much of the gypsum seen at Winslow by the writer has a slight greenish tinge due to mottling by some green claylike mineral scattered through the white gypsum. The rock approaches alabaster in fine- ness of grain. It occurs in red shale and sandstone of the Moencopie formation, probably of Permian age.
Deposits of gypsum are reported to have been slightly developed in the vicinity of Woodruff and Snowflake, but they are not now operated and no description can be given of the occurrences.
Pima County.
Serritas Mountains, — It has been reported that in the Serritas Mountains south of Tucson gypsum occurs with the copper ore de- posits of the Azurite group. Inquiry of several mining men, in- cluding Mr. Hay, owner of the Mineral Hill mines (Azurite group), and the mineralogist at San Xavier mine, failed to substantiate this report.
Santa Rita Mountains. — A; gypsum locality described as in the Santa Eita Mountains "not far from Eosemont" probably is the locality in which gypsum occurs near the Total Wreck mine on the east side of the Empire Mountains and 10 miles south of Pantano, a station on the Southern Pacific Eailroad. Mr. Carl Schofield, forest ranger, at Eosemont, and mining men familiar with the re- gion have no knowledge of gypsum in the Santa Eita Mountains.
Empire Mountains, — According to Hatcher, Carpenter, and An- drus, mining engineers of Tucson, there is a deposit of psum in the Empire Mountains, 10 miles by road from Pantano, and at an elevation of about 1,000 feet above that station. In a limestone ridge parallel with a northeast wash, there are two gypsum beds, each about 50 thick and separated by a thin bed of limestone. These beds outcrop for about a mile and are composed of soft gianular gypsum, mostly white but some cream-cdlored. The soft
Arizona. 53
gypsum contains layers of alabaster 6 to 8 inches thick. The beds strike northeast with the ridge and dip southeast at a high angle. An analysis of this gypsum,* made by Hatcher, Carpenter, and An- drus, is given in the table on page 28. The age of the gypsum beds is believed to be late Carboniferous.
TiiGSOTh.-lii the earlier report on gypsum in Arizona W. P. Blake says :
The locality north of Tucson, in the foothills at the western end of the Santa Catalina Range, has afforded a supply for the production at Tucson of plaster of Paris of good quality, which has been used locally In construction. A considerable quantity of the product was used in malting the interior decora- tions of the cathedral. The crude rock is brought in from the quarry by Mexican teamsters, and little is known in regard to the geologic position of the deposit. It is probable that it occurs in strata of Triassic age, flanking the ancient gneiss of the mountains.
The writer made diligent inquiry at Tucson regarding this locality without success. Doubtless there was such a quarry years ago, but its existence is not known to the present mining men. There is a locality on the west side of the Santa Catalina Kange where E. L. and Ralph Wetmore of Tucson have discovered and sunk prospect pits on a bed of gypsum. This locality, however, does not seem to be the one mentioned by Blake, because it is not at the end of the range nor did the Wetmore brothers find evidences of former quar- rying.
The Wetmore deposit is in sec. 3, T. 13 S., R. 14 E., about 8 miles northeast of Tucson and three-quarters of a mile south of Alamo Spring, which is shown on the topographic map of the Tucson quad- rangle. The place is reached by a road which crosses Rillito Creek at the University farm. Gypsum is exposed on the east side of a wash and close under the north end of a low ridge which terminates in a 50- foot bluff. Two pits have been sunk 8 to 10 feet and a third one 5 feet. Some of the rock was hauled to the experiment farm of the University of Arizona for use on a patch of black alkali soil.
In one of these pits there is feet of gypsum in a deposit a little over 6 feet thick. The top of the bed is at the surface and the pit passes into red clay below.
Section of gypsum bed 9 nvUea northeast of Tucson.
Ft. in.
Gypsum 2 6
Clay and satin spar , 6-10
Gypsum 1
Clay and gypsum 1 3
Gypsum 1
1 Blake, W. P., Gypsum deposits In Arizona : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. "
54 Gtpsum Deposits Of The United States.
The gypsum is massive, ligIit-brown to white, elighUy porous, and contains veinlets of satin spar. Veins of satin spar in the c]aj are pure white. A nearly vertical fault, passing through this pit, has a throw of about 10 inches. One side of the shaft is ewd in the accompanying diagram (fig. 1).
Only a few feet away is a pit about 5 feet deep, which discloses the edge of the deposit. The layers terminate with rounded edges, and each is shorter than the next above, producing a bevel under- neath. The under surface of the lowest layer is irregular with hol- lows, cups, and small downward-projecting knobs, as if it had been attacked from below by a solvent. The accompanying diagram (fig. 2) shows these features. Beneath and along the edge of the deposit is red clay with faint lines of bedding which follow roughly the curves of the beveled edge. Veinlets of satin spar in the clay have a similar trend. The
conditions suggest undercutting and solution by running water and subsequent burial in mud.
If this deposit of gypsum extends back ,. under the adjacent low ridge on the south, it
underlies an area of several acres. No pros- pecting has been done, however, to determine its lateral extent. Several small hummocks FjocBE i.-Diaeram rtow. the Wash consist of highly gypsiferous ing tttuiied eypsnm bed earth Or red clay with abundant satin spar in
The formation in which the gypsum occurs is red clay and seani- consolidated beds of sand and gravel. It forms a long, gently sloping iipron at the base of the Santa Catalina Range, from which the material doubtless was derived, Arroyos and gulches dissect this apron, and in one of tliese the gypsum is exposed. The age of the deposit is supposed to be Quaternary.
Areas along San Fed I'o' River.— Concerning gypsum in one of the main valleys of southeast Arizona, W. P. Blake said :
The fij-paum along San Pwlro River occurs In hortzontiil beds, probably of I'liocene or post-Pliocene age. Tbe strata are soft. unconsoltiJated gray suud- stones and clays and appear to be the loii-er nieniliers of the siime series in which the beds of diatnmlte and volcanic nah are found. The Eypsam Is In- terstratlfled conformably In comparatively thin layers or seams, rarely more than a few inches in thickness. These layers npi>enr to have been formed
>U, 8. Geol, Snirer Bull. 223, p. 100, 1004.
Rubsequmit to the depositlsD of the strata b; crista Ilizatioii from the inflltm-'
tion of gypseous solutions. The minerul occurs as selenlte and also In the Jibrous form, as satin spar.
This description seeiiis to fit the occurrence of sel&nite crystals near Benson, already described (p. 50), and is applicable to other deposits which doubtless occur at many places along the bluff of San Pedro Kiver valley in Cochise and Pinal counties- There are, however, other deposits of gypsum along tMs river which are much more worthy of mention.
Prof. G. E. P. Smith, of the University of Arizona, at Tucson, told the writer that gypsum occurs in thick beds in a high bluff along San Pedro River in the extreme southeast comer of Pinwl County, a few miles north of Redington. The writer did not visit the locality, and Prof, Smith's observa- tion was only a casual one, so no details of the occur- rence are at hand. It is as- sumed from its location and from the occurrence of gyp- sum at Feldman, about 25 miles farther down the river, that the deposits near Red- ington are massive white, finely granular gypsum in semiconsolidatcd Quater- nary sediments and possibly £.— Diagram s. edge ot bed -' , -1 - near TncBon, Ariz.
several square miles, in area.
Feidman. — -At the solitary' ranch and ]>ost office of Feldman, 10 miles south of Winkelman, in sec. 33, T. 6 S., R- 16 E., there is a deposit of gypsum on both sides of San Pedro River. The attention of the writer was called to it by the followinjr statement of Frank L, Culin, jr.,' in a bulletin of the University of Arizona :
Another cleposlt has liitely been discovered near Winkelman, Pinal County. United States (Jeologlcal Suirey men say tliat this deirasit is the largest und most extensive deposit of -grnde BJiisuiii in the United States. This de- port will probably be worked in the near future.
The United States (Jeological Survey was -then unaware of this occurrence, and far more extensive deposits of high-grade gypsum have long been known in several States.
Mr. W. E. Duffy, mining; engineer. Phoenix, Ariz., is authority for the statement made orally to the writer that gypsum occurs on the west side of San Pedro River at Feldman but in much less quantity than on the east side of the river.
66 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The deposit on the east side of San Pedro River at Feldman was seen by the writer in September, 1916. It outcrops in the low bluff that separates the valley bottom from the bench land and in the gullies which dissect the bench. The gypsum is soft and deeply weathered at the surface, so that it makes only a faint rim in the sides of the washes. Because of this weathered condition and for lack of complete exposures, either natural or artificial, the thickness of the deposit was not measured ; that part of it which lies nearest to Feldman appears, however, to be 30 feet thick. It is reported that a shaft sunk 20 feet in the gypsum did not reach the bottom of the deposit. Through failure to find the shaft, the whereabouts of which is not known to the local residents, this statement was not verified.
From an elevation several feet above the gypsum a gray outcrop, believed to be the continuation of the deposit, was seen 2 or 3 miles to the east. It was reported by Mr. Feldman that it extends along the road 3 miles, beginning nearly 2 miles north of Feldman post office and fully 3 miles east of the road. In other words, a consid- erable part of the southeast quarter of the township was once under- lain by gypsum. Much of the original deposit has been removed by the cutting of gullies which dissect the bench land.
Near the road, and apparently farther east also, the deposit is overlain by unconsolidated gravel. For the most part the over- burden is only a few feet thick. The underlying beds were not seen. The deposit is believed to be of Quaternary age.
It is reported that a company was formed and stock sold for the commercial development of this gypsum. The rock was to be hauled by wagon to Winkelman and shipped by train to a mill 5 miles east of Phoenix for grinding, but although some gypsum was hauled to the railroad it was never shipped. The likelihood of the successful commercial development of this gypsum deposit under present condi- tions, several miles from a railroad and far from a market, seems remote, although the gypsum, as shown by float specimens found .in the gully bottoms, is massive, pure white, and apparently of good quality.
Arkansas.
By H. D. Miser.
Gypsum crops out in Arkansas, so far as known, only in Pike and Howard counties, in the southwestern part of the State. Within these counties it is confined to the De Queen limestone member, in the upper part of the Trinity formation, which is of Lower Cretaceous age. This limestone, as well as the rest of the Cretaceous rocks in this region, dips at a low angle to the south and is exposed in a narrow belt extending westward from Plaster Bluff, on Little Missouri River, 3 miles south-southwest of Murf reesboro, through De Queen in Sevier County, and thence into Oklahoma.
The thickest exposure is in Plaster Bluff, where the gypsum forms a single bed ranging from 10 to 14 feet in thickness. This bed, an outcrop of which is shown in Plate VIII, 5, consists of pure saccharoidal gypsum, though there are some thin seams of satin spar and as much as 3 feet of interbedded clay in its lower part. The thickest layer of gypsum is 4 feet thick and lies at the top. The gypsum at this locality is 65 feet above Little Missouri River. Over- lying it is 55 feet of interbedded clay and limestone, and in addition there are several feet of gravel on the top of the hill. This gypsum has been mined on a small scale, but so far no attempt has been made to develop it extensively.
To the west as far as Messers Creek, in Howard County, there are a few outcrops and reported occurrences of gypsum, but it is not everywhere pure, and at no place does its reported or observed thick- ness exceed 3 feet.
Gypsum is reported 100 feet below the surface in a well at Augusta, Woodruff County, in the eastern part of the State. The bed is about 10 feet thick, is probably of Eocene age, and underlies deposits of sand and clay.
Gypsum has not been produced in Arkansas, and there is little call for the development of the deposits, as the demand is supplied by other States near by.
1 Purdue, A. H., Water resources of the contact region between the Paleozoic and Missls- slppian embayment deposits in northern Arkansas : S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 145, p. 95, 1905.
California.
By F. L. Hess, DISTBIBXJTION.
The gypsum deposits in California, that give promise of possible commercial importance are south of San Francisco Bay (see PL . IX) , and most of them are associated with Tertiary strata ; a. f er occur in Pleistocene beds. Many deposits are found in the Coat Range, from San Benito County southward into Los Angeles County. These deposits are generally shallow, .are covered thinly by soil, or lie on the surfaces of knobs or ridges, with here and there one on a hill slope or in a ravine, and are of the variety known as gypsite.
At Point Sal, Santa Barbara C-ounty, and at Palmdale, Lang, and Castaic, Los Angeles County, gypsiferous strata interbedded with clayey material have been worked. Beds that seem, from the descrip- tions obtainable, to have the same general characteristics as these occur at several points in the Colorado Desert.
In San Joaquin Valley, in the Mohave Desert, and probably in the Colorado Desert are many playas that become lake beds durinsr wet seasons, and some of these beds carry considerable dej>osits of gypsum. Such deposits do not exist in all the periodic-lake beds, mi whether they form or not depends on the nature of the rocks drained by the streams feeding the lakes. In the Palen Mountains and Maria Mountains, between the Colorado and the Mohave deserts, and in the Avawatz Mountains, there are large deposits of rock gypsum which appear to be the only extensive beds of the kind in the State.
Climate.
The climate of the portion of California which contains the gyp- sum deposits described in this report is so dry that the most iioist of the lands are semiarid and the less favored portions are arid. Along the west side of San Joaquin Valley, in the lower hills of the Coast Eange, temperatures of 110° to 125° F. are frequently recorded in summer and in the Mohave Desert, according to com- mon report, these temperatures are exceeded.
The seasons are often spoken of as wet and drj, because nearly all the rain that falls in that region comes during the late autumn, the winter, and the early spring. However, the wettest winters are probably not so damp as the summer season in the eastern portion of he United States. Naturally, with such heat and such dearth of rain
U. I
/
Lf
M
Califoenia. 59
the humidity is low in summer, to that water evaporates very rapidly and the rocks are quickly dried, the water being drawn out of them to great depths. These climatic conditions have much to do with the formation of gypsum deposits and will be referred to in the descriptions of the deposits,
Localities.
The deposits of economic importance occur in three forms accord- ing to their origin — efflorescent, periodic-lake, and interbedded deposits.
The efflorescent deposits lie along the Coast Range, extending southward from San Benito County to Los Angeles County, in an area that is nearly coincident with the Tertiary sandstones and shales tliroughout this region.
The periodic-lake deposits lie in San Joaquin Valley, Mohave Desert, and probably also in Colorado Desert, and the interbedded deposits occur principally in the mountains in the deserts of River- side County.
Localities where gypsum is known to occur are here described by counties, which are arranged in alphabetic order.
Fresno County. Paou Mike.
An efflorescent deposit has been worked at the Paoli mine, in Fresno County, on a ridge on the north side of Tomey Creek, 18 miles southwest of Mendota, in the SW. J sec. 1, T. 16 S., R. 12 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian, and adjacent lands. It lies from 400 to 800 feet (barometric measurement) above the floor of the valley. Tomey Creek, which is at the foot of the hill, flows only during wet seasons and empties on the plain a mile or two farther east.
The outcrops of gypsite begin on a low hill less than 100 feet above the creek bed, and occur over a large part of the crest of a gradually rising ridge for nearly a mile. The rocks are soft and clayey, con- taining fine sand with interspersed pebbles of chert, igneous rocks, and glaucophane schists. Locally there are thin beds of diatomaceous .shales and beds of sandstone containing large numbers of Tertiary barnacles. The dip is about northeast, at angles ranging from 15° to 30 °. The hills here are largely structural, with abrupt faces on the Fouthwest and gentler slopes on the northeast. The gypsite occurs on the edges of the softer layers in irregular deposits whose distribu- tion is due almost entirely to the strike and width of the outcrops. From the main ridge following Tomey Creek four other ridges extend like fingers to the north, and gypsite deposits are found on these at a
60 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
number of places. Gypsite is found also at several points in the intervening gulches beneath a thin layer of soil. The thickness of the deposits is hard to determine, as they had been cut through at only a few points, but it appears to range from 3 to possibly 15 feet. The latter depth, however, if reached at any place is exceptional, and the average depth probably does not much exceed 3 feet.
On the theory that the deposits were interbedded, a short tunnel was run into the hill 30 or 40 feet below one of the deposits, but it encountered only a friable sandstone.
The gypsite is of a creamy or buff color and can be worked Tvith a pick and shovel — at many places with a shovel alone. At some points it has been partly dissolved and reprecipitated, so that it is considerably hardened, but the hardened part is not more than a few inches thick and can be readily worked with a pick. The gyp- site is easily crushed and most of it could be handled by screening Avithout crushing. Ordinarily the gypsite is covered by a few inches of soil, below which for a few inches it is very free from foreign matter, containing a few pebbles of the same sort as those found in the sandstone. These pebbles increase in number downward. At a depth of 2 or 3 feet they become abundant, and at a greater depth the gypsite forms the smaller part of the mass, the larger part being the sandstone of the underlying rock. In the gulches there are places to which the gypsite has been washed from the ridges bj freshets and in which it now forms deposits several feet thick, thoufi sufficient prospecting has not been done to show their exact dimeii- sions. There is almost no gypsite on the sides of the hills, its absence being due probably to its solution and washing away by rain water. The gypsite remains on the tops of the hills, but on their sides, whid receive not only the falling rain but the run-off from the upper parts of the hills, it is dissolved and carried away. Occasional torrential rains carry the gypsite from above and deposit it in the t alleys so quickly that it is not dissolved but is moved like so much earth or sand. Deposits in the gulches are rare and are srenerally mixed with considerable earth.
A specimen of the purer material from the Mendota No. 1 claim was analyzed by E. C. Sullivan, of the United States Geological Survey, with the following result:
Partial aiialysis of gypsite from north side of Tomey Creek, Fresno Countij,
Calif.
Lime (CaO) 28.3
Sulphur trioxide (SOs) 39. 5
Water driven off at 60° C . 3
Water driven off dt 300° C 18. G
Chlorine (CI) Trace.
Iron oxide (FeaOs) -6
California.
This is equivalent to 85 per cent of gypsum. In 1894 E. W. Hilgard published the following analyses of specimens from these deposits :
Analyses of gypsite from Tomey Creek, Fresno County, Calif.
No.
Locality.
Summit of main ridge
Second spWj middle of crest
Third spur, m canyon
Fourth spur, near road
Gypsum.
Clay.
Band,
moisture,
carbonate
of lime,
etc.
Some gypsite was mined from these deposits several years ago, when a cabin and a small amount of machinery were erected. The gypsite was mined for land plaster and used on the ranches of San Joaquin Valley as an antidote for alkali. No work, except assessment work, has been done on the claims for a number of years. "Water is very scarce and what is to be had is not fit for drinking. Drinking water must be brought from Mendota, 18 miles away. The plain is almost as flat as a floor and the soil makes good roads, so that teaming is easy and, for such a distance, hauling is very cheap.
On the south side of Tomey Creek similar deposits occur and have been prospected to some extent.
Deposits Keab The Paoli Mine.
A few miles south of Tomey Creek, along Cantua Creek, like beds were once worked in a small way for land plaster, and similar de- posits may be found wherever the same rocks outcrop along the foothills.
Ooalikga Deposits.
In the NE. i sec 22, T. 20 S., R. 14 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian, about i miles northwest of Coalinga, is an efflorescent de- posit which was worked to a small extent for land plaster a number of years ago. The gypsite overlies a sandstone that lies next to a coarser fossiliferous stratum having a dip of about 30° NE., occupy- ing the top of a small hill, and may be followed for about 200 feet along the strike of the rocks. This sandstone was determined by Ealph Arnold and Eobert Anderson, of the United States Geo- logical Survey, to be near the base of the Tejon formation of the
Eocene.' The general relations of the gypsite and the country rock
1 California State Mineralogist Twelfth Kept., p. 323, 1894.
2 Personal communication.
62 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
are shown in figure 3. At a depth of 2 or 3 feet pebbles begin to appear in the gypsite and below that they form so much of the mass that the material would have to be screened for use. (See PI. X, B,) The gypsite is light buff, very soft and friable, and could be largely shoveled from the face. A few small stringers are harder, but all could be worked with a pick. The gypsite is so soft that small animals and insects burrow through it.
A partial analysis of a specimen of g>'psite from this deposit, made for Arnold and Anderson by R. C. Wells, of the United States Greo- logical Survey, gave CaS04, 71.6; SiOg, 0.8.
About 7 miles northeast of Coalinga, on the top of a hill half a mile S. 20° E, of the Home Oil Co.'s wells, is a gypsum claim, on which a small area about 20 by 50 feet has been stripped to a depth of 1 or 2 feet. The gypsite below this is* very impure, containing many fragments of fine-grained shale.
Gypsite
Figure 3. — Idealized section through gypsite deposit 4 miles northwest of Coalinga, Calii
Not drawn to scale.
An old gypsum mine 9 miles north of Coalinga, on the footliilb of the Coast Eange, was once worked by open cuts. In one cut the gypsum was 10 feet thick and in another cut it occurred in two beds interstratified with clay and sandy calcareous shales. The strata dip 20° SE. The gj'psum was ground in a mill at Coalinga and used as a fertilizer.
Three miles west of Coalinga, on the east side of a hill in the S. sec. 35, T. 20 S., E. 14 E., gypsite crops out at a number of places through a distance of about a quarter of a mile. Prospect holes have been sunk at a number of points and shallow excavations have been made. The deposits are very similar to those just described ai> occurring northwest of Coalinga but are somewhat larger. There is apparently from to 3 feet of fairly good gypsite, but below that the foreign matter forms too great a proportion of the material to allow profitable working. The deposit is overlain by about a foot of soil. The stratum covered by the gypsite is a soft sandstone, which is in many places very pebbly. The weathering of the sand- stone leaves a la3'er of loose pebbles on the surface, and where gyp- site has formed these pebbles are contained in it.
CAUFOBSriA. 63
A specimen collected by the writer from this deposit was partially analyzed by E. C. Sullivan, of the United States Geological Survey's chemical laboratory, with results as follows :
Partial analysis of gypsite from B, sec, S5 T. 20 S., B. 14 E,
Lime (CaO) — — 26. 6
Sulphur trioxide (SO.) 34.4
Water driven off at G . 5
Water driven off at C J 16. 1
Chlorine (CI) Trace.
Iron oxide (Fe208) 1.2
This analysis gives an equivalent of 74.1 per cent gypsum. A tunnel near the sununit of the hill on the west side shows many nar- row veins of crystalline gypsum cutting the sandstone. There are small nodules of kaolin from one-half to inches in diameter along one of the bedding planes of the sandstone. These nodules have probably not been formed by the kaolinization of granitic pebbles, as they contain no visible quartz grains. It seems possible that they may have been pellets of clay rolled on an ancient shore line.
Mr. N. L. Palmter, of Coalinga, stated that gypsum is to be found also in sec. 34, T. 20 S., K. 16 E., about 1 mile south of Stanley station on the Southern Pacific Railroad; in sees. 32 and 33, T. 21 S., R. 16 E., 6 or 7 miles southeast of Coalinga; and in sec, 34, T, 20 S., R. 14 E., 3 miles west of Coalinga.
Imperial County.
A deposit of psum occurs in the hills 30 miles west of Braw- ley, close to the San Diego County line. It is in the NW. J sec. 18, T. 13 S., E. 9 E., and thje E. i NE. J sec. 13, T. 13 S., E. 8 E. The gypsum is closely related to an occurrence of celestite and is said to be very thick. Eeports indicate a massive rock gypsum, of good quality, 200 feet or more thick, making a narrow ridge nearly 1 mile long. The location of this deposit 25 miles from a railroad prevents its development at present.
Inyo County.
In southeastern Inyo County, near Acme, south of Tecopa, there are several beds of pure-white gypsum from 6 to 10 feet thick, outcropping within a mile or two of the Tonopah & Tidewater Eailroad. A bed of massive crystalline gypsum reported to be about 8 feet thick and to dip about 40° has been mined by tunnels and open cut by the Acme Cement Plaster Co. and the material shipped to Los Angeles for milling.
64 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Kern County. Sttkfloweb Valley.
About 6 miles southeast of Dudley, Kings County, in the McLure Valley, or, as it is generally known, Sunflower Valley, Kern County, some thin deposits of buff gypsite, from 1 foot to 2 feet thick, over- lying soft, siliceous Tertiary shales, have been prospected to a small extent, and have been shown to cover possibly an acre on a low mound in the NW. i sec. 15, T. 25 S., E. 18 E. The gypsite is cov- ered with 8 to 16 inches of soil and is much mixed with shale.
Across a low range of hills of what is known locally as " porcelain §hale " gypsite is found on many of the hilltops and ridges. A de- posit on the property of the Visalia Oil Co., near the middle of the W. i sec. 22, T. 25 S., R. 18 E., about 7 miles southeast of Dudley, may be taken as an example of the deposits conmion to this locality. It occupies the upper part of the east side of a north- south hill through a distance of about a quarter of a mile, and its width reaches 300 feet as an extreme, probably averaging somewhat over 100 feet. It lies on fine-grained sandstone a)id shales, on both sides of a fossiliferous, limy sandstone carrying Ostrea vespertina and Pecten coaling aensis.
The gypsite is buff in color and is hardened for 2 or 3 inches on the top, so that when dug it breaks in slabs a foot or more across. Below the crust it is so soft that it may be screened to get rid of pebbles and fragments of sandstone or shale without crushing. Tfe deposit is 2 to 3 feet thick the purer material generally being con- tained in the upper 2 feet. Sandstone or shale forms a large portion of the lower part of the mass, the proportion becoming greater with increase of depth -and making up the bulk of the lowest part of the deposit. Gypsite occurs also on the hills in other parts of the same section.
Mr. Orlando Barton, who lived near by in 1907 and who had spent much time in examining the rocks of this region, stated that deposits of gypsite occur on the following bodies of land in T. 25 S., E. 18 E., of w hich only those described were examined by the writer :
Gypsite deposits in T. 25 8., R. 18 E., near Dudley Kings County, Calif,
Sec. 14, smaU bed in SE. i. Sec. 20, about one-quarter acre in SE. i. Sec. 21, 10 acres in SE. i Sec. 22, 20 acres in SW. 1, NW. h and SE. i. Sec. 23, thin; various parts. Sec. 25, 3 acres in SW. i. Sec. 26, small amount in NE. i and NW. i. Sec. 27, 4 acres in NE. i.
Sec. 28, 30 to 150 feet wide, runs north-south in E. i E. 1, the whole length.
California. 65
Sec. 29, small amount in SW. i ; several acres of good gypsum in SB. i,
reaches thickness of 4 feet. . Sec. 30, small bed of good gypsum in southeast corner. Sec. 34, small bed of good gypsum in northwest corner. Sec. 35, good bed 100 feet wide in SE. i, one-fourth mile long ; small bed
in NE. h Sec. 36, small beds in all l)nt NE. 1.
Mr. William Taylor, of Dudley, stated to the writer that gypsite deposits also occur in the NE. J sec. 3, T. 26 S., E. 18 E., in Antelope Valley, the next large valley south of McLure Valley.
Lost Hills.
In San Joaquin Valley a few miles south of Tulare Lake and about 25 miles west of Wasco, on the Santa Fe Railway, is a low range of hills, running northwest and southeast, probably a con- tinuation of a range somewhat higher and broader, known as the Kettleman Hills, which separates the Kettleman Plains from San Joaquin Valley. The Kettleman Hills are said by Arnold and Anderson to be of anticlinal structure, and it is probable that the Lost Hills are formed by the southern extension of the anticline, Avhich here disappears under the floor of the valley. The rocks in place in the Lost Hills are probably a part of the Etchegoin for- mation, of upper Miocene age.
This section of the valley is exceedingly dry, having an average annual rainfall of probably not more than 2 or 3 inches, and is even drier than the adjacent foothills, the nearest of which are 8 or 10 miles to the west.
A county road from Wasco, the nearest shipping station, to Ante- lope Valley passes- about 2 miles south of the Lost Hills. A traveler approaching the country from this road, when within half a mile or more of the hills, may notice gypsite in the piles of dirt thrown from holes dug by kangaroo rats and other rodents. In the W. i sec. 30, T. 26 S., R. 21 E., mjBLuy such places were seen, ajxd also in the western part of sec. 19. At a number of points the writer dug through the soil, which was 6 to 24 inches thick. Below this cover of earth the gypsite is generally soft and powdery and of a creamy buflf color, though at one or two places it was brownish and gran- ular. It was not practicable with the tools at hand to dig to any considerable depth, so that the thickness of the gypsite was not determined. Mr. Orlando Barton stated that he had at a number of places dug into the gypsite to a depth of i feet without passing through it.
1 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 357, p. 65, 1908. 124567*— 20 5
66 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
On the tops of the hills there is also a coating of gypsite, at many places without the usual covering of soil, which has probably been blown off, as the ground is dry and powdery and easily moved by the winds, which during a day sometimes pile it in drifts several feet deep. At one place in sec. 19, where a northeast-southwest draw cuts through the hill, the gypsum appeared to be from 6 to 8 feet thick.
On the south side of the draw, striding on a rather* abrtipt northern slope, is a mound known as "The Oil Bubble-" (See PI. X, The mound, which is 10 to 15 feet high ai about 65 fe in diameter, is composed of small crystals of gypsum, most of them less than one-quarter inch in length, mixed with enough clay to permit the mass to be easily kneaded. This mound also contains a small . amount of material resembling greatly oxidized asphalt, stained slightly with native sulphur. At the time it was visited the mound was wet and sticky, and it is said to remain moist through- out the summer. It is reported to give off some gas, the asphalt and the form suggesting the name " Oil Bubble." The mound is formed by the evaporation of water carrying gypsum in solution, the clay probably being brought to the place by winds. The excessive dryness of the surrounding country makes it seem probable that the water comes from a considerable depth, rising through the Tertiary gypsif- erous sandstones.
On the north side of the draw is a dark, jRne-grained sandstone cennted by gypsum, of which it carries a considerable quantity. It dips toward the northeast at a low angle, closely following the con- tour of the hill, and that it is of Pleistocene age, formed by the cementing of wind-blown sand by gypsum, is suggested, though there is a strong possibility that it is a phase of the Pliocene sand- stones met in the Kettleman Hills farther to the northwest.
Above the sandione lies about 2 feet of gypsite, and this is said to extend 6 or 7 miles northwestward along the hills. If the Lost Hills are to be regarded as an extension of the Kettleman Hills anti- cline from which the upper, nongypsiferous beds have been eroded, it seems probable not only that the hills contain other such beds of gypsite, but that alongside them, for their whole length, such deposits as were noted in sec. 30 will be found. It is not to be supposed that these beds will be equally thick or good in all places, and in spots the gypsite may be entirely lacking.
The beds in this locality are the most extensive that were seen by the writer in California. Whether they will be workable is prob- lematic. At present the nearest shipping point is Wasco, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, 25 miles to the east. Water could probably be obtained by boring deep enough almost anywhere in the region. The deposits would need careful prospecting to ascertain
Phoiograph by F. L. He.
S. GYPSUM DEPOSIT 4 MILES NORTHWEST OF COAUNGA, CALIF. PbotAgmpli by F. L. Ha.
Gaufobnia.
their thickness and area but this would not be difficult, as it could all be dcaae with a shovel or a shovel and mattock. The ground could be easily gb*ipped with teams and scrapers and the gypsite loaded into wagons directly from the scrapers by erecting a platform under which the wagons could be driven.
If a railroad should be built along the base of the foothills of the Coast Eange, transportation would not be a serious matter, and if the deposits proved to be of sufficient extent the manufacture of gypsum plaster might then be undertaken.
Analyses of gypsum from sec. 30, made by E, C Sullivan and R. C. Wells, of the United States Geological Survey, are as follows :
Analyses of gypsite from south side of the Lost Hills, Kern County , Calif,
m
[Ground quickly to 44>me8b.]
Liine(CaO)
Sulphur trioxide (SO*) . . . . Water driven off at 60 C. . Water driven off at 300' C.
CtkleriB* (€1).
Iron oxide (Fe|0).
Carixm: dlxoidt (COs) . .
SiUcaCSiOi)
Sodium oxide (Nasp) . . Potassium oxide (KjO) . Magnesia (MgO)
25. a
3&1
,9
None.
42.S
Tmce.
None.
None.
None. t3
2. a
None.
Analyses 1 and 2 by E. C. SalUvan; 3 and 4 by R. C. Wells.
The first analysis shows an equivalent of 7S.5 per cent of gypsum, SO that about one- fourth of the material is foreign matter; the second sample contains the equivalent of 91.2 per cent of gypsnra. The analysis shows a slight excess (0.6 per cent) of calcium* sul- phate, which may indicate the presence of either anhydrite (calcium sulphate not combined with water) or partly dehydrated gypsnm. The third and fourth analyses are more detailed and show the char- acter of the impurities better. The amount of gypsum indicated is nearer the amount shown by the second analysis than the first.
DEPOSITS KEAB MoKITTRIOX.
The same Tertiary sandstones and shales that are so prominent in the southern part of the Coast Range are also the prevailing rocks near McKiltrick, and as would therefore be expected gypsite deposits are found in many places in this neighborhood.
California Gypsum i& Mineral Co, — The property of the Cali- fornia Gypsum & Mineral Co. is located on the north slc)e of a rather low hill in the S. sec. 20, T. 30 S., R. 22 E., about one-half mile from McKittrick railroad station. The gypsite is overlain hy
68 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
6 inches to 2i feet of soil and is of a buff color. It has been mined at a number of places to a depth of about 2 feet, below which it con- tains too much of the country rock to be profitably worked. The rock beneath the gypsite is a fine-grained shal6. In places the gypsite 16 somewhat hardened for 2 or 3 inches on the top, but the mineral below that can be easily handled with a shovel. Altogether per- haps 3 or 4 acres had been exposed.
A partial analysis by George Steiger in the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological Survey of a specimen collected by the writer was as follows :
partial analysis of WPt*e from, deposit one-half mile southeast of McKittrick,
Calif,
Lime (CaO) I 31. 05
Sulphur trioxide (SO.) 42.19
Water driven off at C . 1. 49
Water driven off at 300' C 1 17. 80
Chlorine (CI) Trace.
Iron oxide (FeaOs) .56
This analysis gives an apparent equivalent of 85.2 per cent of gypsum. Several hundred tons of gypsite for use as land plaster had been shipped from the deposit, and there was a small plant on the property for the preparation of the material.
Abbott Hickox. — gypsite claim in the NE. J SW. i sec. 30, T. 30 S., R. 22 E., held by Messrs. Abbott & Hickox, is about miles southwest of McKittrick. The deposit most worked is on the sum- mit of a hill between 50 and 75 feet high. It is about 500 feet long by 200 feet wide at the widest point and is oval in shape. The gyp- site is from 2 to 4 feet thick and is overlain by soil that is in places 2 feet thick, although in other places gypsite forms the surface. The average covering is probably 10 to 12 inches thick. About 4,000 tons are said to have been shipped from the spot.
A partial analysis by George Steiger of gypsum from this deposit is given below :
Partial analysis of gypsite from deposit near McKittrick, Calif,
Lime (CaO) 30. 32
Sulphur trioxide (SOs) 43.09
Water driven off at C . 25
Water driven off at 300' C 19. 75
Chlorine (CI) '- Trace.
Iron oxide (FeaOs) .84
This gives an equivalent of 92;5 per cent of gypsum. On several of the hilltops near at hand the gypsite outcrops were accompanied by carbonate of lime, which seemed to be a replacement of the gyp-
and the two are in places more or less mixed.
Oaufornu.
Other deposits. — Considerable gypsite of character similar to that described above occurs in the SE. sec. 30, T. 30 S., R. 22 E., and some has been shipped. In places it reaches a thickness of 3J feet.'
About 1 mile south of the locality just mentioned, on the north side of a small gulch, is a deposit which is 9 feet thick and consider- ably hardened but which does not seem to lie of great extent. Farts of it are bleached almost white. This deposit also overlies a fine- grained shale which is in places much colored by iron oxide. The shale is yellowish gray, of low specific gravity, and contains many casts of foraminifers. Borings made about 100 feet from the gulch ' are said to have shown the gypsite to be about 2 feet thick. A num- ber of other deposits exist in sees, 28 and 29, T. 30 S. The gypsite and the underlying shales are at some places almost of the same color, so that it is not easy to tell where one leaves off and the othet begins, as the gypsite is powdery and sifts down, disguising the appearance of the underlying rock. It was reported that on one claim the gyp- Bite was 90 to 100 feet thick, but it is probable that the soft underlying shale has been supposed to be gypsite, for it does not seem possible, from the mode of formation of the gypsite, that it could have been so thick.
At the time of the writer's visit (1907) Mr. H. F. Brinkman, of Pasadefta, Calif., was examining the deposits to determine their com- mercial value. Mr. Brinkman made the following estimate of the area and thickness of gypsite deposits in the neighborhood. The writer had no opportunity of verifying the figures" outside of the areas mentioned above.
Gypsite in the McKittrick aiitrict.
Ran*..
Townabip
ThlekDHB.
.
1"; i :
31 E.
at !
FttC.
According to Mr. Brinkman, deposits Nos. 1 and 2 contain about 4,000 tons and deposit No. 3 about 20,000 tons. Deposit Ko. 5 consists of powdery gypsite. Ko estimate was made of the extent of the deposits in sees. 30, 31, and 32, T. 30 S., B. 22 E., or in sec.
%Q Gypsum Deposits. 0¥ The United States.
2. A deposit in sec. 5, T. 31 S. 22 coatains abaut 5 acreSy and there is a little in sec. 4, T. S., R. 22
Samples oi plaster of Paris made by Mr. Brinkman from psite from different localities in the neighborhood were all of a ereamey to buff coloTy varying sonfeewhat in shade and a number of the shades would make attractive tints for wall coverings. The gypsite deposits follow the Tertiary sandstones and shales to the southwest, and niany patches are reported to occur between McKittrick and Midway.
Mr. E. Andrewsy of Midway reported gypsite in* the following sections in the area between McKittrick and Midway :
T. 30 S., R, 22: B., sees; 29; 36, 31, 32; 33, 34, ami Bo,
T. 31 S., R. 22 E., sees. 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 2( 21,. 22, 26, 27,
28,. 34, 35. T. S., R. 22 E., sees. 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 20, 2T, 34. T. 32 S., R. 24 B., mniriiig dltigonaHy from nortIiA\'s.t to southeast.
Owing to lack of time the writer was unable to visit these localities.
In the co.untry closely adjacent to Maricopa, known as the Sunset district, are a number of small areas carrying thin deposits of gypsite, associated with shales like those found farther north along the Coast Range. None are known that' seen to be of value.
Coticmwood Creeks — Deposits of gypsite occur on both sides of Cottonwood Creek, 16 miles east of Bakersfield. They are reached from Edison, on the Southern Pacific Railroad, by following the main road 4J miles to the creek and then traveling up the creek for miles. The deposits may also be riched from Pampa, from Avhicb they are about 5 miles distant. The deposits occur on the northeast side of the creek at th top €xf a steep slope, between 50 and 75 feet above the creek bed. A more gentle slope rises from the top of the steep, bank, and on this slope gypsite may be found at a number of places> covering altogether several acres. At the edge of the slope the gypsite is 2 to 3 feet thick, grading into soft, earthy material below, probably the equivalent of the shales over the gypsite lies in the McKittrick and other districts. The deposit is in the SE. I SE. i s. 20, T. 29 S., R. 30 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian. A small amount of gypsite was from this deposit several years ago for use as a fertilizer.
A number of claims on the southwest side of the creek were held fay Mr* William: HarnK)n- Ckie of these daiias was in sec. 28, wlre dieposits had been opened in a small way on the tc odf a hill about 200 feet above the creek. The deposits are [lall and of no grei value. In the narrow gulch east of the hill there is a diosil of
California. 71
impure, soft, powdery gypsite 6 to 8 feet thick, which is exposed for several hundred feet along the gulch. Its width and its thicknsess away from the creek are unknown. On the top of the hill east of the gulch, in the NW. i sec. 28, there are other gypsite deposits similar to those on the west side.
A partial analysis by E. C. Sullivan of a specimen from this de- losit is given below:
Partial analysis of pypsiic from deposit near Pampa, Calif.
Lime (CaO) 28. 1
Sulphur trioxide (SOs) 34. 8
Water driven off at 60° C . 5
Water driven ofle at G 16.
Chlorine (Gl) Trace.
Iron oxide (FesOa) .8
The analysis shows an apparent equivalent of 71.8 per cent of gypsum. In another gulch in the southeast corner of the NE. J sec. 28, about one-quarter of a mile east of Mr. Harmon's cabin, gypsite from 10 to 25 feet thick is exposed on both sides for a distance of 100 yards. The gypsite is of about the same quality as that in the gulch already mentioned.
The gulch deposits are probably formed by the washing down of the gypsite from the hUls above and are mixed with considerable earth. The deposits are about one-quarter of a mile from the con- tact of the soft Tiiiary rocks with old crystalline rocks, which are here andalusite schists. Mr. Harmon stated that much better de- posits of gyiite occur near Caliente.
Kern Lake gypsite deposit. — In what was onc the bed of Kern Lake but is now a part of a large farm belonging to the Kern County Land Co. gypsite has been exposed in sees. 26 and 27, T. 32 S., K. 27 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian, by an irrigating ditch that runs through the deposit for about three-quarters of a mile along the line between the north and south halves of the sections. The deposit is about 20 miles southwest of Bakersfidd but only 5 miles from the railroad station known as Conner. Gypsite is also reported from a point one-half mile farther south, but none has been found nearer the center of the old lake, we of tiiis locality. The ditch is feet deep, and gypsite forms its bottcwm and sides for a large part of the distance mentioned. The soil covering the gypsite is thin and very light and porous when dry. Over a large part of the known area the gypsite is less than a foot below the surface. The gypsite is creamy in color, finely granular, and in places is very free fr<Mn dirt and foreign matter. Water from the irrigating ditch has cut channels from 8 inches to more than a foot in diameter through the gypsite, and they can be followed more than 50 feet on each side by the caving
72 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
of the earth. Near the ditch the gypsite is reported to be 4 feet thick. The composition of a picked sample is shown by the following analysis by E. C. Sullivan, of the United States Geological Survey :
Analysis of gypsum from old bed of Kern Lake,
Lime (CaO) 33.2
Sulphur trioxide (SO.) - 47.3
Water driven off at 60° C None.
Water driven off at 19. 7
Iron oxide (FcjOa)- .1
The. lime and sulphuric anhydride are both too high for pure gypsum, which contains 32.6 and 46.5 per cent, respectively, and the water is low (20.9 per cent in pure gypsum). The analysis appar- ently shows the presence of nearly 6 per cent of anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate), which would leave about 94.3 per cent of gypsum. It is possible, however, that instead of containing anhydrite the material may include some partly dehydrated gypsum which would in no way be hurtful to plaster manufactured from it. It is remark- ably free from other impurities. At some other points the gypsite is more or less mixed with earth. The lake received its drainage from the Tehachapi Mountains, on the south, which are composed largely of Tertiary rocks, presumably similar to those along the Coast Range and also to the rocks a few 'miles farther east. These rocks are highly gypsiferous, so that considerable amounts of gypsum would be carried into the lake, which was of great periodic variation in size owing to the unequal distribution of rainfall from season to season and from year to year, though it was at all times shallow. The saturation point for gypsum would possibly never be reached by the lake, even when the level of the water was near or below the surface of the soil, which, owing to its great porosity, will hold large quantities of water.
The deposition of gypsum from such a lake is apparently mudi the same phenomenon as the deposition of gypsite from rocks by the evaporation of water drawn to the surface by capillarity. The shallow water near the shore line would be more highly saturated with gypsum than the deeper water, as the part evaporated would be a much larger proportion of the mass. The hot sun would at the same time evaporate great quantities of water from the shore itself, which is formed of fine porous silt. The water would come, at least in part, from the already somewhat concentrated water along the edge of the lake, and as the water evaporated gypsum would be left behind in crystalline form. The flow of water once established would continue until capillary attraction could no longer lift the water from the depth to which it had sunk. In the absence of definite data, it may be supposed that the longer established channels by which the
California. 73
water escaped into the atmosphere would act much more rapidly than the newer ones that were allowed to form by the retreating shore line; that there would therefore be a movement of the water toward the side ; and that there would be deposits of gypsite under certain areas from which evaporation was greatest and near which the shore most often lay. In the middle of the lake, where water stood oftenest and longest, probably no considerable deposits would form, as they would be again dissolved by floods in succeeding years.
It is probable that gypsite will be found at a number of points arouaid the old medial shore of the lake — that is, around the shore Vvhich was its normal edge between the highest and lowest stages. If the deposits are of sufficient extent they might form a basis for the profitable manufacture of gypsum plaster, particularly as much of the land is not undfer cultivation.
Buerui Vista Lake. — Buena Vista Lake lies 5 or 6 miles west of the Kern Lake gypsum deposit, in the same shallow depression. A cut for the Sunset Railroad as it turns to the southwest to follow the shore of the lake exposes gypsite similar in appearance to that of Kern Lake. Nothing is known of its extent or thickness. Gyp- site is reported along the foothills for 150 miles but nowhere in quan- tity to have commercial value. The deposits are scattered and thin,
Oke Springs.'
About 25 miles northeast of Mohave and 3J miles southeast of Cane Springs and Cantil, on the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad join- ing Mohave and Kandsburg, gypsite is exposed at the surface over an area covering nearly 1 square mile. The gypsite deposits are on the south edge of a play a about 5 by 8 miles in extent. The thickest beds lie in the SE. J NW. sec. 28, T. 30 S., R. 38 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian, and reach a depth of 10 feet. The gypsite is exceedingly fine grained and of a buflF color.
A partial analysis of a specimen collected where prospect holes showed the gypsite to be thickest indicated an equivalent of alx>ut 79.5 per cent of gypsum.
A plaster mill was erected on this deposit in 1910 and operated intermittently.
Kings County. Kettlemak Plains.
The E. D. Jones gypsum deposit is in the Kettleman Plains, Kings County, 200 yards north of an old schoolhouse in the-NW. sec. 13, T. 24 S., R. 18 E., Mount Diablo base and meridian, miles by road northeast of Dudley. It is in the flat floor of the valley,
For a somewhat fuller account see Hess, P. L., Gypsum deposits near Cane Springs, Kern County, Calif. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 430, pp. 145-146, 1910. 2 California State Mineralogist Thirteenth Rept., p. 503, 1896.
74 Gypsum Deposits 0¥ The United States.
between half a mile aiul a mile from the jaearest hills on the north- east and still farther away from those on the southwest. It presents some features that differentiate it so sharply fr<Hn the deposits in the neighborhood that it is placed tentativdy among the periodic- lake deposits.
An excavati(m about 30 by 50 feet and 3 feet deep has been made The bottom of the hole is covered with gypsum, so that the deptli of the deposit can not be told. The gypsum, is said to be found over an area of 80 acres, although it was seen by the writer only at the excavation. The gypsum, which is coarsely granular, is composed of an aggregate of small crystals, ihe largest one-half to three- fourths of an inch broad, is rather firmly cohint, and is overlain by a few inches of soil. Between ihe crystals the spaces are filled with material apparently less pure. The comparativdy large size of the crystals indicates that the deposit was laid down in a periodic lake rather than by efflorescence. The presence of considerable quantities of water seems necessary for the formation of gypsum crystals of easily visible size. Robert Anderson, of the United States Geolcical Survey, has informed the writ: that in the sur- rounding hills there seems to be evidence that this portion of the Kettleman Plains was at one time covered by a lake or an arm of Tulare Lake.
This deposit was worked for land plaster in the early nineties. A small mill for grinding was put up, but the wagon haul of nearly 40 miles to Huron, the nearest railroad point, makes production too expensive to be profitable. It is stated that srfected samples from this deposit contained 94 per cent of gypsum. A jmrtial analysis by E. C. Sullivan of a specimen collected by the writer was as follows :
partial analysis of gypsum fronv KeUlenmn Plains, Calif.
Lime (CaO) m 1
Sulphur trioxlde (SOa) 27.3
Water driven off at C— 1 .8
Water driven off at 800'' C 15.3
Chlorine (CI) , Trace.
Iron oxide (FeaOs) 1,1
This analysis gives an equivalent of only 59.2 per cent of gypsum. The specimen collected was thought to be representative, but hand sampling is almost invariably uncertain, owing to the small size of the specimen and to the narrow area from which it is taken. In order to get reliable results a sample taken from such a deposit must be very large and must be collected so as to reach all available parts of the deposit, and it must then be carefully mixed and quartered to a convenient size for analysis. It is therefore itirely probable that
1 California State Mineralogist Thirteenth Rept. p. 503, 1896.
California. 75
either or both of the specimens analyzed may give a wrong impres- sion of the deposit. They are both of value, however, in giving some idea of the purity of at least portions of the gypsum.
LOa ANGELES COUNTY. OASTAI€.
Gypsum was mined during 1904 and 1905 by the Fire Pulp Plaster Co. from a deposit in Charley Canyon, 12 miles north of Castaic, a station on the Southern Pacific Railroad in Los Angeles County. It is said to occur in a vein, 2 to 4 feet wide, in a soft, much- jointed shale. The vein runs at about a right angle to the face of the hill but was found too expensive to work, as the road of the canyon washed out after heavy rains. The gypsum is said tc> be white or pink in color and of excellent quality.
Pai.Mdale.
At Palmdale, Los Angeles County, a station on the Southern Pacific Railroad 69 miles north of Los Angeles, both efflorescent and interbedded gypsum deposits are found, about IJ miles south- west of the railroad, on a low ridge along which runs the Los Angeles aqueduct carrying water from Owens River to Los Angeles. Decomposed granite occupies a portion of the outer side of the ridge, and on it in places is a basal conglomerate containing large boulders of granite. Over this is a series of gypsiferous soft sand- stones and ales. With the' shales are interbedded thin strata of gypsum, half an inch in maximum thickness, and some lenses 4 to 6 feet in length, and on these sediments gypsite has formed in deposits similar to those farther nori, along the Coast Range. The gypsum deposits occur through a length of about a mile or a mile and a half along the top and sides of the ridge. In places they have bei washed down the sides of the hill, so that they cover the granite below. The accompanying sketch (£g. 4) shows the geologic relations. Two companies, the Fire Pulp Plaster Ca and the Alpine Plaster Co., formerly woAed the deposits, and each had a plaster mill at Palmdale, but the mills have been dixtantled and all operations ceased because of the inferior quality and the meager quantity of the rock.
The gypsite is 2 to 10 feet thick and is irregular in distribution and purity. At a nmnber of places it occurs in small valleys in which it has been deposited by freshets that brought it down from the low hills above. In places it is much stained with iron, especially in watercourses through the gypsite. Tl gypsite is ordinarily overlain by 6 inches to 1 foot of dirt, and excavations from which it is removed cover from a few hundred square feet to an acre or more.
76 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The thickest deposits are on the brows of spurs of the main hill where they reach a thickness of 9 feet. (See PI. XII, B.) Thi gypsite is creamy white in color.
A partial analysis by George Steiger of a specimen fnmi one ol these deposits which was being worked February 1, 1907, gave tbt following result:
Partial nnalygis of gypsite from Alpine Plaster Co'% depotU, Palmdate, Calif.
rjme (CaO) — 82.8
Sulphur trloxide (SO,) 4S. S
Water driven off nt 60° C . 1
Water driven off at 300* C -. 20.
Chlorine (01) .06
Iron oxide {Fe.0.) .30
FiaoaB 4.— Ideallied mctlon terota hills 1) aoutbwcBt ol Palmdale, Caltr., Bbowlv relations of grpstte aod gjpsuni lo the country rock.
This is apparently equivalent to nbout 77.8 per cent gypsan. The interbedded gypsum deposits also were worked by the Fire Plaster Co. The beds are not_at all uniform in the quantity of gj'psum carried and can be worked only in places. The dip is uneven i but is about 45° W. The gypsum strata reach in places a thick- ness of 3 or 4 inches, and all contain more or less clay. (See PI. SI. B.) The rock was shot down with dynamite and then handled with forks to separate the gypsum from the clay. Some hand 'picking was also necessary.
A piece of gypsum from one of the strata was partially analyzed by George Steiger, with the following result: ,
Partial analynU of rock gypmm from Palmdale, Calif.
Ume (CaO) 27.6 :
Sulphur trloxlde (SO.) 83.6
Water driven off at 80* C ,8 ;
Water driven off nt 300" C 16.8 I
Chlorine (CI) Trace, !
Iron oxide (Ferf).) 3.3
The specimen apparently carries 72,1 per cent of gypsum.
I. Gbouwical Bprvey Bdlletin 897 1
Gypsite Workings In Sec. 1
Cauf.
u Bniipoeed oil Isad. PhaUgraph by
out reqnireimiita ' Ralpt AmohL
Ptialiigriiph by F. L. Hub.
i. OB01.0GtCAIj SUBVBT BULLETIN 8B7 PLATE 1
A. GYPSUM DEPOSIT IN THE BED OF A PERIODIC lAKE A,T AMBOY, CALIF.
Photograph b j F. L. Has.
California* 77
Similar beds outcrop at a point about IJ miles northwest of the workings just described. A face 25 feet high and 50 feet broad is exposed in an excavation in the side of the hill. The beds here dip northeastward. Other deposits of gypsum are said to occur in the higher hills 6 or 7 miles south of Palmdale. Similar interbedded g\'psum deposits are reported to occur at Lang, southwest of Pahn- dale, and the deposits at Castaic are said to be in the sauie rocks.
Orange County.
A deposit in Gypsum Canyon, on the western slope of the Santa Ana Range, in Orange County, is in the form of a bunchy vein in rocks of probable Upper Cretaceous age. The strata are chiefly sandstone. The deposit, which has a thickness of 8 to 10 feet, is white and crystalline and almost as clear as alabaster. At one spot a mass of dolomite was found inclosed in it.
Riverside County. Corona.
Gypsite occurs in several small areas on both sides of Gypsum Canyon, about 2 miles south of Corona. The larger deposits, from which several hundred tons has been shipped, are on the east side of the canyon, a short distance from its mouth, in a small gulch .that lies between 50 and 100 feet above the floor of the canyon. The gypsite is at most i feet thick and is overlain by 1 to 2 feet of soil. Its color is creamy, like that of the gypsite in the San Joaquin Valley, and it grades into the rock below in the same mannei*. The rock that it overlies is andesitic but is so badly decomposed that its nature can not readily be told. Its appearance in the field suggests that it may be a tuff. In thin sections it shows considerable iron pyrites, together with some calcite, and it is possible that the gypsum is derived directly from this rock through the interaction of weather- ing pyrite and plagioclase feldspars. However, close by, on the side nearer the mouth of the canyon, are soft sandstones from which the gypsite may have come. These sandstones may outcrop above the deposit on the hillside, and the gypsum may have been carried to its present place by the stream that flows in the gulch in wet weather. Near the mouth of the canyon a tunnel run into the west side has 4 to 5 inches of efflorescent salts on the floor, and on the walls there is an inch or more. The efflorescence is composed largely of iron sulphate. Other small gypsite deposits are said to occur in neighboring canyons west and southwest of Corona. This material is used in orchards as fertilizer and to prevent disease.
7& Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Falek Mountaiks.'
Extensive deposits of gypsum occur in the Paleai Mountains be- tween the Colorado and Mohave deserts, northern Riverside County, Calif. The cut-off of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway from Parker to Bengal passes within about 15 miles of the deposits.
The g3'ium is very pure, occurring in extensive layers interbedded with limesto];ie. Most of it is finely xstalline and compact and varies in color from transparent white to slightly reddi. A small percentage of the material is alabaster, finely granular, snow-white, and sufficiently compact for ornamental purposes. This material occurs in layers and lenses in the crystalline gypsuim.
The beds have a maximum thickness of several hundred feet, with little or no interbedded limestone; the entire series of lime- stone and gypsum is probably several thousand feet in thickness. In places the gypsum is the predominant formatiion but elsewhere the limestone is by far the most abundant.
The belt of gypsum and limestone is, roughly, about 3 miles long and from one-half mile to miles wide. It runs across the Palen Moimtains in a general east-west direction and disappears under unconsolidated desert deposits on both sides. It is bounded on the north by a gi'eat mass of granite and on the south by quartzites and shales, with intrusive igneous rocks of several varieties. The gypsum beds are largest and most abundant in the southern part of the belt. The strike of the beds ranges from east to northeast, and the dip is to the north at different angles.
A dark igneous rock occurs extensively as an intrusive within the area of gypsum and limestone, being especially abundant in the northern half of the belt. It cuts the gypsum beds more conuncnily than the limestone because of their softer nature. On account of this fact many of the gypsum beds are locally so intricately intermixed with igneous rock as to render them almost valueless. However. large portions of the area are free from these intrusives.
VAXiA KoinrrAiirs.
The series of gypsum and limestone beds of the Palen Mountains reappears to tlie east from under the desert deposits and occurs throughout the Maria Mountains, The main gypsum locality in the Maria Mountains is 17 miles in an air line south of Blythe Junction, a station on the Parker cut-off of the Atchison, Topeka & Saiita Fe Railway. The area underlain by gypsum is wedge-shaped, being above miles long, miles wide at the east end, and 1 mile wide
Hapder* B. C, The gypsum deposits of the Paleo MouBtahis, Riverside Comity, Calif.: IT. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 430, pp. 407-4ie 1910.
Surr, Gordon, Gypsum In the Maria Mountains of California : Min. World, vol. 84, pp. 787-790, 1911.
J
Callfobjsia. 79
at the west end. The country is flat and covered by wash both east and west. Gypsum beds again appear 5 miles east of the locality and the large gypsum deposits in the Palen Mountains, about 15 miles west of the west end of this district, are probably a continuation of the gypsum series here described.
The gypsum in the Maria Mountains occurs in beds that have a general east-west course and a northerly dip, which ranges at the outcrop from 20° to almost vertical. In places the formation is nearly flat, and so doubtless are the underlying gypsum deposits. Igneous rock, a quartz monzonite gneiss, bounds the gypsum area on the north and south. The gypsum beds range in thickness from 10 to more than 100 feet and are interbedded with limestone or shaly material. Thev occur in two bands of four beds each. The thick- ness of the limestone between the gypsum beds is from 100 to several hundred feet. Most of the gypsum is snowy white; some of it, how- ever, has a grayish tint or shows grayish bands.
The openings in the gypsum are superficial with the exception of a shaft and numerous drill holes put down by the United States Gypsum Co. The shaft, which is in the eastern part of the district and near the northern limit of the gypsum belt, is vertical, 70 feet deep, and has a 50-foot crosscut at the bottom. A vertical hole was drilled in the bottom of the shaft to a depth of 260 feet, but whether it was all in gypsum is not known.
The geologic age of the deposits is unknown but may be Paleozoic-
Meooa.
In the Colorado Desert, 12 miles east of Mecca, are deposits of rock gypsum about the extent and purity of which reports differ con- siderably. Specimens seen and information obtained from various sources indicate that the deposits are similar to those at Palmdale, and probably have no commercial value.
Other Deposits.'
At many places in the Colorado Desert the Miocene rocks carry interbedded strata of gypsum, which, however, are generally too thin to be of economic value.
San Benito County.
Along the west side and middle of the Coast Range many deposits of gypsite that are in all essential respects similar to those on the eastern slopes have been reported. They are particularly numerous along the east side of Salinas Valley.
1 Communfcatpd by W. C. Mendenhall.
80 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The deposits east of Metz and King City, most of them in San Benito County but a few in Monterey County, have been briefly de- scribed in reports of the California State Mining Bureau.
A deposit on the southwest side of Bitterwater Valley, in Sai Benito County, 10 miles east of King City, at an elevation of 1,90<. feet, crops out along the top of a series of ridges and dips gently westward. It is overlain by clayey soils and covers an area of severai hundred acres. The upper portion of the deposit is composed of massive gray gypsum, which, according to analysis, is 90 per cent pure. The thickness of this deposit is from 3 to 7 feet. This stratum is underlain by another, less pure, which contains only 40 to 60 per cent gypsum, the impurities being lime, clay, and sand. The gypsum is soft and marly und can* be advantageously used for fertilizing purposes. (See PI. XIII, A.)
The following descriptions are taken from a report by Lewis E Aubury :
In Bitterwater Creek canyon a number of detached gypsum deposits are found, running from Lewis Creek in sec. 5, T. 19 S., R. 10 E. Mount Diablo meridian, to sec. 17 or 18, T. 18 S., R. 9 E. The quality of the gypsum differs materially in the various exx)osures.
F. Q, Alvarez, Bitterwater post office : In sec. 5, T. 19 S., R. 10 K, and sec 31 T. 18 S., R. 10 B., on the east side of the lower Bitterwater. The gypsum Ues ii or in close contact with a belt of serpentine which runs along the east rim of Bitterwater Valley. It is mixed with clay and often of a grayish color ; some boulders of white gypsum are, however, found on the surface. Several year? ago some was excavated and hauled to San Francisco, but in later years tk deposit has been idle.
Mrs. S. Chambers, Bitterwater post office : In sec. 15, T. 18 S., R. 9 EL, on tlte west side of Bitterwater Valley, some gypsum boulders were excavated scHDe years ago. In a well dug near the house a bed of gypsum about 3 feet tlii< im passed through. Three hundred yards northeast of the house some opi cuts have exposed two beds of a fair quality of gypsum. The country rock is aiuile, but the gypsum is accompanied by a light-gray sandstone containing iiKdaslons of gypsum.
J. F. Dunn, HoUister : On the Topo ranch, in sec. 17 or 18, T. 18 S., R. 9 B., od the divide west of Bitterwater Valley, a deposit of gypsum lying in a horizontal bed 3 to 4 feet thick has been opened for about 100 feet It has only a solid overburden of 2i to 3 feet, and is underlain by shale. The gypsum is of fairly good quality. The deposit is 12 miles from railroad.*
J. C. TuUy, Bitterwater post office: In sec. 32, T. 18 S., R. 10 E. [See Alvarez deposit, of which it forms part.]
R. R. Tully, Bitterwater post office: In sec. 11, T. 18 S., R. 10 B. Some de- tached bodies of grayish-colored gypsum, somewhat mixed with clay.
Estate of T. Williams (deceased), 1003 First Street, San Jose: In the sooth western part of T. 19 S., R. 12 B., and the northwestern part of T. 17 S., R. 12 E. Mount Diablo meridian, on Silver Creek, indications of gypsum have been found.
The structural and industrial materials of California : California State Min. Bur. BnH 38, pp. 286-287, 1906.
a California State Mineralogist Thirteenth Ann. Rept., p. 504, 1896.
A. Bed Of Gypsum On Mesa 15 Miles North Of King City, Gajjf,
HALF A MILE SOUTH OF DE3 MOINES RIVEEt. NEAR FORT DODGE. IOWA. This outcrop BfaowB bedding. aolulioD cbanoela. and duraldlity undar loo ejcpoaurfl. Pfaotograpli
cmjIforiha. 81
San Bernardino County. Amboy.
Amboy, a station on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway in the Mohave Desert, San Bernardino County, about 225 miles from Los Angeles, is on the north shore of a periodic lake, along which the railway extends in an east-west direction for 6 or 8 miles. The gypsum deposits are in the lake bed, probably stretch- ing nearly around it. This lake bed is of a type common in the Mohave Desert and is a number of miles in extent. The surface soil is salty, so that almost no vegetation grows on it. The lake receives drainage from mountains on both the north and the south, but the rainfall in the mountains is rarely sufficient to furnish the streams enough water to cover the surface of the dry bed.
A small volcano rises 3 miles west of the lake, and from this streams of basaltic lava have run over the lake bed. In the bays between these flows gypsum is found throughout the area, and the winds have blown it up into small drifts across the tongues of lava. Over a portion of the area a light volcanic ash forms the surface soil, a foot or more thick, and below this gypsum is found to a depth of p to 8 feet, at which point the water level is reached. It is not known how far the gypsum may extend belojsv water level. Many prospect holes have been dug along the north and east shores of the lake and gypsum was found only within about half a mile or a mile of the shore line.
The gypsum varies considerably in character, both longitudinally and vertically. In many places the gypsum nearest the surface is rather dirty, but below it is a stratum, 14 inches to 2 feet thick, of clean, white granular gypsum. In places the gypsum is cemented into a clean, spongy mass, which has little solidity but can be broken out in chunks a foot or more in diameter. At other places the gypsum crystals reach an inch or more in breadth but are thin in proportion. There is also considerable variation in the amount of dirt present. It is reported that gypsum occurs on the south side of the lake bed, and it is probable that the deposits will be found along a considerable proportion of its circumference. The charac- ter of the rocks in the hills is unknown, but there are crystalline rocks on both sides and more than likely young sedimentary rocks also.
In a prospect hole 2 miles east of Amboy no water appeared at a depth of feet, and the gypsum does not have the salty taste which is common to the gypsum on the west side of the lake. Gyp- sum is found all the way to the bottom. The uppermost 2 feet is rather dirty. Below this material is 2 feet of much cleaner material, but the lower 4J feet is iron stained and dirty. The gypsum is
124567°— 20 6
82 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
coarse grained, the largest crystals being one-fourth inch acroes. and in general is loose but includes some hard layers and seams.
The Consolidated Pacific Cement Plaster Co. of Los Angeles is operating on the west side of the lake and has a mill at Amboy. Thi> company draws its supply of gypsum from points between 2 and 5 miles southeast of the mill. The surface is stripped by horse scraper? to a depth of about 6 inches, and the gypsum is then loaded into tram cars by gasoline shovel. (See PI. XII, A.) These cars are then hauled by steam locomotives to the mill. The deposit is worked down to water level, a depth at .this point of somewhat less than 8 feet. The level will undoubtedly vary from time to time. At this depth the gypsum is apparently of as good or better quality than at points above.
A partial analysis of a selected sample by George Steiger is as follows :
Partial analysis of gypsum from deposit 2 miles southwest of Amboy , Calif.
Lime (CaO) 32.7
Sulphur trioxlde (SOa) 44.7
Water driven off at 60° C .2
Water driven off at SW C 19. 5
Chlorine (CI) . 13
Iron oxide (FeaOs) .2
The water driven off at 60° C. is considered as hygroscopic. That driven off at 300° C. (19.5 per cent) is sufficient to hydrate fully 92.8 per cent of gypsum. Nominally this would leave 2.7 per cent of anhydrite, but it is probable that this is partly hydrated calcium sulphate, and that a portion of the 92.8 per cent is also only partly hydrated, so that the sum of the two, 95.5 per cent, more nearly represents the amount available for plaster making. There is a small amount of lime present, probably as calcium carbonate, in which form it would amount to 2.5 per cent. The gypsum from the top to the bottom of the deposit would probably not be as pure as this analysis would indicate.
There is undoubtedly enough gypsum in sight to run several such mills as that now working for many years. Two salt works on the lake bed, a few miles east of Amboy, make use of the heavy brine.
Similar periodic-lake deposits of gypsum are said to exist south of Danby, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, and near Kelso, on the Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad. Similar deposits are also reported in the Colorado Desert.
Avawatz Mountains.'
Not far from the northern boundary of San Bernardino County, on the northeast edge of the Avawatz Mountains, there are ex-
1 Abstract from report made by IT. R. Johnson for the Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Co., Jnly,
Caufornia, - . 83
tensive deposits of rock gypsum. The locality is at the extreme south end of Death Valley and about 10 miles west of the Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad. The Avawatz Salt & Gypsum Ca of Los An- g-eles has gypsum claims in sees. 15, 22, 23, 25, and 26, T. 18 N., 3R. 5 E., San Bernardino base and meridian, and has done develop- ment work on the gypsum and associated beds of talc, salt, and eelestite.
The gypsum-bearing strata range from 160 to about 400 feet tliick, the average thickness being 250 feet. They outcrop over an a.rea 9 miles long by 1 mile wide. These strata consist of greenish or reddish sands an(J clays, which carry large quantities of gypsum and beds of rock gypsum from 1 to 10 feet thick. The rock gypsum is massive, fine grained, and varies in color from white throu shades of green, pink, and red to dull black. The green is due to flakes and seams of green clay, the red to iron, and the black to manganese. Weathered gypsum outcrops are generally cream or buff or showelicate tints of red or green. Satin spar occurs in seams from 1 inch to 4 inches wide. Plated selenite is comparatively rare. Earth movements have been intense in these mountains, producing curved lines of strike and many prominent faults. The valuable nonmetallic deposits lie mostly in troughs between parallel ridges and the main mountain mass. The gypsum in many places is in particu- larly advantageous positions for mining.
Analyses of a numb of samples show from 74 to 97 per cent pure gypsum.
SAN LUIS OBISPO COUNTY. OABBIZO FLAIK.i
Gypsite occurs at numerous places on the southwest flank of the Temblor Range, immediately east of the Carrizo Plain, from the vicinity of sec. 16, T. 31 S., R. 21 E., to the Kern and San Luis Obispo county line, near sec. 36, T. 32 S., R. 22 E. The deposits are of the efflorescent type, and most of them are of poor grade. They overlie the soft Miocene sandstones exposed on this flank of the range. Only assessment work had been done on these deposits. The gypsite is of so low a grade that under present costly methods of working and lack of adequate and cheap transportation facilities it is practically valueless. The locators made no secret of the fact that the work was done for the purpose of meeting the assessment requirements on oil claims, so that these occurrences could in no sense be considered as actual gypsite prospects.
Plate XI, A (p. 76), a view taken in sec. 7, T. 32 S., R. 22 E., shows one of the many gjrpsite workings in the Carrizo Plain on which work had been done to meet assessment requirements.
Notes furnished by Ralph Arnold.
84 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THEl IJNITED STATES.
Alamo Obeek.
Bunchy gypsum veins are scattered over 40 acres on Alamo Creek, 16 miles from Santa Maria. The veins occur in clay beds similar to those at Point Sal. Part of th gypsum is white and part grayisL Little development work has been done on the deposit.
Santa Barbara County. Santa Babbaba Obeek.
Deposits of alabaster described as 20 to 30 feet thick and traceable across the country for many miles were visited on the south side of an eastern branch of Santa Barbara Creek, 32 miles southwest of McKittrick. The location of the claim was given as the SE. J sec 34, T. 9 N., E. 25 W., San Bernardino base and meridian. The out- crop occupies the end of a low point and is about 50 to 75 feet long by 20 to 25 feet broad and probably somewhat less in thickness. It has an apparent strike along the face of the hill, but a pro)ect tunnel driven to a length of 40 feet failed to find gypsum in other than veins, the largest of which is about 4 inches thick. Hie outcrop is composed of finely crystalline material, some of which may be classed as alabaster. It is in irregular masses, the largest of which is probably not over 2 feet long, and the clear material is in still smaller pieces. There are small pieces of beautiful pink and clear white material, though only a part of it is hard enough to be useful as alabaster. It occurs in a soft, clayey sandstone, which is probably of Tertiary age.
Point Sal.
On Point Sal, Santa Barbara County, gypsum was mined for several years previous to and including 1889, at a number of points 1 to 2 miles from the coast. Of the former workings there now remain only caved open cuts and timnels. The rocks are clayey shales of Miocene age, only slightly consolidated, are overlain and underlain by harder rocks, and appear to be similar to those on Santa Barbara Creek, mentioned above. The gypsum in sight is similar to that described near Santa Barbara Canyon and is ap- parently not in continuous beds, as it can not be traced into the gulches. Almost none is to be seen on the surface, and the beds are probably of little or no economic value. From 10 to 20 carloads of gypsum remain unshipped on the seashore. The gypsum is well solidified and is of rather fine grain. Although it contains consider- able clay a small part of it is white.
California* - 85
Ventura County. Fillmore.
A bed of massive white gypsum in sees. 12 and 13, T. 3 N., E. 20 W., 4 miles by road south of Fillmore, was quarried from 1911 to 1914. The gypsum is interbedded with diatomaceous shale that strikes east and dips north at a low angle. The rock was calcined and made into wall plaster at Fillmore. Operations wrere abandoned because of the impurity of the gypsum.
South Mountain.
On the south slope of South Mountain at an elevation of 2,000 feet, about 4 miles south of Santa Paula, massive but soft granular gypsum occurs interbedded wih diatomaceous shale. The beds strike east and dip 60° N. The gypsum is between the two lines of the South- em Pacific Eailroad, but it is impure, occurs on the top of the moun- tain, and does not warrant development.
French Point.
In sec. 16, T. 8 N., R. 24 W., San Bernardino base and meridian, on the east side of Cuyama River, 6 miles above the mouth of Santa Barbara Canyon, is a hill known as French Point, which is 200 to 250 feet above the river. A deposit of alabaster, is reported to occur near the top of the hill, from which blocks a yard square and 10 inches thick are said to have been taken. An analysis shows that it contains over 90 per cent of gypsum. The locality is 25 miles south of Maricopa, Kern County.
Ojai Valle7.
There is an undeveloped bed of gypsum on the hill below the grade that leads to the upper Ojai Valley in Ventura County about 3 miles east of Nordhoflf. It is exposed for a width of 15 to 20 feet in a canyon on the south side of the road and dips slightly to the east. Another outcrop, perhaps the same bed, appears a mile distant, on the opposite side of the hill. The locality is so situated that it can be reached by the construction of a short road.
Summary.
The' gypsum deposits of California may be divided into four
classes — (1) eiflorescent deposits; (2) periodic-lake deposits; (3)
interbedded deposits; (4) selenite, or crystallized gypsum veins. Of
these all except the fourth class — the vein — may locally be of value.
The efflorescent deposits are widely spread over the Coast Range and Tehachapi Mountains from San Benito to Los Angeles counties. They overlie a variety of Tertiary sediments, fine and coarse sand- stones and shales. In general they are of little or no value, but locally, where transportation is not too difficult, the deposits may be workable.
86 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
At a number of places visited claims on such deposits were nom- inally being held for the gypsum upon them. The gypsum at many deposits can be of no value until transportation is very much cheaper than it is now or is likely to be, and that at other deposits will never be of value. Many a claim owner freely admitted that he was really hold- ing the claim for oil, but that under the then existing laws he be- lieved there was no legal way of holding an oil claim against jumpers until it' could be prospected, no matter what expenditure of time and money was made upon it, whereas if it were taken up as a gypsum claim it could be held until a patent was obtainable by doing the annual assessment work.
Efflorescent deposits are formed by the evaporation of water which has percolated through porous gypsiferous rocks and dissolved gyp sum from them and which leaves its load of gypsum at the place where vaporization has proceeded to a point at which gypsum is precipitated through supersaturation.
The periodic-lake deposits are found in San Joaquin Valley, the Mohave Desert, and probably in the Colorado Desert. The large deposit at Amboy is being mined, and prospecting may show others to be of value also. In this and other desert playas the waters are briny, but at Kern and Buena Vista lakes, gypsum has been de- posited from comparatively fresh waters. In the desert lakes gyp- sum is probably precipitated supersaturation brought about by evaporation, but in the fresh-water lakes the gypsum is deposited just outside the nonnal shore line by the evaporation of water from the soil, the deposit being formed similarly to the efflorescent de- posits on rocks, the soil drawing its supply of water from the some- what concentrated solution along the shore of the lake.
Practically all the efflorescent and lake deposits except those in the briny lakes are covered by soil. From those that are not thus cov- ered the soil seems to have been removed by wind or other agencies. The soil is thought to be not necessarily of later deposition but to be older than or contemporary with the gypsite deposits. The summer heat is very great in all the localities, so that the moisture drawn from the rocks and soil by the sun is vaporized at a depth of several inches below the surface, the depth varying with the locality, or at least it is vaporized sufficiently to precipitate the gypsum before it reaches . the surface.
Interbedded deposits are found in Miocene clayey sediments at many places from the middle of Los Angeles County southward along the Colorado Desert, and at a few places northward. Locally these deposits may be workable, but they are generally lean. Interbedded deposits in the Palen, Maria, and Avawatz mountains are of unknown age and are reported to be of excellent quality and considerable si Large veins of selenite are not known at any place in the State.
Colorado.
By R. D. CrEORGE.
Genebal Cttaracteb.
Gypsum is .widely distributed in Colorado, though commercial deposits appear to be confined to a few geologic formations. The supply is almost imlimited, and imless very important new uses are found either for the raw mineral or the manufactured products there is enough to meet the demands for centuries. By far the larger part of the gypsum is of the granular rock variety and occurs interstratified with other sedimentary rocks. Here and there, how- ever, through ihe weathering of the rock gypsum, considerable ac- cumulations of gypsite have been formed..
Two deposits in the Vicinity of Pueblo may be of Tertiary lake origin. One of them is firm gypsum, but the other is gypsite.
Of the vast volume of gypsum in the State a very large propor- tion is of excellent quality, and analyses show as high as 99 per cent of hydrous calcium sulphate. In places the deposits must be classed as gypsiferous shales, which are commercially useless.
There are only two deposits being worked for the manufacture of plaster at the present time. These are the United States Gypsum Co.'s property near Arkins, west of Loveland, in Larimer County, and the Colorado Portland Cement Co.'s deposit at Costldale, with a mill at Portland, in Fremont County. Gypsum is quarried near Stone City, Pueblo County, for use in Portland cement.
Age.
So far as our present knowledge goes the Carboniferous was by far the most important period of gypsum deposition. Probably 90 per cent of the gypsum of the State occurs in strata of Penn- sylvanian. and Permian age. The Morrison formation (of Creta- ceous or Jurassic age) contains workable deposits near Pueblo and Colorado Springs. Gypsum, mainly in the form of selenite crys- tals, occurs in the Benton, Niobrara, and Pierre formations of Upper Cretaceous age. The large deposit of commercial gypsum near Stone City rests on Cretaceous strata and may be of Cretaceous age, but so far as the writer knows it is possible that it is of Tertiaiy lake origin.
LOCALITIES. liARIHER COUNTT.
The gypsum near Aricins is near the base of the Lykins forma- tion (prdbably of Permian age) and is revealed by the erosion of the crest of an anticlinal fold. The deposit as exposed ranges in thickness from 12 to 36 feet and averages about 24 feet. (See
SSi GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STATES.
PL XIV, A,) The gypsum lies between the hard basal sandstone member of the formation and the " crinkled " sandstone, which con- sists of a varying mixture of sand and lime carbonate. Exposures and test holes have shown a minable deposit exceeding 1,000,000 tons.
The color ranges from gray to white, and the texture is fine gran- ular. Analyses show slight variations in purity from place to place, but as a whole it is a remarkably uniform and clean body of gypsam. It is convenient to transportation, easily quarried, and makes excel- lent gypsum products. This deposit has been quarried for many years and is now worked by the United States Gypsum Co,
Gypsum occurs at about the same position in the Lykins formation at points between the Arkins deposits and the north line of the State. Some of the more important outcrops are at Owl Canyon, Deadman Butte, near Greenacre ranch, and on Boxelder and Sand creeks near Table Mountain. Between these points minor outcrops are known, and beyond Table Mountain others have been reported. The evidence at hand makes it appear possible that the deposit is fairly continuous for several miles between Owl Canyon and Green- acre ranch.
The Owl Canyon outcrop shows a clear-white granular gypsum of 99 per cent purity and apparently of great extent. West and southwest of Greenacre ranch there are two beds separated by a con- siderable thickness of red shaly sandstones and shales. In places the western or lower deposit carries much beautiful selenite, but the upper deposit is weathered into gypsite over a considerable area. In the vicinity of Table Mountain the deposit is white massive ginulur gypsum, and forms a ridge of considerable extent. To the north of the mountain it occurs in several bands from 2 to 12 feet thick separated by thin red shales.
Jefferson County.
Near Morrison, on Bear and Deer creeks, gypsum occurs as lenses and in bodies of considerable size in the Lykins formation. On Deer Creek a stratum 20 feet thick lies not far from the top of the formation. As a rule the gypsum is associated with the variegated shales and earthy limestones, but on Deer Creek the deposit is asso- ciated with the limestones occurring below the capping sandstone. Shipments have been made from the vicinity of Morrison.
Douglas County.
The Perry Park gypsum deposits also occur in the Lykins forma- tion, which there consists mainly of soft red shales. The " crinkled " sandstone forms two bands, the lower of which is calcareous and
Butters, R. M., I'ermlan or " Permo-Carboniferous " of the eastern foothiUs of the Rocky Mountains In Colorado : Colorado Geol. Survey Bull. 5, pt. 2, p. 74, 1913.
BULLETIN MT FLA.TE :i
GYPSUM QUARRY IN LYSINS FORMATION. LOVBLAND. COLO, Phatognph by W. T. Lee.
B. THICK BED OF GYPSUM IN PEEtRY PARK, COLO. wt of Gove Cik and shows as a while band in the mUrft* ground. Photograph
Colorado. 89
yields fossils rarded as of Permian age. Above the upper band and apparently forming the top of the Lykins formation is an irregular band of gypsum .averaging about 40 feet but reaching a maximum of 76 feet in thickness. This band of gypsum is overlain by a limestone which probably belongs to the Morrison formation The gypsum can be traced for about 8 miles. (See PL XIV, B.) A large part of the mineral is of excellent quality, and it has been quite extensively worked.
El Paso County.
In the Garden of the Gods, along Fountain Creek, Little Foun- tain Creek, and at Glen Eyrie extensive beds of fine white granular gypsum occur in the upper part of Hayden's Ked Bed series, which is now called the Lykins formation. The deposits range in thickness from a few feet to 60 feet. Selenite and satin spar occur in appre- ciable quantity in some o£ the beds. In the Garden of the Goda the gypsum is interstratified with clays, and the white outcrop of this member is a conspicuous feature at this much frequented place. (See PI. XV.) Near Glen Eyrie the bed is 57 feet thick. These beds have not been worked to any extent, but beds near Colorado City have been worked rather extensively. Stevenson reports a thick- ness of 120 feet of gypsum and shales on Little Fountain Creek.
Local occurrences of gypsum are reported as far south as Trinidad, but no descriptions are available.
Pueblo Countt.
A short distance south of Stone City, about 20 miles northwest of Pueblo, there is a considerable surface deposit of very pure gypsum which has been worked by the Turkey Creek Stone, Clay & Gypsum Co. The product is used in the cement industry. The deposit is underlain by Upper Cretaceous rocks and, from the description at hand, would appear to be of comparatively recent lake origin.
Gypsum is reported in Sullivan Park, on SW. i sec. 4, T. 18 S., R. 67 W., or near the county line, a few miles north of Stone City. Nothing is known of the character and extent of the deposit.
Gilbert mentions two occurrences of gypsum in the Pueblo quad- rangle. Of the first of these he says :
Near the northwestern corner of the quadrangle are two smaU areas of the Morrison formation. These are parts of a much larger area occurring in the Colorado Springs quadrangle, adjacent at the north, so that they belong rather to that quadrangle than to the Pueblo. The formation contains an
1 Butters, R. M., op. cit, p. 82.-
2 Stevenson, J. J., Report on the geology of a portion of Colorado examined In 1873 : U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Final Rept., vol. 3, p. 379, 1875.
'Gilbert, G. K., U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Pueblo folio (No. 36), p. 6, 1897.
90 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
important series of gypsiun beds, and a few of those beds were observed in the more easterly of the Pueblo areas. They are overlooked from the soutli by a high cliff of Dakota sandstone and are accessible only from the Colorado Springs side. The gjrpsum is massive and is mottled with gray and white.
The westernmost of these deposits lies in Fremont County and extends a considerable distance northward into the Colorado Springs quadrangle. Near the road between Canon City and Colorado Springs, about 3 or 4 miles northwest of the northwest comer of Pueblo County, the United States Portland Cement Co. has quarried gypsum for their cement plant at Concrete. This deposit is be- lieved to be a continuation of that near Stone City. It is not unlikely that the gypsum on Beaver Creek mentioned by Stevenson belongs to the same series, but it is hard to reconcile his statement that the thickness is 100 feet with the thickness recorded for the Stone City deposit.
The second occurrence mentioned by Gilbert is that of a deposit of earthy gypsum in an alluvial flat near Greenhorn station, on the Trinidad line of the Denver & Eio Grande Railroad. The flat is probably along Greenh<M7i Creek or its tributary from the south In either case the 'flat must be imderlain by beds of Niobrara age.
The gypsite is said to have been manufactured into plaster in Pueblo.
Fremont, Custer, Huerfano, And Chaffee Counties.
From Oro Junta to Cramer and beyond on the Florence & Cripple Creek Eailroad, in Fremont County, there is an extensive depo of rock gypsum. Though the writer does not know the age of the inclosing strata, it would seem probable that they belong to the Lykins formation. The gypsum varies from massive granular to finely laminated, and in color from a pure white to a dark brownish gray. Selected rock proved on analysis to be almost entirely free from impurities, but the darker rock is evidently impure. The beds in places attain a thickness of 60 to 75 feet, and the outcrop is traceable at least miles. No attempt was made by the writer to determine the limits of the deposit. Several exploratory pits have been dug, but so far as known no commercial shipments have been made. This deposit is probably the one referred to by Steven- son.2 He says:
From Ute Creek (Eightmile) to Beaver Creek the gypsum bed is a well- marked feature of the outer wall of the park and seems to be in tliin layers alternating with drab or lead-colored clays.
In the same connection he mentions the occurrence of gypsum along Turkey Creek farther east. Here he indicates that the beds
Stevenson, J. J., op. clt., p. 379. 'Idem, p. 380.
Colorado. 91
are either Jurassic or Triassic and states that they Aary but little from 100 feet at several exposures. Several low hills are covered by gypsum. These beds must be almost continuous with those of Little Fountain Creek.
The deposit at Coaldale is the most extensively worked deposit in the State. From this locality the Colorado Portland Cement Co. gets its supply of raw material for its plaster mill and its cement plant at Portland, Colo. The average quality of the rock is equal to that of any other found in the State, and the quantity is suf-- ficient to meet the demand for many years.
The gypsum occurs in low hills extending for a distance of over 2 miles. At the places where the rock is quarried the only cover- ing is a thin layer of alluvial gravel. The underlying rock is said to be sandstone. Weathering has developed a considerable quantity of gypsite, which was once worked for plaster making.
At the principal workings the quarry face is over 100 feet high and 300 feet long. Bands and lenses of dolomite occur in the de- posit, but they are not continuous and present no serious obstacle to the working of the quarry. There are four other openings on the company's holdings of 1,600 acres, all of which show commercial gypsum. The main body of the deposit is dark gray, but streaks of white are found.
On the same line of Carboniferous outcrops, both to the south- east in Custer and Huerfano counties, and northwest in Fremont and Chaffee counties, gypsum deposits of commercial quantity and quality occur, but no detailed description of the geology is available. From Stevenson's report it is evident that he regarded the containing strata as Carboniferous. The stratigraphic succession from the bot- tom is limestone, shales and sandstone, gypsum, reddish-gray sand- stones, and shales. Between Howard and Swissvale the deposits occur irregularly on both sides of the river in a series of strata about 125 feet thick in which is one stratum of gypsiun about 15 feet thick. Tests by the United States Portland Cement Co. showed that this band is of excellent quality. It has not yet been worked.
The United States Portland Cement Co., of Concrete, Colo., is mining gypsum for the cement plant at a point about 4 miles north- west of Stone City. The gypsum of this region occurs in compara- tively thin masses interruptedly over an area 10 to 12 miles long from north to south and about 7 miles broad from east to west. The gypsum series is underlain by shale, and shale and red sandstones and sandy shales separate the gypsum strata, which range from 4 to 6 feet in thickness. The mineral is pink and of excellent quality for the purposes of the cement industry.
92 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Park County.
Near the old salt works in South Park impure gypsum occurs in large quantity in what Peale believed to be either Cretaceous or Jurassic strata. The outcrops are near the bases of several lava-capped buttes. The lower slopes of the buttes are so covered that the exact geologic relations are not clear. In one place, however, the gypsum is in laminated sandstones dipping north. It is very impure and ranges in color from gray to black. The surrounding country is occupied by Hayden's Upper Carboniferous, which includes in many places strata corresponding in character and position to the Permian. It is not unlikely that the gypsum belongs to this series.
In lake deposits, west and southwest of Fairplay, Stevenson found a fine soil containing much gypsum.
Summit County.
Stevenson reports the occurrence of gypsiferous shales on Snake River, a tributary of Blue River, in Summit County.
Rio Blanco, Garfield, Eagle, And Pitkin Counties.
Along the valleys of White, Grand, and Eagle rivers, and their tributaries, such as Roaring Fork and Fryingpan, Brush, Gypsiun, and Cottonwood creeks, extensive areas of Hayden's Upper Car- boniferous formations are exposed. In many places along these streams the outcropping edges of the strata show large deposits of gypsum and gypsiferous shale varying in color from pure white to pink-gray and almost black. In some places the weathering of the gypsum has covered wide slopes with a soft flourlike gypsite that is more or less mingled with detritus from the higher strata. The general geologic relationships are such as to suggest an equivalence of age with the deposits along the eastern foothills pf the range, though in places the gypsum is possibly in strata corresponding to the Hermosa formation of the San Juan country, and is thus of Pennsylvanian age.
At Ruedi, on Fryingpan Creek in Eagle County, a plaster mill was in operation for a few years, but it is now closed. A few carloads of gypsum have been shipped from Gypsum station to Portland, Colo., for use in the manufacture of cement.
Along the open valley of Eagle River, between the canyon and a point about 5 or 6 miles above the Grand, the bordering hills are formed of gypsiferous shales and gypsum, which break down into
iPeale, A. C, U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr. Seventh Ann. Rept, for 1873, p. 224,
StevenBon, J. J., op. clt., p. 464. 8 Idem, p. 374.
COIiOBADO. - 93
a'soft powdery gray to white mass of impure gypsite and alluvium. In the lower canyon of Eagle Kiver the gypsum beds dip from the xiver in both directions.
The peculiar erosion of these hills has developed a topography closely resembling that of the badlands- The section on Eagle Eiver consists of about 1,500 feet of shales, sandstones, and limestones, with many transitions from one type to another. In color the rocks are white, gray, pink, red, brown, and black. Of the total thickness probably one-half is gypsum bearing. From fossil evidence Lesque- I'eux determined the age to be Permian. Eecent work supports this finding.
The same gypsiferous series continues from the Eagle the Grand and follows it interruptedly almost to the canyon. It also appears on both sides of Spruce Creek and on both sides of Roaring Fork. In all these areas the strata and gypsum deposits are very similar to those just described.
The gypsum occurs in strata and lenses of irregular thickness. In length some are measurable in miles, others in yards, and the thick- ness ranges from a few inches to approximately 200 feet. In many places the beds are scattered rather uniformly throughout the gyp- siferous series, and workable beds may nmnber from two to six. In other places the bulk of the gypsum is massed within one-third or one-fourth the thickness of the series. At a point miles east of Gypsum, in a stratigraphic section 140 feet thick, the gypsum meas- ures 90 feet. Here selenite and anhydrite are plentiful.
The gypsum deposits along Eagle and Grand rivers in Eagle County are so extensive that fhey could supply the entire United States for many years.
Gunnisoi County.
Howell mentions the occurrence of gypsum on the east side of the river near Gunnison.
Delta, Montrose, San Miguel, And Dolores Counties.
Siebenthal describes the occurrence of gypsum along the Gunni- son Canyon in Delta and Montrose counties. The gypsum occurs near the middle of a series of shales and sandstones of undetermined age but separated from what has been called Dakota sandstone in that area by 400 feet of "variegated but predominantly reddish shales with interbedded red and buff sandstones." The description
Howell, E. E., Report on the geology of portions of Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico examined in the years 1872 and 1873 : U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Final Kept., vol. 3, p. 264, 1875.
Siebenthal, C. E., Gypsum of the Uncompahgre region : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285, pp. 401-403, 1906.
94 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
of the sandstone resting on the pre-Canibrian schists suggests the crinkled " sandstone of the Lykins formation east of the range.
The gypsum-bearing rocks average 110 feet in thickns and out- crop interruptedly for 20 miles — from Smiths Fork to Eed Eock Canyon. The gypsum beds range from 1 foot to nearly 60 feet thick. Some of the sandstones and shales are gypsif erous.
A thick bed of gypsum occupies the whole head of Big Gypsum Valley and extends along the north side of the valley to Dolores Eiver. It reappears down the river at the mouth of Little Gypsum Valley and extends some distance up that valley, especially on the north side. The deposit is overlain by a crumpled limestone, and this overlain imconformably by the sandstone and conglomerate of the Dolores formation. The unconformity may represent Cutler time. In places a rich Pennsylvanian fauna occurs some distance above the gypsum. The area covered by gypsum in the two valleys is probably between 20 and 30 square miles. The mineral occurs as inassive white gypsum in beds from 5 to 10 feet thick throuiout a series of strata between 200 and 300 feet thick. Weathering has formed impure gypsite.
In East Paradox Valley gypsum covers about 8 square miles and in West Paradox Valley about one-half square mile. In tliese val- leys the gypsum is associated with limestone and shales and is over- lain by red. shales and shaly sandstone.
In Sinbad Valley gypsum covers about 7 square miles and is as- sociated with limestone and shale. Cross and Howe believe the gypsiferous series to be the same as that which Peale regarded as probably Permian. They think the beds may be the Cutler forma- tion. In later official publications the Cutler has been classed as Permian (?).
From the views expressed and from the field relations, it would seem probable that the beds in all this region are Permian or late Pennsylvanian.
In the Kico quadrangle gypsum occurs well down in the Hermosa formation, and in places reaches a thickness of 30 feet. It is under- lain by black shales. In the Rico mining district gypsum occurs as a gangue, especially on Newman Hill.
On Hermosa Creek, north of Durango, a small exposure of gypsuin appears to be well down in the Hermosa formation. Gypsuin occurs in other parts of the State, particularly in the west and southwest
Cross, WWtman, and Howe, Ernest, Red Beds of southwestern Colorado and their cor- relation : Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 16, pp. 447-498, 1905.
Florida.
By R. W. Stone.
Gypsum has been reported at only one locality in Florida, which is near Panasoffkee, Suinter County, 60 miles north of Tampa. This locality is not readily accessible, for it is a low-lying area of hummocky land, known as Bear Island, in the midst of a marsh about 6 miles west of Panasoffkee. It was examined by D. T. Day about 20 years ago. At the time of his visit there was a logging road across the swamp, but that road has been torn up, and the place is now less easy to reach. The following description is quoted from Day's report :
In the southern and southwestern portion ot this so-called island the gypsum reaches the surface, with no covering whatever except an inch or two of vegetal mold. By striking a hoe into this the gypsum may be dug up in a soft state like clay, but it soon hardens on exposure to dry air. It is greenish while wet and turns white on drying. Where the gypsum is at the surface tiiere are knolls from 10 to 50 feet square and 3 to 6 feet higher than the' adjoining land, but the gypsum is found almost everywhere by slight excavation. The deposit is* probably gypsite, or secondary gypsum.
Two. pits sunk through it have shown it to be feet thick in one place and 7 feet thick in the other, with the usual light Florida sand underneath. Mixed through it are boulders of very impure limestone, with occasional hardy flinty ones.* As a rule the topography of tlie country will admit of digging 6 or 8 feet through the gypsum without encountering any considerable amount of water, except in the wet season.
The quality of the gypsum is almost uniform in all the places from which specimens were taken. The quantity is evidently sufficient for a large supply. The only difficulty to be anticipated in the mining is the fact that the lumps of limestone would be encountered at irregular intervals ; their character makes it evident that they are residual lumps from limestone which has been dis- solved by the action of rain water, as in many other parts of the State. It is probable that the floor of the deposit will frequently be a bed of limestone, very irregular in its surface, so that it will be difficult to dig all the gypsum from it by cheap means.
According to a description by Prof. F. H. H. Calhoun, of Clemson College, C, there is at this locality a deposit of powdery to granular gypsum evidently formed from springs, and varying in composition from pure gypsum to 22J per cent calcium carbonate. *He describes it as in places from 3 to 7 feet thick with an overburden of
Day, D. T., Gypsum in Florida : U. S. Geol. Survey Twentieth Ann. Rept., pt. 6, pp. 602, 663, 1899 ; Gypsum deposits in Florida : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 48, 1904.
96 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States. '
3 feet and elsewhere from 6 to 12 feet thick without overburden. The following quotation is from Mineral Industry, 1917 :
This deposit is probably the same one visited by Dr. Day, but he evidently did not see the best exposures. The material appears, in sec. 23, T. 20, U. 21, as a huge mound from 6 to 10 feet thick. It has an average length of 150 yards and an average width of 60 yards.
North of this large deposit, which occurs on what is known as Soai)ston€ Island, the deposits become thinner and less continuous. It might be best de- scribed as a swell or saucer type.
This type continues for some 200 yards and then gradually gives place to the type of deposit described Dr. Day on Bear Island. The deposits on Bear Island consist of isolated mounds of gypsum from 6 to 100 feet in diameter and probably average 3 or 4 feet in thickness. I estimate that the deposit on Soapstone Island contains about 35,000 tons, the adjacent d)osit about 70,000, and that on Bear Island probably as much, but so scattered as to make quarrying difficult. I found very little evidence that these mounds were connected under the surface.
Mr. Harry Houston, of Brooksville, Fla., has examined these de- posits and finds that Bear and Soapstone islands are in the E. i sec. 23, T. 20 S., R. 21 E., and that the largest continuous deposit is on Soapstone Island, probably in the NE. J SE. J sec. 23. He sunk- many holes with a 2-inch auger and found the deposit from 6 to 10 feet thick with an average of 8 feet. North and west of the large de- posit there are many more or less detached hummocks of gypsite. He reports one deposit " 3 acres wide and 6 acres long with an average thickness of 8 feet," or approximately 206,000 cubic yards, and another " 350 yards long and 140 yards wide with an average depth of feet," or a total of 131,800 cubic yards. This makes a total of 337,000 cubic yards or about the same number of tons. Mr. Houston's report is furnished by Messrs. A. J. Burnham and S. Stevens, of Bushnell, Fla., who have a lease on the gypsum land.
The writer visited this locality in March, 1919, and learned that gypsite occurs on Bear, Soapstone, and Burnt islands in the swamp west of Panasoflfkee and also near Inverness. These islands are about 4 miles west of the Seaboard Air Line Railway at a point miles south of Panasoflfkee. Pine land extends within about three- quarters of a mile of the islands, but the remaining distance is swamp grown up with saw grass more than head high, so that access from tliis direction is difficult. The islands are easily reached by a small gasoline launch from Panasoflfkee. It takes about three hours to make the trip across Panasoffkee Lake, up Withlacoochee River and Jumpers Lake, and thence by pole boat up Bear Island Creek to the islands.
The deposits are a soft, incoherent mass of fine gypsum crystals or particles having the character of gypsite. On Bear Island there
1 Mineral Industry for 1917, p. 117, 1918.
FLORIDA. d7
ate many hummocks of gypsite from 3 to 6 feet high which are eaid to extend from northeast to southwest for nearly a mile in a belt a quarter of a mile wide. By these estimates this belt would cover approximately 160 acres, but as the hummocks are detached, with little or no gypsite between them, the available quantity proba- bly is not over 200,000 tons and may be much less.
At the south end of Soapstone Island, which is half a mile long, there is an area of several acres in which gypsite forms a compara- tively level-topped deposit rising about 10 feet above water level. Ilordering it on the west and north are several acres of gypsite hum- mocks as much as 10 feet high. The deposit at the south end of Soapstone Island is the largest compact body that has been discov- ered. Drill holes sunk in it by Mr. Houston, are reported by him to show an average thickness of 8 feet of gypsite. Several holes showed to feet of gypsite, and two holes 14 and 15 feet deep did not reach the bottom of the deposit.
The overburden consists of 2 or 3 inches of vegetable deposit or woods mold. There is over the whole area a forest cover of pal- metto, cabbage palm, cypress, live oak, and other trees. Overturned trees show a flat mass of roots but no tap roots, perhaps because the bottom of the gypsite deposit seems to be practically at the level of the surrounding swamp and the gypsite is probably always damp. It might not be difficult to strip off the forest and leave a clean sur- face of gypsite, but as the highest estimate of the quantity available is only about 330,000 tons a moderate-sized business of 50,000 tons annually would exhaust the deposit in six or seven years. A conserva- tive estimate of 150,000 tons available to be worked by a small plant having a capacity of 20,000 tons year gives the same result — exhaustion in a brief period. Although the deposits could be mined by steam shovel or floating dredge, they have not been developed because of their small size and location in an area of small market, which is easily supplied from gypsum producers in Virginia and those in the Atlantic Coast States using gypsum from Nova Scotia.
Samples of gypsite were taken by the writer for analysis :
Analyses of gypsite from Florida, [Chase Palmer, analyst.]
Soapstene Island.
Calcium oxide (CaO) 32.39 32.30
Sulphur trioxide (SOa) 44.10 45.00
Water, loss on imition, etc 21.64 21.53
Ferrous oxide (FejOs) .62 .32
Smca(8iOs) .66 .26
124567**— 20 7
n
98 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The sample from Bear Island was obtained by cleaning oflf a few inches from the face of an exposure to get unstained material free from vegetation. The sample from Soapstone Island was dug 2 feet below the surface in the side of a vertical wall of a natural hole in the deposit These anialyses are practically identical with that of the sample obtained by D, T. Day, as shown in the table of analyses on page 28.
According to geologic maps of Florida, the area west of Pana- soflFkee is occupied by rocks of the Vicksburg group, of Oligocene age. This group consists of soft, porous light-gruy to white lime- stone, containing marl beds and layers of chert. The writer did not find limestone exposed near the gypsite deposits but did see nodules of f ossilif erous chert between the hummocks of gypsite. The meager evidence suggests, as mentioned by Prof. Calhoun, that the gj'psite bas been derived from springs. It would seem that at some earlier geologic period the land stood at a slightly higher elevation and that gypsiferous waters rising under artesian head reached the surface here and, evaporating, made mounds of gypsite.
According to Mr. S. Stephens, of Bushnell, Fla., there is consider- able gypsite on Burnt Island, which lies about 200 yards east of the north end of Soapstone Island, and also a few miles north of this locality, near Inverness. He reports that the deposit near Inverness is pockety, can be traced about li miles, and does not contain more than 5,000 tons. Of this same deposit Prof. Calhoun says
Further north, about 5 miles east of Inverness, more deposits are found, but in tliese the type is different. It lies beneath the surface covered with an overburden from a few inches to several feet in tliicluiess. The deposit itself, I beUeve, would not average more than 3 feet and is not continuoos. Tills deposit extends south some 2 or 3 miles.
The writer concludes that the Florida gypsite would make plaster suitable for gypsum board, block, and tile and for base coats. Prob- ably it would not make perfectly white plaster. The manner of oc- currence and the size of the deposits do not encourage dcA* elopment.*
1 Mineral Industry for 1917, p. 117, 1918.
- Stone, R. W., Florida gypsum depict explored : Rock Products, toI. 23, No. 2, pp. 30-31. 1920.
IDAHO. By B. W. Stokb.
Gypsum has been found in two localities in Idaho in quantity i?vorthy of mention. The smaller but more accessible of these de- posits is in Bear Lake County, 3 miles east of Montpelier, on tlie south side of Montpelier Canyon. G. K. Mansfield, of the United States Geological Survey, who examined the deposit, has furnidied the writer with the following data, previously unpublished. There is a prospect hole in the deposit in the SW. i sec. 32, T. 12 S., R. 45 E., where a small body of gypsum lies on and fills cracks in lime- stone apparently of Pennsylvanian age. The gypsum is fine grained, ' white, massive, and seemingly pure. It is not well exposed, but the bed is at least 4 feet thick. The lateral extent was not de- termined. An analysis made by W. C. Wheeler, of the United States Geological Survey, from a sample cut across 4 feet of the bed is as follows :
Analysis of gypsum from a deposit near Montpelier Ida>ho,
[W. C. Wheeler, analyst.]
SiO, : 4. 14
AlaOa . 89
FeiOs J . 10
MgO . 99
CaO 31. 40
Co2 2. 33
So3 - 41. 13
H2O, loss at C 18.39
In the mountains in the northeastern part of Bear Lake County Mr. Mansfield found lenses and layers of gypsum In the Nugget sandstone, of Jurassic or Triassic age, but nowhere more than a few inches thick.
The second deposit was examined and described by E. F. Bur- chard. It is in Washington County and lies high in the bluffs over- looking Snake Eiver, about 10 miles northeast of Huntington, Oreg., which is the nearest town. Rock gypsum as exposed in short adits and pits in sees. 7, 8, 17, and 18, T. 13 K, R. 7 W., occurs in lenticular 'masses banded with grayish and greenish material, possibly chlo- ritic. The lenses appear to range from 6 to 20 feet in thickness.
Bnrchard, E. F., Gypsum industry In 1910: 17. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1910, pt 2, p. 727, 1911.
100 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Some of the gypsum is pure white, massive, and spotted with small lumps of impure gypsum and dark country rock ; some is yellowish, owing to lumps of foreign material; and some is so filled with laminae of a greenish chloritic (?) mineral and small rolls of im- pure limy material that it would seem to be worthless. Quarrying would require handling much overburden and waste gypsum, and underground mining would be uncertain because of the lenticular character of the deposit.
There is a branch of the Oregon Short Line Railroad on the Oregon side of Snake River within half a mile of the prospects.
The character of the deposit is similar to that a few miles farther south on the Oregon side of the river, and meager evidence sug- gests that the gypsum-bearing rocks are of the same series in botii places and of Miocene age.
Iowa.
By R. W. Stone and G. F. Kay.
The first gypsum mill built in the United States west of Missis- sippi Biver was located at Fort Dodge, Iowa, and the plaster indus- try of the State is over 45 years old. Gypsum, however, is Imown to occur in only two areas — the well-known one at Fort Dodge and the recently discovered one at Centerville. At Fort Dodge the gypsum outcrops, but at Centerville it lies 500 feet below the surface and was discovered in a drill hole. The two occurrences will be described separately.
GYPSUM AT FORT DODGE. By R. W. Stone.
Character And Extent.
In the vicinity of Fort Dodge, Webster County, which is near the center of the State, there is an area of 60 or 70 square miles underlain by sedimentary strata carrying gypsum. This area is 3 to 6 miles wide and about 13 miles long. It extends in a northeast-southwest direction, and the greatest width is at Fort Dodge, where Des Moines River crosses it. Gypsum is exposed in the bluflfs along the river and its tributaries. Soldier Creek and Twomile Creek or Gypsum Hollow. Earlier reports have contained stratigraphic sections of the gypsum and adjacent strata exposed at a number of quarries and other localities in the vicinity of Fort Dodge, but in June, 1916, at the time of the writer's visit, none of these localities presented ade- quate exposures, for the rocks were buried in talus and overgrown- with brush. In fact, no place was found where more than 15 feet of the beds near the gypsum horizon were exposed, and although it was intended to search for fossils in the pink shales, the possibility of finding traces of animal life was despaired of because of the soft clayey character of the shales at the outcrop and the friable, sugary character of the sandy layers.
TTie gypsum bed is fairly well exposed north of Fort Dodge, in the bank of Soldier Creek, just above creek level, IJ miles above its mouth, near a railroad bridge at the cemetery. South of the city in Gypsum Hollow above the tracks of the Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern Railroad, and directly across Des Moines Biver, in the
See bibliography, p. 311.
102 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
hollow which that railroad follows south, gypsum outcrops conspic- uously. (See PI. XIII, 5, p. 80.) All these localities contain aban- doned quarries, where the gypsum was taken along the outcrop and back so far as the cover was not too great. At ione of these places is" the whole thickness of the gypsum clearly exposed, but it may be seen at the mouth of the drift mine of the Plymouth Gypsum Co. in the SE. i sec 31, T. 89 K., K. 29 W., which is on the west side of Des Moines Biver.
Extenve deyelo|iient by mines and drill holes has tiist the gypsum ocenrs in a sin bed lying practic<y hcmzoiitsd and ranging in tUckiKiss from 10 ta 30 feet. In that part of the gypsum area now being mined the bed is comm<mIy 22 to 25 feet liek and k reported to be fiilly 30 feet at one pJace in the {operty of the Wasein Plaster Co. in the SK i see. 34, T. R. 28 W.
The miners recognize the following divisions in the gypsum bed:
Section of gypsum bed at Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Feet. 9-foot ledge, all but upper part suitable for plaster, varying in
thickness 3-12
. 6-foot ledge, fine plaster rock 6
Hai'd ledge 4
18-incli ledge inferior £or plaster but sometimes used
Bottom, or 2-foot ledgev not good for plaster 2-4
The bott€n ledge is not of eonstant thickness and is almost evea?- wbere left in the floor,, eitlr beeace tb& ro below it is eky that would swell stud make a bad ftooi, or is a sand tiiat is not easily separated from the plaster roek and would he detrimental The 18-inch ledge in socoe plaees is not so good as the best rock and it is not everywhere mined. The hard ledge is recognized by tfe miners in all tl properties by the <!paMty that gives the natine. Above it is the kdge that famishes most of tbe plaster rodi: and is removed exeept for what is left in pillars and rool Only those thoroiighly familiar with the deposit can pidc out the varioiB ledges, for the outward appearaaee is the same and the sMtration is cly a line of parting and not marked by clay or other fcHreign materiaL The upper ledge„ soBEietimes ealled the 9-foot, is the nnosl variable because this deposit was exposed to the prJaeial ero8K and its upper surface suffered thereby. One caii easily imae that when this gypsum bed was exposed over a wide area the streams carved channels in it and throih it, and the margins of the troughs thus made were irregular by reason of the tributary gullies- So the upper ledge varies much in thidcness. In places it is entir cut away and in others the wlwJe thickness of the gypsum deposit was eroded. An old watercourse of this sort, which cut clean throu the gypsum in preglacial time and was subsequently filled by what he miners call "sea mud," is fully 500 feet wide in one of the mines
Iowa. 103
and means the loss of several acres of valuable deposit Close to the old watercourse the gypsum is thin and poor. The upper part of the 9-foot ledge is always left to support the roof and is very uncertain working because of its great irregularity*
Vertical joints at intervals of 50 feet or less are common in the gypsum and make a clean parting from roof to floor. In some places they are an advantage in mining. Solution channels are present, and in the drift mine of the Plymouth Gypsum Co., on the west side of Des Moines River, a cavity said to have been 15 by 50 feet was penetrated. The water from the sumps in this mine is all piunped into and carried away by an underground channel in the mine.
Although in the mine now being worked the gypsum bed aver- ages over 20 feet thick, it is reported that in a well in sec. 27, T. 89 N., K. 28 W., only 1 foot of gypsum was found and in another well none. The gypsum lies only 40 to 60 feet below the surface of the prairie, and one of the wells was 90 feet deep. One of the old mines is said to have run into gypsum too thin to work.
The evidence of mines, wells, and drill holes shows, therefore, that although the gypsum deposit in a general way imderlies 60 to 70 square miles, it is very possible that little more than 40 square miles of this area is what would be termed workable at the present time. If we consider 10 feet the average thickness of the gypsum actually mined, which would mean a yield of 30,000 tons to the acre, it is easily understood that there is a vast quantity of gypsum in the vicinity of Fort Dodge.
This massive gypsum, described above as divisible mto ledges, is stratified in layers from 2 inches to 2 feet thick. The thin layers are called flags. Furthermore, all of the ledges and layers show marked horizontal banding of alternate light and dark layers about half an inch thick. The small bands are for the most part regular and horizontal but in places are slightly wavy.
That the gypsimi is of fine quality is shown by the analyses in the table on page 28. Small bands of satin spar have been found, but large plates and crystals of selehite do not occur in the gypsum bed. Selenite crystals occur in the coal measures, however.
Economic De\'Elopment.
The gypsum plaster industry began at Fort Dodge when a mill was erected in 1872 at the head of Gypsum Hollow, at that time 2 miles southeast of the village square. A second mill was built in 1882 near the mouth of Gypsum Hollow, and in 1885 the Blandon mill was erected on the east bank of Des Moines River due south of the town. This miU was followed by the Duncombe mill at the mouth of Gypsum Hollow, The mills were supplied with roc'
104 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
quarried along the outcrop by stripping the overburden of glacial material. Kock for the Buncombe mill was hauled across the river on a pontoon bridge.
Operations on the prairie began when the Cardiff mill, named in memory' of the Cardiff giant, which was quarried from gypsum in Gypsum Hollow and shipped to New York State for burial and dis- covery, was erected in 1895, and a shaft was sunk to the gypsum. This mill was 4r| miles southeast ot the city, and the mine was the easternmost development. Mining was done as in a flat-lying, coal bed, by the room and pillar method. As the overlying deposits are glacial clays 40 to 60 feet thick, shafting to the gypsum bed is not expensive. The second mill on the prairie was the Crawford, com- pleted in 1899. The Mineral City mill began operations in the spring of 1900, and the Waterloo mill was finished in the fall of 1901. Since that time mills have been built by the Acme, American, Plymouth, Wasem, and United States Gypsum companies. Of the 13 mills that have been built, 3 have burned, 5 have been dis- mantled, and 1, the Mineral City, was moved a few hundred feet and replaced by the present large Mineral City mill. Five mills are now in operation at Fort Dodge by the following companies : Amer- ican Cement Plaster Co., Cardiff Gypsum Plaster Co., Plymouth Gypsum Co., United States Gypsum Co., and Wasem Plaster Co. The method of mining is the same on all properties. (See PL XVI, :4.) Hand and electric augers are used, the rock is blasted down, and cars loaded with gypsum blocks are moved by hand or by mules. In the larger mines, electric motors are used on main gang- ways. (See PI. XVI, B.) Mill machinery is driven with electricity. All calcining is done in kettles with coal for fuel. Gypsum plasters are the principal product; gypsum plaster board is made by one company and gypsum blocks by three companies.
The location of the mills and mines is shown on the accompanying map (fig. 5). All are using rock hoisted from a shaft at the mill, except the Plymouth Gypsum Co., which has worked out the gypsum available at the mill and is operating a drift mine on the west side of Des Moines River. The rock is crushed at the mine and carried to the mill by cars running on overhead cables a distance of 7,000 feet.
Iowa is second only to New York in the production of gypsum. Most of the calcined gypsum is sold as wall plaster in a territory included mostly in the States of Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, and the Dakotas.
Geologic Kelations.
Fort Dodge and the gypsum mills are on the prairie. Gypsum is exposed in the vicinity along the bluffs of the river and its tribu- taries. There is a mantle of glacial material 20 to 60 feet thick over
1. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BUIJjBTlN SOT PLATE
A. Mining Gypsum, Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Vurw dhowmg eeoeral apMoriutce of wn-king faoe in uadefgrouad ypeum mine, method of drilt- ing una method of ioading. Pholoaph furoiabed b/ Uaild Stata Gypsum Co.
B. Rock Gypsum As It Comes From The Mine, Fort Dodge, Iowa.
Only one mine at Fort Dodge is entered bs[ so sdit. the others being shaft mioet. Electric mot
Iowa.
the area which effectually conceals bedrock except in stream bluffs where there has been recent excavating or 'natural cutting. Exca- vations soon after abandonment become masked with the glacial
R.28 w.
R*29 W.
Scale
Fu6 W.
Explanation
3 Miles
Gypsum mill
0yp9um mln%
Boundary fiypsuro and coal measures.(Gypum lits on dotted side of boundary
FioCRB 5. — Map showing location of gypsum and gypsum mills near Port Dodge, Iowa.
clays that easily slip down, and vegetation is abundant. Conse- quently the geologic sections described in former reports and meas- ured many years ago are now merely matters of record which can
106 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
not be verified. No such exposures were found in 1916 at the locali- ties mentioned.
The oldest bedrock exposed in Ihe gypsum area is the St. Louis limestone of Mississippian (lower Carboniferous) age.
Earlier study of field exposures and the records of wells and mines show that the surface of the St. Louis limestone was uneven at the time the coal measure shales were laid down unconf ormablv upon it. It is probable that the younger Pennsylvanian or upper Carboniferous strata completely covered the limestone, but were subsequently partly removed, so that in places knobs and riclge< sticking up many feet into the coal measure became exposed at the surface as islands in the midst of the shales. The gypsum was laid down on this fairly level surface and was deposited for the most part on the coal measure shales but in some places directly on the limestone.
After the deposition of the gypsum mud was laid down in whict there were layers of gypsum an inch or more thick. On top of thi; mud sand was laid down and more mud, making alternating strata of shale and sandstone. These beds above the gypsum, the original thickness of which is unknown, are soft, the shales clayey, and the sandstone friable. The color is gray and red, some of the exposTle being very noticeably pink. Mottling of green and pink is seen in some of the shales, and so;ne of the friable sandstone at the outcrop is pure white or cream with sharply outlined pink areas in it. Of these beds 20 to 30 feet remain in some places, but elsewhere the glacial drift lies directly on the gypsum.
The upper surface of the gypsum was widely exposed and eroded previous to the glacial epoch and was channeled by streams, as de- scribed earlier in this paper.
The gypsum deposit at Fort Dodge seems to be in a trough or basin. The gypsum beds lie imconformably on strata of Pennsyl vanian and Mississippian age, and the basin is completely surrounded by these older rocks. The gypsum and its closely related rocks in this area have yielded few fossils, so that there is little paleontologic evidence of the age of this deposit. The Permian of Kansas, Okla- homa, and Texas is highly gypsiferous, including some very thick pure deposits, and is so highly colored as to be known as the Ked Beds." The Fort Dodge gypsum is related to a pink formation, not red. Furthermore, in Kansas there is no unconformity between the Permian and the underlying coal measures. There is therefore no definite evidence for correlating these beds with the Permian 3W miles west, although there is some color of resemblance. The age of the Fort Dodge gypsum is therefore unknown but is believed to Permian.
Iowa. W7
GYPSTTIC AT C£HT£&VILIi£:i By Geobcb F. Kay.
GBNERAIi REIJATIONg.
A gypsum deposit was discorerect in the southern part of the town of CenterYille, Appanoose County, Iowa, in the fall of 1910. For many years the Scandinavian. Coal Co. has been operating a coal mine at Centervilk- This company, in prospecting for coal on its property by means of the diamond drill, discarered gypsum below the coal-bearing rocks.
The pocks below the Pennsylvanian in Appanoose County are known only from drill records of artesian wells. At Centerville three deep weHs have been sunk for water. The deepest of tlse wells and the one of which there is he most complete record gave a section as follows :
Recer of 4cep wtU at CentervUJe, Towa.
Feet. Quaternary: Drift 90
Carboniferous :
Pennsylvanian: Shales, coal and coaly shale, and a few thin seams, of limestone 436
Mlssissippian : Chiefly limestones and shales 574
Devonian : Limestone and shales l 260
Sllurfan r Limestones, shales, and sandtetone 180
Ordoviefan.: Dolomites, lXBesteines, sandBaea,. and shales
The depth af this wcU was 2,495 ieet Its bottom peitrated tha Oneota dolomite, or lowest fomaatioik of the Ordo-viciam in Iowa. This well was sunk in 1893, and if gypeitm was penetrated it was not so reecffided by the drillers. However in this connection it is of interest to state that the log of one of the other deep wells, com- pleted in 1904, contains a statement to the effect that at a depth of 600 feet below the surface the drill passed through 15 feet of " white sand.' FroBEk the evidence that has been obtained from the holes recently drilled it is very probable that this material should have been recorded as gypsimi. This well is more than half a mil© north- east of the hole in which gypsum was first recognized.
The driller's log of the Scandinavian Cotl Co.'s in which the gypsum was first recognized, has been published in detail elsewhere.*
bidef reference was ma to lls diep9lt fa Iowa GeoL Survey Ana. Rept., vot. 21, p. 24, 112. p. ©SSfe ''Idem, p. 937. *U. S. Geol. Survey BulL 580, pp. 59-64, 1914.
108 Gypsum Deposits Of The Fnited States.
This log has been interpreted as follows :
Correlation of log of Scandinavian Coal Co.*8 hole at Centerville, lotca.
Feet.
Quaternary : Drift i 31
Carboniferous :
Pfennsylvanian : Des Moines group:
Henrietta formation : Limestones and soft blue shales. 36 Cherokee shale: Blue, gray, and black shale, sand- stone, several thin seams of coal, and some lime- stone 372
Mississippian : Chiefly limestone, lime shale, shaly lime- stone, some sandstone, gypsum, and anhydrite 111
Tlie gypsum and anhydrite were penetrated between the depths of 537 and 547 feet below the surface. Analyses made under the direction of Pr. S. W. Beyer, of the loiva State College, proved that the upper 5 feet of this 10 feet was anhydrite and the lower 5 fe gypsum. The gypsum was overlain by 14 feet of* limestone and underlain by 2 to 3 feet of buflf dolomitic limestone, beneath which was shale.
Development.
Soon after gypsum had been found in Discovery hole some of the citizens of Centerville subscribed sufficient funds to drill two addi- tional holes. One of these was located 1,200 feet southwest of Dis- covery hole at a lower elevation. The drill penetrated to a depth of 563 feet but found neither gypsum nor anhydrite. The Mississippian was pierced to a depth of 114 feet, the hole ending in shale, above which was 2 feet 6 inches of dolomite.
A third hole was then drilled about 1,700 feet northwest of Dis- covery hole. This hole gave a section upon which the following interpretation is placed:
Correlation of log of third hole at Centerville, Iowa,
Feet.
Quaternary : Drift 20
Carboniferous :
Pennylvanian : Gray, blue, and dark shale with seams of
coal and limestone 456
Mississippian: Limestone, arenaceous limestone, some
sandstone, and gypsum 116
The gypsum was entered at 572 feet below the surface. It proved to be 19 feet thick and of fine quality. Just beneath the gypsum was gray sandy shale, which was penetrated for only 1 foot.
The Centerville Gypsum Co. was then formed, with a capitaliza- tion of $25,000, and decided to sink a shaft close to Discovery hole
Iowa.
ivith the object of using it later for hoisting gypsum on a commercial scale. This shaft was started about July 1, 1912. The gypsum cvas reached about September 1, 1913, and the shaft has been sunk to the rock beneath the gypsum. The shaft is 16 by 6 feet and has :hree compartments. Gypsum, 13 feet in thickness, was reached xt a depth of 533 feet. In the eastern part of the shaft the gypsum Is free from anhydrite but in the western part anhydrite is* asso- ciated with the gypsum.
When the shaft reached a depth of 528 feet, only a few feet above the gypsum, progress was greatly hampered by large quantities of artesian water that entered it. Some water had come in nearer the surface, but it was easily handled. The artesian water, about 3,300 gallons an hour, comes from a porous limestone about 4 feet thick which lies on the gypsum. It rises to a height of about 300 feet. The problem of handling this water was not solved and no further work was done toward opening a mine imtil 1917, when the water was successfully -sealed out. The mine and mill were operated for several months in 1919. The gypsum bed is 10 to 22 feet thick and is worked by the room and pillar system.
Character.
The gypsum that has been obtained from the 2-inch drill cores and from the shaft is of two fairly distinct varieties, rock gypsum and selenite. The rock gypsum breaks into irreglilar-shaped lumps, is white in color, and is' composed of small, brightly shining elongated crystals. It is saccharoidal and distinctly friable, being easily crum- bled to fragments resembling a pure-white granulated sugar. Much of the selenite is very clear and transparent and has the characteristic pinacoidal cleavage. It is possible to secure fairly large masses of selenite free from impurities. Some of it is gray to light brown in color.
Under the direction of Dr. S. W. Beyer, of the Iowa State College, five analyses were made, two of the gypsum and three of the anhy- drite. The results were as follows:
Analyses of gypsum and anhydrite from Appanoose County , Iowa,
Gypsum.
Anhydrite.
Sulphur trioxide (SOi)
Liine(CaO)
Loss on igziition
Iowa Geol. Survey Ann. Rept., vol. 21, p. 24, 1912.
110 Gypsum Deposits 0¥ The United States.
8Ummaby.
The discovery of a deposit of gypsum in the Mssissippian rocks of southern Iowa is of scientific interest. The evidence indicates that the deposit may be extensive, and the gypsum is of good quality. The presence of anhydrite decreases the value of the deposit for mat ing wall plaster and related iMxwJucts. The relation of the anhydrite to the gypsum and the relative amounts of the two minerals will have an important bearing on the commercial value of the deposit. Hoir- ever, anhydrite is considered by some manufacturers of Portland cement to be practically as serviceable as gypsian.
The fact that the deposit is more than 50( feet below the sirface and the presence of large amounts of artesian water are factors unfavorable to the mining of the gypsum. On the other hand, tiw deposit is well located with regard to fuel and transportation, and it is fair to assume that if gypsum products were made in this part of the State a good maiiet for such products could soon be developed
Kansas.
By BASvLva Hawobth.
Pbevious Publication.
The Kansas University Geological Survey published in 1899 a eport on gypsum and gypsum cement plasters. The volume treated he subject with special reference to the State of Kansas. The hanges that have occurred since 1899 have been in the manufacture ►f g}'psum products, and nothing new regarding the origin of the fypsum or its geology has been brought to light.
This short review is little more than an abridgment of Grimsley md Bailey's Feport with some added notes regarding the present itatus of the industry.
Geogbaphy.
The accompanying map (PI. XVII) shows the area of the State throughout which rock gypsum can be had in sufficiently large quan- tities to supply gypsum industries. Here and there throughout this \rea are small patches of gypsum earth or gypsite. They were ex- liausted long ago as sources of material for the manufacture of wall plaster. The supply of rock gypsum, however, is sufficient to supply the world for centuries, and its quality is fully equal to that found elsewhere. Freight rates and demand determine the amount of it that is mined in Kansas from year to year and not the amount of material [ivailable.
It will be seen from the map that an area comprising many square miles in the vicinity of Blue Rapids is underlain with workable wypsum. South of Kansas River gypsum is mcre abundant. In the area between Salina and Hope rock gypsum is very abundant.
The largest deposit of gypsum in Kansas is wst of Medicine Lodge, in Barber County. It is 12 to 15 miles across in any direc- tion. The gypsum, which is interbedded with the shale of the Per- mian Cimarron group ("Red Beds"), resists erosion and is left as a cap on the shale hills. In some places the gypsum beds are 40 to 50 feet thick, and in a large part of this area they are without cover. To the west and north the strata dip underneath the surface, and
1 Grimsley, G. P., and Bailey, E. H. S., Special report on gypsum and gypsum cement plasters: Kansas Univ. Qeol. Surrey, vol. 5, 1890.
112 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
the gypsum beds for many miles are covered by overlying fo tions.
The three areas mentioned are the principal ones in Kansas, number of others are very well known. Near Wellington and M vane, in Sumner and Sedgwick counties, rock gypsum occurs large quantities, and here and there patches of gy()sum earth ha' been found. Gypsite, near Mulvane, was manufactured into wi plaster years ago.
Geology.
In the vicinity of Blue Rapids and in the southern part of Dick inson County and also southeast of Wellington the lower Permui rocks, which lie at the surface, consist of beds of gypsum inter bedded with limestone and shales that carry marine fossils, indin eating the geologic age of the strata. All of the gypsum in these areas lie considerably above the Cottonwood limestone, whick is at or close to the division line between the Permian and the Pennsylvanian.
The psum in Barber County is much later in age. It is in great layers, interbedded in red shale and sandstone, generally knoni as " Red Beds." It is not easy to determine the manner in whicl the gypsum and associated red beds were deposited. There is fairly good evidence that they were accumulated under ocean water, al- though some geologists attribute them to subaerial accumulation. It is now generally admitted that they are Permian in age.
Localities. Blue Rapids Area.
A vertical section showing the relations of limestone, shale, and gypsum beds to each other and to the Cottonwood limestone at the Great Western gypsum mines, Blue Rapids, is given in figure 6. The gypsum bed at this mine is feet thick and immediately overlies 2] feet of limestone, which is 26 feet above the Cottonwood limestone. In this locality the shales range from light to dark green in color, so characteristic of the Permian.
In the 143 feet of strata shown in the section above the Cotton- wood limestone there is a total of lOJ feet of limestone in five beds. All these limestones, and in many places the shales just above and be- low them, are rich in marine fossils. Some of the more common forms of fossils are FicsvMna cylindrical Seminula argentea ChoneUi granulifera Productus semireticvlatus and Derbya ordssa.
Gypsum is repK)rted in wells north, south, and west of Blue Rapids but appears to be absent in wells to the east of that town.
o.
n
O
s
Co
g
£
o
e
o
w
EAirSAS. ' 118
The 'bed is probably continuous in a large area around Blue Eapids. tt is reported in wells at Herkimer, west of Marysrille, at 80 feet >elow tbe surface; on the Axtell farm, 3 miles north of the Great Western mine, at 90 feet below the surface; and on the Lee farm, ffest of Blue Bapids and tliree- fourths of a mile south of Winter's nil], at 60 feet below the surface. Gypsum is reported in many other ft'eUs, but these reports are unreliable, because many of are >ased upon the peculiar taste of the water. . Outcrops of the gypsum near Blue Bapids are not extensive, owing to the soluble charactor the gypsum, which is dissolved out
ind covered by debris from the Butiim-t™ vv
crumbling rocks above.
A small amount of gypsum was >btained some years ago from a mine ahj..w
the Yarrick farm, 1 mile south of Blue Bapids. The blocks, which are
piled around the entry, are now umatau,. s- b"
bleached white and seamed with small shit..20'
fissures. The fresher specimens show that the gypsum is about the same as
in the other mines. At this place it is sh.ie.jo'
100 feet below the buff limestone. E-i.Bduu.ihB-
Pink rounded gj'psum nodules oc- u g,g.,
cur in the shales in many of the LiMMtoM.a's"
ravines west of Blue Bapids. Xear stai.
Waterville the nodules are in black Lin..™.,i'
shale, ofi which 2 feet is exposed, Sf™diiinto v
overlain by 3 feet of blue shale and a
30-incll bed of limestone. The buff a— section at Great Western.
limestone with flint nodules, which
may be traced across the country, lies 100 feet above this lime- stone. Tbe gypsum lies about 10 feet above Blue River.
On the John Morrow farm, about 2 miles east of Waterville and 2 miles west of. Blue Rapids, pink gypsum nodules are embedded in 12 feet of shale near the water's edge. Aboie the gypsiferous shale is 20 feet of red and blue shales and limestone.
The dip from Winter's mine to FowIm-'s mine, IJ miles north, is 12 feet, or 8 feet to the mile; and from the Yarrick mine to the Great Western, a distance of 2J miles a little east of north, the dip is 18 feet, or 7 feet to the mile. From the Great Western mine west to the exposure at Waterville the dip is bet-ween 8 and 10 feet to the mile. The dip of the gypsum, then, in the vicinity of Blue Bapids, is to the northwest, about 10 feet to the mile. 124567"— 20 8
114 Gypsum Deposits Of Xhe United States.
Central Area.
Extent of tke deposits. — There are two well-Tnrke<( hcHrixons wkieb rock gyiim oeurs in the central Kansas area and indieatk of ft third hojiaon. Tlte lower and more extensive deposit extend over the central, northern, and western pu of area; the secwiij one ovw the central and southern parts; and the third is fotrnd (xA m &e southffiD part. The interval between the middle an! lower deposits is 100 feet, between the middte and upper it -Id feet. The dip of the gypsum is neai west, ranging' &ozn 6 to li feet to the mile.
Sol<ym,Qn mine. — lu the northern part of the area, 6 miles soutli- nest of Solomon, on the hank of Gypsum Creek, was located tbc mill and mine of the Crown Iaster Co, The mine uraee is IJ' feet above the ereek; the gypsaai is 5 feet thick and is anderlftk by abost 4 feet of shaly limestone. soiiudmnm,*' low this limestone there is a series of aJJI,'i- shales with a S-foot stratum of gypanui.
The roof of the mine is a 2-fo( ineiob
omam.r of ccaapact dark shale. The strata at tlie
c Solcanosi mine, including six beds of gyp-
sum, are shown in the section {&S- on™.s' shales wth the intercalafed gyp
sum layers are folded and broln. Tb io\As extend down into the mine cauii| the iiates of the roof to est (Hit the gjp- sum in many' places. For this reason the mine was abandoned in 1898. Probab the dip of the gypsum is northwest.
The lower part of the thickest gypsom layer is va compecC smS is filled with oval crystals, of yellowish-brown lenite, which have the greater length in the dirwtion of the vertieal crystal axis. The cryls are laminated by pronounced pinaeoidal cleavage. The larger ones are abont seven-eighths of an inch kmg and half an inch wide, and rock specimens from this portioa of the stratum break with a conehoidal fracture. The nppei- part is white, kss cfKupact, contains no phenocrysts, and breaks move irregularly.
The occurrence of the seleuite phenoerysts is of no littie in- terest. It indicates that the ocean water at one time was evap- orated very slowly and under the most favorable eonditions for the productie of individual cryals. Later there was a slight freshesing of the wat by surface drainage e&terii the con- centrated lake, so that the erys&aU were partly redisacdved, as shown by thedr rounded edges. Still later the rapid evapdration ot the water precipitated the maasiva gypsmn, and aftsard an agita- tion of the shallow water sufficiently vigorous to mix the eystals
thoroughly with the newly precipitated gypsum formed the whole mass as it now appears. The deposit is therefore a record of rains and winds not unlike those now common in the same locality.
Hope miiie. — At Hope, 20 miles southeast of Solomon, the Kansas Cement Plaster Co. began operations in 1887. Calcining ceased here several years ago. This company first used the middle stratum of gypsum quarried near the top of the hill, miles west of town. It is aibout 5 feet thick and lies 10 feet below a buff shaly limestone. It is white and compact in texture, except near the surface, where it is rendered granular and more or less colored as a result of weathering. The satin ar associated with it is clear white when viewed from the side, but when viewed from above it possesses a cream- white tinge. Overlying the main gypsum bed is a thin de- posit of black, impure, shaly gypsum.
In 1894 this quarry was abandoned and an 80- foot shaft was sunk a quarter of a mile west, to the lower stratum, whidi is nearly 14 feet thick. In this shaft the gypsum is white, though much of it is traversed by wavy dark lines close togetiier, giving it an appearance somewhat like granite or gneiss, so that plaster made from it was called by the company " granite cement plaster." The lower part of the stratum is compact, and ccmtains rounded crystals of selenite, Avith dark mottled surfaces. It tlus bears a close resemblance to the gypsum near Solomon, already described, although the crystals are usually larger, averaging about 2 inches by 1 inch.
A study of the levels and the character of the rock indicates that the gypsum quarried below Solomon is the same as tliat in the shaft near Hope.
The gypsum in the quarry on the hill east of Hope lies below a buff soft shaly limestone, which accompanies all the gypsum outcrops to the south and southeast, at the Henquenet cave, German church, Rhodes mill, and Elmo. This gypsum lies 100 feet above the rock in the Hope shaft. The levels and dip would connect this upper layer with the outOTop near Saline, which was named by Cragin the Greeley gypsum, from the township in which it was found. He states that it was probably 100 feet higher than the so-called Hope gypsum, but as two gypsum horizons occur at Hope it is doubtful to which one he refers.
Other expomres. — The lower gypsmm, or the one near* Solomon, outcrops a quarter of a mile south of the Dillon mill, where it is 5 feet thick and is covered with 5 feet of dirt. This locality is 2 miles weet of the Hope diaft, and the gypsum is 10 feet lower. In a well near the Tinkler earth deposit at Gypsum, 15 miles west
>Cragin, F. W., The Permiaii system la Ka&8ft: Colorado Coll. 8tudto, v<4. 9, pu 1(1, 18M.
116 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF TlfflS UNITED STATES.
of the outcrop at Dillon, rock gypsum is found 60 feet lower. TTiis same rock gypsum outcrops along the east bank of Gypsum Cre and exposes about 3 feet of white granular gypsum. It may be seen in places between Gypsum and Solomon, and at nearly the same level. Similar outcrops occur in the Holland Creek area. South and west of Gypsum no gypsum was found, either in outcrops or in wells. The upper gypsum, as exposed in the Hope quarry, outcrops at higher altitudes to the west and north. It occurs 7 miles southwest, at the gypsum cave on the Henquenet farm. The lower 8 feet of gypsum at this cave is veined and spotted, and polished slabs of it bear some resemblance to onyx. The upper 2 feet exposed is fine grained and compact, like alabaster. This layer is covered by 15 feet of shales and 10 feet of buff shaly limestone. The roof of the eastern end of the cave has fallen, making a ravine with gypsum walls. No other caves are found in this region, but there are a number of similar ravines which probably have had the same origin.
Two miles west of the cave, near the top of the hill, there is an exposure of 15 feet of white gypsum which, according to barometric measurement, is about 300 feet higher than the cave gypsum. One mile farther west a deposit of banded gypsum covered with buff shales was found in a well on the Wuthnow farm. The well was drilled 8 feet into the rock and then abandoned. On the hill one- quarter of a mile to the north is an old gypsum quarry 35 feet higher than the gypsum in the well. The rock as exposed is 5 feet thick, dark colored and irregularly crystalline in the upper portion, and is covered with a layer of black gypsum. This deposit and the one on top of the hill mentioned above were the only outcrops noted of the third or upper gypsum.
In the well on the Rhodes farm, 3 miles west of the Wuthnow farm, the gypsum is 40 feet lower than it is at the cave 6 miles east, and 60 feet lower than in the Hope quarry, 8 miles northeast. This layer outcrops at the same level in the ravine below the well, and it is compact and banded. Above it is the buff shaly limestone as at the other places. The dip from Wuthnow to the Rhodes farm is nearly 12 feet to the mile.
One mile south of the exposure on the Rhodes farm the gypsum outcrops oij the Banker farm and extends for some distance farther south. It also outcrops on the Tucker farm, 1 mile east and nearly 15 feet higher. One mile northeast of this exposure is a thick bed of gypsum 10 feet higher, close to the German church.
The deposits of gypsum rock in this central area have not attracted much attention. The lower bed, or the one near Solomon, seems to be more favorable for working than the so-called Hope gypsum, for it has good thickness and quality wherever found, whereas the upper bed differs in character from place to place.
Kansas. 117
Medicine Lodge Area.
The southern area, which is in the vicinity of Medicine Lodge, is the largest area in Kansas, and, with its continuation in Oklahoma and Texas, it forms the largest area of gypsum in the United States. The gypsum extends from a point near the town of Medicine Lodge westward through Barber County into Comanche County and south- ward into Oklahoma and Texas and passes under the Tertiary gravels to the north. The outcrop of the deposit trends northeast and south-
The gypsum of the Medicine Lodge area is massive, and the lowen portion of the stratum is very compact. This portion is used at the Medicine Lodge mill for the manufacture of terra alba, and the upper portion, which has a sugary texture, is used in the manufac- ture of wall plaster. The satin spar, which is found throughout the "Red Beds" below the gypsum, forms wavy plates, made up of an aggregate of perpendicular needles. Some pieces of it are soft and readily crumble, but other pieces are compact and glassy in appear- ance.
The easternmost occurrence of gypsum in this area is 6 miles southwest of Medicine Lodge, in an isolated range of hills 3 miles long, which is separated by a narrow valley from a second hill
1 mile in length. The valleys of lEast Cedar and West Cedar creeks,
2 miles wide, separate these hills from the next series, in which the gypsum plateau is continuous to the west. Medicine Lodge River cuts out the gypsum in a valley 6 or 7 miles wide. The northern limit of the gypsum can not be determined, for it is covered with Tertiary deposits. Salt Fork and Sandy Creek cut out broad val- leys to the south, and the streams in the eastern portion of Comanche County have removed much of the gypsum, but it is continuous over the great portion of western Barber and eastern Comanche counties. It lies about 1,800 feet above sea level.
In the eastern part of Comanche County, on Cave Creek, a gypsun> bed 15 feet thick is found 15 feet above the Medicine Lodge bed. This upper layer, called the Shimer gypsum by Cragin, appears to be a local deposit.
West of Medicine Lodge the Gypsum Hills, with sloping sides and level tops, are composed of the red clays and shales of the Permian "Red Beds." The cap rock is a ledge of solid gypsum, which has protected to a considerable extent the underlying soft strata. The base of the hills is a massive red sandstone. A second red sandstone is found 125 feet higher, and 100 feet still higher is the ledge of gypsum that forms the top of the hills. This gyp- sum layer ranges from 3 to 20 feet in thickness, depending upon
1 Cragln, P. W., op. dt, p. 27.
118 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
the amount of erosion. Forty feet below the gypsum is a green gypseous sandstone feet thick, which stands out as a prominent ledge through the hills. The red clays and shales below the gypsum contain an interlacing network composed of layers of selenite and satin spar of variable thickness, redeposited from downward-moving surface waters which Tiave dissolved portions of the gypsum bed.
At Kling, in the northwest comer of Barber County, is the quarry from which Best Bros, produce gypsum for their mill at Medicine Lodge. The gypsum bed is 20 to 25 ft thick, and the overburden is 30 feet thick. About 20 feet. of gypsum is quarried, and the bottom of the bed, consisting of 3 feet of hard, darker gypsum, is not removed.
In the western part of Barber and the eastern part of Comanche counties the solvent effects of water opt the gypsum are well shown by caves, sinks, bridges, and underground watercourses. On Cave Creek, 4 miles west of Evansville, is the Big Gypsum Cave in the Medicine Lodge gypsum. A stream of considerable size flows into the west entrance and out of the east one, making the cave an under- ground watercourse for at least 100 feet. The roof at the east entrance is 15 feet above the water level, but in a short distance it lowers to 3 feet. The floor is strewn with large slabs of "white gypsum. At the center is an opening through the roof. This nearly circular hole is a few feet in diameter in the cave and 30 feet on the surface. The section near this cave shows 30 feet of the Medicine Lodge gypsum separated by 15 feet of red shale from the Sliimer gypsum, which is 15 feet in tbickhess. This exposure is the typical one of the Cave Creek formation of Cragin.
The natural bridges found here are remnants of old caves, or underground water channels, whose roofs have partly fallen in. One of the best of these natural bridges is on Bear Creek, south of Sun City. It is about 40 feet high and 35 feet wide.
Gypsum Crystals.
Pennsylvardan shales. — In numerous places in the Pennsylvanian shales of southeastern Kansas, gypsum crystals are found in com- parative abundance but not iu sufficient quantities to be of any eco- nomic importance. They occur usually in the soil and clay near the surface. The size of the crystals ranges from microscopic di- mensions to almos an inch in diameter, but most of them range from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch.
The occurrence of selenite crj-stals is interesting principally from theoretic considerations, as it illustrates in a beautiful manner ona of the modes by which gypsum may be formed.
Kaksas* 119
They probably have orgmated principally through the action of soluble iron sulphate on calcium carbonate the iron sulphate haying been produced by the oxidati(m of pyrite* The shales in the vicinity of a gypsum deposit are usually quite heavily charged with pyrite. As weathering decomposes the shales the pyrite changes to iron sulphate, which may come in contact with limestone and thus form calcium sulphate. One of the noticeable features of such localities is the iron sulphate present in the water of wells which penetrate the undecomposed shales.
Cretaceous shales. — In many parts of Kansas, where Cretaceous shales outcrop, fine crystals of gypsum are common. Along Smoky Hill River for many miles such orystals are particularly numerous. Some of them measure more than a foot in length and are magnificent museum specimens. Nowhere in Kansas is the Cretaceous gypsum abundant enough to be of any importance for manufacturing piurposes.
Tertiary formations. — In the southwestern part of the State, where the Tertiary formations are in contact with the Cimarron group ("Ked Beds"), the lowermost posrtions of the Tertiary sands in ntany places contain well-formed gypsum crystals, particularly in the southwestern part of Ikfeade County and in difFeirent places in Seward County. From 50 to 100 ft above the contact line be- tween the Red Beds" and the Tertiary gypsum crystals are abun- dant and as perfectly fc'med as any others in the State.
It is probable that these crystals originated tvexa, an upward movement of water through the Red Beds," which served as a source of the gypsum, and that the crystallization was produced by surface evaporation at or near the present position of the gypsum. The deposits of gypsum crystals have no econ<Hnic importance.
THE GYPSUM INiyaSTBY IK KATffHAS.
At the present time the gypsum industry in Kansas is in success- ful operation. A number of the nailer ccwnpanies have sold out to the larger ones, so that fewer companies are now operating.
The gypsum industry at present is eonfined to the Blue Rapids and Medicine Lodge districts, where there are four mills or plants. At Blue Rapids the American Cement Plaster Co. is operating two mills, and the United States Gypsum Co. is operating one. The mills south of Kansas River in Dickinson County have been aban- doned. A mill at Hope, operated occasionally, has Jor a number of years produced only crude gypsum to be sold to Portland cement factories throughout the State. At Medicine Lodge the Best Bros.' Keenes cement plant is Aery active.
120 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The plants at Blue Bapids use rock gypsum. They make wall plaster of different kinds and during recent years have made hollow tile and blocks for interior walls. Partition tile and blocks are made to 12 inches thick. The light weight of gypsmn tile walls permits the use of much lighter structure to sustain the load.
The factory at Medicine Lodge, which has been in op:utiMi more than 25 years, makes Keenes cement equal in quality to Ae English product This material sets harder than ordinary gypsom wall plaster, and sells at higher prices. It is used as wall plaster, for making imitation marbles, as a backing for marble slabs, and in ornamental plaster work. Best Bros.' quarry is at E3iiig. Plat XVIII, A J shows the character of the bed and the overburden.
Obigin Of The Gypsum Of Kansas.
Space does not permit a lengthy discussion here of the i<itiB which have been expressed regarding the origin of gypsum. their complete interbedding with stratified rocks the conclusion is reached that the gypsum beds are of sedimentary origin. In all the areas in Kansag to the east and northeast of Barber CJounty gypsum occurs very closely associated with limestones and shales, which are doubtless of marine origin, as is abundantly shown by the large number of marine fossils in them, and therefore tiie gypsum must have been of marine origin also.
We may, therefore, say that the gypsum aroxmd Blue Kapids and in Dickinson County, and other points to the south outside of Barber County, was laid down in a body of ocean water sufficiently con- centrated to allow the deposition of gypsum but not enough to precipitate salt. Deposition of gypsum begins after evaporation of 37 per cent of the water, whereas 93 per cent of the original water must be evaporated in order to deposit salt.
It seems probable that here and there in the Kansas gypsum belt there were small bodies of ocean water which for a time were con- centrated and later rediluted, either by an influx of ocean water or by an extra amount of fresh water due to increased rainfall.
The origin of gypsum in the *'Eed Beds" in Barber County may have been a little different, although the burden of evidence at the present time indicates that here also as with the other Kansas de- posits the gypsum was mainly derived by a concentration of ocean water.
BnujcTfn eat
GYFSUM BED IN BEST BROS.' QUARRY. KLING, KAN3. PfaotflgrBph by E. F. Bunshard.
B. GVPSUM QUARRY OF UNITED STATES GYPSUM CO. AT ALABASTER, MlCki
Louisiana.
By R. W. Stone.
Deep drilling for oil has disclosed the fact that rock gypsum occurs several hundred feet below the surface at a number of places in the western and southern parts of Louisiana. Conspicuous among these localities is the Sulphur mine, 3 miles west of Sulphur City, Cal- casieu Parish, where a well sunk by the Louisiana Petroleum Co. to a depth of 1,230 feet was in " pure gypsum, dense, granular, and coarsely crystalline, grayish or white"* for 540 feet, from 690 to 130 feet below the surface.
In Calcasieu Parish, 4 or 5 miles southwest of Vinton, 150 feet of gypsum was recorded at a depth of 950 feet, and on Hackberry Island, in Cameron Parish, 33 miles southwest of Lake Charles, a well at a depth of 1,620 feet reached 210 feet of gypsum. Likewise in Winn Parish, a well at Goldonna penetrated 22 feet of gypsum but did not pass through the formation at the bottom of the hole about 240 feet deep.
On the Gulf coast, a well sunk; at Belle Isle, three-quarters of a mile north of Atchafalaya Bay passed through 100 feet of gypsum and sulphur rock from 290 to 390 feet below the surface, and the next 490 feet was in very porous sulphur, gypsum, and anhydrite.
Smaller quantities of gypsum have been reported in other wells. Where selenite crystals have been obtained from the sand pumpings the identification of gypsum may be considered as authentic, but else- where, in the absence of satisfactory samples, there is some question whether the rock reported as gypsum may not be partly consolidated marl or some other rock. These thick deposits of rock gypsum near the Gulf of Mexico may eventually be .developed by deep shafts. Besides supplying the local market, Louisiana gypsum products might be used for some of the trade of Central and South America.
Harris, G. D., Oil and gas in Louisiana, with a brief summary of their occurrence in adjacent States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 429, p. 100, 1910.
Michigan. '
By R. A. Smith.
A more detailed report on the gypsum deposits of Michigan by Grimsley was publiid by the Michigan Geological Survey ii
aEOXiOQIC OCCUBBEHCE.
Gypsum in Michigan occurs chiefly in the Michigan formation (lower formation of Grand Rapids group) of the Missiippian, is the Bass Islands dolomite (lower formation of Mcmroe group, Silu rian), and in the Salina formation of the Silurian. More or les gypsum occurs locally in the Detroit River dcdomite, the upp iot- mation of the Monroe group. The Grand Rapids group immediately imderlies the Michigan coal basin and is exposed in many places in a nearly continuous belt around it. On the southeastern side of tk coal basin the Bayport limestone (upper formation of Grand Rapids group) and the gypsum-bearing series beneath it locally have been wholly or partly removed by erosion. The Monroe group outcrops only in the extreme southeastern portion of the State and in tk St. Ignace Peninsula and adjacent islands. The Salina formation does not come to the surface in southern Michigan and has not been certainly differentiated from the Monroe group in the St. Ignaa Peninsula. (See fig. 8.)
Chahacteb And Extekt.
Large deposits of gypsum occur at many places in a nearly con tinuous belt of gypsum-bearing rocks around the coal basin which occupies the central part of the Southern Peninsula. Gypsum de posits also occur in the St. Ignace Peninsula and on the St. Martin Islands in Lake Huron. Surface indications point to the probable occurrence of gypsum deposits in the northern part of the Beaver Island group in the northern part of Lake Michigan. Thick beds of anhydrite, in part altered to gypsum, are known in Monroe County and in the vicinity of Detroit and St. Clair rivers, but at considerable depth. Borings within the central coal basin show that locally thick beds of gypsmn are present beneath the coal measure!
Grimsley, G. P., The gypsum of Michigan : Michigan Geol. Survey, vol. 9, pt. 2. 19W.
MIOHIGAlSr.
Tlie gypsum of Michigan belongs to tlie massive rock variety and ►ccurs in lenticular deposits embedded in sliale and shaly limestones. XL some places the beds of gypsum are very nimierdus. The beds ange in thickness from a fraction of an inch to 25 feet or more.
FiouBE 8. — OntUne map of Micbigan showiniT gypsum .
The thinner beds are generally small in area, but some of the thicker ►nes have been traced over large areas. The easily mined deposits gypsum in Michigan are practically inexhaustible. In addition ess easily accessible deposits underlie an area hundreds and prob- ibly thousands of square miles in extent
124 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The rock gypsum is generally very pure. Commonly its. color i white or reddish, but the upper portions of some beds which lie nei the surface are stained yellow by iron oxide and are more or la mixed with clay, sand, and gravel. The texture in most places! jBnely to coarsely crystalline. At Alabaster, Iosco County, somee the rock of a very fine and uniform grain is the variety known i alabaster.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. By R. A. Smith and R. W. Stone.
The gypsum deposits are, or have been, mined in three localities- Grand Hapids and Grandville in Kent County, Alabaster in souti eastern Iosco County, and St. Ignace in Mackinac County, but opm tions ceased at St. Ignace many years ago. Large undeveloped ifc posits occur in western Iosco, southeastern Ogemaw, and southen Arenac counties. Beds from 5 to 30 feet thick occur at comparatiyelj shallow depths at Ionia, Ionia County, and in Saginaw Countj. Beds from 6 to 12 feet thick were penetrated in shallow wells i Bellevue and Eaton Bapids in Eaton County.
Gramd Rapida-GrandviUe district. — The Grand Kapids-Grandvilk district, as developed, extends in a belt 3 or 4 miles in width alon,' the valley of Grand River from the northern part of Grand Eapii southwest through Grandville into eastern Ottawa County, a distance of 10 miles or more. The valley of the Grand ranges in widtii from 1 mile at Grand Bapids to 4 miles at Grandville. The blui along the valley are composed of drift material and rise 100 io Vk feet above the river flats. Exploration and development have beeo confined to the Grand Biver valley, where the rock is covered by only a few feet of river silt or sand and gravel. Further exploratiw in the creek valleys northwest and southeast along the strike of the beds will probably show that the gypsum has a much greater extent in these directions than now known.
There are several beds of minable thickness in this area, and i number of others under 5 feet thick. At Grand Bapids, the fir workable bed, 6 feet in thickness, has been quarried ; the second, a 1-- foot bed, is both quarried and mined; and the third, a 22-foot bed, about 30 to 60 feet below the second, is mined. The upper bed is ab- sent in many places, having been removed by erosion, and the second is locally very thin, or even absent. Where the 12-foot bed is mined the 6-foot bed is generally left untouched. The 22-foot bed is di vided near the middle by a shale parting 1 foot or more in thickness Until about 1900 only the two upper beds at Grand Bapids weff worked, for it was supposed that water would be very troublesonie
Michiga]. 125
in mining the third bed, but when a shaft was sunk to it mining conditions were found to be ideal, the mine entries being perfectly dry.
North of the river near Grand Bapids the mine adits emter the bluffs at the level of the mills. South of the river near Plaster Creek the bottom of the lowest bed quarried is about 10 feet above the river. At Grandville the quarries are about a mile south of the river and only slightly above it.
The overburden in the vicinity of the quarries ranges from a few feet to more than 20 feet of sand and gravel. Near the Plaster Creek quarries surface materials are relatively thin, but there is 12 to 15 feet of shale above the 6-foot bed of gypsum. The heavy cost of re- moving the overburden and pumping water has caused the gradual abandonment of quarries and the opening of mines.*
The gypsum mills.and mines nearest to Grand Rapids are just out- side the west city limits on the north side of the river. At the first two mills, those of the Grand Bapids Plaster Co., the geologic sec- tion is as follows:
Section at Eagle Mills, Grand Rapids, Mich,
Shale and sands. Ft In.
Gypsum : 1 6
Shale ; 3
Gypsum 1
Shale — - 4
Gypsum 6
Flinty gypsum 1 2
Shale - - 1
Gyi>sum (mined) 11
The so-called 12- foot bed, which at this locality is 11 feet thick, is being mined from two short slopes, 1,100 feet apart, one at each mill. The 6-foot bed just above it, which used to be quarried, is left in the mifte roof.
At the Midland mill of the United States Gypsum Co., a short distance fartiier west, the 12-foot bed has been worked out and a thicker bed, 36 feet below it, is being mined from a vertical shaft. This deeper bed is about 20 feet thick. Another bed of gypsum, called the "salt vein," lying a few feet above the big bed, has been mined to a small extent from this shaft.
That these deeper beds are present under the mines first men- tioned is shown by drill holes and shafts in sec. 34, T. 7 N., R. 12 W., of which a composite log has been furnished by Mr. A. H. Apted, of the Grand Rapids Plaster Co.
The remainder of the description of the Grand Rapids-Grandville district was written by R. W. stone.
126 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Conipasite log of driU holes and shafts in sec. 84, T, 7 N., R, 12 W,i GraU
Rapids, Mich,
Ft. in.
Sand 40
Ctoy 23
Clay and shale 3 3
Gjl)sum 1 6
Shal - 4
Shale and gypsum 3 3
Shale 2 C
Gypsum 1 1 8
Shale 2
Gypsum 1
Shale '- 4 4
Gypsum 7
Shale 1
Gypsum 11 6
Shale 2 6
Shale 4
Gypsum and shale 6
Gypsum r 1 6
Shale and gypsum 3
Gypsum and sandst<me 5 6
Gypsum 3 6
Shale t. 8
Gypsum 10 6
Shale ... 2
Gypsum : 9
Shale 6
Gypsum 4
At the mine of the Michigan Gypsum Co., on the south side of the river, the upper bed was quarried out and the excavations are now full of water. The lower or 22- foot bed is being mined from a vertical shaft 90 feet deep.
At Grandville an 11-foot bed lying under a considerable cover of unconsolidated sand and gravel is being quarried by the Grand Sapids Plaster Co. It is reported that 4 feet below it there is a 14-foot bed and that an abandoned shaft of the United States Gypsum Co. about 2,000 feet from this quarry reached a still lower bed — the 22-foot bed of the Grand Rapids mines.
Correlation of these beds seems simple, for they lie practically horizontal. Furthermore, it is asserted by men long familiar with these gypsum deposits that rock from the upper and lower beds can be distinguished by physical characteristics. The upper beds are said to be whiter, softer, more massive, and to contain fewer small selenite plates than the lower beds.
It is believed by some that the mines of the Grand Rapids Plaster Co. at Grand Rapids are working in the same bed that makes
floor ot the quarry of that company at Grandville; in other words, tiat the 6-foot and 12-foot beds at Grand Kapids are respectively the 11-foot and 14-foot beds at Grandville* Others believe that the 6-foot bed of the Grand Bapids area is absent near Grandville, and that the 11-foot bed in the Grandville quarries is the 12-foot bed at Grand Rapids. If this is so, then the 14- foot bed at Grand- ville is represented at Grand Rapids by beds of gypsum and shale shown in the log of test hok on page 126 as lying just below the 12-foot bed. There seems to be no question that the bed 20 to 22 feet thick in the drill holes in sec. 84, in the shafts of the United States Gypsum Co., and of the Michigan Gypaum Co. is (me and the same bed. No matter which correlation is correct, the quantity of gypsum in the Grand Rapids-GrandviUe area is sufficient to meet the demands of the entire United States few: many years
Alabaster. — The Alabaster quarry and mill are located in the southeastern part of Iosco County, 6 miles south and west of Tawas City, and three-fourths of a mile from the shore of Saginaw Bay. The gypsum bed is from 18 to 23 feet in thickness. Near th bay it was originally covered by 5 to 8 feet of gravel. Farther west the overburden is tough boulder clay 9 to 14 feet or more in thickness, which is removed by steam shovels as quarrying progresses. (See PL XVIII, B.) The base of the bed is about 15 feet above the level of the bay. A large area has been worked out; the face of the quarry is now in the form of a horseshoe and is nearly a mile long. This quarry is the largest in Michigan and one of the largest in the United States. It is owned and operated by the United States Gypsum €o.
The bed of gypsum at the Alabaster quarry is of commercial thickness over an area of at least 25 to 30 square miles in southeast- ern Iosco County and northwestern Arenac Coun. The bed dips gently to the southwest under other strata. In the western part of loseo County and southern Ogemaw County gypsum outcnjs in many places and is only lightly covered over a large area. Drillings north and west of Alabaster show at least five workable beds below the Alabaster quarry bed ranging from 4 to 22 feet liiick.
Twmer. — In tjie vicinity of Turner, Arenac County, and in the northeastern part of the county, a persistent bed of gypsum occurs oO to 100 feet above the Alabaster quarry bed. This bed is locally known as the Turner bed. There are two areas in the county in which this bed is thick enough for mining— die in the vicinity of Tur- ner and the other in the northeastern part of the county. The com- bined extent of the two areas is 20 to 25 square moles, but further explorati(m will probably increase vwy greatly the minable area of the bed.
Gregory, W. M., Geology of Arenac Coanty : Michigan Geol. and Biol. Surrey Pi?b. 11, Geol. Ser. 8, pp. 54-58, 1911.
128 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
JSt Ignace. — Gypsum occurs at different places in the. St. Ignaa Peninsula and on adjacent islands. In 1850 a quarry was opened near Point Aux Chenes, 7 miles west of St. Ignace. A dock w built and gypsum was shipped to mills in Chicago. Owing to van ous troubles, chief of which were water in the quarry and a scourg? of smallpox, the quarry. was operated only intermittently fori number of years. Finally an ice floe carried away the dock, and the enterprise was abandoned. In 1894 some test holes were piR down 2 miles west of the old quarry. According to reports 3 penetrated a ledge of gypsum a few feet in aggregate thickness. In a deep well 2 miles south of St. Ignace, some gypsum was at 35 feet, 13 feet of gypsum at 174 feet, and 5 feet at 255 feet Drillings on a bench at the foot of Rabbits Back Point, a high \mt stone spur projecting into the lake 4 miles north of St. Ignace, showed some gypsum a few feet below the surface, a 21-foot bed at about 30 feet, and a 9-foot bed at 57 feet. The surface of tie land on which the drillings were made is only .10 to 15 feet above the lake. In some places gypsum was found under only aboot 14 inches of soil, and near the extremity of Rabbits Back Point j bed outcrops close to the water's edge and can be seen beneath tie water near the shore. Gypsum was found on adjoining tracts o! land and at Grosse Pointe, 4 miles farther north. From this poini eastward gypsum outcrops along the shore for several miles. On the southern part of St. Martin Island, directly east of Grosse Pointe gypsum is struck in shallow wells over a large area of the island and may be seen in the water along the shore. The top ledge, saii to be 3 feet thick, is near the surface, and other bds occur Wer down. According to analysis, the rock is very pure, containing over 98 per cent of gypsum.
Present evidence indicates seven easily accessible heavy beds of gypsum in St. Ignace Peninsula and adjacent islands, but whether water would be generally troublesome in quarrying or mining uncertain.
According to Lane there are many signs of gypsum deposits in the northern part of the Beaver Island group in Lake Michigan.
Hist0By.2
In 1827 gypsum was discovered on Plaster Creek, in the south- western part of Grand Rapids. It was calcined some years later by James Clark, who used an old Indian com mill for grinding and a caldron kettle for calcining. The first mill was built od
1 Grimsley, G. P., The gypsum of Michigan : Michigan GeoL Survey, voL 9, pt 2, p. 'Idem, p. 42.
Michigan. 129
Plaster Creek in 1841 near the crossing of the Grandville road. The machinery consisted of one run of millstones and a thick-bottomed two-barrel caldron kettle. Most of the gypsmn was ground into land plaster, and 10 years later 60 tons were produced daily. In 1843 gypsum was discovered on the north side of Grand River, and in 1849 a mill was built near the site of the present Eagle Mill No. 1 of the Grand Eapids Plaster Co. A second mill, now the Eagle Mill No. 2 of this company, was erected on neighboring prop- erty in 1869.
In the early sixties gypsum was discovered south of Grandville, 6 miles southwe of Grand Rapids, through the overturning of an old tree by a high wind, and two mills were built, one in 1873 and the other in 1874. Other mills were built and quarries opened later at different times, but owing to the keen competition and faulty methods of calcining many of the ventures were unsuccessful. About 1901 consolidation of the interests began, and at present the seven mines and quarries and eight mills in the Grand Rapids-Grandville district are owned or controlled by four companies.
Gypsum had been discovered by the Indian traders at Alabaster before 1841, but it was not until 1862 that a quarry was opened, supplying small rmills at Winona, Bay City, and Monroe with gyp- sum for the manufacture of land planter. Later a mill was built, and at present this quarry, operated by the United States Gypsum Co., is one of the largest in the United States. Another quarry was opened in 1870 about 3 miles south of Alabaster, but trouble with water caused its abandonment.
In 1823 Dr. J. J. Bigsby mader the first discovery of gypsum in Michigan, on St. Martin Island. In the fifties a gypsum quarry was opened near Point Aux Chenes, 7 miles west of St. Ignace, Mackinac County, but its operation was abandoned after a few years.
MISSISSIPPI. By R. W. Stone.
So far as has yet been discovered gypsum does not occur in mercial quantities in the State of Mississippi, Gypsiferous occur in Attala, Carroll, Hinds, Holmes, Leake, Madison, Rankiii, Scott counties, and gypsum crystals are found with clayey matei in a broad area. This crystalline gypsum occurs usually in pi; rosettes, or lenticular masses less than 2 inches thick. The kr, mass of pure gypsum found in the State was 10 to 12 inches It was embedded in days in a well near Cato, Eankin County, other occurrence was a crystalline mass 1 to 2 inches thick that a surface equal to 1 square foot. Gypsum crystals tram. Can Madison County, in the writer's possession are in lunaps 2 to inches across and 1 inch thick. The material is colorless, glassy, transparent, but flaws are numerous and partly filled with chj. These gypsum crystals are sometimes mistaken for mica but can readily distinguished from it by reason of the facUthat they can iit scratched easily with the finger nail, and the thin plates into whid they can be split are only slightly flexible and are not elastic.
Plaster of Paris can be made from gypsum crystals, but they an not used for this purpose commercially. Exceptionally fine, dear crystals are used to a very small extent for certain optical purpose The gypsum crystals found in Mississippi have no value.
Hilgard, E. H., Report on the geology and agrfcoltnre of the State of Mississippi,
-u
Montana.
By R. W. Stone.1 AGE AND DISTBJBXJTION.
Cascade, Fergus, and Carbon counties contain all the developed gypsum deposits and, so far as is known, most of the workable beds in Montana. The gypsum beds are in rocks of Carboniferous age overlying the Madison limestone and in the Ellis formation of Jurassic age. These formations occur in the eastern part of the mountain belt and are exposed in five principal areas — (1) from Missouri Eiver eastward along the flanks of the Belt Mountains through Riceville and Kibbey, thence southeast toward Judith Gap, and around the Little Belt Mountains to the head of Musselshell Eiver; (2) encircling the Big Snowy Mountains and structural domes in Judith Basin; (3) from Livingston east to Boulder Eiver; (4) around north end of Big Horn Mountains; (5) in the Jefferson and Madison ranges.
There seems to be no published record of gypsum in the Jefferson and Madison ranges and none in the Livingston area in these forma- tions. Of some other deposits but little is known beyond the location. It is possible that commercially workable, deposits of gypsum occur elsewhere in the general areas described than at the few places here mentioned, but if so they are not known to the writer.
IiOGAUTrBS. CASCADE COUNTY.
MUlegan. — The presence of gypsum near Millegan, in T. 15 N., E. 3 E., and in the hills 4 miles north of this place and 2 miles west of Smith River, is reported by Mr. J. R. Villars, a surveyor, of Great Falls, . The upper part of the Carboniferous is exposed in this area, and it is presumed that the gypsum is the massive variety occurring in a bed or beds several feet thick, as at Riceville.
RieeviUe. — Gypsum has been mined intermittently for a number of years at Riceville, on the Neihart branch of the Great Northern Railway. For seven years the rock was calcined at Great Falls; both mine and mills discontinued operation in 1915.
The gypsum is in the upper part of the Carboniferous section and outcrops about 700 feet above the creek. Mining developments of the
Based on field notes of C. F. Bowen, of the U. S. Geoloidcal Snirvey ; data funilced by the United States Gypsum Co., of Chicago ; by J. R. ViUars, of Great Falls ; by D. C. Bard, of Seattle ; and on notes in earlier publications of the U. S. Geological Survey and Oder scmrces.
132 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
past few years show that the gypsum deposit near, Riceville is vari- able in thickness and not continuous; the workable part is a bed 3 to 6 feet thick. In places it pinches out entirely. At one place the bed is 15 feet thick without a parting, but an adit shows that this thick bed pinches out in 100 feet. The deposit, as a rule, has a number of clay and sandstone partings. The following section of the deposit is obtained by combining measurements in a shaft and an adjacent drill hole:
Section of ovpsum deposit at Rixevillet Mont,
Ft. in.
Clay and sandstone 3
Gypsum : 1
Parting 6
Gypsum 1 6
Parting 1 6
Gypsum 1 4
Parting 1
Gypsum 1
Parting 2
Gypsum . 4
Parting 4
Gypsum 2
Parting 6
Gypsum 4
Clay and sandstone.
The partings are either clay or sandstone oi: both. The lower 4 feet of gypsum is said to be left unmined on account of impurities mixed with it.
The mine consists of a devious branching adit, from the sides of which many rooms have been driven. At the mouth the adit is in red clay, which may not be in place. Gypsum first appears about 50 feet from the portal and is about 4J feet thick. The roof is shale and gypsum and the floor sandstone. About 115 feet from the entry gypsum disappears, and the adit passes through red shale, which shows many slickensided surfaces and appears to be a roll. Fifty feet further the gypsum reappears and forms the walls of the adit to the end, which is about 1,000 feet from the entry. Throughout most of the mine the bed has a northeast dip of about 5®, but at the end of the adit the dip increases rapidly.
The bed is exposed about 1 mile northeast of Eiceville on the east side of Belt Creek, but the position seems abnormal. It appears to be in a landslide or small fault block, for it strikes directly into a hill of sandstone underlain by red shale, the shale butting against the gypsum on the east*
Goodman. — At Goodman siding, 3 miles north of Riceville, an at- tempt to mine gypsum was unsuccessful. A small gypsum mill was
Montana. 133
erected in 1900, 'evidently before thorough prospecting of the de- posit. An adit on the east side of Belt Creek, driven several hun- dred feet into the hill, encountered only lenticular masses and thin seams of gypsum embedded in red clay. Judged by its relation to the overlying thick sandstone this bed is slightly higher in the geo- logic section than the one which has been mined at Riceville. If this correlation is correct the main bed has not been found.
An effort to develop the bed on the west side of Belt Creek about 1 mile north of (roodman siding, at Sieglung's place, had the same result as the work at Goodman. Two adits 500 and 615 feet long passed through small bodies of gypsum but were mostly in wash.
Kibhey, — In the northern part of T. 16 N., E. 8 E., 10 miles east of IRiceville, is Kibbey, a small settlement near which gypsum was mined about 1899. The mine was near Charles Beckstrom's farm* A section measured by C. F. Bowen at this place is as follows :
Sectijyn of gypsum at Kibhey Mont,
Ft. in. Gypsum, weathered, apparently has many thin shale
partings 3 4
Shale ... I 4
Gypsum, weathered-, apparently free from partings 5
Gypsum, white, clean 5 6 '
Gypsum, dirty, thin partings of shale at top and bottom 6
Gypsum, good 8
Gypsum, poor dark gray 3
Gypsum, good, white 3 2
Sandstone 3
Shale, gray and greenish above, red below 20
About 1,000 feet southwest of this mine the upper beds of the Madison limestone are exposed, striking east and dipping 5° north. The gypsimi, which is 100 feet stratigraphically above the limestone,, is exposed for at least half a mile to the east.
In 1898-99 gypsum was quarried about a mile west of Kibbey and milled at Monarch, but the plant was burned in 1900 and opera- tions were discontinued.
There is undoubtedly a large body of good gypsum in the vicinity of Kibbey, but it is several miles from a railroad. It occurs a short distance above the top of the Madison limestone, and 500 to 700 feet stratigraphically below the bed at Riceville, popular belief to the contrary notwithstanding.
The next reported occurrence of gypsum is 12 miles east of Kibbey and 7 miles south of Geyser, on Tree Creek. No data are at hand concerning the thickness and correlation of the bed, and it is pre- sumed that this is only one of the many exposures of gypsum along the north side of the Little Belt Mountains.
134 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
FBRfiUS CX>UNTT,
Gypsnm occurs in Fergus County nlong the north si(Je of the Little Belt Mountains, around the Big Snomj Mountains, encircling a small dome at Hanover and probably in other structural dofoea No information is at hand concerning d)osits west of the Grrcat Northern Railway in this county.
Biff Snowy Mountcmis, — The gypsum-bearing formaticwxs e(mi- pletely encircle the Big Snowy Mountains and the gypsum is said to be pure and in a thidc bed. Several places are reported by O. W. Freeman, as follows:*
Pure beds of gypsum over 20 feet in thickness occur in tlie foothfUs of the Big Snowy Mountains, as on the Bast Fork of Spring Creek and near Irene, on the south side of the Snowies. A small amount of pore-wkite gypsum lias been produced in the foothills southeast of Moore. The gypsum found ob ttK southwest side of the Bowies is exceptioiially white and pore and, being fouDd only a few miles from the railroad, might be utilized at a profit. Quantities of excellent gypsum in beds 20 to 30 feet thick occur OQ Alaska bench, east of the Snowies and near the N ranch, northwest of Tyler.
It is reported that a thick bed of gypsum outcrops extensively 2 miles south of Forest Grove, which is on a branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway ea of Lewistown.
Heath, — C. F. Bowen, of the United States Geological Survey, in 1916 examined a bed which outcrops near Heath, a post office 8 miles southeast of Lewistown, in a coulee in the SW. i sec. 1, T. 14 N., K. 19 E., and in a railroad cut in the NW. J sea 12. (See PI. XVIII, CJ) He reports that the United States Gypmun Ca has prospected the bed by eight drill holes, six of whidi paetrated 13 to 14 fe of gjrpsum. At two holes on a slope where a thinner deposit was found tle top of the bed probably is eroded* The lower 2 feet of the bed, as seen by Mr. Bowen at a prospect, is pd>bly or crushed and interlaminated with thin films of clayey and sandy material. This stratum is overlain by 3 or 4 inches of lale, above which is the main gypsum ledge, about 8 feet ttiickj consisting of clean white gypsum, apparently of good quality. As it has been proved to underlie several hundred acres and is directly on the rail- road, it should furnish ample material for commercial development. The remainder or upper part of the deposit is apparently somewhat dirty, but prospecting had not goi far enough to determine whether the impurity is inherent in the gypsum or is due to weathering and infiltration of sandy material. Near the top of the deposit the is a diale parting about 1 foot thick.
The United States Gypsum Ca has leased 300 acree of land in sees. 1 and % T. 14 N., R. 19 E., near Heath, and is preparing to
"'eeman, O. W., Gypsum and lime tndtistry In central Montana : Mln. and Eng. World, , pp. 663-664, 1916.
Montana.
erect a plant for mining gypsum and making wall plaster and other gj'psum products.
Mr. W. V. Shoemaker, superintwdent for the company, furnished the accompanying sections, which were measured on adjacent jDroperty.
Sections of gypsum at Heath, Mont.
Darbv property.
Bard property.
Fett.
Feet.
Dirt
Gypsum
Gypsum
Dirt ::.: :
Gypsiim, maiFI hf . ,
Gypsum! pebbly
Total eypsum
Total Bei ] '.
The bed dips to the northwest at a low angle except along the county road, where the dip is 15°. This gypsum bed is in the Ellis formation of Jurassic age, and it is believed that the other occur- rences of gypsum around the Big Snowy Mountains are of the same age.
Hanover. — On the north side of Big Snowy Creek, in the foothills of South Moccasin Mountains, 8 miles northwest of Lewistown, there is a physiographic eminence more or less detached from the main mountain uplift. It is located in sees, 22 and 27, T. 16 N., E. 17 E., at a railroad siding called Hanover. This topographic feature is a structural dome, as shown by Calvert's map of the Lewistown coal, field or Judith Basin, as the area commonly is called. Eocks of the Morrison (Cretaceous?) and Ellis formations encircle the dome and dip away from it in all directions. The Carboniferous rocks are ex- posed in the middle. Gypsum occurs at the top of the Carboniferous section and makes a roughly circular outcrop. It is exposed at sev- eral places around the margin of the dome and at each exposure dips away from the dome. At the south side of the dome near the rail- road the strike curves strongly to the north, both east and west of the quarry that has been opened recently. The dip at the quarry is 21° S. At a prospect on the northwest flank of the dome, where the strike is northeast, the dip is 18° NW. The center of the dome, therefore, is not underlain by gypsum but is surrounded by gypsum that dips away from it. There is some suggestion of faulting about 1,000 feet northwest of the quarry.
CalTert, W. Oeology of the Lewistown coal field, Mont. : U. & Geol. Saryey Bull. 390, Pl. 1909.
136 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States,
The Hanover Gypsum Co., which owned several hundred acres on this dome, opened a mine and quarry and built a mill. The makmg of plaster was begun in the summer of 1916. After a few days' operation the property was sold to the Three Forks Portland Ce- ment Co., which has continued to operate it.
Mr. C. F. Bowen visited Hanover in September, 1916, and reports that the gypsum bed seems to be constant in thickness. Two ex- posures about half a mile northwest of the mine show 6 feet of good clean gypsul. He measured the following section at the quarry abd tunnel northeast of the mill :
Section of gypsum deposit at Hanover Mont.
Ft. in.
Gypsum, with lenses of shattered Umestome 5
Limestone, thin bedded, dark 8
Gypsum, white, massive 4
Shale 1 3
Gypum 9
Shale 2
Gypsum, white; variable thickness 1
Shale, gray, streaked with gypsum ; variable thickness 1 9
Gypsum, white to gray, massive 7
Shale, black, indurated, seamed with gypsum 2
Gypsum, thickness not known.
The bottom bed has not been explored. As the upper bed is either at the surface or under light cover it can be quarried. The 7- foot bed will be mined. Under these conditions rock can be taken from the quarry in summer and from the mine in winter or incle- ment weather. The quarry and mine are about 1,000 feet from the mill. Eock is moved to the mill by gravity on a small tramroad. It is broken by jaw and gyratory crushers in a building separated from the main mill. An underground conveyor carries the crushed gypsum from storage bins in the crusher building to a rotary drier in the mill. After passing over this drier, it goes through the usual revolvirg cylindrical drier, about 40 feet long. The dry rock is pulverized in a Eaymond mill before calcining.
Jefferson County.
A small deposit of rock gypsum has been developed in Jefferson Canyon at Cavern, just east of Lime Spur, in a gulch a few hundred yards north of Jefferson River. The area is very small and much faulted. The gypsum is quarried and hauled down grade to loading bins at a railroad siding. The Three Forks Portland Cement Co uses the gypsum quarried here in making cement at Trident. Because of the excessive folding and faulting the stratigraphic position of the deposit is difficult to determine, and the age of the gypsum is not known definitely.
Montana. 137
Carbon Countt,
A gypsum field that has been little explored extends from Bridger Canyon in a southeasterly direction into Wyoming. A plaster mill 8 miles southeast of Bridger operated on a gypsum bed 10 ta 12 feet thick, but this mill has been idle for 10 years or more. The following data are furnished by J. P. Eowe, of the University of IVIontana:
A gypsum bed 15 to 20 feet thick outcrops miles from Bowler and is exposed for more than a mile. Another locality is east of Bridger and 4 to 5 miles north of Bowler. Here a 20-foot bed increases to 50 feet farther north and 3 miles north of the first outcrop has thinned to 15 feet. This place is 4J miles from Crockett and may be over the line in Big Horn County. The bed strikes north and dips west. The gypsum is of Triassic age (Chugwater formation).
Big Horn County.
In the Eed Valley, west of Lodge Grass Creek, in the Crow Indian Reservation, the following section was measured by C. A. Fisher:
Section of Chugwater formation west of Lodge Grass Creek, Mont,
Feet.
Red sandstone (overlain by Sundance formation) 60
Gypsuna
Brick-red shale 20
Gray limestone 3
Purple shale
Ught-gray to lavender thin-bedded limestone 12
Maroonish shale 10
White limestone, thin bedded at base, massive above 16
Purplish shale 18
Gypsum 60
Red sandstone 170
Gray and red laminated sandstone, 6 to 10 inches 6
Red sandstone 150
Gypsum 50
Porous purple limestone 4
Red shale 30
Purple thin-bedded limestone (Mlnneltahta) 2
Ck)ncealed (probably red shale) 30
These three beds of gypsum, 6, 60, and 50 feet thick, are at the north end of the Big Horn Mountains and illustrate the abundance gypsum that encircles the range. They are 15 to 20 miles from a railroad and have not been developed.
Rowe, J. P., Montana gypsnm deposits : Mines and Minerals, vol. 28, p. 59, 1907. 'Darton, N. H., Geology of the Big Horn Mountains : U. S. Gel. Survey Prof. Paper P"" p. 38, 1906.
138 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Madison County.
The following notes are furnished by D. D, Condit, of the Unites States Geological Survey. Between Cabin and Beaver creeks, small tributaries of Madison River, in or near sec. 10, T. 11 S., K. 3 R, which is about 10 miles east of Lyon, there is about 10 feet of gypswn in the Din woody formation. The geologic position of this deposit is just below the "Red Beds" (Chugwater formation) and just over the Phosphoria formation.
About 12 miles west of Lyon in the NW. i sec. 27, T. 10 S., B. 2 W. a bed of gypsum 10 to 20 feet thick is exposed along a wood road This locality is on the head of Trail Creek at the summit of the Gravelly Range, which is the southern continuation of the Tobacco- root Mountains. The gypsum is above the " Bed Beds " and is thout to be in the Ellis formation.
Other Localities.
At Hunters Hot Springs, on the north bank of Yellowstone Kiver. about 20 miles east of Livingston, the hot waters are depositing gypsum, and the old hot spring fissures are filled with a mass of gypsum and stilbite. Weed says that the gypsum occurs in veins from 1 to 5 feet wide. The material hag not been utilized.
Besides the occurrences described above, gypsum is found in tbe form of selenite crystals in certain Cretaceous strata in the counties east of the Rockies. The crystals occur singly, in clusters and rosettes, and on weathering out from the shale in which they originate are found scattered on the surface. They are not known to be sufficiently abundant at any locality to be of commercial value.
1 Weed, W. H., Gypsum reins and waters of Hunters Hot Springs, Mont. : U. S. Geol Survey Bull. 260, pp. 601-604, 1905.
Nevada.
By J. C Jones. CKAUACTEE, EXTENT, AKD PEVEI/)PMENT.
Four types of gypsum deposits are known to occur in Nevada-
(1) beds or lenses of rock gypsum interstratified with sedimentary rocks of marine origin ranging in age from Pennsylvanian to Trias sic; (2) thin beds and seams in lacustrine deposits of Tertiary age; (3) small seams and replacements in mineralized areas chiefly in the altered andesites of Tertiary age; and (4) surface or gypsite deposits resulting from the erosion and solution of the other types. Excepting a single gypsite deposit, only the deposits of rock gyp- sum are extensive enough to be utilized.
The deposits of rock gypsum occur in two widely separated areas or provinces, in western Nevada and in the extreme southern por- tion of the State. The western province includes the deposits near Lovelock and Table Mountain, in southern Humboldt County; near Gerlach, in central Washoe County; at Mound House, in Ormsby County ; at Ludwig, in Lyon County ; and near Hawthorne, in Min- eral County. These deposits are all of Triassic age and are large masses or beds of coarsely crystalline rock gypsum, usually dazzling white in color, most of which have been more or less metamorphosed and recrystallized by a later intrusion of granodiorite.
The southern group is confined to Clark and southern Lincoln counties and includes the deposits near Arden and those in the mountains in the vicinity of Moapa and Logan. The Arden and Gait deports are Pennsylvanian in age, but the others in the group may be somewhat younger. The gypsum is massive and granular and varies in color from white to red. Aside from such segrega- tion and recrystallization as was developed incident to the folding and faulting during the formation of the mountain ranges the gyp- sum has not been materially altered since its deposition.
In recent years considerable search for suitable deposits of gyp- sum has been made throughout the State, but as far as known none has been found outside of the two general areas mentioned. Though rocks of Carboniferous age are widely distributed in the eastern, central, and southern parts of the State gypsum occurs in them only at the extreme south. The Triassic rocks are mainly found in the western part of the State and to some extent in the extreme south. Gypsum in large masses or lenses is commonly associated with them.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
FiQURB 0.— Map showing location of gypsum deposits in Nevada.
Nevada. 141
Scattered throughout Nevada, generally in the foothills and lower ranges, are large areas of unconsolidated clays, tuffs, and other lacus- trine sediments characterized by an abundance of diatomaceous earth. These sediments are largely of Miocene age and in a former report* on the gypsum deposits of Nevada are said to contain beds of gypsum, both as white granular layers and as selenite. None of these deposits has been worked, and many of the reported gypsum deposits have proved to be diatomaceous earth or volcanic tuff locally bearing thin stringers of selenite.
Widely distributed through the State are large areas of mineral- ized and altered rocks in which sulphides are very abundant. Through the action of the atmosphere and surface waters the sul- phides are oxidized, forming sulphates and sulphuric acid, which are carried in solution through the rocks. These react with the cal- cium minerals, in particular calcite, that may be present and form calcium sulphate. Gypsum thus formed may occur as isolated crys- tals, thin seams or veins of selenite, or in the limestones it may form fairly large masses through replacement. The veins and dissemi- nated crystals are especially common in the altered andesites that are abundant in most of the mining camps in Nevada. Owing to the small size, deposits of gypsum formed in this way Ure of no value at present.
During the weathering of gypsum deposits more or less of the gypsmn is removed, chiefly in solution. Owing to the generally dry climate of Nevada, the surface waters carrying the gypsum in solution usually evaporate near the original deposits and form gypsum earth or gypsite. Some of these secondary deposits are large enough for profitable working, and for a number of years such deposits have been utilized near Mound House. Elsewhere the deposits are too small or contain too much foreign material to be of value.
At the time when the previous report was published, in 1904, two quarries, located at Lovelocks and Mound House, had been opened, and one mill, located at Empire, near Carson, was in operation. Since then quarries have been opened at Ludwig, Arden, near Over- ton, and Dike, and mills have been established at Keno, Arden, and two at Mound House. In addition several other deposits have been prospected in the southern part of the State and near Gerlach. In 1918 only the mills at Mound House and at Arden were in operation. Considerable gypsum is shipped direct from the quarries to mills in California. The combined capacity of the mills in operation is ap- proximately 500 tons of plaster daily. By its high quality the manu-
Louderback, G. D., Gypsum deposits in Nevada : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 113 "Idem, pp. 112-118.
142 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
f adjured product reaches a wide marJet. A large quantity of Nevada plaster was used at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco for making the staff with which the buildings were surfaced.
Owing to thB comparatively snail local demaad and tiie expense of transportation and fuel, only tBose deposits which are favorably located near the railroads can be profitably developed under present conditions. The high quality of the products offsets to a large degree the higher cost of production and enables the Nevada mills to com- pete successfully in the markets along the Pacific coast Thre is an opportunity for the Nevada quarries in tlie small but growing demand for gypsum to apply to the thousands of acres of lands high in alkali Gypsum neutralizes the alkali and makes the land cultivable.
In the present study of the gypsum deposits the quarries at LoYe- lock, Mound House, Ludwig, and Arden were visited, and informa- tion regarding the deposits near Gerlach, Overton, Dike, and else- where was given by Gov. Emmett D. Boyle, E. Duryee, and others. The writer gratefully acknowledges the courteous aid giten him by Mr. Gorin, superintendent of the Arden Plaster Co. ; Mr. McKenzie, foreman of the Pacific Portland Cement Co., whose quarries are at Mound House; and Mr. Orem, superintendent of the Nevada Douglas Copper Co., which owns the deposit iit Ludwig.
The known deposits of gypsum in Nevada are large, some are of exceptional purity, and the supply is so abundant that it will $uf5ce for many years to come.
aEOLOGY.
Deposits In Western Nevada.
The gypsum deposits in western Nevada have many features in common that indicate a similar origin. All are in the form of large lenses or beds intercalated in massive limestones of Triaseic age; all have been intruded by or are in close proximity to the late Mesozoic granodiorite ; and where the development has been extensire they are seen to grade into masses of coarsely crystalline anhydrite, from which they have been derived through hydration.
The Triassic rocks of this province lie in an area roughly defined as lying west of a line extending south from Battle Mountain through Austin and Silver Peak and south of an east and west line running a few miles north of Winnemucca and Grerladi. The typi- cal geologic section of the area is in the West Humboldt Mountains near Star Peak. J. P. Smith has recently described this section as follows :
1 Smith, J. P., The Middle Triassic marine invertebrate faunas of North America : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 83, p. 8, 1914.
Kevada.
Geologic section of the West Humboldt Range, Nev,
Lower Jurassic (Lias).
UBcoslbnnUy
Upper Triasaic
Middle Triaasic.
K(Nato f ormatiaa.
Carries ArietUea.
PteudomoTuOis subcifcvJaris zone (slates, with Rhabdoceras and Halarites), IMekness abotit 900 feet.
Silioeotts and tuflaeeons beds, without fossils. Thickness unknown.
Massive limestones, probably corresponding to the Hosselkps (Ui)pr Trlassic) llmeotone of the CaUfomia section. Tliiclaaess about 2,000 feet.
Siliceous and tu£Caoeous beds without fossils, partly rhyoKtes, and other vol- canic fkyws. ThicknMs 1,000 to 3,000 feet.
DaoneUa zone. Slaty limestones and tufl beds, hard at the top and jgrading over into shaty limestones and caloareoos shales at the bottom. Thickness 1,000 to 1,500 feet. The lower 200 feet contain nearly all the fossils, which belong to the fauna of CeraUUa triuoiosna.
Siliceous beds, tuffs, graywackes, and igneous rocks of imknown thickness. Without fossils.
Though this general successi(m probably holds good throughout the province, the local sections are so meager and complicated by faulting and so little detailed work has been done that the correla- tion of the different gypsum deposits can only be suggested. The deposits near Lovelock are in the southern end of the West Hum- boldt Range, where the Triassic rocks seem to be confined to the tipper half of the Star Peak formation. Louderback says that the fossils found at Muttleberry Canyon belong to the Pseudomonotis zooe and that the overlying Jurassic rocks appear at the summit. The gypsum outcrops only a short distance from the summit but is separated from it by a westward-dipping normal fault. Bjiowl- edge of the general structure of the ra*nge suggests that the throw of the fault is not over 1,500 feet and that the gypsum lies in the massive limestone below the Psetomonotis zone.
Fossils were not found in th series containing the gypsum at Ludwig though the rocks resnble those in the Star Peak section just below the Paeitdomonotis zone. On the other side of the Smith Valley Range near the Mason Valley mine, two imperfectly preserved fossils belonging- to the DaoneUa zone of the Star Peak formation were foimd in a slaty limestone. Here a number of faults interrupt the section, and the Triassic rocks are mainly massive white and black limestones and meta-andesite. As these rocks are <pttte different from those exposed at Ludwig, the suggestion can merely be made that the gypsum is contemporaneous with that near Lovelock.
Londertwck, Q. D., Basin-range itroeturtt el the HimAoldt region : Geoi. Sec. America fill!., vol. 15, p. 295. 19M.
144 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The sections exposed in the other areas are too incomplete to ma]$:e any definite correlation, but if the constant occurrence of the gypsum immediately below the dark breociated limeone in all the localities in this province can be safely used for correlation, the de- posits are contemporaneous and are Upper Triassic in age.
Deposits In Southern Nevada.
In the absence of fossils no definite statement as to the age of these deposits can be made. Spurr in describing the geology of the Muddy Eange says that in the vicinity of the gypsum deposits the Carboniferous limestone is brought by faulting into contact with red Mesozoic sandstones, although in places they are apparently con- formable. From the foils collected Stanton thought the red beds might be as old as the Permian and certainly not yoimger than the Triassic. The limestone is Pennsylvanian in age. If, as appears probable, the gypsum belongs with the limestones rather than the sandstone, it is doubtless of the same age as the gypsum in the Spring Mountain Eange. As the gypsum in the Gait deposit, to the north, is also in the Pennsylvanian series it would seem probable that all the deposits in the southern province are of the same age, although there is* a possibility that those in the Muddy Eange are somewhat younger.
Obigin Of The Deposits.
The deposits of rock gypsum in Nevada, as has been shown occur as lenses and irregular masses interbedded with limestone and shale of marine origin. In all the deposits that have been extensively developed more or less anhydrite is present, and in the deposits of the western province the gypsum has had its immediate origin through the hydration of massive anhydrite by the action of surface waters. Further, all the deposits in this province have been intruded by or are in close proximity to granodiorite later in age than the gypsimi. In at least one deposit, that at Mound House, typical con- tact-metamorphic minerals are present in the gypsum.
Some years ago, before the presence of the anhydrite was known, the rather constant association of the gypsum with near-by deposits of sulphides in the western province led to the suggestion that the gypsum originated through the replacement of limestone by the ac- tion of acid waters formed in the oxidation of the sulphides in the neighboring ore bodies. This view was supported by the presence of limestone in the gypsum, by the rounded and corroded grains of cal- cite seen in thin sections of the gypsum, and by the irregular outlines of the deposits. That this action takes place in the vicinity of the
1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of California : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, p.- 137, 1903, 'Idem, pp. 14S-151.
Nevada. , 145
re bodies is shown by the beautiful crystals of selenite found in the judwig mine in the midst of the oxidized ore.
As many of the gypsum deposits are much larger than the ore( ieposits from which they were supposed to have originated ; are con- ormable with the sedimentary series of which they are a part; are isually separated from the ore bodies by a hundred feet or more of imestone through which the solutions must pass and in which no race of gypsimi can be found ; and as the gypsum contains no copper ninerals that would have been deposited from the solutions and jrades with depth into anhydrite, whose origin from cold surface lolutions would be difficult to imderstand — this hypothesis is quite mprobable.
From the constant association of the gypsum with marine sedi- nents it is almost certain that the gypsum was formed by evapora- tion of the oceanic waters that deposited the limestones and shales found interbedded with it. In a study of the deposits at the Ludwig mine and at Mound House Rogers came to the conclusion that the Driginal deposits were largely if not altogether anhydrite, which was recrystallized at the time of the intrusion of the granodiorite. In commenting on Rogers's paper Jones* suggested that the original deposits were probably gypsum that had been dehydrated and meta- morphosed into anhydrite through the action of the intrudiiig grano- diorite, citing the intimate interbedding of thin- limestone and gyp- sum layers and the known absence of saline deposits as indicating that the concentration of the water did not progress far enough to cause the deposition of anhydrite. Van't Hoff and his associates have shown that when sea water is evaporated at a temperature of 25° C. the calcium sulphate is deposited as gypsum until the solu- tion is saturated with sodium chloride and then is deposited as anhy- drite along with the salt At 60 C, however, only anhydrite is formed, and though this may seem to be a much higher temperature than is reached ordiuarily in sea water, yet the saline waters of some inclosed basins have still higher temperatures in the layers near the surface. In many deposits elsewhere a layer of gypsum lies under anhydrite and salt, suggesting that these deposits were formed at the lower temperature mentioned. On the other hand, deposits are common with anhydrite and gypsum intermingled as at Arden. The formation of these deposits is possibly explained by
the work of Van't Hoff, who has shown that the hemihydrate may
Rogers, A. F., The occurrence and origin of gypsum and anhydrite at the Ludwig mlne Lyon County, Nev. : Econ. Geology, vol. 7, pp. 185-189, 1912. Notes on the occur- rence of anhydrite in the United States : School of Mines Quart, vol. 36, pp. 123-142,
'Jones, J. C., The origim of the anhydrite at the Ludwig mine, Lyon County, Nev.: Econ. Geology, vol. 7, pp. 400-4a2, 1912.
12e?°— 20 10
146 Gypsum Deposits Of The Itntted States.
be formed in saline solutions at somewhat lower temperatures than anhydrite. The hemihydrate, which is never found in nature, is very unstalide and quickly changes to a mixture of gypsum and anhydrite.
The evidence disclosing the effect of intrusions on gypsum is meager. It is well known that when gypsum is heated it first los part of its water, chimging to the hemihydrate or plaster of Paris, and if the heating be continued all the water is lost, and the product has the same composition as anhydrite. There is some difference of opinion as to whether this product is the same as anhydrite, as it has been observed that the crystal form of the product is differt from that of anhydrite. Van't Hoff has shown, however, that in dehydrating gypsum an intermediate form of the anhydrous otI- phate, which he called "soluble anhydrite," is first produced which slowly changes over to anhydrite. As far as experiment can show, then, it is possible that the heat attendant upon the intrusion of the granodiorite, which was high enough to cause the envelopment of tourmaline and phlogopite in the gypsum at Mound House, could have dehydrated whatever gypsum was present in the original de- posits and changed it to anhydrite.
As the temperature and salinity of the waters that formed the original deposits are only conjectural, the question whether either gypsum or anhydrite alone or a mixture of the two composed the original masses must remain open. We can safely say, however, that tiie deposits of rock gypsum in Nevada were precipitated either in the form of gypsum or anhydrite or as a mixture of the two from evaporating sea waters along with the limestones and shales witli which they are interbedded, and that in the western province they were metamorphosed and recrystallized and possibly dehydrated at the time of the intrusion of the graiK>diorite. Further, the intrusion of the granodiorite caused more or less segregation of the gypsum and partial replacnent of the limestone layers in ttie gypsum. Faulting, which has continued to the present time, has elevated cer- tain blocks of the gypsum-bearing strata, and eroon has exposed them in the present mountain ranges. The solvent action of the surface waters has, continued the replacement of the limestones in the gypsum and has hydrated the anhydrite to a depth of 200 to 400 feet
Localities.
Western Nevada,
Lovelock.
The deposits of gypsum near Lovelock are in the West Humboldt Mountains east of the town. This range extends in a southerly di- rection from Imlay to the Carson Sink, a distance of over 60 miles.
Nevada. 147
Near the center the range is divided into two parts by the deep trans- verse valley of Cole Canyon. The northern half of the range is scanetimes known as the Star Peak Range and the southern half as the Lake Kange. About 10 miles south of Cole Canyon is Muttle- berry Canyon, a steep-walled valley crosses the Lake Range. Lovelock is 6 miles a little north of west of the mouth of Muttle- berry Canyon. The gypsum outcrops at intervals in the area imme- diately to the north of tiie canyon.
In this area the Lake Range is largely composed of Triasric lime-- stones, slates, and quartzites, and Lower Jurassic shales. These rocks are mtruded by granodiorite, which is probably contemporaneous with the late Mesozoic batholith of the Sierra Nevada. Tertiary rhy- olites, andesites, and basalts also are present, having flowed over tte eroded surface of the older rocks.
The Mesozoic rocks are folded into a series of rather open anti- clines and synclines, the axes of the folds striking a few degrees to the east of the trend of the range. As the Tertiary volcanic rocks are not warped the folding probably took place at about the time of the intrusion of the granodiorite. The present form of the mountain range is due to faulting, which has continued to the present time and has broken the mountain mass into a number of large blocks. The major fault Bes along the western base of the range.
Louderback has thus* described the structure of the mountain range in the vicinity of the gypsum deposits: At Muttleberry Canyon the sedimitary rocks are folded in an anticline, which, as the axes of the folds are oblique to the trend of the range, is suc- ceeded to the north by a series of synclines and anticlines. Super- imposed on these folds are several faults which strike both parallel and transverse to the trend of the range. As is shown by the out- cTops of the gypsum, the general effect of the transverse faults has been to offset the strata progressively to the northwest.
The gypsum occurs as a lar bed or lens intercalated in the Triassic limeone. It ranges in thickness from 100 to 200 feet, and its pure white outcrops are a sta'iking feature that may be seen for many miles. The southern outcrop of the gypsum lies a short distance north of Muttleberry Canyon and a little east of the crest of the range. About 100 feet of gypsum is exposed in a massive gray limestone that dips 20° E. The bed of gypsum strikes parallel to the crest of the range and may be followed for about half a mile. A large fault parallel to the crest of the range marks the western boundary of the gypsum, and transverse faults terminate it at both the north and south.
' LoQderteck, G. Basin-range structure of the Humbolclt regioji : Oeol. Soc. America 11., vol. 15, pp. 296-27, 1804.
148 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The other gypsum outcrops are all on the western face of the range. Owing to fJie structure they are prtressively offset to tk northwest and 2 miles north of Muttleberry Canyon are at the base of the range. The old quarry is a,t this point and as shown by Loi derback is on the crest of an anticline that gives the deposit a appearance of being unusually thick. The axis of the anticline strikes a few degrees east of north and pitches both, north and south from this point. The gypsum is carried below the surface about a quarter of a mile north of the quarry by the pitch of the
FiocBB ]O.Map showing geology ot T. 27 N., B, 32 E., and location of old gypsm quarriesr near Lovelock, Nev. By L. J. Pepperberg. Furnished by coorlesy of- Sootb- ecu Pacific Co,
axis of the anticline or is terminated by a transverse fault. Trans- verse faults have progressively offset the gypsum so that the out- crops to the south appear to rise toward the crest of the range. (See fig. 10.)
About two-thirds of a mile north of the quarry the gypsum again appears at the surface in a flat syncline that also pitches to the north. At the new quarry at the southern end of the syncline gypsum outcrops on the side of a steep hill and runs northward in two arms that finally disappear beneath the alluvial deposits ot the valley at distances of half a mile and a mile, respectively.
The new quarry is a large open cut in the side of a steep but- tress near the base of the range, about 6 miles east of Lovelock.
U, S, Geo], Survey Boll. 223, p. lis,
Nevada. 149
The exposed face shows the gypsum to be intricately folded and plicated. This is well brought out by the many alternating thin white and bluish bands of the gypsum. Many of the bluish bands are thin beds of limestone intercalated in the gypsunu The lime- stone is usually broken into small angular blocks 2 to 3 inches in diameter separated by thin seams of pure-white granular ealcite and gypsum 1 inch in greatest width. A short tunnel run into the face at the floor of the quarry intersects a limestone breccia, the contact with the gypsum above dipping 30° toward the hill. Another tunnel 200 feet to the east starts at the contact of the gyp- sum and breccia, and the end of the tunnel, 50 feet from the portal, is entirely in the breccia. A 10-foot raise at the end of the tunnel broke into a small cave lined with stalactites and rosettes of pure- white crystalline gypsum.
The gypsum was shipped for a time to the mill of the Western Gypsum. Co. Eeno, but as the face of the quarry progressed into the hill the proportion of calcium carbonate became excessive, and the quarry has been idle for a number of years. The following sec- tion is exposed at the new quarry :
Section in gypsum quarry near Lovelock, Nev,
Limestone, hard, black, fine grained, and brecciated, with numerous transverse stringers of white ealcite 100
Gypsum and limestone, white, thin-bedded in alternating lay- ers, the limestone commonly fractured and receraented by ealcite and gypsum, most of the gypsum eonfined to the upper 200 feet : 300
Limestone, gray to blaelt, fine grained 200
Shales and sandstones, green and yellow, indurated, contain- ing much pyrite in perfect small cubes ; base covered 200
The gypsum contains many thin bands of bluish- white limestone which become more numerous toward the top and bottom until they form the greater part of the deposit. The gypsum has weathered to a white earthy deposit that has washed over the face of the hill and masks the limestone strata so that the outcrop appears to be a single thick bed of gypsiun. As is shown at the quarry, the gypsum taken into solution apparently replaces the ealcite to some extent and assists in concealing the true nature of the deposit. Whether this is true of all the gypsum in the vicinity can not be stated definitely, as there has been little development outside the two quarries, and it is possible that in the series there are thick beds of gypsum without an excess of limestone. As the gypsum taken into solution by the surface waters is largely deposited and concentrated as a network of veins and par- tial replacement of the limestone at the surface, the surface layers ay be utilized in time.
150 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
TABLE KOUNTAUr.
The di)osit of gypsum at Table Mountain is located about miles a little south of east, of Lovelock, the nearest shipping pointy and in the first mountain range east of the Lake Range. It is de- scribed by Loiiderback as a bed 100 to 200 feet thick about two-thirds of the way up the western slope of the mountain. The bed dips E. into ttie mountain, and its striking white outcrop extends for 2 miles along the face. It is underlain by a yellow to gray limestone and capped by a dark-colored breociated limestone similar to that overlying the gypsum in the Lake Range. It is similar to the gypsuin previously described and is of the same age, but it has never been developed because of it-s distance from the railroad and the high divide over which it must be hauled.
Gerlaoh.
At the Western base of Luxor Peak, toward the northern end of the Truckee Range and about 10 miles south of Gerlach, in an area of a few square miles, limestones, schists, and gypsum of Triassic age are exposed in contact with granodiorite to the east. The beds are nearly vertical and strike to the northeast somewhat obliquely to the trend of the range. The gypsum occurs in several large lenses, and as it is somewhat more resistant to weathering than the surrounding rocks, it forms low terraces 20 to 40 feet in height. On one of these terraces hot springs have built low cones of selenite as described by Hague. The gypsum lies between a white limestone and a dark calcareous schist. For the most part it is pure gypsum, containing beds of lime- stone and sandy layers. It is soft, massive, white, and crystalline. Drilling has shown that it passes into white coarsely crystalline anhydrite with depth, but more than a million tons of gypsum are available.
Mound House.
South of Virginia City several irregular bodies of Triassic sedi- mentary rocks occur in the Virginia Range. Near Mound House one of these bodies, which is composed of limestones, gypsum, shales, and meta-andesites, forms an extended belt along the eastern slope near the crest of the range and extends southerly across Carson River into the ranges to the south. Fossils have not been found in this particular belt, but fragments of Daonella a Triassic pelecypod characteristic of the lower part of the Star Peak formation, have been found in a similar belt south of Dayton, a few miles to the
Louderback, G. D., Basin range structure of the Humboldt region : GeoL Soc. America Bull., vol. 15, p. 334, 1904.
Hague, Arnold, Descrlptiye geology : U. S. Geol. . 40th Par. Final Kept., yol. 2, pp. 808-809, 1877.
Nevada. 151
ea At Mound House the sedimentary rocks have been intruded and somewhat mamorphosed by granodiorite, very imilar to and probably of the same age as the late Mesozoic batholith of the Sierra Nevada, a few miles to the west.
About a mile west of Mound House there is a thick lens of gyp- sumhat is interbedded with limestone. Quarries of the Pacific Port- land Cement Co. are located here, the gypsum being transported by aerial tram to the mill on the Virginia & Truckee Railway a short di;ance north of the station. There are several large open pits or <}uarri6s in the deposit, the laiest being about 100 feet deep. About half a mile north is the Kagan quarry, located in a smaller deposit whidi has been developed but little. Several gypsite deposits formed from the rock gypsum lie to the east and 'furnish raw material for the Kagan mill, located a quarter of a mile east of the town on a branch of the Soutiiem Pacific Railroad.
As described By Louderback the main deposit is a thick bed or lens approximately 350 feet wide at the south end and thinning to only a few feet 700 feet north of the end. At the south the gypsum is abruptly cut off by granodiorite. On the east a nearly vertical fault brings the gypsum in contact with meta-andesite and on the west the gypsum lies on a yellowish soft granular limestone into which there is more or less gradation. About half a mile to the north, at the Ragan quarry, a thin bed of gypsum outcrops directly below a dark-bluish brecciated limestone cemented with white veins of cal- cite that has been replaced to some extent by gypsum. The gypsum and limeione dip at a high angle to the east at both quarries, and the sequence is the san as that near Lovelock.
In the southern quarries the gypsum is banded to some extent and the intricate plications and folds suggest the bedding of the deposits near Lovelock. The gypsum is massive, pure white, with bands somewhat darker and grayish, rather coarse grained and crystalline, the fractured surfaces showing many glistening cleavage faces. Small vertical slips with polished slickensided faces, parallel to the major fault on the ast, are quite numerous in the upper parts of the deposit. These have been the channels of surface waters which have widened the fractures by solution and deposited more or less secondary selenite.
Many of the darker streaks and blotches owe their color to finely disseminated pyrite. In the lower levels of the main quarry there are a few darker masses that have the appearance of included boulders. The largt of these masses is 3 feet in diameter. They are somewhat harder than the surrounding gypsum, and thin sections show that they are composed of a fine-grained groundmass of
1 Louderback, G. D., U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. 115-116, 1904.
152 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
gypsum, containing crystals of a brown mica, probably phlogopite, tourmaline, rounded and corroded grains of pyrite, calcite, and anhydrite. As phlogopite and tourmaline are usually formed at high temperatures and in close relation to granitic intrusions, it is probable that these darker, harder masses were produced by sporadic replacement of the gypsum consequent upon the intrusion of the granodiorite.
Thin sections of the gypsum show that it is composed of gypsum crystals 1 to 5 millimeters in length with perfect outlines embedded in a groundmass of smaller grains of gypsum with irregular inter- locking outlines caused by the mutual interference of the indi- viduals as they finished their growth. In both the larger crystals and the groundmass there are numerous minute elongated bubbles that are usually filled with a white claylike material that is so fine grained that it appears to be opaque. In places this impurity occurs in blotches in the groundmass. The bubbles are arranged parallel to the loBr axes of the gypsimi crystals, and as the best-developed cleavage is in the same direction many of the crystals resemble a grid. In addition to the gypsum there are fairly abundant rounded and corroded grains of calcite, suggesting a replacement of calcite by gypsum.
In gypsum from the lower levels of the main quarry there are frag- ments of anhydrite, the largest of them 2 or 3 millimeters in diameter. . The development of gypsum along the cleavage cracks and about the rounded borders of the anhydrite indicates that much of the gypsum has originated from the hydration of the anhydrite. Drilling opera- tions conducted some years ago are said to have determined that the gypsum graded into massive crystalline anhydrite within 200 feet from the bottom of the quarry.
Oyfsite Neab Kottkd Hovss.
A broad alluvial apron slopes gently to the east from the ridge containing the massive gypsum. On this slope are six or more low concentric terraces spaced from a few hundred feet to a third of a mile apart. At the outer borders of the terraces and forming the greater part of their steep front are deposits of gypsite 5 to 15 feet in depth and several hundred feet in length. The main impurity in the gypsite consists of small pebbles that are easily removed by screening, leaving rather pure material that is used at the Kagan mill and was for a time shipped to the mill at Reno.
The concentric arrangement of these deposits about the gypsum in the ridge back of them shows that they have been formed through the erosion and weathering of the gypsum. It is difficult to de- termine whether the gypsite has been carried in solution and de-
Nevada. 153
posited through evaporation or has simply been washed down. It is probable that both processes have been effective. There is but little gypsite apparent in the intervals between the belts.
Ludwig.
The deposit of gypsum at Ludwig is located at the base of the western slope of the Smith Valley Eange, The range at this point is composed largely of limestone, slate, quartzite, and meta-andesite of Triassic age flanking on both sides the core of granodiorite which has intruded the sedimentary rocks. Tertiary rhyolites, ttiff, and andesite occur in patches, and to the north and south these later volcanic rocks form much of the range. Although the Mesozoic rocks are folded, the present attitude of the range is due to a numb of large faults both parallel and transverse to the range.
The sedimentary rocks strike a few degrees east of north at a slight angle with the course of the mountain range and dip about 55° E. The section exposed in the immediate, vicinity of the OTsum deposit of the Nevada Douglas Copper Co. is as follows:
Geologic section at Ludwig, Nev,
Feet
Quartzltes, thin-bedded and shaly, light gray to black, In places grading into black shales, with considerable fine- ' grained disseminated pyrite 1, 500
Limestone, massive, cream-colored, friable, and soft 250
Limestone, brecciated, bluish to black, with angular frag- ments of quartzite and dark-colored limestone, the larg- est a foot In diameter, cemented by narrow veins of white, friable calcite 150
Gypsum, pure white, massive and coarsely crystalline; base covered by alluvium 100-200
Although no fossils were found in the section measured, yet the finding of an imperfect ammonite and a Daonella in a shaly lime- stone near the Mason Valley mine, on the opposite side of the range, makes it quite probable that these beds are contemporaneous with the beds at Lovelock, as is suggested by the lithologic similarity.
The gypsum outcrops in an elongate area lying parallel to and 150 feet west of the gossan that marks the outcrop of the ore body of the Ludwig copper mine. The main gypsum outcrop extends several hundred feet beyond the northern end of the ore body and there turns somewhat to the east. A second outcrop of the gypsum in the alluvium a couple of hundred feet to the south of the main outcrop indicates a total length of the gypsum body of 4,000 feet and a maximum width of 200 feet.
Near the center of the deposit and 100 yards northwest of the incline of the Ludwig mine is a quarry about 100 by 200 feet in
154 Gypsum Deposits Of The Ukited States.
area, with a maximum deptli of 40 feet. This is the terminus cf the Nevada Copper Belt Railroad, which comiects with the Southern Pacific Railroad at Wabuska, 50 miles distant by raiL Until tfe purchase and closing down of the mill at Reno by the Pacific Port land Cement Co. the gypsum was shipped there for treatment.
The gypsum is a very pure, snow-white, coarsely crystalline rock gypsum, with many glistening cleavage faces showing on the frac- tured surfaces. There is no banding or other evidence of bedding. Where a few feet of alluvium covers the gypsum, the upper surface is undulatory and solution channels in the gypsum are filled witk alluvium.
On the 400-foot level of the Ludwig mine a 200-foot crosscut has been driven west into the gypsum. The first 150 feet is in tlw brecciated limestone that forms the footwall of the ore bodv, tk next 10 or 15 feet is in gypsum, and the remainder of the crosscut is in coarsely crystalline pure- white anhydrite. The boundary be- tween gypwsum and anhydrite is irregular and undulatory and dip about 20° E. At the contact the gypsum grades rather sharply into the anhydrite and has evidently been formed by the hydration of the anhydrite. The contact between the gypsum and the brecciated limestone is marked by a heavy gouge and fault breccia with slickea sided walls.- The breccia dips 55° E., parallel to the general beddin? of the overlying strata. The gouge probably marks a fault alonj the bedding plane which has not materially altered the relative poi tion of the gypsum and the limestone.
Thin sections show the anhydrite to be in large rectangular cry? tals with well-developed cleavage and with somewhat irregular out lines due to their mutual interference. Numerous minute inclusion of a translucent claylike material that is greenish by transmitted light are arranged parallel to the cleavage cracks and partly 61 them. They occur also in irregular patches, giving the gypsum* cloudy appearance. The alteration to gypsum begins on the faces of the crystals and along the cleavage cracks. Under a high-power microscope exceedingly minute needles of gypsum may be seen pene- trating the crystals of anliydrite.
Many of the gypsum crystals are 5 millimeters in diameter but do not show perfect outlines, as they are intimately intergrown along their borders. At Ludwig, as at Mound House, the gypsum con- tains many bubbles. The lack of any evidence of strain suggests that there has been little if any increase in volmne during the chan? from anhydrite to gypsum.
Another deposit similar to the one at Ludwig is known just wesi of Buckskin, 4 miles west of Ludwig. Aside from sinking a fe pits little has been done toward its development.
iSTEVADA. 155
Abcwit 5 miles southeast of Yerington a large lens of gypsum xx;urs in a white limestone that has beto intruded by granodiorite. [n appearance and mode of occurrence it is similar to the deposit at Ludwig and probably grades into anhydrite with depth.
Hawtsokjte.
Three miles west of Hawthorne a large body of interbedded p- jum and white limestoe somewhat similar to the deposits at Love- Jock outcrops on two steep rounded hills. It has been intruded by yranodiorite and probably changes to anhydrite with depth.
Southebn Nevada.
By J. C. Jones and R. W. Stonb.
Asdeh.
The deposit near Arden is in the foothills of the Spring Moun- tain Range about 15 miles southwest of Las Vegas and about 5 miles west of the mill at Arden, a station on the Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad. Gypsum is transported to the mill over a narrow- gage railroad. The entire property wus developed, owned, and oper- ated by the Arden Plaster Co. until 1919, when it was purchased and its operation continued by the United States Gypsum Co., of Chi- cago, 111.
An oval-shaped hill, approximately 500 feet high and tiiree-quarters of a mile in length, the longer axis trending northwest, is underlain by gypsum. The following section is exposed at the southern end of the hill:
Geologic- section exposed at Arden , Nev,
Feet.
Limestone, massive, dull gray, cherty, the chert in thin bands and lenses forming one- third of the mass ; both chert and limestone with abundant poorly preserved fossils, the greater number being fragmwits of Prodtictus and Athyris, bryozoans, and corals 125±
Shales, red and green, gypsiferous, with thin beds of gray limestone in places and including a bed of gypsum ranging from 25 to 80 feet in thicltness 85±
Limestone, gray massive with rare chert nodules ; thickness unknown.
The strata dip gently to the east, and there probably is a fault along the eastern side of the hill. A transverse fault about a quarter of a Rule northwest of the quarry apparently has cut off the gypsum.
The gypsum ranges from 20 to nearly 90 feet thick, the upper sur- face being very irregular, as shown in figure 11.
Gypsum Deposits Of The Uwited States.
PiauBi 11. — DIagiai
The impression given is that an original deposit about 90 feet tluck was subjected to rapid and deep erosion, or solntion, which cnt channels across and in places nearly through it. This very irregular surface was engulfed in a, mud flow which carried blocks of gypsum and partly consolidated mud beds. This mud filled the channels and worked down into narrow cracks in the gypsum. As the mud dried and hardened, water descending from it opened small solution cari-
ties in the upper sot- ' face of the gypsum. The hardened mud or shale was strong enough to bridge the few inches of open space thus formed. The relation of tin shale and g y p s a m near the east entrr of the mine is shown in figure 12. In the face of the east quarry 3 feet of shale is interbedded in the gyp- sum. It contains numerous stringers of selenite of secondary origin. After quarrying on the east and south side of the hill until the removal of overburden became excessi\e, the company drove severs) entries and opened large chambers in the gypsum. Thousands of tons of gypsum were removed from au upper level, and work was begun and continued on a lower level as well. The whole body of gj'psum is being removed except necessary pillars; but as the hard shale that fills the old channels penetrates nearly to the bottom of the gypsum and the bed con- tains here and there large masses of anhydrite, these impurities are left as pillars, thereby re- ducing the waste of gypsum. The 12,— DlaBtan. sbolDg relation of
.,, ° „„ r. r .- shale and gjpaam Id mine at Arden, Net,
pillars are 25 to 50 feet in diam- eter. The change from the masses of pure gypsum to the gypsiferous shale that fills the channels is abrupt, the boundary being nearlv vertical and somewhat undulatory.
The gypsum is massive, pure, with a reddish tinge near the surface that changes to bluish undei'ground, translucent, medium grained, and crystalline. Masses of anhydrite, the largest of which weigh 109 tons, are found in the midst of the gypsum. The anhydrite is simitar in appearance to the gj'psum and can be recognized by its greater hardness and tendency to break in rectangular blocks, i
Nevada.
Thin sections of the anhydrite show a network of slender crystals of anhydrite, the largest of which are 5 millimeters in length, and have a decided tendency to radiate from common centers. The inter- stices are filled with a mosaic of smaller rounded grains of anhydrite. The anhydrite is transparent and has well-developed rectangular cleavage, that parallel to the longer axes of the crystals being best. A few patches composed of very minute opaque dustlike particles of kaolin and iron oxide are arranged parallel to the longer axes of some of the larger crystals. In a few isolated areas gypsum has developed as single large crystals containing many elongate bubbles and inclusions arranged parallel to the principal cleavage. Minute fragments of anhydrite included in the gypsum crystals suggest that the gypsum has developed at the ex- pense of the anhydrite. If this is so, the absence of veinlets of gypsum shows that the replacement is proceed- ing from isolated centers rather than along fractures.
Thin sections of the gypsum have little resemblance to the texture of the anhydrite from which it may have originated. Clear crystals of gypsum with very irregular outlines, intimately, intergrown, are the chief constituent. The crystals contain numerous elongate bubbles, largely filled with a whitish pulverulent clay, which are usually ar- ranged parallel to the principal cleavage cracks. A few minute rounded fragments of anhydrite are scattered through the gypsum. A hand specimen from this mine shows on the weathered face a sharp line between anhydrite on one side and gypsum on the other. Close examination reveals small stringers of gypsum penetrating the anhydrite. A thin section cut from this specimen along the contact between the two minerals discloses only a few minute grains of anhydrite in the massive gypsum, but anastomosing veinlets of gypsum are abundant within the anhydrite on the other side of the contact. The width of the veinlets tends to become narrower as the distance from the contact increases. This evidence of the microscope and the shape and relation of the anhydrite masses to the gypsum bed are strongly conclusive that a large part of the gypsum at least is derived from the anhydrite. Fracturing of the anhydrite along the contact, as shown under the microscope, is evidently due to in- crease in volume by hydration.
PiQUBjg 13. — Gypsum and anhydrite from Arden, Nev., as seen under petrographic microscope. £', Gyp- sum ; anhydrite.
158 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
About a mile west of the quarry hill is a long ridge which shows a similar geologic section. The beds dip about 30° SW. A quarry was opened by the Arden Plaster Co. in this ridge, but work in it has been discontinued. The gypsum thins down the dip and does not appear on the other side of the ridge. It is evidently the edge of a lens of gypsum, of which that in the detached hill is a part.
Gypsum occurs at several other points in the Spring Mountain Range near the Arden deposit, although none of the other deposits have been developed. Gilbert gives the following section, measured at Cottonwood Springs, 6 miles west of the Arden quarry :
Section of Carboniferous strata in the Spring Mountain Range, Nev.
Feet.
Massive red and yeUow sandstone - j. 1,000
Bedded fine-grained to saccharoidal limestone, gray and cream-colored; beds separated by shaly layers so as to
weather in steps ' 50O
Massive gypsum, white and red, in lenticular masses 0-70
Gray, massive cherty limestone:
Limestone 250
Unseen (red shale?) 25
Limestone 200
Friable sandstone, in places shaly or marly, variegated with brilliant iron colors 350
2,895
Both limestones contain Pennsylvanian fossils similar to those found above the gypsum at Arden. If the cherty limestone at Arden is the same as that in the above section the gypsum lies in the 5ale of the fourth member of the section and is somewhat older than the gypsum at Cottonwood Springs.
Galt.
Several large deposits of gypsum occur in the Las Vegas, Muddy, and Meadow Valley ranges north and east of Las Vegas. The north- ernmost of these is the Gait deposit, which is in the Meadow Valley Kange 27 miles north of Moapa, and about miles from the main line of the Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad. The gypsum lies on the east slope of the range in an erosion basin which drains through a ravine to Mormon Canyon and finally to Colorado River. The range is here composed of folded and faulted limestones, shales, and sandstones of Carboniferous age. The section at the gypsum de-
Gilbert, G. K., Report on the geology of portions of Nevada, Utah, California, and Arizona examined in the years 1871 and 1872 : U. S. Oeog. and Geol. Surveys W. lOOth Mer. Final Kept., vol. 3, p. 166, 1875.
Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of California : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, pp. 148-151, 1903.
Boyle, B. D., private report, 1913.
Nevada. 159
posit includes a thick series of calcareous sandstcmes on which lies unconformably a thick series of alternating thin-bedded liniestone and gypsum. Above the gypsum ses is massive, red, siliceous lime- stone. The gypsum deposit is about 3,600 feet long and 1,000 feet wide. The strata dip about 60° NW. and are more or less distorted. To the south the series grades into gypsiferous shale with thin beds of gypsum. The gypsum beds range in thickness from a few inches to 20 feet, and it is estimated that about 15 per cent of the deposit can be utilized.
Xoafa.
Another large deposit is located in the Muddy Range directly south of Moapa and about 5 miles from the nearest shipping point, which is 7 miles from Moapa on the St. Thomas branch of the Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad. It is owned by the Rex Plaster Co., which formerly shipped the gypsum to its factory at Los Angeles. The property includes an area 2 miles long and half a mile wide, running north and south through the middle of T. 16 S., R. 66 E. Mount Diablo meridian. According to Mr. E. Dur- yee, superintendent of the Rex Plaster Co., a well-defined and mas- sive body of pure white gypsum 100 to 300 feet thick runs through the property. It lies between gray limestone on the west and red sandstone on the east. The beds dip about 40° E. at the southern end and gradually steepen to 70° E. at the northern end. The mass of gypsum is exposed by numerous narrow vertical-walled gullies that cross the deposit at right angles. It is estimated that 5,000,000 tons of gypsum are available above the bottoms of the gullies; The only overburden is a few feet of weathered gypsum at the surface.
Las Vegas.
Dr. R. W. Martin, of Las Vegas, reports that 7 miles northeast of the town there is a solid ledge of rock gypsum, which is 100 to 125 feet thick and outcrops for nearly a mile. He says that the bed dips at a high angle at the outcrop but flattens under cover, for an adit driven under it 150 feet did not reach the gypsum. A raise at the end of the adit showed the presence of the bed. The gypsum is said to be like that at Arden, and a specimen on exhibition at the Chamber of Commerce of Las Vegas certainly is similar.
Dr. Martin also reports that just east of the above-described property, 9 miles northeast of Las Vegas, there is an area of sev- eral hundred acres underlain by gypsite, which has a maximum thickness of 15 feet, and that 15 miles east of Las Vegas there is a cave containing stalagmites and stalactites of gypsum and large plates of selenite. One of these plates of selenite, exhibited at the
160 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Chamber of Commerce at Las Vegas, measures about 10 by 24 inches.
Some of the streets in Las Vegas and a long stretch of the main roftd south from town have been surfaced with gypsum scraped from knolls in the desert. The result is very satisfactory.
YUtaiN BIVER.
In September, 1915, H. S. Gale, of the United States Geological Survey, visited the valley of Virgin River below St. Thomas. He found that the valley is narrow and bounded abruptly by cliffs and steep slopes. In these valley walls there is a great thickness of gypsum and gypsiferous shales associated with thick beds of rock salt. These mineral deposits are exposed at several places along both sides of the Virgin Eiver valley between St. Thomas and the mouth of the Virgin at Colorado Eiver. They are in- cluded in a series of characteristically red shales and sandstones usually referred to as "Red Beds," of Triassic or Permian age. The beds including the gypsum and salt have clearly been very much faulted and folded, so that the present outcrops represent discon- nected parts of them. The gypsum is particularly well exposed in the walls of a canyon about 4 miles south of St Thomas on the west side of Virgin River.
New Mexico.
By N. H. Dabton. DISTBIBUTION.
A very large area in New Mexico is underlain by gypsum, and this mineral outcrops extensively in several districts. The beds are thick, and most of the material is exceptionally pure. Many deposits are interbedded with red and gray sandstones and limestones of later Carboniferous age, which extends through the south-central portion of the State, and a thick bed overlies a sandstone of Jurassic age in the northern part of the State. A large deposit of gypsum, constituting the white sands of the Tularosa Desert, is of Quaternary
age.
The principal exposures of gypsum in workable deposits are in Bernalillo, Chaves, Dona Ana, Eddy, Guadalupe, McKinley, Otero, Quay, Kio Arriba, Eoosevelt, Sandoval, San Juan, San Miguel, Santa Fe, Sierra, Socorro, Torrance, and Valencia counties.
Only a small amount of gypsum has been mined in New Mexico mainly because of long distance to market, and because the local demand for plaster is small. Doubtless in future years, as settle- ment progresses, the deposits will be more extensively utilized.
On the map (PI. XIX) are shown the principal areas in which gypsum or formations that contain gypsum are exposed. This map sets forth many facts not shown in the previous publications,* but when further detailed studies of the geology of the State are made the boundaries will be modified in places, and probably some addi- tional areas will be discovered.
GENERAIi GEOLOGIC BELATIONS.
The accompanying columnar section (fig. 14) shows the principal stratigraphic relations of the more important gypsum deposits in New Mexico.
Manzano group. — The gypsum deposits in the Manzano group are associated with the Yeso formation and the San Andreas lime- stone of Lee. The Yeso formation consists of red shales with gypsum beds and the overlying San Andreas limestone when studied
in detail proves to be an alternation of limestones, gray sandstones,
Herrick, H. N., Gypsum deposits In New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. 89-99, 1904.
*Liee, W. T., The Manzano group of the Eio Grande valley: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 389, p. 12, 1909.
124567°-20 11 161
162 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
and gypsum beds, the latter ranging from a thin sheet to 100 ft or more thick. These two formations begin in north-<!Bntral Xeit Mexico and thicken in a short distance southward, finally attainmj a thickness of 1,000 feet or more in the San Andres, Sacramento, and Caballos mountains. As shown in figure 14, the lowest formation o(
FmtRB 14 .Generalized columnar aecllon showing atratlgrapMc ralattons ol jypaoii deposits In New Mexico.
the Manzano group is the Abo sandstone, which consists of dark-reJ sandstone and shale. In the southern part of Otero County there a bed of gypsum apparently in the lower part of this formation.
Gypsum above Wingate sajidstone. — The massive sandstone extends across western New Mexico in the Zuni uplift, where it was named Wingate sandstone, appears also in the Bocky Mountaini Naeimiento Mountain, and Sandia Mountain uplifts, and is every- where overlain by a distinctive thin-bedded limestone and loJ'
U. S. Geological Subyey
Explanation
:r.taf-.Y<r;. A''> I f'-
Gyp&um &and
>gv
I .J
.Gypsum above Win£aoe sandstone
Gyp&unn with limestone and sandstone in Manzanoroup
Plaster mill
Csi
C Ken Ley
Jblada
Map Of K
imw MEXICO. 168
by a thick bed of gypsum, which attains a thickness of 100 feet near Cuba, on the west side of the Nacimiento uplift, 65 feet on Chama Eiver near Gallina, 80 feet at El Rito near Laguna, and 60 feet on Galisteo Creek west of Los Cerrillos. As shown in figure 14, it is overlain by shales and sandstones of supposed Morrison age. To judge from relations in northwestern New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah it is of Jurassic age. The southernmost exposure of this succesision is in the Sandia uplift not far northeast of Tijeras, east of Albuquerque, and it finally thins out and disappears in the central part of the State.
Gypsum of Quaternary age. — Calcium sulphate (or gypsum) is carried in solution by surface waters in many places, especially in drainage from areas of shales or from " Red Beds " which contain gypsum deposited at the time of the accumulation of the red sedi- ments. When these surface waters evaporate they leave crusts of gypsum and other minerals, which are observable in many places in the arid and semiarid regions. When the waters drain into basins the deposit may accumulate to a considerable thickness. Such de- posits occur in most of the desert basins in New Mexico. Water rising from below and seeping out at the surface also brings up cal- cium sulphate and other salts, which gradually accumulate and in places build up mounds. These mounds are conspicuous in those parts of the Tularosa Desert where the ground-water level is near the sur- face. The readily soluble salts wash out of these deposits, and so the gypsum of the mounds is nearly pure or mixed with blown sand. By these two agencies — evaporation in basins and in mounds — there has been a great accumulation of gypsum in the Tularosa Desert west of Alamogordo. The wind has blown much of this gypsum into sand and built up the extensive areas of the white sands described elsewhere (p. 184).
Localities. Gypsum In Manzano Group.
Gypsum deposits appear in the Manzano group a few miles south- east of Lamy in Santa Fe County and they thicken and increase in number southward and southeastward. The principal areas of out- crop are shown approximately on the map (PL XIX), but detailed descriptions can be given only for some representative exposures. Part of the region has not been examined in detail, and no data are available for the area between the Datil and Zuni mountains. There is a vast amount of the mineral so exposed conveniently for working, and most of it is of very high grade. It is worked at Ancho, Lin- coln County ; Acme, Chaves County ; and Oriental, Eddy County.
164 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Mem Lucero. — The slopes of the high lava-capped plateau south- west of Belen consist of thick beds of limestone, sandstone, ' and red shale, -with several intercalated deposits of gypsum, as shown in figure 15. The beds dip west at a low angle.
The aggregate thickness of gypsum in this exposure is about 160 feet, and two of the beds exceed 80 feet in thickness.
A few miles farther south, at a point T— 5 miles east of Puertocito and 30 miles
fc,„ northeast of Socorro, the two principal
gypsum beds are 65 and 60 feet thick
and are separated by 90 feet of lime-
ojim stone. Under the hard massive sand-
stone member, in this locality 80 to
Ss3 100 feet thick, are 200 feet of red shales
with beds of limestone and gypsum.
Next below there is about 1,500 feet of Wp" red sandstone (Abo sandstone), ex-
ISdS tending to the top of the limestone of.
the Magdalena group. Chupadera Mesa. — The Chupadera
Mesa (fig. 17) occupies a wide area in the eastern part of Socorro County
and extends north into the southwest- 25 miieB eoathweat o! Helen, its northern margin is known as Mesa Jumanes. The highland is capped by
limestone of the upper part of the Manzano group in a broad sheet, dipping gently east, and at its southeast corner sloping down into the north end of the Tularosa desert west of Carrizozo. To the north, west, and southwest the mesa terminates in a line of high cliffs in which are exposed sandstones, gypsum, and red shale with interbedded limestones. The general structural relations are shown
FiGCBK 10. — Section acroES Chupadera Mesa, 35
in figure 16. The succession differs somewhat from place to place, but figure 18 shows a typical section of tlie strata overlying the Abo sandstone, which constitutes the slopes west and north of the foot of the mesa. It will be seen from this section that there are many thick beds of gypsum, aggregating more than 250 feet, not counting thin beds. Most of the gypsum is pure white and evidently of high grade.
r
New Mexico.
iapyon
i'
Oi'oargo
r.i
JlL.
106*
10 g
Ihhhhhz
40 Miles
FiGUEB 17. — Map of part of central New Mexico showing gypsum deposits. Tlie areas described in this report are indicated by the dotted sections.
166 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
In sections east of Abo Pass the gypsum is exposed in the sncces- sion shown in figure 19.
In this locality the principal bed, 90 feet thick, is near the top, but there are several thin beds lower down.
In the north face of Mesa JumaneB, a short distance south of Williard (fig. 17), there is a ; similar succession, but the gyp- sum beds are much thinner.
East of Soiiorro. — In the many ridges of limestone and sand- ' stone of the Manzano group east of Socorro there are numerous
FiacBE 19. — Section of gy p a iu n m FiovBB 18, — Section of strata In mat aaaoclated strata near Abo Biding
fae of Cbapadeia Mesa, 25 mllea eaat In the Dortbnest face of Clmpadara
ol Carthage, N, Mel. SBRa, N. Met
thick beds of gypsum similar in relations to those in Chupadera Mesa. These beds have an aggregate thickness of 200 feet in much of the area but are separated by sandstones and limestones. The thickness and stratigraphic relations varj' greatly from place to place. The ex- posures are extensive, but many faults traverse the region and inter- rupt the continuity of outcrops. In general the width of the out- crop is from 8 to 10 miles. It extends from the ridges rising a few miles north of Carthage to the west side of Chupadera Mesa, 40 miles
New Mexico. 167
northeast of Socorro. There are many billions of tons of gypsam and anhydrite in this area, and practically pure selenite is abundant. In Mesa del Yeso and vicinity, 12 miles northeast of Socorro, there is one principal bed of gypsum from 60 to 80 feet thick in a succession of soft red sandstones lying below gray sandstone and limestone. In the ridges east of Mesa del Yeso, 15 miles northeast of Socorro, are many deposits of gypsum with a large aggregate thickness. The succession and thickness of beds are variable. In the large butte 2 miles southeast of Mesa del
Yeso the principal bed of
gypsum is 60 feet thick.
It lies between soft red ,
of the high mesa 8 miles . f
east of Mesa del Yeso ' " 1
there is, below the thick LiBt™oM-teJjMt
cap of limestone and gray SMdti™ .(u ima red
sandstone, 250 feet of "Jp--™'--- "-
of gj-psum in thick beds —
but interbedded with red' Jwn
, , .1 1 ' BMidBoaIsaiowblto"-
snale and many thin lay-, iamjm.miw
bok Pyramid, a conical, KfiSSS Knvith u im
peak 4 miles east of Mesa "" ' """
del Yeso, there is a simi- reuin. -itK lu.
iar succession below the .-ti.nin'Soti
limestone and gray sand- '
stone cap but apparently „„„„„, ,
with thicker bodies of soft Bu.tt™
gypsum deposits. Most of Fiom* ao. — ColnmnBr eectioD ot gjpaam aud aaso-
ihf haA= nt irvr,Bnn, Kn™. elated beds In Arroyo de las Caflas east of the
me tWdS of gypsum here j n,UM eaBt-BontHeaBt of Socorro, N. Mei.
are 10 to 25 feet thick.
In the long ridge 2 miles northeast of Mesa del Yeso the amount of gypsum in the upper part of the Manzano group increases greatly. There is at least 300 feet of thick gj-psum beds separated by thin bodies of limestone and soft red sandstone.
In the Coyote Buttes, 10 miles northeast of Socorro, the gypsum beds are much thinner than in the adjoining regions, and they are broken by several faults.
In tile Lomo de las Canas, east-southeast of Socorro, the gypsum aggregate 200 feet thick. Their succeion as exposed in an arroyo in this ridge is shown in figure 20.
168 Gtpsum Deposits Of The United States.
In the ridges 2 miles north of Prairie Spring, 12 miles northeast of Carthage, there is a similar succession in which the gypsum beds aggregate about 280 feet. The section is as follows :
SecUon of eypgum and associated hcd 12 miies northeagt of Carthage, N. ilex.
Feet
Limestone 15
Gypaum with thin limestone layers 85
Limestone . 14
Gypsum 30
Limestone, liarU, dark 15
Gypsum with limestone and shale layers 110
Limestone, hard, dark -. 12
Gypsum 40
Limestone '- 15
Gypsum 20
Limestone, dark, hard 45
Gypsum 40
Limestone at base of exposure. Phillips Hills. — The upper members of the Manzano group rise
on the east side of Tularosa desert in Phillips Hills, These hills form a ridge 7 miles long, lying
otp-""— between the railroad and the Mal-
pais, southwest of Oscuro. The
beds dip at a small angle, gen- erally about 10° E., and pass be- neath red beds, which, however, are mostly concealed by the sand
uMcim- gravel of the holson. Sand and
gravel also cover the rocks at both
ends of the ridge, hiding the con-
nection with Chupadera Mesa on the north and the slopes of Sacra-
TJlorlu lUl. ,
mento Mountams on the south. The top and most of the east slope of
a„a*iemi Phillips Hills consist of thick
beds of limestone with which are onwB— intercalated thick deposits of gyp-
sum. {See fig. 21.)
lips Hills is well situated for de- -Bat'xp. velopment and only 3 or 4 miles
FiouBH 21.— Columnar soction showing from the railroad. The greater relation o( gypsam and asBociated paj-t is white and evidently of good
beds In PhUUps IllUa, 6 mllea soath- ' ,. J
weat of Oscnto, N. Mci. quality.
Hew Mexico. 169
Sacrajnento Mountains. — The great gypsum-Bearing series of the Manzano group, which passes under the Tularosa desert southwest of Carrizozo and outcrops in the Phillips Hills, appears prominently in the ridges a short distance east of Tularosa, It also extends along the upper slopes of the east face of the Sacramento Range and thence south to Texas.
FiouBi £2. — Columnar Bpcliou of and associated strata about 2 mllca Bontbeaat ol Salinas sidlag, 10 miles north of Tularosa, N. Mei. N. Uei.
In figure 22 is given a section in a bluff 10 miles north of Tularosa, in which the beds first rise above the bolson east of the railroad.
A similar succession appears in the slopes northeast and east of Tularosa, as sliown in figure 23.
In the slopes west of Cloudcroft, on the higher part of the range, talus and landslides conceal the gypsum and limestone cliffs
170 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
prepcwaderate. Farther soutli, however, the gypsum appears again, so that doubtless the deposits are continuous under the Cloudcroft region. The structural relations are shown in figure 24.
There are exposures of these beds in Grapevine Canyon and ad- joining slopes 25 miles southeast of Alamogordo, but in this locality the gypsum is much thinner than in the exposures east of Tularosa. In the cliflfs 15 miles northeast of Oro Grande the following section is exposed :
Section of beds of Manzano group 15 miles northeast of Oro Cfrande, N. Mew.
Feet Limestone 200
Sandstone, slabby ; mostly red, some traflf 80
Gypsum mostly pure 125
Shale, red 20
Sandstone, red, slabby; some shale (Abo sandstone) 200
Gypsnm (not well exposed) 100
Limestone (probably of Magdalena group).
Vekticalsc
FiouEE 24. — Approximate seetiea across Sacramento Monntaing east from AlamogorA), N. Mex. Or, Ordovician limestones ; Cm, Mississipplan limestone.
These cliffs are along the west face of a southern continuation of the Sacramento Mountains, .and the beds have the same low dip to the eastward as in that range. Just west of its foot, however, there is a low arch in which limestones, apparently of the Magdalew group, dip to the westward and present a long dip slope toward the bolson in that direction The lower gypsum bed appears to be in the base of the Abo sandstone.
The westward- facing cliff continues far south, but its height gnwi- ually decreases. At a point 20 miles southeast of Oro Grande tbe limestone in the Magdalena group is overlain by a thick body of gypsum not well exposed. It is overlain by 30 f of red flh' above which limestone 250 feet thick caps the ridge and extends east in a long dip slope. At the base of the limestone are some bnfi sandy layers.
Vaughn region. — Near Vaughn, in Guadalupe County, and in tl wide ridge constituting the divide east of that place there are minj thick beds of gypsum. In the old stone quarry half a mile noffth Vaughn station, on the El Paso & Southwestern Kailroad, there t
New Mbxioo. 171
an extensive exposure of a bed of gypsum about 20 feet thick witli 15 feet of limestone above and below it.
The deep boring at Tony, near Vauphn, is reported to have pene- trated 100 feet of gypsum, partly white and partly of red and yel- low tints, and the 341-foot well at Pastura passed through alternations of thick beds of limestone, sandstone, and gypsum, the gypsum aggregat- ing more than 100 feet. In the plains east of Vaughn tliere are many sink holes which connect with under- ground passageways for water in the gypsum, on the edges of which the mineral is exposed. Ledges are ex- posed in the railroad cut at Winkle and near Aragon and Pastura.
Gypsum undoubtedly underlies much of the plateau, which is capped by nearly horizontal limestone that extends southward from Vaughn be- yond Corona, and the mineral was reported in borings at Vamey and Duran. These beds appear at the surface at the foot of the south side of the plateau at Ancho.
Ancho. — At An<o, in Lincoln County, there is a plaster mill where gypsum is ground and burned in moderate amounts. In the vicinity of the plaster mill the strata are con- siderably disturbed by flexures and cut by faults and igneous rocks.
The gypsum is extensively exposed in the slopes near the r&ilroad, es- t>ecially in the cuts east of the plaster mill, half a mile north of the railway station. There are several deposits uiterbedded with layers of limestone and red sandy shale and clay. The most valuable bed is 35 feet thick, and others are 10 to 15 feet thick. The principal material used in making plaster here is gypsite or pulverulent material weathered or Washed oat of the main ledges. Some quaiTying also has been done. Son Andres Mountains.— Th& upper formations of tlie Manzano group, whidi extend for many miles along the west slope of die
F:orBK 2B, — Columnar wctlon show lug relation of Efpsam deposits li Kbodea CajiTOD, Stm Andies Mohd . 25 milts past-aouthpaet o BnglF, N. Uei.
172 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
San Andres Mountains, contain numerous thick beds of gypsm The stratigraphic relations are similar to those in Chupadera Mest and Sacramento Mountains — namely, an alternation of red sh sandstone, gypsum, und limestone, the limestone capping ridges considerable prominence. (See fig. 25.)
In general the beds form a monocline that dips gently to t! west, and most of the gypsum is on the steep east slopes of rid| capped by the harder limestone. The cross section (fig. 26) sho the structure which prevails. The geologic section in the cen of the mountains shows a typical succession of beds, but the order and thickness differ greatly from place to place. The outcrop
. VeimCAL SCALE . 1
leooiMt
FiQUBO 26. — Section across San Andres Mountains 18 miles northeast of Engle, N. Hei
ceases at the south end of the San Andres Mountains, northeast of Las Cruces, and near the north end of the range, at a point about 35 miles northeast of Engle.
; Cahallos Mountains, — The upper part of the Manzano group ex- tending along the east slope of the Caballos Mountains consists of an alternation of limestone and gypsum, whose aggregate thickness is about 800 feet. Of these rock strata about 325 feet is gypsum in beds 10 to 40 feet thick. The bodies of limestone intervening are 5 to 40 feet thick, and there are also some thin beds of sandstone and sandy shale. The succession differs from place to place, but the section shown in figure 27 is fairly representative. Figure 28 shows the structural relations.
It will be seen from the cross section that the beds dip gently to the east and are cut off on the east by a fault by which sandstones of Cretaceous age are dropped against the limestones which overlie the gypsum.
The outcrop of the gypsum beds extends for several miles along the slopes, parallel to the railroad and about 12 miles west of it. The nearest stations are Cutter and Aleman.
Sierra Fra Cristobal, — The south end of the Fra Cristobal Eange. northwest of Engle, Sierra County, has extensive outcrops of red beds, gypsum, and limestone of the Manzano group. No detailed examination was made of the. beds exposed, but there is an alterna- tion of about 700 feet of gypsum and limestone, with an aggregate of nearly 300 feet of gypsum in beds 10 to 40 feet thick. The strati- graphic and structural relations are clearly similar to those in the Caballos Mountains, of which this range is a detached continuation.
New Mexico.
Bmcon Colorado to Lamy. — Sev- eral beds of gypsum are exposed in the cliffs of red beds on the east side of the plateau east of Peder- nal Peak, in the northeastern part of Torrance County, These cliffs are on the slopes adjoining the headwaters of the middle branches of Pintada Canyon. A view of a portion of them is shown in Plate XX, A. The principal bed of gyp- sum is 20 feet thick, and not far above it is another bed 5 feet thick. No detailed examination was made of this region, and there- fore it is not known how far to the north and east these exposures ex- tend. As the beds of gypsum at this horizon outcropping along the west side of the plateau northeast of Pedemal Peak and near Cuervo Butte are thin, there are probably no extensive deposits in the plateau extending north from Pedernal Peak to Glorieta Mesa. A thin bed of considerable value for local use outcrops in Jaspe Canyon 15 miles southeast of Lamy.
Peco8 VaUey. — A large part of the Pecos Valley has been devel- oped in " Red Beds " which contain deposits of gypsum at many places from the vicinity of Fort Sumner to the Texas State line. Some of these deposits are near the river, but most of them are in adjoin-
FiGCBE iT. — Columnar Bectlon showing relations of gypsum and associated beds In CaballoB Mountains, 15 mils BODtbwest of Engle. N. Mei.
Eugle, M. Mez.,
174 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
ing slopes or in lateral valleys. Well records show also that there are thick beds intercalated among the limestones and other strata underlying the valley. Many features of the geology of the region have been described by C. A. Fisher/ and the following material is taken from his report:
The soaUed Permian series of this [the Roswen] district consists of an upper red bed member of gypsum, red sand, limestone, and clay 600 to 800 feet thick, forming the high bluffs along the east side of Pecos River and under- lying the recent deposits of Pecos Valley, and a lower member of massive limestone, clay, and gypsum of undetermined thickness, which constitutes high rugged slopes to the west. Overlying the red bed division east of Pecos River is a reddish-brown sandstone about 100 feet thick, which may be of Cretaceous age. No subdivisions have been made of the probably Permian rocks in this region in the present reconnaissance.
Red bed division, — These rocks consist of alternating beds of gypsum, red sand, and clay, with an occasional layer of dark-gray, compact limestone. The gypsum predominates and usually occurs in beds about 10 feet thick. It is often found, however, in thinner layers, interbedded with clay and lime- stone. The red beds are provisionally placed in the Permian, although do fossils have been found in them. ♦ ♦ ♦ The upper part Ox the beds is well exposed in the bluffs along the east side of Pecos River, where a number of sections have been measured. These sections are as follows :
Sections of gypsum bluffs along the east side of Pecos River, 2V. Mac,
East of Roswell: Peet. Alternating layers of gypsum and red sand, locally contain- ing layers of limestone 50
White gypsum 6
Red sand 6
White, thin-bedded gypsum 10
Red sandstone containing thin layers of limestone 24
White gypsum , 5
Red sand 13
Gypsum 10
Red sand 3
Gypsum 8
Red sand 8
Gypsum 4
Greenish-gray sandstone 25
Gypsum 6
At Dimmit Lake:
Gray sandy limestone 20
Alternating layers of gypsum and red and green clay,
locally containing beds of porous limestone 100
Gypsum 4
Red clay 2i
Gypsum 18
Alternating layers of gypsum and red clay 6
Gypsum 11
1 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 158, pp. &-8, 1906.
New Mexico. 175
At Dimmit Lake— Continued. Feet
Alternating layers of gypsum and red sandstone 6
Gypsum 9
Bed clay 1
Gypsum 10
Alternating layers of gypsum and red clay 15
Gypsum 5
Red clay
Gypeum 10
Red day 7
Alternating layers of gypsum and red clay 8
Gypsum 6
Red clay, with thin layers of gypsum 3
Gypsum -. 6
Eight miles northeast of Artesia :
Gray compact limestone 5
Gypsum and red sandy clay in alternate succession 65
Bed sandy clay 10
White massive gypsum 15
Red sandy clay 5
White gypsum I 10
Gray limestone 5'
Gypsimi ' 18
Red clay 12
Gypsum ; 5
About 2 miles southeast of the mouth of South Fork of Seven Rivers :
Massive gray limestone 35
Gypsum and red sandstone in alternate layers, locally
containing limestone ledges 50
Gypsum, thin-bedded porous limestone, and red sandstone
arranged alternately, the gypsum predominating 150
Gypsum, with thin layers of gray Umestcme 50
Lkneatone division, — The massive limestone beds underlying the so-called Permian red beds of this region consist mainly of gray compact limestone, with layers of soft sandstone, clay, and gypfcum. In the upper part the lime- stone is more or less thin bedded and porous and contains many sandy layers.
Much gypsum in this series of " Red Beds " has been quarried and ma-de into gypsum plaster at Acme, a small village in Chaves County, 18 miles northeast of Roswell, and also at Oriental, a station in Eddy County halfway between Artesia and Carlsbad. The beds included in the foregoing sections are all in the series of red shales overlying the thick succession of limestone, sandstone, and gypsum constituting the great dip slape that extends continuously from the summit of the Sacramento and Guadalupe mountains to Pecos Eiver. (See p. 169.)
GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STiTES.
(2? Some of the many deep valleys and canyons on this slope cut throng the limestone and expose beds of gyp- sum, but the area has Dot yet been examined in sufficient detail to show the places of occurrence and succes- sion of beds. Some of the deep borings in the Pecos Valley penetrafe this series of rocks and pass throngt very thick beds of gypsum and salt The record of a well 2 miles east of Carlsbad is given in figure 29.
E. E. Lyder and W. A. Whittaker, of the University of Kansas, mads many tests of samples as boring pro- gressed. The presence of 1,327 fwl of gypsum (anhydrite) from 1,11S to 2,455 feet and 663 feet of salt be tween 510 and 1,118 feet are the most remarkable features in this record.
A boring at McMillan, a few Eoiles northwest of Oriental, penetrstsJ gypsum in beds 5 to 6 feet tiict from 49 to 80 Jeet ; pure white, mod- erately hard gypsum, 135 to 200 feet; and very hard white gypsum, 200 to 450 feet.* In a record of a near-b; well, however, through the same beds the continuity of the gypsum depoal PioTOE 28— Record ot boring In NB. is stated to be interrupted by much
CiatTBi 30. — Section ebowlng relations of gypBum deposit eait of Rosarlo siding. T aSi west of Los CerriHoB, N. Mci. o, Masntve Bandsloue, buff above. red below (lf gate?) ; 6, thin-bedded llmeatoae ; c, gjpEuni bed; d, purplish to chocolate claj-s: f, F"! to bulT sandstODe ; /, light elays, aame sandstone ; g, dark shale.
New Mexico.
Sandstone
Shale, dark— — — — — —
Sandstone, buff, maasire--
(Dakota)
Shale, ffray, maroon, greenieh
and sandstone -- — (jllorriaon)
Lbneetone, thin bedded Sandstone, fine, massire, buff, wJUte, red — - — — — — —
100+
Gypsum Overlying The Wingate Sandstone.
Los Cerrillos. — The " Red Beds " that come to the surface in the great monocline west of Los Cerrillos in Santa Fe County contain a thick bed of gypsum, which outcrops very conspicuously along the bank of Galisteo Creek as shown in Plate XX, B (p. 178). This lo- cality is at a point about a mile jast of Rosario siding, on the itchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail- way. The exposure extends along the side of the railroad for nearly lialf a mile and then trends off to the north, finally passing under the Santa Fe marl. The section exposed is presented in figure 30.
Th® gypsum bed is 60 feet thick, but it appears to thicken locally; in one place this is due to faulting md slipping.
A small but apparently repre- sentative sample of gypsum from this outcrop was tested by A. A. Chambers in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey and found to contain about 96.22 per cent of CaS04.2H20.
Tonque. — The same gypsum bed as that near Rosario reappears again near Tonque Creek, in the southeastern part of Sandoval County, 6 miles east of Bernalillo, and extends southward for about 10 miles. Its ends are covered, by
w
350+
Sandsione, graf, andnfmestones*
Samistoae, red--*" (Abo)
'XJAestone, (iop of Madera}—-*
1 I r -
T!
FiGURB 31. — Columnar section showing relations of gypsum deposit on east bank of Tonque Creek, 2 miles below the brick works, Sandoval County, N. Mez.
HORIZOXTIL scut
0003 ft<
VCRTICAL SC*L<(APPIiOXIH*TCLf)
4000 ft.
PiGURB 32. — Cross section showing relations of gypsum In Tijeras Canyon east of Albu- querque, N. Mex. a, Ked beds, with h, sandstone and limestone member ; c, Wingate ( ?) sandstone overlying gypsum ; d, Morrison shale ; e, Dakota ( ?) sandstone ; /, Mancos shale and overlying coal measures m, Madera limestone.
124567**— 20 12
GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UBflTED STATES,
[. S. Oeolooical 8Vkvbt
Pfaotosrapli by N. H. DarUH
Reat oulorDp extends along the AlchisDa. TDpeka & SaoU Fe HaOwa) on tlM sou' Galiateo Cnek. The gypsuiii is undertaia by the bedded limeatflue on Wingala (I (a). Pbotflgrapb by W. T. Lea.
I, S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEr BULLETIN 897 PLATE XII
Photograph by N. H. Dartoa.
Pbotogiib by N. H. Danoo.
JSnSW HEXIC(V
SaodBtone, gray, maaaiTe, hard, - with induded ahal* member... (Dakota)
Shale, light gray, greeoish, lyrowniah ,-—
Sandstone, brown to gray, soft} aome red ahale — — — - — —
Idineatone, -bo&led
WWWm
Sandstone, fine, maasiye, baff, white and pink to fed
(Wingate)
Shale, red.
Feet
to
to
Tertiary deposits. The thickness is about 80 feet, and although the beds dip eastward at moderate angles and tiie outcrc zone is nar- irow, there are many places where the deposit could be easily worked. At one or two places, notably at Tejon, the gypsum does not appear, probably on account of cover or a slight fault. The succession of rocks is shown in figure 31.
Tijeras Ccmyon. — The bed of gypsum described above reappears in the upper part of Tijeras Canyon, 15 miles east of Albuquerque,
where it is traceable for about 5 miles to faults, which cut it off at each end. Its structural relations in this area are shown in figure 32. The bed of gypsum is 60 feet thick. It lies on 3 feet of very thin bedded limQstone, which caps massive fine- grained sandstone (Wingate?) as in the region north and west. This exposure is the southernmost of these three beds.
Rio Chama-Gallina region, — A thick bed of gypsum is exposed for many miles along the canyon of Chama River in Rio Arriba County and in the slopes of the high mesas extending north and south. To the west the exposures extend along the south side of Mesa Prieta to the Mexican plaza of Gallina and thence south along the west slope of the Sierra Nacimiento, as de- scribed on page 181. The outcrop is terminated to the east by the Santa Fe marl, dropped by a great fault which -crosses Rio Chama 4 miles northwest of Abiquiu. The outcrop and general structural re- lations are shown in figure 33. The cross section shows that the gyp- sum bed passes laterally under the mesa and is revealed by the valleys cut below the old plateau surface. A typical exposure is shown in Plate XXI, A, In most of the area the beds lie nearly level, but on Gallina River, in the northwestern part of the outcrop, they present a sharp anticline, and west of Gallina they are upturned on the west slope of the Nacimiento uplift.
The success ion of rocks shown in the columnar section (fig. 34) is miiform throughout, but there are local variations in the thick- ness of the beds. The beds of gypsum, so far as observed, rangei
to
Sandatone, ffrayCtop) —
Figure 34. — Colamnar section of rocks in Rio Chama-GaUIna region, N. Mex.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
in thickness from 50 to 65 feet. At Gallina the thickness is aboat 50 feet, but at most places it is 55 feet. The mineral is masye. pure white, and evidently of very high grade. Though most of
J I L
O-l
20Milee
Figure 35. — Map showing outcrop of gypsum bed along the west side of the Naclmiento uplift from Rio GaUina to Rio Salado, Sandoval County, N. Mex. (After M. K. Shalcr.)
the outcrops are in cliffs or steep slopes, in places the deposit spreads out in broad areas convenient for quarrying. The gypsum at Cerro Blanco (PI. XXI, B) is an occurrence of this sort, the bed here hav-
Hew Mexico. 181
ing a long, gentle slope to the west. The gypsum has been worked in small amount for use at Gallina. Most of this region is in the Jemez and Carson forest reserves.
NaciTihiento upUft. — From Gallina the outcrop of the great gyp- sum bed extends 45 miles nearly due south along the west slope of the Sierra Nacimiento. Its thickness ranges from 50 to 100 feet, the amount gradually increasing to the south. This area has been described by Shaler, p,nd the following facts are condensed from his statements.. The beds dip steeply to the west and in places are vertical. The outcrop is almost continuous, but locally there is covering of talus or wash and Tertiary deposits. To the south the bed passes down the south side of the Eio Salado valley and is cut off by a fault as described on page 184. The map (fig. 35) shows the course of the outcrop and the section .(fig. 3G) shows the structure.
PioDU 3S. — Sketch section a
The sketch section {fig. 36) is at Senorito, where the gj-psum bed is 54 feet thick and is underlain by 50 feet of white crystalline lime- stone which has been burned for lime. The gypsum outcrops exten- sively one-fourth of a mile west of the post office. Half a mile far- ther west the San Miguel Copper Co. has opened a 6-foot coal bed which parallels the gypsum outcrop for several miles, an association which may be important when the deposit is utilized.
In the slopes 3 miles west of the San Miguel mine the gypsum is 60 feet thick and dips nearly due west at an agle of 40". The following section shows the succession of beds:
Section S miles tcest of San lHnvcl copper "line, Sandoval County. X. Ilex,
Feet.
Sandstone (Dakota) on shale 100+
lioieetoue, crystalline
Gypsum, massive, wlilte 60
Sandstone, light pinkish; red shale at bnse SO
Sandstone, pinkish, copper bearing iO ,
Sandstone, red, with some red shale interbedded 30-f
Granite,
Ge61. Survey Bull. 316,
182t* GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THB UNITED STATES.
This gypsum kas beeik worised to a small extit at this {dace for local use.
A partial analysis of a surf saniple of tb gypsum from this locality by W. T. Schaller, of the U. S. Geological Survey is as follows :
Analysis of gypsum from the deposit west of the San Miguel copper mine,
Sandoval County, If, Me,
Calcium oxide 34.2i
Sulphur trioxide 49,
Water I 18.
Insoluble residue —
Loss .08
This analysis shows that the mineral is abcnit 97 per cent pure, the remainder being mostly calcium carbonate.
South of the San Miguel mine the bed of gypsum continues to thicken gradually to a maximuni of about 100 feet at a point about 3 miles southeast of Ojo del Espiritu Santo, or opposite Jemez Peak, beyond which it thins somewhat. At the place }ust mentioned the beds are tilted at an angle of T0° W. but in a short distance from the foot of the moimtain they fiatten out, widening the outcrop greatly so that the gypsum is at or near the surface in an area of considerable extent. It is white and doubtless as pure as near San Miguel mine described above. The gypsam is underlain by 250 feet of shales and soft sandstone not well exposed and 200 feet of red sandstone extending to the granite.
The gypsum outcrop extids south some distance along the val- ley of the Kio Satado to the Cabefiwrn- Albuquerque wagoa road in the area shown on the west side of the map (fig. 1) . At one loci there is a brood area in which the beds dip west-northwest at a kw and the gypsum fe covered by shale which could be ridily Gripped. It is underlain hy 9&tt masra'e yeHow Wingwte sandoae.
The gypsum in this region fe too remote from transportation and market to work, for it is 25 miles to Bernalillo, tiie nearest railroad station, and the long wagon haul is out of the questioiu. If a rail- road line goes through this regkm the deposit may be used if demand is sufficient to pay freight. The great purity of the mineral and the presence of coal near by are advantageous.
Jemez region. — The outcrop of the bed of gypsum extends along the west side of the Nacimiento uplift and passes over the uplift where the axis of the fold pitches down at Rio Salado, a few miles southwest of Jemez Pueblo. The features at this place are shown on the map (fig. S7). The succession of rocks in th region is closely similar to the one presented in Gallina-Chama cegkn, El
Kew Icsxioo.
Bito, uid Los Cerrillos. The gypsum lies on the massive Wingate sandstone and is overlain by shales of supposed Morrison age. Figure 38 shows the succession southwest of Jemez.
In part of this area the gypsum extends Lilong high slopes or caps buttes, as in the extensive area 3 or 4 miles southwest of San Ysidro {PI. XXII, 4), but farther up Eio Salado it extends down to lower lands and could be easily mined over a large area. Small Wedge-shaped masses appear in slopes 4 miles northeast of Jemez and along the fault miles west of San Ysidro. The southern
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Sandstone, jray* — — — Unconformity
Feet
CI7, nuMdre, mroon, ffray, greeniah, some landstone—-
GTPcam.
Suidctone, mi—jye— (Wingmte)
extension of this fault cuts off the gypsum 3 miles south-southwe of San Ysidro, and it does not appear again between that point and the San Jose Valley at Suwanee.
San Jose Valley, — high cliff of gypsum extends along the north slope of the San Jose Valley in llie vicinity of El Eito Pueblo near Rito siding on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway. As shown in Plate XXII, 5, it extends along the north side of the railroad track ior some distance. The relatioira of this bed of gypsum to adjoining rocks are represented, in the seotioft (fig. 39).
This bed of gypsum crosses the San Jose Valley a short distance west of the pueblo but thins out a few miles south of El Rito. On the north slope of the valley it grad- ually rises to the east and outcrops for 16 miles to a point 5 miles north of Suwanee, where a great north- south fault, which drops on the east side, cuts off all the beds. The rela- tions in this vicinity are shown in
Shale, red, some isandsione (TriMsic)
Sandstone, hard, mocOr ffra7>
Shale and —ndirtone, ttA.'
Sandstone.
Limestone (Uadera)
;a
'T
Soo-I-
15D
FiouBB 38. — Section showing rela- tions of gypsnm bed southwest of Jemez, N. Mez.
the section (fig. 40) and the map (fig. 41), in which also are indicated other faults, along one of which the gypsum is uplifted for a short distance in the slope a half mile northeast of Suwanee.
Bhale, sn, ipreenish, red; some sandstone
Sandstone, ffray, massiro; of Laffuna and Acoma""
Sandstone, red
Limestone, thin bedded
Sandstone, sray abore, jed below (Wlngate)
Shale, red'-
—
Deposits Of Quaternary Age.
White samds, — In the bolson of Tula- rosa Desert, between the San Andres and Sacramento mountains, there are extensive deposits of wind-blown gyp- sum sand known as the white sands. These sands lie mainly in Otero Coimty but extend a short distance into the east side of Dona Ana County. They extend 28 miles from north to south and range from
FiouBB 39. — Section of rocks associ- ated with gypsum bed at El Blto, N. Mex.
BXItLETIN 697
CLIFFS OF GYPSUM AT EDGE OF MESA S MILES SOUTHWEST OF SAN YSIDHO. N. MEX., LOOKING SOUTH. BIO SALADO IN MIDDLE SROUND. The gypHini Is undolun by n/t nuniTe sanibtiwe <WiiiaBU). Pbotofiaph by W. T- Lea.
OUTCROP OF BED OF GYPSUM SO FEErr THICK ON NORTH BANK OF SAN JOSE RIVER OPPOSITE PUEBLO OF EL RITO, ON ATCHISON, TOPEKA & SANTA FE RAILWAY, 63 MILES WEST OF ALBUQUERQUE. N. MEX., LOOKING NORTH.
flypQum IS overlaia by bed uf Haoditorie and underlaiu by thio limestone (o-a)- PboUraph by
New Mexico.
6 to 15 miles in width ; -they cover an area of about 270 square miles. Their eastern edge lies llj miles west of Alamogordo station. Most of the deposit is in dunes 10 to 30 feet high, the average thickness
W
Mesa Gigante
Minor fknlto
::::r::HAi:
rn
PlPlr
PiODUB 40. — Section along north side of San Jose Valley near Suwanee, N. Mex., showing relations of great gypsum bed in faulted blocks. Looking north, a, Dakota sandstone and overlying beds ; ft, shale ; c, buff massive sandstone ; d, red sandstono ; c, gypsum on thin-bedded limestone ; f. Massive pink sandstone (Wingate) ; g, red shale and sand- stone (Triassic).
probably being nearly 20 feet. A large part of the material is snow- white, resembling snowdrifts. In places a small amount of quartz sand is included. A typical view is given in Plate XXIII. The
o
SikiidBtone snii shale (Dakota to Mesaverde)
Shale
Sandstone* baff and red
..Sandstone (Wingate) f'''*!-; "8 V.*; l"':--;
— Fault
Scaue
6 8 10 miles
FiGDBB 41. — Map showing outcrop of gypsum bed in the San Jose Valley, N. Mex.
extent of the deposit in relation to county and township lines and other features is shown on the map (fig. 17, p. 165).
Some of this gypsum sand has been hauled to Alamogordo from time to time, but owing to the slight demand and the distance to the larger markets the industry is very small and intermittent.
The following two analyses of these sands have been published.
186 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Analyet o/gyptum of the whiU tand*, Otero Covtg, N. Hex,
1. Arthur Gross, SUte cteDlL--t of Indiann, uulvat. ;, F.W.,)Bis and Mtnerale, vat. BW-MO, 10O5.
2. W. i. (jIps, Hiulyst. Macr>aug, D. T., BotaulcnlleHluresor Korth American deserts: Camesitlii ol WashlngloD Vub. W, p. IS, 19.
Analysis N"©. 1 is believed to indicate that 96.43 per cent of gjp BUm is present, and No. 2, 95.8 per cent. In a report on the Tularosa Basin, Meinzer says : Qn>BUiu nnderliee tbe southern pert of tbe large alkali flat, all of the vtui satids area, and a section of tbe low desert plain extendiag southwanl 'I'. 22 S.. Ks. 5 and 6 E,, eastward to Dog Oanyon and witliin a few mflra I Alnniogordo and Tularosa and northward to a point beyond Malpals Spria It outcrops along mot of the alkali flats in the outliers that project h1>i>i the flats. In erosion remnants of the white sands, in the banks of tbe i 8lo|>e and low-level arroyos, In manj' open wells, in sink holes, and in knolls and hummoeks produced by sink boles and wind work tbrooghoat Bjpaeous portion of the desert plain. Its distribution is stuown not only outcrops and well sections but also by the exlsteuce of nk botes and bum-' mocky topography,"
Some of the benches and low outlying buttes show gypsum hori- zontally bedded, "indicating depositi<Mi from concentrated watts of an ancient lake." Crystals more tJian a foot long are found at one locality.
Pinas WelU. — According to Meinzer* there are deposits of gyp- sum, sand in the Pines Wells basin, in the southeastern [>art of Torrance County. They are similar to the white sands but of much less extent, and though in places the sand is pure, much of it is mixed with fine clay. No facts are available as to its extent or availability for plaster manufacture. The locality is about 10 miles west of Duran, on the Chicago, Kock Island & Pacific Bail- way, and 15 miles southwest of Encino, on the cut-off of the Atchi- son, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
lifctiizer, O. V... Omlog; ind water reioorcEi of Tulanna, N. Hex. : U. S. OmL Bum; Water-Supply Paper 34.'!. p. 89, 1616,
' Meinzer, O, E.. Geology and water resonrca of the BBtancIa Velle;. N. Mex., notei on adjacent portloBB of ccatnl New Heiloo : C. 8. Oeol. Bibtc; Water-Sarptl Paper 275, p. 83, 1911.
New Ycsik.
By D. H. Newland and Henby Lkiohton.
Hzsto&Y Oif Xh£ Gypsum Ihbu&Tby In Hew Yobk.
Gypsum has been Buned in New York for more than a centnry. The present development of the industry dates back, however, about two deeades. Thning this period the prodn€ti<m has grown to many times its former proportions, and from a relatively insignificant posi- tion the State has advanced into prominence with regard to both the mining and manufacture of gypsum. ITie basis of this progress is suppBed by great natmral resources combined with unexcelled mait advantages.
The discovery of the gypsum deposits must have been practically coincident with the first pwnanent settlement of central and west- em New York, which followed close upon the termination of the War of the Revolution. The earliest mention that is still a matter of record relates to an occurrence on lot 90, Camillus Township, Onon- daga County, said to have been di;3covered by W. Lyndsay in 1792. In 1808 a stock company was organized to exploit this deposit for land plaster. The beds in SuUivan Township, Madkon County were worked during the War of 1812, and the output was shipped to Hudson Eiver and as far away as Philadelphia. It appears that gypsum was quarried at Union Springs as early as 1811, and by 1S22 several thousand tons are reported to have been shipped each year from that place to Pennsylvania The sole use of the product was for agricultural plaster.
At the time of the first geologic survey (1836-1841) the quarry- ing of gypsum was actively pursued along the belt of Salina strata from Madison to Genesee ccmnties. The reports of that survey men- tion operative quarries in the towns of Wheatland, Leroy, Seneca Falls, Union Springs, Phelps, Manlius Camillus; and Sullivan ; and their output was then nearly as large probably as si any time in the succeeding 50 years.
Though the deposits were under active exploitation long before those of Michigan, Ohio, and the Central States had become pro- ductive they have played little part in the development of the trade in calcined plasters or their techndiogy. It was only after this branch of the industry had become firmly established in other parts of the country and American practice had become fairly perfec4;ed that the local deposits began to receive attention as a source of material for calcined plaster. The first production of plaster of Paris was reported in 1892 and amounted to 75 tons* WitJi the suc- cessful isie of the early uiulertakings the natural advantages of
188 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
the State for manufacture and marketing contributed a powerful im- petus to this branch of the business, which is now the most importsait of all.
Though the production for the years previous to 1889 can not be stated definitely, it is estimated that the aggregate output since beginning of the industry in the State has been, more than 9,000,000 tons. The production* probably did not average over 10,000 tons a year previous to the opening of the Erie Canal, for until then tie facilities for shipment were small. From the year of its opening (1826) until 1889 the average was probably about 35,000 tons. For the period 1810-1888 the production may be estimated accord- ingly at 2,400,000 tons, and the actual output in the period 1889-1918 has been 7,226,135 tons. The combined total in round numbers is 9,626,000 tons
Method Of Mining.
The extraction of gypsum by open cutting is necessarily confined to the eastern and central areas. The pocket deposits are worked only in a small way after the simple methods of early days. More systematic operations are carried on in connection with the rock gypsum of Onondaga and Cayuga counties. The beds are exposed along the sides of hills with a thickness of 20 to 60 feet. The quarries at Lyndon, Jamesville, and Union Springs are opened on such natural exposures. The overlying limestones and drift are stripped off or allowed to fall into the excavation left by the re- moval of the gypsum. As the work advances into the hill an increasing amount of overburden is encountered and in the course of time this becomes a serious problem, necessitating a change to underground mining or the abandonment of work altogether. There are many abandoned quarries, around Fayetteville. At Union Springs the drift covering is stripped by steam shovels, and the material is loaded on cars for removal to a dump. The breaking of the gypsum rock is effected by drilling and blasting with black powder or dynamite.
In the western area the gypsum is mined underground, and tbk practice has also been introduced recently in some of the quarries around Fayetteville to obviate the handling of the overburden Entrance to the workings is through an adit where the gyp approaches sufficiently near the surface ; otherwise a vertical shaft i? used.
The main adits which serve for haulage are driven from 5 to S feet high and from 6 to 10 feet wide. The larger dimensions refer to the mines near Jamesville, where the gypsum is excavated in large rooms and removed by two-horse wagons that are loaded directly at the working face. In thin beds the rock is hauled
New York. 189
out on mine cars attached to a cable. A foot or so of the floor rock may be removed to provide the necessary head room, but this is generally unnecessary. The maximum size of the rooms is 30 feet square. The overlying limestone makes a firm roof, and little support is needed in addition to that given by the pillars; timbering or backing is only rarely necessary.
The mines at Akron and Oakfield, as well as those of the Con- solidated Wheatland Co. at Wheatland, and the Garbutt Gypsum Co., at Garbutt are entered through vertical shafts from 60 to 70 feet deep. The shafts have either two or three compartments, one of which serves for a ladder and airway. The underground work- ings follow the room and pillar system but are more regularly planned than those of the adit mines and are based on accurate surveys. The mines are electrically lighted, ventilated by forced draft, and when necessary are drained by pumps, which raise the water from a sump at the shaft bottom. Electricity and steam are used for power. Electric locomotives have been introduced in one or two mines for underground haulage, but in others the cars are either pushed by hand or drawn by mules. The hoisting is accom- plished in different ways. At the Garbutt mine a derrick and boom raised the rock, which was loaded into a metal scoop. The American Gypsum Co. has installed at Akron a bucket elevator. Single and balanced platform hoists, which raise the gypsum in the mine cars, are most generally employed.
The rock is broken by drilling and blasting. Auger drills are used in some mines and percussion drills in others, the former being employed where the rock is sufficiently soft. With hard or tough rock tJiey are apt to become heated and to bind in the holes. Some companies prefer to let the mining on contract, but others main- tain the wage system. The miners represent many nationalities but are mainly from southern Europe. A few Indians from the New York reservations are employed in the western district.
The mines are usually connected with the milling plants by tracks. In the Fayetteville district*, however, the rock is hauled in wagons. Much of the output of this section is shipped in lumps or ground form to cement and plaster mills outside the district.
Genebal Geology. Age And Distribution Of The Gypsum Deposits.
The workable gypsum deposits occur only in the Salina formation of the Silurian system. The Salina includes also the rock-salt beds of the State and is the equivalent practically of the " Onondaga salt group," as described in the early reports by Hall and Vanuxem,
Gypsum Deposits Of The .United States.
The Salina strata occupy two main areas within the State. The larger area, and the more important one economically, is represented by a belt that extends uninterruptedly from Albany County on the east through central and western New York to Niagara River and thence into the Province of Ontario. Its approximate limits are shown on the map (fig. 42).
The belt terminates within or near the town of Knox, Albany Coimty, by the thinning out of the strata, which in this part consist of only a few feet of shale. From Albany County westward the Salina beds follow the range of hills that borders the Mohawk Valley
Figure 42. — Map of New York showing .distribution of Salina formation, described in this report is indicated by the shaded section.
The am
on the south, their outcrop being at first well up the slopes and at a distance of about 15 miles from the river itself. They parallel the Mohawk as far as Oneida County, where, owing to increased thick- ness of the members and the flatter topography, they begin to spread out so as to occupy a surface from 1 to 3 miles wide. Their course thus far is sinuous, owing to the numerous deep north and south valleys tributary to the Mohawk, which produx long upstream de- flections. Beyond Oneida County their outcrop broadens greatly in short distance; it is about 12 miles wide at the west end of Oneidi Lake and fully 20 miles on the liue of Cayuga Lake, where it attains
t|tQ maximinn widik for the State. The outcrop in western New Ymk is more regular, maintaining an average of 7 to 10 miles and runnii almo in a straight line parallel to the shore of Lake Ontario.
The Salina of this area is mainly a shale formation. The other elements are gypsmn, which occurs in the upper shale beds ; salt, near the middle of the section ; and an impure limestone, which forms a thin capping to the shale in the central and western parts and dis- continuous bands within the shale itsel£ The great masg of shale, except for a few feet at the base, is devoid of fossils.
The second area within which the Salina beds appear is in south- eastern New York, and here they show a quite differit development. They are found in two principal belts, one of which begins in Ulster County near the Hudson and follows the Shawangunk Moimtain uplift in a southwesterly direction across the State line into* New Jersey; the other is in Orange County, beginning near Cornwall and running parallel to the first along the Skunnemunk Ridge.
The main members of the Salina here are conomerate at the base, overlain by shale and sandstone, with some limestone at the top. The shales have a thickness of several hundreds of feet, so as to ptedcHninate over the other members. They are reddish and pyritic and in places graduate upward into sandstone. With their excep- tion the strata of the region present a eoarser phase of sedimentation than that inherent in the Salina of central and western New York.
It is highly improbable that any valuable deposits of gypsum occur in Ulster County, where conglonnates and sandstones are the pre- vailing strata. If present at aU,. they will be found in the extreme southern part near the New Jersey border, in association with the shales, which are here much thicker and even become the predomi- nant member of the series. None, however, has been discovered.
Sttbatigraphy Of The Salxna Formation.
General relations. — Tlie Salina formation as developed in central Kew York is divisible into five members These members are in few places sharply delimited by physical features, and owing to the of fossils throughout the be<ls their demarcation on the map IS possible only in a general way. They are usually connected by zones of gradation, though in some places the transition from one member to another is marked by a sequence of alternating layers, alternating layers, for example, occur in the passage from the ater lime that caps the formation to the underlying shale.
The full series is found only in the part of the belt that lies west Madison County. To the east they overlap upon, the lower for-
194 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
They are nowhere involved in local folds, and if at all faulted the displacnent must be so slight as to escape general observatm They dip uniformly toward the south, the direction ranging froL due south to a few degrees east or west of south.
Witliin the central and western parts their inclination averages about 40 or 50 feet to the mile, or roundly 1 foot in 100 feet. Thk dip is probably no more than the slope of the sea floor on whid they were laid down. In the eastern section the dip is somewk higher. The main part of the belt has the structure of a broai shallow syncline with an axis running north aad south and witi its eastern wing rising well ,bove the western.
Nature Of The Gypsum Deposits.
The gypsum forms regularly stratified beds, which are usnallj heavy and range from several inches to 5 feet or more in thicknes. The impure argillaceous gypsum is, however, rather thinly bedded, the individual layers being separated by shale intercalations. Tfc strata are not, of course, absolutely continuous along the Salim belt but have the shai)e of elongated lenses which succeed each othff along the strike and dip, perhaps after intervals occupied only br the accompanying shale and limestone. The workable deposits an thus separated into more or less well-defined areas, on the bordss of which the gypsum diminishes or entirely disappears, and eiderable intervals may occur between adjacent, areas that are bar ren of minable rock.
The lenticular form of the deposits is well illustrated by the area near Akron, which has been fairly well delimited by exploratioc underground and by numerous test holes. (See fig. 46.) The t averages about 4 feet thick and extends for nearly 2 miles from ea to west before it thins out. On the north or outcrop side it ap- parently diminishes very slightly and then terminates abruptlr* a feature which is due probably to removal of the gypsum br erosion. The extension of the bed on the dip has not been thor- oughly explored, though the available evidences indicate a gradual thinning in that direction.
Localities. Herkimer County.
The most easterly occurrence of gypsum that was ever vovh- commercially is a deposit in southeastern Herkimer County. It w-' discovered previous to 1837 in an adit run into the hiUside on t! James Crill farm in the western part of Starke Township. Th gypsum is said to have been found in a roundish mass and to had a white color. About 20 or 30 tons were removed by Mr. CriE
New Yobk, 195
It seems probable that the deposit, which lies in a white sandstone of Clintoffx age, is of secondary character, derived from scattered inclusions of gypsum in the Camillus shale above.
Oneida County.
The shales of the Salina formation have a small areal distribution in Oneida County, and there are no records to show that gypsimi has ever been worked within its limits, though the occurrence of small deposits seems very likely, especially toward the western boundary of the county, in Vernon, Augusta, and Kirkland townships.
Madison County.
The gypsum beds of Madison County, so far as known, all lie near the upper or southern part of the Salina outcrop in a belt running east and west across the northern portion of the county.
The gypsum occurs in the form of lenses, pockets, or irregular masses in the shales of the upper part of the Salina, in many places immediately underlying beds 6f water lime. The pockets are rarely very extensive, few of them exceeding 25 feet in length and 10 or 20 feet in depth.
The gypsum consists of a mixture of clear selenite plates and a dark, ioqse, earthy mass, consisting of clay and organic material.
The quarrying and grinding of gypsum for agricultural uses have been carried on in the coimty from 'early times. In the first part of the nineteenth century it was a much more important industry than now. Quarries were then in operation along Cowaselon Creek in the town of Lincoln (formerly Lenox) ; on Clockville Creek ; south of Chittenango, between Sullivan and Clockville ; and the old Sulli- van bed, to the east and north of Chittenango, which was worked during the Be volution and its plaster shipped as far as Philadelphia. In recent years pockets of gypsum have been quarried and milled intermittently at Hobokenville and about 1 mile south of Cottons.
The gypsum at Clockville is as favorably situated as any in the county for extracti(m and shipment. The bed, about 100 feet long and 5 to 7 feet thick, outcrops along the Lehigh Valley Railroad about one-fourth mile northeast of the Clockville station, 200 feet north of the railroad bridge crossing the creek. Another bed out- crops just south of the bridge, and the surrounding hills contain numerous other deposits. The gypsum is the typical friable ad- mixture of selenite and impure gypseous clay. It is underlain by shales and overlain by clay. It averages about 70 to 75 per cent gypsum and can be easily and cheaply mined and loaded directly on cars.
196 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
About 5 miles farther west are gypsum beds of similar character and also easily accessible. Other deposits are found near the Erie Canal, such as those between Chittenango and Sullivan. They are in many places very heavily topped with a shale and limestone cap, which must be stripped in quarrying, as it appears to be too badly broken up to allow tunneling.
Owing to their somewhat irregular character and to their rela- tively low percentage of gypsum, the more inaccessible deposits in this region have little present value, and even the more favorably situated and larger lenses are of little utility.
Onondaga County.
Geology, — The Salina outcrops in Onondaga County in an east- west belt ranging in width from 10 to 12 miles. The gypsum-bear- ing Camillus shale occupies a belt 2 J to 3 miles in width and is bounded on the south by the ridge which is a prolongation of the Helderberg escarpment. It also extends in long tongues to the south through the escarpment in the valleys of Limestone, Butternut, Onon- daga, Marceilus, and Skaneateles creeks. The gypsum series consists of gray, drab, or mottled shales with interstratified layers of fine- grained dolomite and contains many thick beds of grayish to black gypsum and gypsiferous shale. The gypsum beds seem to be most persistent where overlain by the escarpment of the Bertie, Cobleskill, Manlius, and Onondaga limestones and for this reason are found mainly in the low hills capped by these limestones and along the stream valleys cutting through the escarpment.
The beds of massive gray gypsum occur beneath small hills be- tween Fayetteville and Jamesville. (See fig. 44.) The first area is a group of wooded hills ranging in height from 40 to 100 feet. These lie 2 miles southwest of Fayetteville and 1 mile south of Lyndon, a station on the trolley line. They are capped by Helderberg limestone, and the gypsum outcrop forms a belt around each hill.
Clifford Miller quarry. — This quarry is situated three-fourths of a mile directly south of Lyndon, to the east of the road. It has been worked from early times. The gypsum bed is about 60 feet thick and consists of a number of alternating layers, varying in purity, color, and grain, the individual layers having local names such as the " cap rock," the " 9-foot," the 11-foot," etc. They range in color from ery light drab in the cap rock to dark or almost black, and in places have a brownish color from the presence of iron. Despite its varied appearance the rock runs rather uniform in gypsum, and no attempt is made to sort the material in the quarry operations. (See PI. XXIV, B.)
The gypsum here is overlain by 2 feet of marlite or weathered shale, followed by 5 feet of thinly bedded blue limestones (Bertie),
A. Hock Gypsum Showing Banding And Selenitb Crystals, Akron, N. Y.
B. Gypsum Quarry Near Lyndon, Onondaga County, N. Y.
fa
New York.
then 15 or 20 feet of massive porous Cobleskill llmesfone with many small cavities. A varying thickness of glacial drift and soil caps the whole. The heavy mass of overburden becomes more troublesome as the quarry is carried farther into the hill, and stripping becomes diflB-cult. The quarry has been idle a number of years, but when last in operation the gypsum was hauled in 20-ton wagons by a trac- tion engine to a dock on the Erie Canal miles north.
The gypsum was all shipped in crude state to Mr. Miller's plaster mill in New York City.
Quarry of the National Wall Plaster Co. — This quarry is situated south and west of the Miller quarry on the same knoll. The gypsum bed is continuous with that in the Miller quarry but is not so thick.
List Of Workings
1 Quarryl Clifford
2 Dock jMillerea
n..a,.," National,
5,6,7,8 Abandoned workings
9 Mill T.W.Shtedy
10 Mill
Bangs S Qaynor
II, 12' Mines 13,14,15 Abandoned worhm
16 Mill Thomas
17 MinesjWillenCo.
16 Mill
E.B.AIvord Co.
The proved gyosum areaa . _are shownjby dots
Figure 44. — Map showing Jamesville-Fayetteville district, Onondaga County, N. Y.
Quarrying was carried on intermittently, and at present no work is being done. The overburden is similar to that of the other quarry, but stripping was accomplished by excavating the gypsum in such a Way as to undercut the limestone beds, which are then allowed to fall into the vacant space. The rock was formerly hauled to the canal and to the mill on the canal bank, but the mill now stands idle.
There are several other idle quarries in this immediate vicinity.
At Fayetteville there were two gypsum mills. Each was equipped With jaw crusher, nipper, and burrstone mills. Their mineral was purchased from the neighboring quarries. The ground gypsum was Id as land plaster or to fertilizer companies.
Quarries at Jamesville, — The second area in which operations have feen conducted is 1 mile north of Jame&ville and east of the road leading to De Witt. As in the quarries near Lyndon, the gypsum outcrx)ps on the slope of a hill capped with Helderberg limestone.
198 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE TJNitED STATES.
The north and west faces of this hill are abrupt slopes, of which the lower portion is composed of gypsum.
A quarry of the Thomas Millen Co. is about half a mile east of Eeals station on the JamesviUe trolley road. Tke gypsum is very similar to the Lyndon product and occurs in the same manir. It averages about 30 feet in thickness and is overlain by 50 feet of lime- stone. Until about 1908 quarrying was carried on in the usual man- ner, but subsequently the gypsum was mind underground by means of a tunnel driven, along a 6-foot layer of the best rock. About 2,000 feet of underground work was done before mining ceased at tiiis opening. Much timbering is needed. The rock was quarried by electric drills, and the mine was equipped with electric lights. The broken rock was loaded into 1-ton side-dump metal cars, which were hauled by wire cable from the working face to the entrance and up an inclined trestle, the cable being operated by a small engine and drum. Owing to the grade of the tunnel, the cars returned to the face by gravity. From the cars the rock was dumped directly into 3-ton wagons and hauled by a team to the mill. The mill is situid about half a mile north of JamesviUe station, on the Delaware. Lackawanna & Western Railroad. No plaster of Paris is made, the rock being shipped crude or after a preliminary crusfting in a jaw crusher. This mill has lately been supplied from a quarry beside the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad tracks 1 mile northwe of JamesviUe.
Half a mile east of the Millen tunnel, on the same escarpment, is the mine of E. B. Alvord & Co. The gypsum is overlain by a few feet of thin shale, 15 feet of massive limestone, and 20 feet of thinly bedded limestones. The company some years ago began mining the rock by means of a tunnel driven in an old quarry, but the mine was worked only a short time. A 5-foot layer was utilized. The mine was lighted by electricity and the drills were operated by the same power. No mine cars or track were used, but the wagons and horses were driven directly into the mine and to the working face, which necessitated wide gangways and large rooms, but no trouble was experienced with the roof. The mill of this company at JamesviUe, across the river from the post office, is now supplied with raw mate- rial brought from other quarries. The power is fumidied by a 70-horsepower turbine, and the equipment consists of a jaw crusher, cracker, and burrstone mill, as well as an unused kettle. The rock is sold with only preliminary crushing to cement factories or is ground in the burrstone mill and sold as land plaster.
The gypsum bed appears at several places around the western flank of the hill where there are abandoned quarries, and in an abandoned tunnel near Fiddlers Green, a station on the JamesviUe trolley line.
New Yoek. 199
The dose proximity of the railroad to this area is a feature that diould briag about its greater development.
Other quarries in Onondaga County. — The deposits in other sec- tUMis of the county are mainly of tiie pockety type and consist of Huxtures of white gypsum, flakes and crystals of selenite, and fibrous gypsum vns with shale* Like those in Madison County few of them are over 10 feet in thickness and 25 feet in diameter.
In the eastern part of the county the deposits are quite numerous in the town of Manlius, particularly in the hilly area between Chit- tenango, Mycenae, and Fayetteville. Many of the knolls have been opened up from time to time and the gypsum worked for land plaster, but at present no production is made. Westward there are no beds, with the exception of those in De Witt Township, already discussed, until the Onondaga Valley is reached. The heavily gla- ciated area between Butternut Creek and Syracuse probably con- tains gypsum beds, but as yet they are undiscovered.
In the construction of the railroad from Syracuse to Auburn largo quantities of gypsum were uncovered along the south side of Nine- mile Creek between Camillus and Martisco (formerly Marcellus sta- tion). Thousands of tons of the material were taken out and the deposits attracted great attention. The gypsimi bed consists of a mixture of limestone, shale, and selenite, or in places a whitish gyp- sum with wavy markings. At no part of the extensive cut was gyp- sum in pure masses observed, and if quarrying were undertaken the whole impure mass would need to be excavated and the percentage gypsum would run low. The ease of mining and its accessibility to the railroad may render it of some value in the future. Other outcrops occur farther to the west, at Martisco. One outcrop is at the prominent point or hill northwest of the station, where a 10-foot layer has been quarried. The material is similar to that already de- scribed. On a branch of Ninemile Creek another outcrop is seen just south of Martisco station, on the Marcellus & Otisco Eailroad. It is about 20 feet in thickness and extends for 150 feet along the road.
A few miles to the west the Auburn Eailroad runs through a steep- sided valley, and on either bank gypsum deposits are common. Probably the purest deposit of gypsum noted in the county was encountered in this ledge in an old quarry about midway between Halfway and Martisco. It is situated just off the road about one- quarter of a mile south of the Auburn track on the face of an es- carpment at an elevation of about 100 feet above the railroad. The quarry shows about 15 feet of gypsum in all, of which 4 feet is of much better grade than the average for Onondaga County. It is a grayish to white crystalline mass dotted with brown cleavable crystals and resembles the rock found at Oakfield, Akron, and Oar- butt. It is overlain by 20 feet of limestone, and the expense of strip-
200 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
' ping is the probable cause of idleness. No other outcrops were found in the vicinity, so that no idea of the extent of this stratum could be formed.
The abundance of gypsum outcrops on the sides of the deep-cut valleys between Camillus and Halfway would seem to indicate the former presence of a persistent and continuous gypsum bed in that region, and it is probable that underlying the Helderberg limestones on most of the hills, gypsum beds would be found.
Catuga County.
The area underlain by Salina rocks in Cayuga County ranges 14 to 20 miles in width.
The topography of the northern portion of the surface of the Salina permits but few outcrops. The area bordering Seneca Eiver is low and marshy, and in other areas bedrock is completely ob- scured by a heavy covering of glacial drift. On this account very little is known of the gypsum deposits in that portion of the county. About IJ miles north of Throopsville, along the river, pockets of gypsum were worked in 1837. Other impure deposits have been re- ported in the vicinity of Montezuma.
Along the southern border of the Salina and immediately under- lying the Bertie and Cobleskill limestones are the extensive gypsum beds of the county, in early times the most valuable in the State. These beds are exposed at three localities: In the town of Spring- port north of Union Springs ; at Cayuga. Junction, one-half mile east of Crossroads station ; and on the boundary of the township miles north of Crossroads. The gypsum in these localities ranges from 10 to 40 feet ii\ thickness and is gray or bluish, firm, and mas- sive, with plates and veins of selenite coating some of the blocks or mixed with the niore impure material. In a few places it is overlain ' by water-lime rock but usually has an immediate covering of till from a few feet to 25 feet in thickness. The occurrence, as well as the character of the rock, is very similar to that at Jamesville and Lyndon.
In the early days many quarries were in operation in the Cayuga Junction area, 2 miles north of Union Springs (then Springport), and land plaster was shipped by canal all over the country. It is re- ported that plaster was used there as early as 1811, and by 1842 the quarries were producing 10,000 tons yeai*ly, the price delivered by boat to Ithaca being $1.50 to $2 per ton. From Ithaca it was trans- ported by the Ithaca-Oswego Railway and Susquehanna River to points in Pennsylvania.
Up to 1916 and for some years previously the only active quarry was that of the Cayuga Gypsum Co. The mill is situated along
New York. 201
the Ithaca branch of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, about 2 miles north of Union Springs at Cayuga Junction. It is equipped with a cracker and nipper and five burrstone mills. The rock is sold in lump or ground form to cement factories and others ; none is calcined. The quarry is about one-eighth of a mile back from the mill. The gypsum ranges from 20 to 30 feet thick and is overlain by as much as 25 feet of glacial drift that contains many water-lime boulders. Stripping is effected by means of a steam shovel, and the earth is carried to a convenient dumping place at one side. The gypsum is worked 6y quarry methods and by means of a tunnel driven into the lower course of the gypsum. Steam drills are used, and on the open face the rock is blasted off in benches.
Another gypsum deposit was formerly worked at Cayuga, the gypsum occurring both above and below the bridge. This deposit was in small pockets, however, and was soon abandoned for the better material south of it.
Seneca County.
The gypsum area in Seneca County is almost devoid of rock expo- sures. AVhere Seneca Kiver has cut its channel through the Coble- skill and Bertie limestones, however, the Camillus shales have been uncovered and their gypsum masses exposed. These masses are small, at most a few rods in length, and although the plaster indus- try a half century or more ago on Seneca Eiver had an outp.ut of 5,000 tons annually, it has Jong been abandoned, and there is little prospect of its resumption. The deposits are all, no doubt, of the impure "mixed" type, and any that may underlie the drift of Junius or Tyre townships would require shaft mining and that, too, under unfavorable conditions, such as wet ground.
Wayne County.
Only the northern or lower portion of the Salina formation out- crops in Wayne County and that portion only along the southern border in a belt averaging perhaps 6 miles wide. Gypsum is said to be exposed at various places along the line of the Erie Canal and the Xew York Central Eailroad. At Clyde it is found in wells at a depth of 25 feet, at Lyons at 40 feet, and at Palmyra at the same depth. Gypsum was at one time quarried at a point 2 miles west of Newark, where the railroad and canal pass between two hills, orth of the canal quarries were opened as early as 1832, and 2,000 to 3j000 tons had been extracted by 1839. The gypsum is described, by Hall as being "mostly lamellar, transparent, and of that variety 'hich, receives the local name of isinglass plaster." It was said
1 New York Geol. Survey Second Ann. Rept, for 1837, p. 326, 1838.
202 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
to occur with, varicolored gypseous marl and to have the form of ''large, round, irregular masses."
South of the canal was Blackmar's quarry, which was worked at the same time and contained plaster of similar quality. Gypsum has also been quarried around Port Gibson (see p. 203), and un- Uoubtedly many similar pockets underlie the area northeast of Port Gibson in Wayne County. As they occur in the lower part of the Vernon shale, the deposits are not likely to prove of commercial value. The gypsum is all of the quality known as " mixed that is, it consists of selenite plates and reddi granular and fibrous gypsum interstratified and seamed with clay shales, marlites, impure shaly gypsum, and other materials — and it is found in small irrular, deposits.
Ontario Countt.
The Camillus shale occupies the entire northern portion of Ontario County and ranges in width from 6 miles in the eastern portion to 2 miles in the western. In diaracter it varies but little from its general type, a greenish or dark shale that becomes light gray on exposure. Where exposed it commonly contains the pockety beds of gypsum so characteristic of the beds to the east. In the greater portion of the area, however, actual exposures are rare, owing to the heavy mantle of drift.
Beginning in the eastern part of the county, the first exposures of gypsum are between Phelps and Gypsum. The best grade of rock is in the Empire Plaster Co.'s quarry, 1 mile north-northeast of Phelps Junction, near the bridge. The rock is a gray impure gypsum, heavily seamed with fibrous white gypsum in layers rangin? from one- fourth to inches in width. The material is hauled by wagons to the mill, 1 mile to the west. This mill is equipped with a cracker, nipper, and burrstones and is run by water power. The mill has been idle for several years but formerly carried on an active business in land plaster.
Across the road from the mill is an abandoned quarry from "vvhich masses of gypsum from 25 to 3,000 tons in weight were formerly extracted. In early times a number of mills were in oper- ation in and around Phelps and Gypsum, and the annual production of land plaster in the early forties was 6,000 tons.
From Manchester to Victor the Salina beds are heavily covered or swampy, and no gypsum has been reported, although well drillin? may bring some to light. The cuts made by Ganargua Creek north- east of Victor have uncovered several gypsum masses of the pockety type, and quarrying was at one time undertaken. A mill and quarrr were operated on the Conover farm IJ miles east of Victor on the north side of the creek. The gypsum, for its kind, was of good
Kew. York. 203
grace, 40 feet tiiick, axki had a large sale for land plaster. The quarry has been idle for 25 years. In the later years of quarrying the Gripping became such a troublesome feature, because of the 30 to 40 feet of drift that a tunnel was driven at the base of the hill, with a breast of 14 feet. Gypsum was also quarried at. one time in the Goose Egg, an oval hill aJb(mt IJ miles north of this locality.
On the Conover farm there have been found by core drilling two layers of gypsum resembling in appearance that seen at GaiHbutL The drill holes were put down in the flat area near Ganargua Creek about 1908, after going through 19 feet of soil and 16 feet of water lime, the first gypsum bed, 8 feet thick, was encountered. At 104 feet a second bed, 6 feet thick, was struck. The cores were examined by the writers, and the gypsum appeared to be of fairly good quality. The lower bed is light colored and fine textured, resembling the gyp- sum at Oakfield, but the upper one is less pure and dark color, though firm and massive, resembling the rock at Garbutt.
Irregular pockets of gypsum occur near Port Gibson and have been worked for land plaster for years but are no longer productive.
Mvingstox County.
No gypsum beds have been recorded in Livingston County, - ably because they are heavily covered with limestone. The northn border of the county is occupied by the drab limx>ne of the Bertie laember, which overlies ti gypsum beds. The Garbutt and Wheat- land gypsum bed lies at an elevation of about 570 fe above sea level. With an assumed dip of 40 feet to the mile, a fair average inclination, the bed on the border of the county would lie about 490 fe above sea level, so iht at a surface elevation of 600 feet the bed would be pierced at 110 feet. There is reason to believe, however, that in the reon between Caledmiia and Mumford and in the area north and northeast of Maxwell, the horizcm of the gypsum ap- proaches nearer to the surface. Though the prospect of finding gyp- sum within these regions seems good, it will require exploration with the drill to determine the matter definitely, for in all probability the beds are not absolutely continuous with the Camillus dliale.
Monkoe County.
Distribution and general character of the gypsum deposits, — The Camillus shale crosses Monroe County from east to west. Its north- ern limit is uncertain,* owing to the heavy drift covering and to its merging gradually into the Vernon shale below. Its southern limit is the outcrop of Bertie limestone.
204 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The valuable gypsum deposits seem to be limited strictly to tie town of Wheatland, in the southwestern comer of the coimty. Here the Bertie beds, underlain by gypseous shales and the gypsum layers, are exposed for a distance of several miles along Allen Creek. between Grarbutt and Mumford, and small gypsum deposits hare been exploited along its banks as far west as Fort HiU, in Genesee County. The deposits in Wheatland Township are among the most productive in the State. The area at present worked occupies about 3 square miles. (See fig. 45.)
The gypsum at present developed occurs in two continuous layers below 40 feet or more of soil and water lime. The upper layer lies above. the level of the stream; but the lower layer is probably at tie stream's level. The upper layer ranges in thickness from 5 to 7 or 8 feet, but in few places can good rock be obtained with a thickness of more than feet. The second layer, or "second bottom," as it is locally termed, has been found in practically all the workings. It is separated from the upper layer by a hard bluish limestone, rang- ing in thickness from 6 to 12 feet. The gypsum in this layer also ranges from 5 to 7 or 8 feet in thickness and in some mines contains from 1 to 2 feet of whiter gypsum than that of the upper layer. At present the upper layer alone is being developed, although the lover layer has been exposed and its qualities are known. Descriptions of the individual properties follow.
Empire Gypsum Co. — This company owns the most eastern mil! of the group, situated southeast of Grarbutt station. The gypsum. which is mined from a slightly inclined tunnel, averages 5 feet inches in thickness. The middle 2 feet of the bed appears to be of the best quality, and the lower 2 feet is harder. The bed is overlaiJi by a good limestone roof and imderlain by 10 feet of limestone, below which is a second gypsum bed not yet developed.
The workings extend about one-fourth of a mile in a southwel direction and are based on the room and pillar method. Drilling i- done with hand auger drills, and blasting with dynamite. The rock is loaded on wooden mine cars and hauled by mules to the surface At the mill the rock is crushed with a jaw crusher and then by one of the usual nippers. It is then dried in a rotary cylinder an ground in a Universal pulverizer. After grinding the dust is co! lected by a fan, which saves screening the whole product. T!i remainder is screened on inclined shaking screens. The grouflJ material is then calcined at a temperature of 280° to 350° F. in tbre 11-ton kettles with solid bottoms. Material calcined at this teni perature is said to be " first settling " and is " greasier and smoother than that calcined at a higher temperature. Some of the material calcined at 450° F. or second settling, and is sold for bedding pW
IfTEW YORK.
glass. The mixing room is equipped with Broughton mixers, 12-tube bagging machines, and a fiber shredder of the type in which the log of wood is pivoted and the knives revolve against it. This machine is capable of grinding 2,500 pomids a day. The fiber is blown by a blast of air into the bins, the aeration also separating the dust from the fibers and loosening the mass. The wood used is mainly willow and basswood. Some of the crude rock is shipped directly, being dumped from the mine cars on the trestle into the gondolas below ; a
Ust Of Workings
I. Abandoned adit Ji/kVanefarm
2 Mill Empire
8 Mine/GypsumCa
4 Mill 1 Lycominf 5,6,7 Mincs/Caldnin|cq.
3 Mill IGapbutt 3,10 Shafts; Gypsum Col.
11 Gypsum deposit M.Ro|ersfarm
12 Shaft and crusher Monarch Plaster Co.
-13 Adit ) Consolidated
14 Mill Whcatiand
15 Shaft J Plaster Co.
16,17 Abandoned workings
The proved |ypsum areas are shown by dots
Scale
SMILCa
Figure 45. — Map showing Wheatland district, Monroe County, N. Y.
switch runs directly under the trestle from the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh Eailway.
Garhutt Gypsum Co. — This company, one of the oldest in the district, has a mill west of the Empire mill on the north bank of Allen Creek. The mines are located about a mile southwest of the mill, on the top of the south bank of the creek. In former days entrance was had to the gypsum bed by a tunnel driven into the north face of the hill, but this has been abandoned, and at present the bed is reached by two small shafts, 68 and 70 feet deep. The covering consists of 40 feet of soil and 22 feet of limestone, the gyp- sum layer being from 5 to 8 feet thick. The gypsum appears to be of remarkably good quality for the region and resembles the rock in Genesee and Erie counties. The purest, whitest layer occupies about 2 feet in the middle of the bed. This mine and mill have been idle several years.
206 Gypsum Deposit Of The United States.
The rock was hauled by wagons more than a mile to the miD. The mill is equipped with one 15-ton kettle, one nipper and cracker, a burrstone mill for grinding gypsum, and a mixer.
Lycoming CcHcinvng Co, — The mines of this company are located west of the Garbutt mill on the south bank of Allen Creek. Previ ous to 1900 the bed at this point was worked by means of a vertical shaft on the top of the bank, but when the property was acquired in 1900 by the present company a tunnel was driven into the creek bank. There are now three tunnels for working this bed of gypsum, which ranges from 6 to 7 feet in thickness.
The rock is a light-gray to brown gypsum with thin veins of satin spar running through it. The lower 2 feet are harder and of poorer quality. The mine has a good limestone roof , separated from the gypsum by a thin parting of shaly rock. The second "bottom" or layer of gypsum is 12 to 15 feet below the first and is separated from it by limestones. It appears to be of a grade equal to upper rock. The mining operations have been conducted systemat- ically, with pillars left every 21 feet. The mines are equipped with electric lights. Drilling is done with auger coal drills and blasting with low-grade dynamite. The whole face of gypsum is utilized, with no sorting, but care is taken to so arrange the cars that the poor and good grades alternate at the mill.
The cars are drawn up an incline by cable to the second floor of the mill and automatically dumped. After crushing, the material is sold to Portland cement mills or converted into stucco. Cummer rotary kilns are used instead of vertical kilns, the more usual type of calciner in the district.
Monarch Plaster Co, — The next mill in order is that of the Monarch Plaster Co., a little over a mile west along the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh Railway. The mine and mill have been idle since 1910. The mine entry is a tunnel driven into the hill to the north. Drilling was done by auger electric drills and the mine was lighted by electricity. The gypsum bed is 6 feet thick, but owing to poor quality the lower 2 feet is left as a floor and only 4 feet of gypsum extracted in the rooms. The mine is dry and the roof solid. so that large rooms can be made, and open spaces 30 feet square are numerous. Mules were used for hauling. Six feet below the bottom rock is a second layer of gypsum, which is 6 feet in thickness, com- prising 1 foot of exceptionally white gypsum. Nothing has as yet been done with this lower layer. The product of this company was all sold as 1-inch or 1-inch material to cement factories.
Consolidated Wheatland Plaster Co, — Halfway between Garfnitt and Mumford, along Allen Creek, is the property of the Consoli- dated Wheatland Plaster Co. A tunnel driven from the north bank of the stream on a 6-foot layer has been abandoned, and a shaft has
Sibw Yobk. 207
beea sunk at ihe mill. The skaft is S5 feet deep and reaches the same 6-foot layer that was mined by the Monarch Plaster Co. The thickness and eharad:er of the gypsum are the same as af the Monarch mine.
PoHsibie ccwrenees of gypsum elsewhere in Monroe County. — Aside from the localities described, the gypsum beds have not been much exploit in the county. North of Allen Creek, pockety impure gypsum has been found at Beulah, on the Harman f ann hear Bel- coda, and on the Rogers and McVane farms 1 mile north of Garbutt, In die Rogers farm the gypsum was found at a depth of 40 feet, being overlain by 27 feet of soil and 13 feet of limestone. On the McVane farm gypsum was at one time extracted from the hill by a tunnel, now abandoned. The farm of Mr. Skivington, north of Mumford, was explored for gypsum in 1912, but no further developments were undertaken, although the results were reported to be favorable. Gypsum was also encountered in a well on the farm of Mr. Clapp in North Rush. In the region south of the outcrop gypsum has been encountered in wells at Mumford and Caledonia at 60 feet depth, and Mr. Jenkins, a well driller of Scottsville, says that an apparently good belt of gypsum runs from Wheatland to Maxwell, 4 miles south- east, and that it lies about 45 feet deep across the whole belt. He also says that gypsum was encountered in a well at the State indus- trial school.
GENESiai COUNTY.
Distribution and development. — The gypsum-bearing formation extends across the northern part of Genesee County. Its principal development is at Oakfield which now produces more gypsum than any other town, in the Sta4;e. Near the eastern boundary of Grenesee County gypsum has been uncovered on the banks of Allen Creek, and at one time large quantities were quarried near Fort Hill.
Three miles northeast of Fort Hill, or midway between Fort Hill and South Byron, large amounts of gypim were quarried about
The pioneer in the Oakfield district was Mr. Olmstead, who fop some years previous to 1892 carried on a business in land plaster. In 1892 he installed a kettle, the first one in the State, and bgan the Boanufacture of calcined plaster. At present the industry at Oak- field is in control of two firms. (See fig. 46.)
United States (rypmm Co. — This company, which owns gypsum DfuUs and mines in several States, entered the Oakfield district about 1903 and bought up or leased die properties of a number of the former companies. The ccMnpany abandoned all but one of the many shafts, consolidated the mill, equipment, and installed electric power.
GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UliriTED STATES.
The present mines and mill are situated about IJ miles west of Oakfield on the West Shore Railroad. The mine shaft is equipped with a two-compartment electric hoist. The rock is automaticaUj dumped into large hoppers, is weighed, and then falls into a steel- lined storage bin from which it is loaded directly by chutes into large cars, which are drawn by a locomotive to the mill.
The mine has a capacity of about 1,000 tons of crude gypsum daily, a considerable part of which is shipped to cement factories and the trade. Eock entering the mill passes through a large horizontal cylindrical revolving drier and then goes by belt conveyer to crushers and mills. The pulverized material is raised by bucket conveyer to bins, which discharge to six calcining kettles and to two rotary kilns, both 67 feet long. The plaster of Paris or stucco is cooled and then raised to bins from which it goes to different parts of the mill. Some
Figure 46. — Map showing Oakfield and Akron districts, Genesee and Erie.cofmtief, N. T.
goes to the mixing room, where different brands of plaster are made by mixing with sand, hair, or wood fiber; some to the block shop, where hollow gypsum blocks are made ; and some to the plaster-board mill. Plaster board one-quarter, three-eighths, and one-half inch thick is made in sheets 32 by 36 inches. Sheets of larger size aw made also.
Niagara Gypswm Co. — The mine and mill of this company are situated one-half mile west of the United States Gypsum Co.'s plant, or 2 miles west of Oakfield, on the West Shore Railroad. The mine is entered through a two-compartment shaft about 50 feet in depth. Electric power is used for drilling and mine traction, and an electric hoist raises the rock from the mine. At the mill the rock is crushed, elevated, cracked, and elevated again to the bins over the calciners. From the bins it passes into two large rotary Cummer calciners, each with a capacity of 15 tons an hour. The dust from the cal-
r
New York. 209
ciners is. collected in overhead bins and, togiher with the finished product from the calciners, is elevated and passes into the brick- lined cooling bins. After remaining in these bins 24 hours the ma- ' terial is ground. It is then elevated and carried to the mixing room or to the board or block mill. In the mixing rooms several brands of plaster are made. This company makes 2-ply plaster board and hollow plaster blocks for interior partitions. The mill and mine are operated day and night and have a capacity of 500 tons for each W hours.
Other occurrences in Genesee County. — Eight miles west of Oak- field and 1 to 2 miles west of lAdian Falls a 6-foot layer of gypsum is exposed along Tonawanda Creek. Above it lies an 8-foot layer of more impure and harder gypsum.
The deposits are included within the Tonawanda Indian Reserva- tion. In 1901 the Standard Plaster Co. secured the mineral right to the whole tract and began mining. Tunnels were driven into the 6-foot layer. The rock mined was loaded on flat mine cars and pushed by hand to the timnel entrance, jvhere the good gypsum was loaded on cars and the waste rock thrown on the dump. From the mines the rock was carried by a railroad switch to the main line of the West Shore Railroad, near Alabama, the switch being about 4 miles long. The rock was then sent to Black Rock, Buffalo, where the company had a mill equipped with a gyratory crusher and screen, one Cummer calciner, one cooling bin, and five Sturtevant emery mills. The power was electric. The mines are now abandoned. Undergroimd water and the presence of mud pockets are said to have been the main difficulties in the way of success.
The known gypsum beds of the Akron district begin 2 miles west of this locality. These will be discussed under Erie Coimty.
Erie County.
Distribution of the gypsum, deposits. — Although gypsum beds of good quality lio doubt occur below the Bertie limestone in Erie County, no definite information can be obtained of such deposits with the exception of those at Akron and those penetrated in the wells of the Buffalo Cement Co. at Buffalo.
The occurrence of gypsum at Buffalo was well established by the work of the Buffalo Cement Co. described by Ashbumer.
The Buffalo Cement Co. drilled a series of wells near the Main Street crossing of the Belt Line in search for gas. Well No. 1 was drilled to a depth of 490 feet 6 inches with a diamond drill. Well 0. 2 was drilled 6 feet from well No. 1 with a 5f-inch jump drill to a depth of 1,305 feet. The core of well No. 1 was placed in the cus-
124567*— 20 14
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
tody of the Buffalo Academy of Natural Sciences. The irecord of well No. 2 is given by Ashbumer as follows :
Record of tcetl No. 2 of Buffalo Cement Co. at Buffalo K, F.*
ThlclQiess.
tf0p&k.
Shale and cement rock in thin streaks.
TferaWy pure oexnent rock
Shale and cement rock in thin streaks.
Pm-e white gypsimi
Shale
Whit© gypsum
Shato
White g3rpsum..- i —
Shale{magypsimi, mottled
Prab shale with deveral layers of white ypaam, measuring feet in all.
Dark limestone
Shale and limestone
Dark-colored compact shale
Gypsum and shale, mottled and in streaks
Limestone '.
Soft red shalev -
White solid quartzose sandstone, veryhard
Soft red shale
Feet.
b
1,305
Ashbnrner, C. A., Petroleum and fiaturtil gas in New Pork : Am. Inst. Min. Bng. Tirafls., vol. 16, pp. 924-927, 1888.
A shaft 20 feet square was sunk on the premises later, for the pur- pose of determining the feasibility of mining the gypsum, but the rush of water through the gypsum layer at 43 to 47 feet was strong that a pump with a capacity of 2,000 gallons a minute failed to make any impression upon it, and the attempt was abandoned.
Since then no further effort to exploit the gypsum has been made, though by reason of its quality and situation it seems to offer an attractive field, which would warrant more thorough investigation than has been given to it.
About 2 miles southwest of Akron a test hole was put down a few years ago, which encountered a bed of white rock. The locality of the hole is the Flint farm, near the crossing of the West Shore and New York Central (Batavia branch) railroads.
The Akron gypsum "basin," as it is locally termed, is situated northeast of the village of Akron or 20 miles east of Buffalo. The productive area lies south of the West Shore Railroad, with which connections are made by long switches.
The boundaries of the workable bed or beds of gypstim have beea rather well defined by the sinking of shafts and core-drill holes. The basin is 2 miles long and its greatest width is 1 mile. The deposit is pear shaped, and the small end lies just west of the Anterican Cement Plaster Co.'s shaft and the large end east of the American Gypsum Co.'s plant.
The bed of gypsum as mined consists of a 4 to 5 foot bed of light- colored crystalline or granular gypsum. It is overlain by 25 to 50
fe oi niy bedded ii&ptire limtones, and these in turn are rather hrily corered by a matte of glacial clay ranging from a few feet ftp to 25 feet in thicknese.
Two firMd baire operated mines and mills at Akron in recent years.
American Gfpmjmi Tliis company operates a large crushing {rfuBt and mines mile northeai of Akron on ih& boundary line between Genesee and Erie counties, the lands on which it own min- e?al rits being situated on both sides of the line. The mine is efftered by means of a diaft 60 feet deep. This shaft is divided into three compartments, one 5 by 8 feet for air passage and stairway ; ene (J by 8 feet for passenger elevator ; and one fJ by 8 feet accommo- dating the bucket elevator. Mining is carried on underground mueh- te in coal mines, the most approved methods being employed to se- rare economy wid safety. The gangways are carried 6 feet high and am wide enough to admit of using the 2 feet of barren rocli taken from below the gypsum bed for supporting wall on either side of the gangway. The rooms are driven 24 feet wide by 300 feet long their height is simply the thickness of the vein, or 4 feet. Pillars 24 feet wide and alternately 40 or 60 leet long are left, each being separated by a 20- foot crosscut. GkK)d ventilation is afforded by the iBe of ft 9-foot exhaust fan* Air drills are used. The air c<Mn- preBsor also furnishes power for the pump at the bottom of the shaft.
The mine is lighted by electricity. 'At the foot of the shaft the mine car* are dumped into a steel hopper from which the rock is raised in a bucket elevator to the mill overhead. The elevator is 110 feet long, has 175 buckets, and travels 80 feet per minutew The rock B thus hoisted into the mill built directly over the shaft, and is dis- charged into a crusher. After crushing it is screened and all material over 1 inch in si is reetevated to the crusher. The crushed rock is then ready for shipment, the whole product being sold crude to ce- ment factories. The dust arising from* the grinding is carried by s>iteti(m through pipes into a series of long vertical cloth sacks, where the air escapes and the dust remains on the inner surface of the sack. At intervals the bags are shaken and the dust allowed to collect at the bottom. No use has been made of the dust, though it seems adapted for certain purposes by reason of its fineness and nearly pre- white color*
All machinery in both mine and mill is driven by electric power from Niagara Falls. In 1909 a second aft 64 feet deep had been Jukk 1,420 feet west of the working shaft,
Americem Cement Plaster Co. — The mill of this company is situ- ated 1 mile northeast of Akron on the Bloomingdale road. The mine skaft is southeast of ih mill and is connected with it by a narrow- gage gravity railroad. Active operations were begun in the fall of
212 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
1908. The mine is entered by a two-compartment shaft 84 feet deep. Drilling is done by compressed air. The mine is worked by a sys- tem that is based on the old method of extraction by means of diating gangways which center at the shaft. Pillars are left 30 feet apart and about 10 feet thick. The mine cars are pushed to the bot- toia of tlie shaft by hand. The gypsmn bed as mined ranges from to 5 feet thick.
When first opened 4,000 gallons of water a minute were pumped from, the shaft, and although the flow has been greatly reduced the mine is quite wet No forced ventilation is employed, a small airway on the east side of the shaft giving sufficient air. The miM cars brought to the bottom of the shaft are run directly on the pla form of the hoist and are raised to the surface by a small drum hoist working in balance and driven by a steam engine. The cai are raised to a level above the ground and are dumped either directly into 2-ton steel cars on a gravity track or are dumped on the reserve pile. These cars are run by gravity to the mill and aw hauled back in a striQg by a horse. At the mill, which is just nortli of the Bloomingdale road, the cars are hauled up an incline and dumped automatically into a jaw crusher. From this crusher the material passes directly to a cracker of the usual type, which re- duces it to pieces the size of hickory nuts. It is then elevated and distributed to five 42-inch French burrstones, where it is groimd to a fine powder. It is then screened on a 60-mesh brass shaking screen inclined at an angle of 45, and all material above 60 mesh is returned and reground. Screw conveyers carry the ground mafeml to three 10-ton kettles. The dust arising during calcining is cauglt in steam-filled chambers and returned to the kettles. From tie ket ties the plaster is conveyed to a large storage bin holding 900 to Some of this 60-mesh stucco is sold to outside companies for mixin?' and some is reground on tliree 36-in'ch Munson burrstone mills, that it is practically of 100 mesh and is thus sold for fine finisb* ing plaster. The plant is equipped with two five-compartment mixers and makes wall plasters with hair and wood fiber. The company manufactures its own supply of wood* fiber, obtain- ing the wood, mostly poplar, willow, and basswood, from the neigl- boring farmers. The wood is shredded on an improved wood-fite machine. The hair used is washed goats' hair and is purchased i bales. The sand is obtained from the company's pit situated do98 by the mill. The wood fiber made is mixed in the proportion otl ton of stucco to 30 pounds of wood fiber and 10 pounds of retarder. The wall plaster containing hair is mixed in the proportion of I of stucco to 3 pounds of hair and is then ready for the sand. Ea*
Kew York. 213
ground gypsum from the burrstones is also sold as land plaster to nurseries, experimental stations, and fertilizer firms. Power for th© entire plant is furnished by engines run with natural gas. The capacity of the mill is 300 tons of plaster a day.
Physical And Chemical Chabacteb Of The Gypsum.
Within thet long stretch of Salina strata from Madison County to Erie County* are included gypsum deposits of different physical and chemical characters. These variations are conditioned mainly by the relative proportions and nature of impurities present and to a lesser extent by the different conditions in which the gypsum itself is found.
Though the deposits all belong to the general class of rock gypsum, from the descriptions of the individual deposits already given it is possible to distinguish two types that seem to be separate in their occurrence and may have originated under somewhat different con- ditions. The first of these types is represented by the dense firm gypsum in which the impurities are evenly distributed so as to give the appearance of a more or less homogeneous mass. This type comprises the usual rock gypsum, which forms the basis of the cal- cined plaster industry in New York and in most places elsewhere. It consists of a groundmass of finely divided gypsum fibers or elongated acicular crystals in felted arrangement, with 9. few larger individuals that stand out prominently by their brilliant cleavage surfaces (PI. XXIV, J., p. 196). The other type is characterized by a loosely cemented aggregate of gypsum and shale, the two con- stituents being plainly discernible. The gypsum occurs usually in large crystals or crystal aggregates, which by themselves are trans- parent and quite free from impurities. The deposits of this type are built up of successive thin layers of the selenite and shale. When the mass is exposed to the weather the shale decomposes quickly and falls away from the gypsum, so that in outcrops it may have the semblance of a high-grade deposit. This type is known to the gypsum miners as "ashes," owing probably to the grayish color and powdery nature of the shale. It was quite extensively worked at one time for land plaster but is evidently unsuitable for calcination.
The chemical composition of the gypsum found in different sec- tions of the Salina outcrop is shown by the accompanying detailed analyses of samples, which represent the run-of-mine gypsum as now utilized, having been collected from the stock bins of the dif- ferent mills. The analyses were made by G, E. Willcomb,
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Amitp9e9 Of ffvpsum from Erie, Genaee MonrCf and Onon4a§ eoimlie*, N, 7.
fiiOs
i.oe
i.sa
*7.53
14. S3
4.
AljOa
FejOj
l.U
CuO :
29. as
MgO
80s
COj
H0
Gtt>sufti cal$ulated
M.28
77.W
1. Akron, Erie County.
2. Oakdeld, Genesee County.
3. Oakfletd, Genesee County.
4. (}arbutt, Movoe Cooiity.
5. Lyndon, Onondaga Ccfaskty, 6w LyadioB, Onoodafa Ooiaty.
The following incomplete analyses are from the paper by Arthur L. Parsons,* with the exception of the la one, which is taken from a report by D. H. NeAvland :
Incomplete analyses of gypsum from Monroe, Cayuga Onondaga, and 3fado
counties, N. Y.
Wheatland, Miroe Cotaity .
Do
Do
Union Spriags, Cayuga Cotfnty Fayette \ille, Onondaga County,..
Do
Cottons, Madison County
James vUle. Onondaga County
Gyp-
SUfil.
SiBca and in- soluble matter.
Other matter.
Remarks.
MgCOs, 3.6.
inclttdM CftCOf, 1.75
Analysis fumUfaed by Iroquois Partksd
Cemit Co. AiAlysis furnished by CoMMdidcitcd 'Wtot<
land Plaster Co.
"Other matter" includes AljOrfFejOj, 1.84; CaCOa, 6.57; ltoC0, 5.07.
"Other matter" includes AljOj+FeiOj, 2.92; CaCOs, 3.33; MgCO, 2.69.
The analyses indicate that the gypsnm content of the rock rangw between the general limits of 64 or 65 per cent and 95 pw ceiA The grade apparently improves toward the western €nd of the sec- tion, in Gtenesee and Erie counties, whene the average is above 90 per cent. The rock in this part is also the lightest dn color %sA yields nearly white plar.
The impurities of the rock are such as might be expected the stratigraphic associations. The principal foreign ingredients are lime and magnesia carbonates, clay, and quartz. Most of the irWi shown by the analyses is probably present in the clay. The high percentage of magnesia in the rock of the eastern section is a striking feature, since it appirs to be greatly in excess of the proportions f oimd in dolomites. The presence of free carbonate is ttius indioatci
iNew York State Oeologist Twenty-third Ann. Rept., 104.
The mining and quarry industry of New York State ; report of operations and produc- tion during 1007 : New York State Mus. Bull. 120, p. 34, 1908.
IJfBW YORK. 2i6
FUTUBlS OiP THE GYPStTlt lNJ>trSTBY.
The supply of gypsum available can tiot be calculated from the data at hand. Little exploration has been undertaken outside the areas mined, the resources of which within moderate distances of the outcrop have so far been ample to meet the demands. In no place have the deposits been followed for more than a mile from their northerly limit or under such cover that they could not be worked by vertical shafts 100 feet or less in depth.
On the assumption that the yield of gypsum to the acre is approxi- mately 2,000 tons for each foot of thickness of the bed, the total production since the outset of mining operations in the State, about 9,000,000 tons, represents the approximate equivalent of 125 acres of the thickest beds in central Kew York, and a little more than 1,000 acres of the average bed that is worked in the western counties. For a district that extends over 100 miles in length, the area thus represented seems rather insignificant.
A somewhat different aspect of the matter is presented, however, if the later period of production and development, covered by the growth of the calcining industry, is alone considered. Practically one-half of the total production of the State has been made in the last fifteen years, and the present annual production is more than 500,000 tons. Nearly all this material has been mined in the western part of the district, in Monroe, Genesee, and Erie counties, where the gypsum is more suitable for the manufacture of calcined plaster. In that section probably about 75 acres of gypsum land is worked out each year. If this production is continued for many years it will seriously affect the resources of rock along the outcrop and compel the extension of exploratory work to the south, down the dip of the beds. Just what conditions will be found in that direction can not be forecasted with certainty. It is safe to say, however, that the costs of mining will be measurably increased.
In general, at short distances from the outcrop the gypsum beds in the western area dip below the ridge or escarpment formed by the Onondaga limestone, and their depth increases rapidly to 300 feet or more. So far as the writer is aware, little attention has been given to exploration south of this escarpment, and until some systematic work of that character has been carried out it is impossible to esti- mate the available supplies. Many gas and salt wells have been put down in this area, but their records apparently do not attempt any discrimination between anhydrite and gypsum. Careful examination the material excavated from some of the salt shafts 10 or 15 miles or more to the south of the outcrop has shown that owing to the heavy overburden the deposit has the composition of anhydrite.
216 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Obigin Oe The Deposits.
There is no doubt that the gypsum of the Salina formation has been deposited by evaporation of surface waters and is an integral part of the stratified succession. This view is advocated or tacitly implied in most descriptions of the New York gypsum deposits that have already been published, though it has not escaped criticism. The evidence in favor of this mode of origin to the exclusion of others may be summarized under the following heads: (1) Form and structure of deposits; (2) Associations of the gypsum; (3) Bio- logic conditions in Salina time.
(1) The occurrence of the gypsum in thin lenses which are oi the same degree of continuity as the inclosing strata indicates an ac- cumulation concordant with the salt, shales, and limestone of the Salina. The lenses, in most places at least, thin out very gradually, showing only moderate changes of thickness as they are traced from place to place and few irregularities not common to sediments in general. If the gypsum was formed by the reaction of acid waters upon limestone, variations in form like those found in replacement deposits of metallic minerals would be expected. The type of de- posits in which the gypsum occurs as nodular masses with a thickness nearly equal to the horizontal dimensions, as figured by Hall and represented in Dana's "Manual of mineralogy," is certainly the exception and not the rule and is the result probably of solution of the larger masses by underground waters.
The undisturbed condition* of the beds as generally observed is also against any theory of secondary deposition either by reaction upon limestone or by precipitation from ground waters. The change from limestone to gypsum involves an increase of 90 per cent in the volume, which would hardly occur without general disturb- ance of the adjacent strata. The beds, also, are not faulted or frac- tured so as to permit the easy circulation of waters in the vertical direction.
(2) The close relation of the gypsum to the salt deposits is such as would be expected from the evaporation of sea water. Though the fact that the salt underlies the main gypsum 'beds, whereas the re- verse is the natural order, seems to controvert this view, an ex- planation of the occurrence may be found without recourse to ex- traordinary conditions of evaporation and supply of the sea water. If the waters of that time held approximately the same relative pro- portions of salts in solution as the ocean of the present day, their evaporation would afford 1 part gypsum to more than 20 of salt. As gypsum occurs interbedded with the salt and probably distributed more or less through the Vernon shale below the salt, this relative amount may well be present in its normal order. The
New York. 217
*eIations indicate, however, that the process of evaporation while he first gypsum and salt were laid down was subject to frequent ricissitudes from the influx of new supplies of sea water into the )asins. After the salt had been precipitated by repeated evapora- ions the process was suspended for a time, during which the basins vere probably invaded by land drainage and shales were accumu- ated in considerable thickness. A renewal of the early conditions vith a fresh supply of sea water started the precipitation of gypsum igain, but this time the process was not continued long enough ipparently to bring down salt, or if it was precipitated it was re- lissolved before the overlying strata were formed.
Both the salt and the main gypsum beds occur at the same respec- :ive horizons throughout their extent. The main gypsum beds are found only in the Camillus shale and are generally limited to the upper section. In the western part of the State they are capped 3y limestone which shows no evidence of alteration by ground waters, and there are layers of unchanged limestone intercalated in the shale. There seems to be no adequate explanation for any selective action on the part of the limestone whereby certain beds were more prone to alteration than others.
(3) Variations in the character of the Salina strata are accom- panied by marked fluctuations in the abundance of fossil remains. The preceding Niagara group is characterized by a fairly prolific and varied fauna which has, however, a peculiar development that is connected by paleontologists with changes of physical surround- ings. The Pittsford shale at the base of the Salina contains a very different fauna that is characterized by eurypterids. Throughout the succeeding intervals represented by the Vernon shale, Syracuse salt, and Camillus shale, there is little or nothing to be found in the 'ay of fossil remains, and only in the Bertie limestone, at the close of the Salina, do they reappear and are then represented by an as- semblage related to that of the Pittsford shale. The lack of fossils in the gypsum beds may be explainable, perhaps, as the result of solution and breaking down of the strata by underground circula- tions, but this theory fails to account for their absence in the shales and unchanged limestones, which aggregate many hundreds of feet in thickness. This circumstance as well as the other facts regarding the fauna of Salina time becomes intelligible, however, when con- nected with the vicissitudes that life must encounter in sea waters of fluctuating salinity.
Ohio.
By J. A. BowNocKB.
XiOCATXOlf ATft TTSlCtLmSS OF DSP05IT8.
For many years Ohio has been a large producer of gypsum and in 1918 ranked fourth among the States in quantity and also in -value of gypsum produced. The extent of development and the growth of the industry are shown by the following figures: In 1885 the value of the gypsum produced was $27,662; in 1895 it was $71,204; in 1915 it was $772,520; and in 1918 it was $1,239,649,
The production in 1917 was 270,538 short tons, most of which was calcined and sold for wall plaster. In 1918 the production was only 199,456 short tons* Four companies were operating gypsum quarries and mills in Ohio in 1918>
Gypsum deposits underlie a broad area in Ohio but are restricted to one Silurian formation, the Monroe, which consists primarily of dolomitic limestone with interbedded layers of sandstone and in places of gypsum.
Although the only deposits of gypsum ever worked in Ohio are along the nortti and south shores of Sandusky Bay (PL XXV), Orton says:
At various other points gypm Is in the outcrops of the [U&aMl formation, and notably in the vicinity of Sylvania, Lucas County, while in ik deep wells recently drilled through noFthem and central Ohio, it is the excef tion to miss deposits of gypsum in the samples of drillings. The last ca reported is 3 feet of pure fibrous gypsum from a depth of 150 feet at Upfw Sandusky.
Orton reports gypsum also at different distances from 30 to IW feet below the surface at Port Clinton, and it has since been found in a shaft on the Barnes farm at Locust Point, north of Oak Harbor. In a deep well drilled in 1886 at Sandusky, the driller reported? feet of gypsum at a depth of 272 feet and thinner beds " at many other points in the next 800 feet." Samples of drillings from wells in central and southeastern Ohio have not thus far disclosed gypsni, and Prosser states that he has not found this mineral in the outcrops of the Monroe formation in southern Ohio. Though' it appears that the area underlain hj gypsum is large, it seems probable that tbe
1 Orton, Edward, Gypsum or land plaster in Ohio : Ohio Geol. Survey Kept,, vol 6, ? 697, 1888.
omo. 219
lepoit h too tiiin or at too great to be mined except along r near the lake shore west of Sandusky, and even there only two omparatively small areas have been actually tested. The following ecords show the succession of gypsum and limestone in this locality:
ection measured hy Orton in old "plaster'' quarry near shore of Sattdusky
Bay, ij mUes southwest of Gypsum OJiio
Pt. iti.
Drift clays (lertl of tmy, 8 feet betow snrface) 12-14
Gray roche cnrrytng larrd plaster 5
Blue shale 6
Boulder bed crtrrylng g y in separate masses em- bedded In sb.tly ttmestone 5
Blue Hmeone In thin and even courses 1
Mahi plaster bed - 7
Gray limestone in thin conrses 1
Lowest plaster bed, variable 3- 5
Mixed limestone and plaster, bottom of quarry; water enters here in quantity.
About 1 mile due west of Gypsum the g'psum has been found at jveral places, and a test hole on the land of N. W. Payne shows the )llowing' section :
Record of test hole oil land of N. W. Payne, 1 mile west of Gypsnm, Ohio.
Ft. in.
Glacial drift 25
Limestone 7
Gypsum G
Wxnestone 1 8
Gypsum 7 2
Limestone 4 11
Gypflrtifn 2
Limestone 2 9
Gypsum and limestone 11
limestone , 2 -
Gypsum 6
Limestone 1 6
Gypsum - 1
Limestone 1 10
Gypsum .— — 2
Limestone . 1 2
The bed 7 feet 2 inches thick that lies less than 10 feet below the lacial drift is quarried extensively in this vicinity. Tlie G-foot bed ?ar the base of the test hole may be quarried if the upper bed ever
exhausted.
Orton, Edward, op. cit., p. 698
222 . Gypsum Deposits Of 'The United States.
later the adjacent plant was closed for the same Reason. The bed of psum mined by these companies is reported to have ranged in thickness from 5 to 8 feet.
The American Gypsum Co. erected a plant about 1 mile west ©f Gypsum and began operations in January, 1907. In 1910 tbe Fishack Gypsum Co. built a mill half a mile northwest of Qjp&tf and in 1914 it became th& property of the Amwican Cement Plarijftr Co. The last mill of this kind establiehed-in Ohio is the proper the Kelly Plaster Co. and is located about 3 miles north of Castlilii on the south side of Sandusky Bay* The company reports hMlpf had 40 acres tested with the core drill and in. this manner has p i o f ai l an adequate supply of the rock. This is the first and only mill on the south side of the bay and hence marks a real extension of the field.
IEVELOMEOT? IN ldl8.
By R. W. Stonb.
Gypsum was quarried and milled by four companies in 1918, thre working on the north side oi Sandusky Bay and one on the south side.
The American Cement Plaster Co. has a mine and mill half a mile north of Gypsum, a station on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Bailway. A bed of gj'psum which lies 46 feet below the surface and runs very evenly about 6 feet thick is being worked by a slope. Cars are gathered by mules and hauled to th surface by a cable. The usual method' of milling is followed, and the product is mainly waU pla.ster.
The American Gypsum Co.'s plant is 1 mile west of Gypsum on the south side of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway. The mine, which is at the mill, is entered by a vertical shaft. Two gyp- stim beds are being worked. The upper bed, 34 feet below the sw- f ace, is 7 fe thick, and the lower one is 11 feet thick but inclteJM a little hard shale or limestone. These two beds are separated wy 8 to 10 feet of limestone, including a thin bed of gypsum. PttMJ- tically all the mine haulage is by electric motor. This e<Mni>any fe making gypsum tile as well as wall plaster.
The United States Gypsum Co.'s ptperty is on the shore of Safr- dusky Bay, 1 mile south of Gypsum. Old quarries along the silwre on the upper bed are full of water. Part of this bed was mined frera entries driven from the quarries. The present work is on a second bed 42 feet below the first. This lower bed is 10 to 15 feet thick and divided near the middle by 6 to 18 inches of limestone. The upper bench of this bed is gray mottled gypsum and the lower bench is for the most part pure white, thou it contains some mottled rock. The white and gray rock are mixed in mining.
T. s. QBOLooiCAi. a
i OF UNITED STATES GYPSOM CO. AT GYPSUM. OHIO.
med workinga on upper bod and inclinH tn Inwer bed. PhoUigrBpb by R. W.
Photograph bf E, F. BurchanL
Ohio. 223
The cars are gathered by mules and moved up the slope to the top of the crusher house by an automatic rope haulage system. (See PI. XXVI, A.) The mill is at the mine, and is making gypsum plaster and tile. —
The Kelly Plaster Co. is the only one on the south side of San- dusky Bay. The mine and mill are 2J miles northwest of Castalia. The aft, whidi is 73 feet deep, passes through more than 30 feet of gypsum, as shown in the record of a drill h(de givi on page 220. A bed of gray gypum 17 feet thick is left, and 12 to 14 feet of white gypsum lying below it is mined. This white gypsum contains an irregular lenticular layer of shale or flinty rock 18 inches in maxi- mum thickness, which has to be gobbed. The rock which is mined is white and granular. A small quantity of alabaster has been found here but no seliite or satin spar. A 8-foot bed of gypsum lying just below the floor of the mine is as yet untowjhed. . The mine has been opened so short a time that it is small. Haulage is by mules ; electric and air drills are used. The product of the mill is sold both crude and csdcmed.
Oklahoma.
By L. C. Snideb. CHABACTEB AND EXTENT.
The gypsum deposits of Oklahoma are in the western part of the State in the " Red Beds " area, which extends into Texas to the south and into Kansas to the north. The gypsmn attains its maximum development in the portion of this area that lies in Oklahoma, where beds which reach a thickness of 60 feet can be traced for consid- erable distances. There are also large deposits of gypsite.
The gypsum occurs in different forms. Rock gypsum probably predominates, but the ledges grade into selenite gypsum, locally very coarsely crystalline. Veins of satin spar and selenite are abundant in the red clays near the heavy gypsum beds, and irregularly shaped concretions are found at horizons considerably below the heavy beds. The gypsite deposits are commonly on low-level lands or in valleys near the thick beds of rock or selenitic gypsum. Anhydrite is fairly abundant. It is present for the most part as irregular masses in the gypsum, but in some places forms definite bands or layers. In only a few places is the anhydrite sufficiently abundant to interfere with the utilization of the gypsum.
Geologic Belations.
The gypsums of Oklahoma form a part of the great series of rocks which are generally known as the "Red Beds." The greater portion of the " Red Beds " in Oklahoma are of Permian age and all the gypsums occur in rocks of that age.
The section of the Permian rocks, as worked out by Gould, is as
follows :
Section of the Permian rocks in Oklahoma. „
Feet.
Quartermaster formation, soft, red sandstones with
arenaceous clays and shales 300
Greer formation, red clays, shales, and sandstones
with beds of gypsum and magnesium limestone or
dolomite 150-300
Woodward formation:
Day Creek dolomite 3±
Whitehorse sandstone 1 175-200
Dog Creek shales 30±
1 The age of the " Red Beds " is further discussed In Oklahoma Geol. Survey Bull 11. pp. 107-114, 1913.
a Gould, C. N., Geology and water resources of Oklahoma : U. S. Geol. Survey. Water- Supply Paper 148, pp. 34-77, 1905.
V S N V a H V
Q0Ix3M M3N
Okiahoma 225
Blaine formation, tliree gypsum members, tlie Fergu- son, Medicine Lodge, and Shlmer, witli intervening shales 75-100
Knid formation, red sliales and clays witli thin, len- ticular red sandstones and bands of white sand 1, 200-1, 500
Of these formations the Blaine and the Greer contain the gyp- sum deposits. The distribution and stratigraphy of these forma- tions is given in some detail under the description of the localities.
Localities.
For convenience of discussion the gypsum deposits in Oklahoma are considered to occur in three areas — (1) the main line of gypsum hills, along Cimarron Eiver, in the northwestern portion of the State; (2) the second line of gypsum hills, in the west-central portion; and (3) the southwestern gypsum hills, in the extreme southvrestern portion. These areas are shown on the map (PL XXVII).
Main Line Of Gypsum Hills. Gtpsxtm Deposits.
The main line of gypsum hills is produced by the outcA>p of the Blaine formation, which consists of three beds of gypsum sep- arated by red shales. Of the three beds the lowest one is known as the Ferguson gypsum member; the middle as the Medicine Ltodge gypsum member; and the uppermost as the Shimer gypsum member.
The line of hills enters Oklahoma from Kansas along the south side of Salt Fork of Arkansas River; then crosses Cimarron River near the Kansas line and extends southeast along the south side, gradually falling back from the river until the hills and the gyp- sum beds die out in Canadian County. The extreme southeastern ex- tension of the hills lies nearer to the North Fork of Canadian River than to the Cimarron, but the escarpment faces the Cimarron.
Near the Kansas line, in Woods, Harper, and Woodward coun- ties, the three gypsum beds are present, but the shales between them are thin, and the outcrop commonly gives the impression that there are only one or two beds. All three gypsums are entirely selenitic, the individual crystals reaching about 2 inches in dimen- sion. This coarsely crystalline texture renders the beds porous and easily penetrated by water. Consequently the effects of solu- tion are very marked. Sink holes and caverns are common, and in many places one or more of the beds is entirely removed at the surface and does not outcrop for considerable distances. As a result
124567**— 20 15
226 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
of solution the outcrops are very irregular and patchy. (See PL XXVIII, A,) The thickness of the Blaine formation in this vicin- ity is between 50 and 75 feet, of which half or more is of gypsum.
To the southeast, in Major County, the gypsum changes in char- acter, becoming finer grained from northwest to southeast, so that at the Blaine County line the selenitic phase is almost entirely re- placed 'by dense rock gypsum. With this change the effects of solu- tion become less prominent and the outcrops of the three beds aw much more distinct and regular.
The outcrop continues to the south and east across Blaine County with* little change in the stratigraphy The gypsum beds thin scene- what, and the intervening clays are a little tJiicker. The Medicine Lodge gypsum contains considerable anhydrite. Near the eastern boundar} of Blaine County the gypsums thin and become lenticular, finally dying out in northern Canadian County, north of El Eeno.
The nature of the Blaine formation is shown in the following sec- tions, given in order from northwest to southeast:
Section on Yellowstone Creek ii tnile8 southeast of Kingman, Woods Cottnfji,
Okla.
Feet.
ft. Gypsum (Shimer), top eroded 8
5. Covered, probably red and green shale 12
4. Gypsum (Medicine Lodge) 8
8. Covered, probably red and green shale 7
2. Gypsum (Ferguson) 18
I. Covered, probably shale 34
Nos. 2 to 6, inclusive, make up the Blaine formation. All gypsum is selenitic.
Section on West Barney Creek, Major County, OkUt,
Peet
13. Gypsum (Shimer), top eroded 8
12. Honeycombed dolomitic sandstone 2
II. Covered, probably iale ' 17
10. Gypsum (Medicine Lodge) with about 6 inches of anhy- drite near middle 10
9. Covered, probably shale 13
8. Gypsum (Ferguson) 11
7. Greenish dolomitic sandstone .
0L Green sandy shale__l j
5. Red shale with many thin bands of green ale and
satin spar lA"
4. Selenitic sandstone J '
3. Red and green shales 9
2. Shale and soft sandstone, red and green, cross-bedded,
gypslferous 81
1. Covered, probably shale 41
Nos. 8 to 13, inclusive, make up the Blaine formation.
;, OEOLOOICAL StTBTBT
b
Obxahoma- 227
Sedion near Bickfortl, Blaine Ccuutif, Okia.
Feet.
6. Gypsum (Shimer), top erofled 14
5. Red and green shale 32"
4, Gypsum (Medicine Lodge) :
Oypsom
Anhydrite 2
Gypsum 6
3. Hed and green shales 32
2. Gypsum (Ferguson) 5-6
1. Red shales 70
Nos. 2 to 6 inclusive make up the Blaine formation. The gyp- um is fine-grained rock gypsum, and the anhydrite division of the Medicine Liodge is quite constant in this vicinity.
'tion 2 miles test of Altona nnd 1 mile icest of line beUoeen Blaine and
Kinp fisher couniies, Okla.
7. Gypsum (Medicine Lodge), top removed by erosion 3
6. White dolomltic sandstone - 2
5. Red and green shales 16
4. Gypsum and anhydrite, with satin spar beneath 3
3. Red and green shale 18
2. Gypsum (Ferguson), selenitic 3
1, Red and green shale - 21
The Shimer gypsum is absent in this region, but the dolomitic andstone, which occurs beneath it to the northwest, is continued as a hick blue and white magnesian limestone, locally fossiliferous.
0TPfiZTE BEPOSITS.
Gypsite deposits are common along the first line of gypsum hills, )tit most of those so far known are very small. The only ones feveloped as yet are in Blaine County, north of Watonga. These >eds in the aggregate cover more than 100 acres, and the gypsite iverages 6 to 8 feet thick. The material has been utilized by mills it "Watonga, Bickford, and Okeene.
gUOOND LINE OF GTPSTJM HILLS. OTPS7M BEPOSITS.
Although generally g5)oken of as a line of hills, the gypsum out- crops of this region do not form a single prominent escarpment, like the outcrop of the Blaine formation just described, but rather a series of low, rounded knolls and ridges. The gypsum beds are present in the lower part of the Greer formation. The rocks of this formation are principally soft clay shales, with some soft sand- stone and lenticular masses of gypsum. Some of the lenses of gyp- sum are of considerable extent and thickness, but there are no well- defined beds which can be traced for many miles like those in
228 Gypsum Deposits Of The Xtntted States.
Blaine formation. The gypsum varies from fine-grained rock gyp- sum to coarsely selenitic gypsum, and from white to red and greai in color.
The area here called the second line of gypsum hills includes parts of Dewey, Ellis, Roger Mills, Custer, Washita, Caddo, Co- manche, Grady, and Stephens counties.
In the northern part of the area, in Dewey County, and in the small portions of Ellis and Roger Mills counties which contain gypsum, the beds are, for the most part, thin and lenticular. Though the total amount of gypsum present is great there is probably very little which can be considered as available under present condi- tions of transportation and markets. The only locality obsened in these counties where conditions seem at all favorable for devel- opment is at Camargo, where a bed about 4 feet thick outcrops along the Wichita Falls & Northwestern Railway.
The important deposits in this area are in the eastern portions of Custer and Washita counties. Beginning at Weatherford, in south- eastern Custer County, and extending southward along Washiti River, in Washita County, is an area that contains thick beds of gyp- sum. Near Weatherford the outcrops of beds which are as much as 50 feet in thickness and which would require very little stripping can be reached by short spurs from the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway.
In eastern Washita County the gypsum occurs at two horizons, but the beds at both horizons are more or less lenticular. In many localities, however, beds 40 to 60 feet thick may be traced for 1 or 3 miles. The gypsum is mostly massive rock gypsum, but selenitic gypsum is not uncommon. The lowest beds are hard and in place? contain anhydrite. Several localities in this area can be reached bj spurs, 2 to 4 miles in length, from the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway. In the westward extension of the gypsum area in the southern part of the county three distinct ledges occur. These ledges range in thickness from 15 to 20 feet. The upper and lower ledges are massive rock gypsum, and the middle one contains anhydrite.
The deposits in Caddo, Comanche, and Grady counties are the southeastward extension of those in Washita County just described The beds become thinner and more lenticular to the southeast, so that there are very few, if any, localities in these counties where th deposits of rock gypsum are commercially valuable.
Gypsite Deposits.
Important deposits of gypsite occur at Indianapolis, in County, at Cement, in Caddo County, and at Rush Springs, in Gnij County. The bed at Indianapolis is between 60 and 90 acres in
Oklahoma. 229
extent and has a maximum thickness of 18 feet. This bed has not been developed. The beds at Cement originally covered about 40 acres and had a maximum thickness of about 12 feet. The gypsita from these beds was used in a plaster mill at Cement, whidi was burned in 1911. The greater part of the deposits has been used, and there is probably not enough material remaining to justify rebuild- ing the mill. The deposits at Kush Springs cover more than 50 acreff and have an average thickness of about 8 feet. The material has been, utilized for plaster at a large plant near Rush Springs.
Southwestern Area. Gtpsxtm Deposits.
The southwestern gypsum area lies in the extreme southwestern portion of the State, in Beckham, Greer, Jackson, and Harmon coun- ties. The area is probably the southwestward continuation of the second line of gypsum hills, and the gypsum beds seem to lie at the same horizon as those to the east — that is, in the Greer formation. However, the beds form well-defined, continuous ledges, especially in the northern part of the area. The outcrop forms a steep escarp- ment, rising above a plain of red shales (see PI. XXVIII, 5), and is more like the outcrop of the gypsum beds of the Blaine forma- tion, the first line of gypsum hills, than it is like the eastern por- tion of the outcrop of the Greer formation, the second line of hills.. The transition from the eastern portion of the outcrop of the Greer formation, in which the lenticular gypsum beds form low rounded knobs, to the western portion, in which the well-defined gyp- sum beds form a steep escarpment, probably takes place in the belt along the south side of Washita County, where there are three beds which are continuous for a considerable distance.
In southern Beckham County, in northern Greer County, and in the northernmost township of Harmon County there are five dis- tinct gypsum members in the Greer formation. From the base up these are the Chaney, Kiser, Haystack, Cedartop, and Collingsworth gypsum members.
The Chaney gypsum member in the western part of Greer County is a hard, massive layer 3 to 5 feet thick, generally white but locally gray or blue, and in places distinctly cross-bedded. To the east the bed thins and finally becomes only a gypsiferous band in the red shale
The Kiser gypsum, member is variable in character and thickness. Ially it is selenitic, but in other places it is quite shaly. The color IS generally drab or bluish. The thickness ranges from 1 to 3 feet.
The Haystack gypsum member is massive, is white to gray, and ranges from 18 to 25 feet in thickness. Thin bands of gypsiferous
4S6 Gypsum Deposits Of United States.
saAdsixxie occur locally. The bed is so ynmAjcd that it weathers islo rectmagnlar blocks, wSiitii in plAces cD\ier th>e sk>es f -oofoddrsiik dkiattoes below tbe ontcr<Gf> of tbe bed.
The Oedartop psuin memb:* is a inassive wbite gjrpsvuai 18 to 20 feet thick ai very milaar to the Haystack.
The Ooili&gsworth gypsiusi meaob&r is of practkmllj the same thickness ;as the Oedartop aad very similar to it aaid to tlie Haystack gypsum. In many plac its otUcrop has been eroded.
These gypsum beds onscuotisly oai the noith side of North Fork of Red River, in southeastern Beckham County, cross the river, and also the divides between North Fork and Elm Fork, and form a deep canyon in whidi Elm Fork flows eastward from the Texas line for about 13 miles.
Farther south the gypsum ledges lose their identity, and the south- em portion of the area more nearly resembles the second line of gypsum hills. In southern Greer County the only notable outcrops are those on Salt Fork of Red River opposite Mangom. The greater part of Harmon County is very level, and exposures of gypsum are too rare to give an idea of the extent or thickness of the beds. Their presence is shown, however, in sink holes and in wells.
In western Jackson County the gypsums are more prominent than in southern Harmon County but much less so than along NTorth and Elm forks of Red River. The stratigraphy is very irregular. The best exposures are on Horse Branch and Boggy Creek.
The following sections give the details of die stratigraphy in dif- ferent parts of the southwestern gypsum area :
Secinon ©/ *7jf)r on north side ij/ Nm-tJt F&rk t>f ReiS. Riner S mUet momth of
Carter, BeckJuim ComiAy, OTcla,
ftoigb, weathered, aficly <letomi <cflppii) the hii hills
(Mangmn dolomite member) 3
Red and green gypslferous shale-- 24
Massive white gypsum toUingsworth) 2S
Red and green shale 6
Massive white gypsum (Cedartop) IS
Ked and gre shale 15
Massive white gypsum, in piaces contaiaing thin Jetifs of
sandstone (Haystack) 25
Reddl and green shale 24
Ch-eenlsh gypsum i&yeacB and gypsifere\t ha*e. becfmiflg
hard locally (Chaney) 5
iled and green gypsiferoas from the Itose of the hill_ SO
Its
okulhomjl. 281
Section on Elm Fork at mmiih of Helhf'ff Creekj Greer County, Okla.
Gier formation: Peet
Hard cap rock, dolomite (Alanffum) 3
Red clay 20
Massive white gypsum (Collingsworth) 18
Red and blue day 8
Massive white gyum (Oedartop) 20
Red and Woe <iay 5
White gjpsuiii sepai-aited into thin beds by sandy dolomite
<riaystaclc) 18
Red and blue clay - . 12
Bluish stratified gypsum (Kiser) . 4
Red and blue 15
White and bluish gypsum <Chjaney) 4
Red and blue clay S
Betion of Uuff on Ekn Fork in sec. 10, T, € W., Harmon County, OMa,
Oreer formation: Feet.
Dolomite (Mangum) 1-3
Red day : 16
Gypsm (Collingsworth) 1 14
Red and blue day 6
Gypsum (Cedartop) 16
Red and blue clay 5
Gypsum (Haystack) 20
Red and blue clay 15
Gypsum (Kteer) 2
Red clay 12
Gypsum (Chaney) 3
Gypslferous red and blue clay 60
1T2
Section of "bluff between Salt Fork cmd Hone Branch near Olustcc, Jackson
County, Okla.
Feet.
Hard dolomite, forming the cap of the hill 3
Red and biiiw day 12
Masve white gypsum 8
Red clay with ledges of gypsum 24
Massive white gypsum 12
Red and blue clay 15
Red and blue eoft shaly rook and gypsum 5
Red and blue shaly day , 22
Bluish gypslferous rock 10
Red and blue day 8
Massive white gypsum 3
Red clay slope from Horse Branch 100
232 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Gtpsite Deposits.
No deposits of gypsite are known in Beckham County. In Har- mon County only two small beds 3 to 6 feet thick, whose combined area is about 25 acres, are known. In Greer County, about 4 miles west of Willow, a station on the Wichita Falls & Northwestern Eailway, one of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas lines, is a bed covering about 300 acres and ranging from 4 to 14 feet in thickness. This material seems to be an original deposit of very gypsiferous shale and fine sand rather than true gypsite. It is reported to have beea tested and to have made good plaster.
The gypsite beds of JacRson County are among the most valuable in the State. They are of large, extent and are well situated in re- gard to transportation. The largest bed known in the county covers an area of about 400 acres, just north of the town of Eldorado. The thickness of the gypsite ranges from 8 to 20 feet with little or no overburden. The Eldorado plant of the United States Gypsum Co. is situated at the bed and is reached by a spur from the St Louis-San Francisco Railway. The company owns this bed and also controls another bed in the same township. This second bed is about 140 acres in area and is 6 to 12 feet thick. The railroad passes near its east end. Several smaller beds having an aggregate area of 100 acres or more and thicknesses of 4 to 8 feet occur in the same portion of the county.
A gypsite bed approximately 376 acres in area lies 1 mile east of Duke, on the Wichita Falls & Northwestern Railway. The gypsite is 6 to 8 feet in thickness, and its cover is 2 feet in greatest thickness. In considerable areas the gypsite lies at the surface. The gypsite is light gray near the surface but grades into pink and reddish-brown in the lower parts of the bed.
Economic Development. General Condition Of The Gypsum Industry.
The development of the gypsum industry in Oklahoma has been greatly retarded by poor transportation facilities, the high price of fuel, and the remoteness of important markets.
Though the resources oi gypsum are enormous, in only a com- paratively few places are the deposits near enough to railroad lines to render them immediately available. However, sufficiexit quanti- ties of gypsum are near enough to railroads to sustain an immense production for many years, and the lack of transportation is only a minor feature in retarding the growth of the industry.
None of the natural fuels occur in the gypsum area, and coal must be obtained from the fields of eastern Oklahoma or from Colo- rado and New Mexico. The fuel expense is necessarily high and
Oklahoma. 233
makes the cost of the gypsum products much greater than in' re- gions more fortunately situated in respect to fuel supply.
By far the most important hindrance to the development of the industry, however, is the distance to the principal building centers. None of the cities, near the deposits are large enough to provide markets for a large production. The freight rates to the cities of the Eastern and Central States are prohibitive, and in most of these cities the demand for gypsum products can be supplied from de- posits much nearer than those in Oklahoma.
The great amount of building in Oklahoma following its admis- sion as a Stated in 1907 furnished a good local market for plaster. Several mills were built to supply this demand. Since then some of the mills have been idle and others have made only small and intermittent production. Few, if any, have rujn to full capacity in the last few years.
Mills And Quarries.
In 1915 there were nine mills operating or in condition to operate in Oklahoma — two at Watonga, and one each at Bickford, Darrow, Southard, Okeene, Alva, Eldorado, and Rush Springs.
The mill at Eldorado is in the southwestern gypsum area, the one at Rush Springs at the southeastern end of the second line of gyp- sum hills, and the others along the first line of gypsum hills. Five of the nine mills are in Blaine County. All the mills use the kettle process except the one near Darrow, which uses the Cumner rotary kiln or continuous process. Four mills operated in 1918.
The mill of the American Cement Plaster Co. at Watonga is lo- cated on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway. The capacity of the mill is about 200 tons of plaster each 24 hours. The rock gypsum is obtained from a quarry in the Medicine Lodge gypsum 7 miles northeast of the plant. The gypsum bed is 12 to 15 feet thick, and there is practically no anhydrite.* (See PI. XXVI, B.) The rock is crushed at the quarry and run into railroad cars in which it is conveyed to the mill. Gypsite is obtained from a large bed less than a mile distant from the rock quarry. The bed covers about 80 acres, and its maximum thickness is 8 feet. Not over half the deposit has been used. The principal products of the mill are differ- ent grades of wall plaster. A large part of the output is used at the mill in the manufacture of partition blocks.
A plant which has been idle since 1912 is also located at Watonga. It was formerly operated by the Monarch Plaster Co., was sold to the Oriental Cement Plaster Co., and is now owned by the National Cement Plaster Co. It is equipped with the ordinary power plant, crushing and grinding machinery, and two 10-foot kettles. The
234 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
quarry is northeast of the plant, only a few rods from that of the* American Cement Plaster Co,, and gypsite was procured from the eastern portion of the bed utilized by that company.
The mill and quarry of the Eoman Nose Gypsum Co. are locate at Bickf ord, about 8 miles north of Watcmga, on the Chicago, Bock Island & Pacific Railway. The mill is at the foot of the escarp- ment of the gypsum beds of the Blaine formation, and only a short haul by wagon is necessary to transport tlie rock to the mill. The Medicine Lodge gypsum is quarried. The entire bed is about 15 feet thick, but the middle portion, about 8 feet in thickness, con- tains anhydrite. Only the 6-foot layer above the anhydrite has been used, but the lower portion can be obtained easily by stripping the anhydrite. The mill has three 8-foot kettles for calcining. Power is furnished by a gas engine. Partition blocks and wall plasters were the principal products. This plant has been idle since
The Southwest Cement Plaster Co. had a mill with two 10-foot kettles at Okeene, cwa the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway. The rook gypsum was crushed at the quarry, miles southwest of Okeene, and hauled to the mill in railroad cars. The portion of the Medicine Lodge gypsum above the anhydrite was quarried. Gypsite was taken from a bed near the quarry. This mill burned down in August, 1918.
The mill of the Oklahoma Gypsum Co.<f which is west of Bar- row, on the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway, is idle. The quairy is in the Fergus(Mi gypsupi, which is 6 feet thick and very pure. The portion of the Medicine Lodge gypsum above the anhydrite is also available. It is 10 feet thick and reqCtires little stripping.
The mill of the Oklahoma Plaster Co. at Alva, on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways, has been torn down, and the company is out of business. The qaarrj is at Belva, in Woodward County, on the Atchison, Topeka & Santi Fe Railway. The Ferguson gypsum, which in this locality is 2ii feet thick and coarsely selenitic, was quarried.
The Southard plant of the United States Gypsum Co. is located at Southard, on the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway. Two 10-foot kettles are used for calcining, and a 25-foot circular kiln is used for making Keenes cement Both the Shimer gypsum and the Medicine Lodge above the anhydrite have been quarried. The Shimer gypsum averages 17 feet thick in the quarries and is exceptionally pui* The stripping is generally less than 2 feet. The rock is hauled about one- fourth of a mile to the mill in wagons.
The Eldorado plant of the same company is located at Eldorado, in Jackson County, on the St Louis-San Francisco Railway. The mill has four 10- foot kettles. Gypsite alone is used as the raw m
Oklahoma. 235
ierial. This is procured from a 400-acre bed immediately north of he mill.
The mill of the Acme Cement Plaster Co. is at Acme, west of Jush Springs, in Grady County. Gypsite is used as the raw ma- erial. The mill is a modern fireproof concrete structure and has wo 12-foot kettles, which are fired with fuel oil. This company [uarries rock gypsum mt Grady's Switch, near Cennt, Caddo County, o supply Portland cement mills.
The Oklahoma Portland Cement Co. began to operate a mill at Miam in 1918 and sold its product crude.
In addition to the plants described others have been operated in he past. Plants at Cement and Marlow have been burned. These )lants were succeeded by the plant at Rus Springs. The United States Gypsum Co,'s mill at Okarche was abandoned in 1912 on ac- x)unt of tjie exhaustion of the gypsite beds and the difficulty of )rocuring a sufficient supply of rock gypsum. A small mill was jperated at Peckham, in Kiiy County, several years ago but was re- 3aoved when the small gypsite heds, from which the raw material as obtained, wre exhausted. A 2-kettle mill still standing 4 niles west of Ferguson, in Blaine County, made a small production 3ut has been idle for many years. On account of its distance from :he railixad there is no probability of its resuming operations.
Oregon.
By R. W. Stone/ LOCATION AND CHABACTEB.
Gypsum in commercial quantity occurs in two localities in Oregwi One of these is at Gypsum, Baker County, and the other is in Crook County 30 miles east of Bend, in sec. 29, T. 18 S., E. It is reported that the material in Crook County consists of of gypsum mixed with clay, probably gypsite, and that it haa used as a fertilizer. It lies at the surface without cover over acres and can be dug with scraper or pick and shovel. A feet deep did not reach the bottom of the deposit.
Minor occurrences in Oregon have been reported from QsH County, in the John Day region; Jackson County, at the Alton or Baron mine, Ashland district; Josephine County, at the Alameda mine and Galice district (as a gangue mineral) ; and Wheeler Coimty, at Bridge Creek. Nothing is known of the character or extent of the deposits at these places.
The only developed deposit of gypsum in Oregon is at Gypsum, near the middle point of the eastern boundary of the State, on a ridge that forms the divide between Burnt Kiver and Snake Eiver. Elongated lenses of rock gypsum occur on the ridge, but they 'have a limited geographic extent. A continuation of this deposit is re- ported to occur in the ridge on the opposite side of the river in Idaho. The gypsum lenses are from 10 to 40 feet thick. Some of the deposit is white crystalline gypsum of good quality, but part of it is rendered almost valueless by the inclusion of thin strata and films of a greenish chloritic mineral and by brecciation and inclu- sion of angular fragments of limestone and other rock. There is, therefore, a large percentage of waste in quarrying.
Geologic Belations.
The lower portion of the ridge between Burnt Eiver and Snake River is composed of a series of old lavas, largely rhyolitic in com- position. Above these is a sedimentary series, in which the gypsum is interstratified. Thick beds of limestone and also shales, with inter- calated strata of volcanic tuffs, occur in the series.
1 Compiled from Lindgren, Waldemar, Gypsum deposits in Oregon ; U. S. Geol. Surrey Bull. 223, p. Ill, 1904 ; Plaster mill of the Pacific Lime & Gypsum Co., by staff com- spondent. Pacific Builder and Engineer, July 5, 1913 ; and other sources.
I. GEOLOGICAL StJKVBT
Ptaotagtaph by E. F. Biirclurd.
B. GYPSOM OUTCROP 4 MILES NORTHWEST OF MINNEKAHTA. S. DAK; location ol miuerBl claim. Photograph by J. G. Uuttoo.
ft w
Oregon. 237
The period to which the gypsum beds belong is probably early Miocene, as seemte to be indicated by the geologic relation of the sedimentary beds of the region, but the evidence is not wholly clear.
Economic Development.
Although the gypsum deposit on Snake River has been known for 40 years, it was long undeveloped. Remoteness from market prob- ably retarded its use. The first development was not successful, for a mill erected in 1896 was burned the same year. Another plant was built and operated for some time. This was at Lime, a station on the line of the Oregon- Washington Railroad & Navigation Co., 4 miles northwest of Huntington. Tlie gypsum occurs about 200 feet below the summit of the ridge, 1,500 feet above and on the slope facing Snake River, and the deposit was reached from Lime by a winding road ascending the ridge. On account of the northwest- ward dip of the strata, development of the deposit was undertaken by means of tunnels. The elevation of the lower opening is approxi- mately 3,900 feet above sea level. A, tunnel 170 feet long, connecting with an upraise 100 feet long, exposed gypsum rock of good quality 20 feet thick. This enterprise did not prove successful, however, although there was a market for gypsum products in Oregon, Wash- mgton, and southern Idaho, a territory to which it naturally was the source of supply.
Several years ago the Pacific Lime & Gypsum Co. erected a plant at Gypsum, on the Oregon Short Line Railroad, about 5 miles northeast of Huntington, to use the same deposit as that worked from Lime. The mill is on the bank of Snake River and the quarry is on the ridge about 1,800 feet above it. (See PI. XXIX, A,) Rock gypsum is brought from quarry to mill by a 6,100- foot aerial tram- way.
The gypsum is quarried by the open-bench system, and it is re- ported that a quarry face has been developed 250 feet wide and nearly 100 feet high. Dump cars, whose capacity is 1 cubic yard, convey the rock to bunkers at the outer edge of the quarry floor, where it is passed through a large jaw nipper and a gyratory crusher operated by electric motor. The rock thus broken to pass through a 1-inch ring runs by gravity into bins at the upper end of the aerial tramway. This conveyer operates under gravity with 36 buckets of 600 pounds capacity each. The weight of the loaded buckets going down is utilized to develop horsepower at the quarry for operating an air compressor and pneumatic tools.
From the storage bin at the lower end of the tramway a belt conveyer takes the rock to the hopper of a horizontal rotary drier, where practically all the mechanically included moisture is driven
238 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE tJNITED STATES.
off. This drier is 60 feet long, 8 fe in diameter, and oil fired. Steel bucket and screw conveyers take the hot rock to steel bins over the pulverizers. Air separators carry the pulverized gypsma, most of which will pass a 200-mesh sieve, to bins near the roof of the kettle room. Calcining is done in two 14r-foot kettles of 20-ton capacity. Fuel oil is used for heating the kettles. From the con- crete hot pits the stucco is taken by steel bucket and screw conveyers to bins on the upper floor of the mixing dartment. Mixing ma- chines and valve baggers insure uniform preparation and weiiing of the product. From each wrigher a package conveyer delivers flie bag to the car.
The main building of this plant is 525 feet long by 70 feet wide, has a steel frame, and is entirely covered with corrugated iron.
Electric power for driving all machinery at the plant is developed from fuel oil, which is stored in four 25,000-gallon cylindrical tanks. Most of the product of this plant is wall plaster and is sold in tiie Pacific Northwest. This Oi'egon deposit has been producing gyp- sum continuously for a number of years, with the exception of 1911-12, when no production wds reported. It is now operated by the Acme Cement Plaster Co., of St. Louis, Mo.
South Dakota.
By J". G. HuTTON. STBUCTUBE AND STBATIOBAPHY.
Beds of gypsum are exposed in the Black Hills in the western -part of South Dakota. These mountains are on the boundary line betwei South Dakota and Wyoming, but much the larger portion of the area lies within South Dakota. Structurally the region is marked by an elliptical uplift about 125 miles long and 60 miles wide. The longer dimension lies nearly northwest and intheast. The rocks underlying the Great Plains in this area have been uplifted and eroded so that a complete section is exposed of all the strata from the Middle Cambrian to the Upper Cretaceous. The strata dip away from the central mass of crystalline rocks of pre- Cambrian age. Owing to the domed structure of the region the f or- oaaidons outcrop in concentric belts surrounding the central mass of pre-Cambrian rocks. The harder rocks everywhere present a rugged aspect, but the softer formations have a more subdued topography. The following general sections by Darton give the characteristics, range in thieknis, and order of succession of the formations:
General section of Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks in the northern Black HiUs,
Age.
Cr e taoeoaa(?). Jiirassic (?),.. Jiffassic
Trissic(?)
Carboniferoos:
FiBiaD(?)
PennsylvanianrMis- sissipirfaii(?)c.
Mississiiian
Ordovician
CarabrUm ( AcacUaayi .
F(iiiatiaii.
Lfffamie (?) formation Fox Hills saadstone.. .
Pierre shale
Niobrara fonnioa. . . . Benton group:
hate
Carlilesl
Greenhorn limastone Oraneros sixalB
Dakota sandstone. Fuson toimaXUm . ,
Lakota sandstone
Morrison formation.. . .
Unkpapa sandstoeoe. . .
Sundance formation. . .
Spearfish formation. . .
IMinnekahta limestone.
VOpedie formation
Mmnelusa sandstone . .
fPahasapa limestone . . . \Engle\iod hmestone. . Whitewood ltmest(me. Deadwood fwmation.
Principal characters.
Massive sandstone and shale, with lignite.
Sandstone and shale.
Dark-gray ale
Impure chalk and calcareous shale
Dark lale with local sandstone in lower
Gray shale with thin saadst<mes astA con- cretions. Imfe slabby- Kmestcne hale wif
pert. Gray to sandstone, mostly massive. . . Shale, mostly massive, white to purple,
with sandstone layers. Buff sandstone. mo<}tly hard, course, cross-
grained. Massive shale, gray, greenish, maroon;
thin limestones. Massive fine-grained sandstone, white,
buff, purple. Gray shales, buff soft sandstone, reddish
sandy shale. Red sandy shale with gypsum beds
Thin-bedded gray limestone
Red 8lel>by hmestone cmd sandy shale
Sandstone, mainly white, buff, or red;
lUso limestcme.
Massive gray limestone
Pink to bun slabby limestone
Mave buff limestone
Brown sandstone, partly conglomeratic,
mostly massive; greenish gray sandy
slutles, slabby dolomitie hmestone, and
limest(me conglomerate.
Thickness.
Fett.
2,500+ 250-h 1,200-1,400
900-1,150
Darton, N. Geology and water resouroes of the northern portion of the Black mife and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: U. S. GeoL Survey Prof. Paper 65, p. 12, 1909. Now rerred to Lance formation. c Now referred to Pennsylvanian. oqo
d Now referred to Upper Cambrian or Saratogan series.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
General section of Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks in the southern Black HUkfi
Formation.
Laramie
Fox mils
Pierre shale
Niobrara
Benton group:
Carlile formation.
Oreenhom limestone. Graneros shale
Dakota sandstone. Fuson
Minnewaste limestone.
Lakota
Beulah shale t
Unkpapa sandstone. . . Simdance
Spearfish
Minnekahta limestone .
Opeche
Minnelusa
Pahasapa limestone . . Englewood limestone . Deadwood
Character.
Massive sandstone and shale.
Sandstone and shale
Dark-gray shale
Chalk and calcareous shale . .
thickn.
Gray shales with thin sandstones, limestones, and concre- tionary layers.
Impure slabDv limestone
Dark shale with, lenses of massive sandstone in its lower part at some places.
Massive buff sandstone
Very fine grained sandstone and massive shales, white to purple.
Gray limestone
Massive buff sandstone, with some intercalated shale
Pale grayish-green shale
Massive white, purple, red, or buff sandstone
Dark-drab shales and buff sandstones; massive red sand- stone at base.
Red sandy shales with g3rt)sum beds
Thin-bedded gray limestone
Red slabby sandstone and sandy shale
Ssmdstones, mainly buff and red ; in greater part calcareous Includes some thin limestone.
Massive gray limestone
Pink slabby limestone
Red-brown quartzite and sandstone, locally conglomeratic, partly massive.
Fat. 2,500
1,200
3&450
0-lSO
O-2S0
6(M00
35(W00
30- So
a Darton, N. H., Preliminary description of the geology and water resources of the southern half of the Black Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: U. S. Geol. Survey Twenty-first Aim. Rept., pt. 4, pp. 603-504, 1901.
b Now known to be the Morrison formation.
The Spearfish formation, in which the gypsum deposits occur, is of Triassic (?) age and consists of a red, sandy shale, ranging in thickness from 350 to 700 feet. The gypsum beds are present almost throughout the exposure of this formation in the Black Hills re- gion. This formation has been called the "Red Beds," but it must not be confused with the red Jurassic sandstone or older Permian Opeche formation. Physiographically it is marked by an almost treeless valley extending entirely around the Black Hills uplift. The later formations in many places, capped by Cretaceous sandstone, form a steep escarpment facing the valley on its outward side, and the Minnekahta limestone dipping in most places some- what steeply from the central mass of the hills forms its inner bound- ary. Eather low divides separate the basins of the streams which flow across the valley as they descend radially from the central area, but to the observer the valley appears continuous and without any notable interruption in its somewhat subdued relief. The area in which the Spearfish outcrops is known as the Red Valley, from the red color of the shale and the soil which has weathered from it. The distribution of the red beds in the Black Hills is shown in figure 47.
The Red Valley, in South Dakota, ranges in width from a few rods in Alabaugh Canyon, south of Hot Springs and on the west side of
South Dakota.
t
S.
fiOHiles
Figure 47. — Map showing the area (shaded) that contains the gypsum-bearing foimatlon
in the Black Hills, S. Dak. (After N. H. Darton.)
the Cascade anticline to 3 miles in Martins Valley northeast of Hot Springs and to a similar width in Centennial Prairie between White- wood and Spearfish. West of Minnekahta it is about 3 miles wide.
124567**— 20 16
242 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The Red Valley landscape would be nionotoROus were it Hot for the outcrops of gypsuin, which are indicated in many places by barrel areas in the floor of the valley. At the summit of many diflFs and buttes the gypsum forms a conspicuous layer of snowy whiteness, or it has a banded appearance where more than one ktyer exi. (See PI. XXX, A.) Along Centennial Prairie the gypsum outcrops lor miles as snow-white bands in a bright-red background. (See PI XXXI, A.) A few miles northwest of Minnekahta, wlre trees are more abundant, the red, green, and white appear in marked contrast for several miles to the northwest. .
At some points Red Valley is occupied by Tertiary deposits which cover the gypsum. This condition prevails west of Hermosa and Fairburn, and between Hermosa and Rapid City. The red beds are also covered somewhat in the area just west of Minnekahta. The places where the Spearfish formation is covered are shown as Ulimk spaces on the map of the gypsum areas.
According to Darton the thickjiess of the Spearfish formatioB varies considerably from place to place. For example, along the east side of the Black Hills tte thickness appears to be between 350 and 400 feet; in a deep well at Fort Meade, 695 feet; in Eedwater Valley, near the mouth of .Crow Creek, 680 feet; near Whitewood, 450 feet; in Alabaugh Canyon, 420 feet; west of Fanny Peak, 450 feet.
The gypsum occurs at different horizons in the Spearfish, and the thickness of the layers ranges from a fraction of an inch to BO feet. There is some variation in the thickness of particular beds, although the principal beds are of nearly uniform thickness for long distances. In addition to the beds of gypsum there 'are secondarr veins, which cut throu the red shale in different directions. Hiese veins have evidently been formed by water percolating from the adjoining beds and have been deposited in narrow fissures in tie shale. There has been more or less solution in some of the thicker ledges, which give forth a hollow sound to the tread.. In places there is folding or crumpling of layers, and the parting layers of red shale vary in thickness, having been squeezed out between the harder layers of gypsum. This condition is well illustrated in Ai region west of Minnekahta.
Localities. West Of Minnekahta.
Just west of Fanny Peak and across the Wyoming line a measure- ment made by Darton showed 450 fet or more of red beds contain two thick beds c4 gypsum near the middle. The tower bed
1 Darton, N. H., U. S. Geol. Survey Twenty- Ann. Rept., pt. 4, p. 517, 1901. Idem, pp. 617-618.
PbotofTHph by N. H. Darton.
f, Gjrpnun. Phouigtaphby M. H. Dutoo.
W, 8. Obolooicai. Burvbt Bulletin 97 Plate S
G, Oulcropof gypanmbed. Photograph by N. H. Dstud.
B. CLOSE VIEW OF GyPSUM BED AT SPEAHFISU. S. DAK. Phologiaph by J. G. Hutton.
South Dakota. 245
A gypsum mill was formerly operated at Hot Springs, but it was destroyed by fire several years ago and has never been rebuilt. The deposit from which gypsum was removed to supply the mill extends north along the left side of Cold Brook Canyon, and about 4 miles north of Hot Springs a layer of snow-white gypsum caps a bluff about 100 feet in height. This layer ranges from 6 to 10 feet or more in thickness and extends as a conspicuous band for a considerable distance along the valley. Below this bed are thinner layers of vary- ing thickness, and near the base at some points a layer of harder shale with intercalated layers of gypsum appears. This layer attains a thickness of 20 feet in places but is not continuous. On the terrace on which the State Soldiers' Home is located is a butte capped with gypsum.
Northeast of Hot Springs the outcrop of red beds widens in the area known as Martins Valley. Gypsum is conspicuous in this vicinity, appearing in many places as new cliffs or clay barren areas. West of Fairbum there is little gypsum, but west of Hermosa it reaches a thickness of about 15 feet. Tertiary deposits cover the red beds in places in the region southwest of Hermosa and also between Hermosa and Kapid City.
RAPID CrrY TO STXJRGIS.
Fine exposures of gypsum are seen a short distance northwest of Rapid City along the Chicago & Northwestern Railway. The Uniteci States Gypsum Co. operated a mill at this point from 1908 to 1915, when the mill burned. The principal bed of gypsum ranges from 6 to 12 feet in tliickness and is of good quality, although it is considerably broken.
The Rapid City Gypsum, Lime & Portland Cement Co. has a plant 3 miles northwest of Rapid City, and though no gypsum products have been manufactured, borings on its property are said to show about 35 feet of gypsum in three beds of nearly equal thickness sep- arated by layers of red shale.
From this point to Blackhawk gypsum is almost continuously ex- posed in small ridges.
At Blackhawk the Dakota Plaster Co. operated a plant which was for a number of years supplied from a bed of gypsum that ranges from 11 to 30 feet in thickness. This bed, like all the strata in this part of the Black Hills, dips east. The gypsum is said not to be broken up, as it is in some localities in this region. The mill was burned in the spring of 1916 but has been rebuilt and is using gypsite.
North of Blackhawk the valley widens, and gypsum appears on both sides of the railroad. North of Piedmont all the way to Til-
34ft, GYPSUM DEPOSKES OF THB UNITED STATES.
ford the ridges capped by gypsuxa are hibier and more coo>iqu9iis than they are south of that place. M a. cre about a mite south of Tilford the red shale is iuterbedded with layers of gypsun ntme of attains a thidooess of more than 18 inches* Maoiy veh a. fraction of an inch in thickness appear in the stream cut ixpooaediately below the culvert under the railroad.
From Tilford to Sturgis the gypsum outerops ccmtinu% and at Stuiis a bed about 10 f thick appears. An outerop along the railroad cut just west of the town shows marked variation in the thickness of the bed. The riiins of an old " stucco mill," destroyed by fire years ago, record an attempt to utilize the deposit at Stur. About miles we of Sturgis another gypsum mill ws opiated for a time, but only the foundation remains to mark its site.
Sturgis To Speakfish.
From Sturgis to Whitewood gypsum outcrops are commc. A short distance from Whitewood along tho railroad leading to Dead- wood there is a gypsum bed which a4;taii a maximum tiiickness of about 10 feet but which becomes thinner toward the town of White- wood. Very little gypsum is seen along the valley from Whitewood to a point beyond old Crook City, where the Red Valley widens out into Centennial Prairie.
Along the north side of Centennial Prairie, the name by which this portion of the Red Valley is known, from a point west of Whitewood to Spearfish, gypsum appears as snow-white bands in the redsbjJe. Where creeks cross the Bed Valley the gypsum has been eroded or has been covered by alluvial deposits.
The following sections by Darton indicate the genial character of the red beds and gypsum deposits in the vicinity of Spearfish :
Section of upper part of Spe€brfish forvmtion in Redwater YaUeUf S, DuM.
Gree&ish-gray sandy shale-. 14
Red sandy shale ,. 14
Massive white sandstone, merging into gypsum , 3
Green sandy shale, mottled red 2
Red sandy shale 20
Gypsum 2
Below this are feet of red sandy shale and soft sands<=one, contemning a 5-f6ot bed of gypsum 120 feet above the base of the formation In places- tilw gypsum is in two or three becte, st'parated by thin bodies of red sfeae* East and nortlieast of Spearfish the upper beds increase in thickness, aad one bed 18 or 20 feet thick on the slopes near Lookout Peak.
Dapton, N. H. Geology aiid watet resources of the uorthern Btaels Hills, and a4J<>iiiS regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 65, pp. 28-29,
Qbolooicai, Sorvbt Bdlletin 697
r spejuifish, s. dak.
B. Gypsum Quarby 2 Miles East Of Nephi, Utah.
WkiilArocriuogSOOfeBtabovo valley uffypflum, afldquorr? eiteada to tc. MiU is juat beyond '. waMia diuop. Pbotosrsph by n. W. Stooe.
South Dakota. 247
Seetion of upper bedn of Spc& fwfiation east of Spear fish, S, Dak.
Ft. in.
Pink and green shales, with some g:.psum 12
Eiight-red sandy shales 2
Massive gypsom 2
Ijigbt-red and green sandy shales 4
Gypsum 8
Light-red sandy shales 3
Gypsiun 4
Light-red sandy shales 4
Massive gypsum 12
Deep-red shales down to alluvial flat i 100
In the lower beds in this section there are several thin beds of jrypsum, one of which reaches a thickness of 2 feet on the northeast side of Lookout Peak.
Plates XXXI, A and i?, and XXXII, show the characteristic appearance of the gypsum at Spearfish. '
A partial section by Richardson, which is quoted by Darton,* is as follows :
Secticyn of upper beds of Spearfish formation on east side of Lookout Peak,
8, Dak,
Sundance formation. Ft. ia.
Massive white gypsum 2
Clayey sandstone 12
Massive white gypsum 20
Bed sandy shale, with a few green streaks 50
Gypsum on red and green clay 3
Chocolate-brown sandy shale, a few gypsum veins 20
Red sandy shale under 1 Inch, of green clay 2
Gypsum 2
Red sandy shale, more massive below 8 3
Chocolate-lwrowtt sandy shale witti streaks of green 1
Thin-bedded red sandy shale with specks of green 10
Chocolate-brown sandy shale with many gypsum veins.
One of the gypsum, beds in the upper part of the red beds has an avuge thickness of 12 feet in an area of several square miles in the region east and northeast of Spearfish, and a bed about 5 feet in thickness and 120 feet above the base of the red beds out- crops on the slopes adjoining the limestone ridge northwest of Spearfish. The gypsum is nearly pure.*
Gjrpsum was once quarried about 4 miles north of Spearfish and v?as made into plaster in a mill located about half a mile farther north and operated by power obtained by diverting the water of Spearfish Oeek. This plant has not been in operation for severaj years.
1 Bichardson, G. B., TpDer Red Beds of the Black HUls : Jour. Golosy, vol. 11, pp. 373-375, 1903.
*Dartoii, N. H., op. cit. (Prof. Paper 65), p. 29.
Darton, N. H., and O'Harra, C. C, IT. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atias, Belle Fourciie folio (No. 164), 1909.
248 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Chemical Composition Of Shale And Gypsttm Of Speabfish
Formation.
From estimates based on a microscopic examination and an analy- sis made by George Steiger, of the United States Geological Srarey, Richardson gives the following mineral composition of the Spear- fish shale :
Mineral composition of the shale of the Spearfish formation of South Dakota,
Quartz 41
Muscovite 20
Kaolin 10
Calcite 9
Magixesite 8
Feldspars 5
Hematite 3
Gypsum 2
Magnetite, ilmenite, chlorite 2
It. was shown that the red color of the shale is due to an amorphous red pigment (anhydrous iron oxide) which irregularly coats and spots the minerals and is included in some of the quartz and kaolin.
Gypsiun from a point near Cascade Springs, S. Dak., analyzed by George Steiger, of the United States Geological Survey, shows the following chemical composition:
Analysis of gypsum from vicinity of Cascade Springs 8. Dak.*
Lime (CaO) 1 32.44
Magnesia (MgO) .33
Alumina (AlaOa) . 12
Silica (SiOa) .10
Sulphuric anhydride (SOs) 45.45
Carbon dioxide (COa) .85
Water (HiO) 20. 80
Economic Devei*Opment.
At present there are only two gypsum mills in operation in South Dakota. One of these mills is at Piedmont and is operated by the United States Gypsum Co. The mill which was started in 1908 at Rapid City and had a capacity of about 150 tons of plaster a day was burned in 1915. The new mill at Piedmont produces plaster and hollow building block from rock gypsum and gypsite dug at the
1 Richardson, G. B., op. cit., p. 380.
*Darton, N. H., Preliminary description of the geology and water resources of the southern half of the Black Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming: U. S. Geol. Survey Twenty-first Ann. Rept., pt. 4, p. 585, 1901.
South Dakota; 249
plant. The other mill is at Blackhawk and is operated by the Da- kota Plaster Co. It is owned by local stockholders and is capitalized at $150,000. It has a capacity of about 200 tons a day and produced plaster exclusively, both for castings and common wall use. The original mill was burned in the spring of 1916 and the new mill was in operation early in 1917.
The number of gypsum plants proposed or actually constructed that have failed for one reason or another to pay a profit indicates a considerable loss of money in the gypsum business in this section. Two mills in the vicinity of Sturgis, one near Spearfish, one at Hot Springs, one near Erskine, one at Whitewood, and perhaps others are examples. The gypsum industry under present conditions in the Black Hills region appears not likely to be profitable to small op- erators without the advantage of thorough organization. There are extensive deposits of high-grade gypsum, which can be utilized to supply mills cheaply, so that the industry may be further developed as the population of the Northwest increases or when more favorable, freight rates can be procured.
TEXAS. By K. W. Stone.* DISTBIBUTIOir.
Gypsiim cteposit of great extent were discovBi©d' m Tesft& by expeditions sent ot by the War I>partmeiit in 1852 smd 1855. Northern Texas and the region between Pbeoa Biver ajid the Gua- dalupe Mountains wefee said to contain great bodies of fii% miner. In the rpovts of the Gteolbgicai Surpey of Texas ftom 1889 to 1892 many obserrations were made (m the gypsum deposit es- pecially by A. F. Cunnninsi Notwithstanding the early discoivvTy, no adequate description of the gypsum deposits oi Texas has beoii jwriblished. In this paper, the writer, without special fieM woris, has drawn largely on other observers for the dftta and a(daiowlBdgQS the indebtedness.
Rock gypsum occurs in the areas shown in the accompanying map of Texas (fig. 48). Gypsite or gypsum earth is associated with the rock gypsum at some localities and is used at Acme. Gyp- sum crystals are abundant in a number of geologic formations in eastern Texas and are frequently mistaken for mica or assumed to be indications of valuable gypsum deposits. These individual crystals have no value, and thick beds of rock gypsum are so ex- tensive in Texas that those distant from a railroad have no present commercial value. The principal gypsum-bearing areas are (1) in the north-central part of the State from Acme southward 150 miles to Colorado River; (2) in Hudspeth and Culberson counties, in Gypsum Plain and Malone Mountains; and (3) in southeast Texas.
Economic Development.
Three plants are manufacturing gypsum products in Texas. Two are at Acme, near Quanah, Hardeman County, on the north border of the State. They are operated by the Acme Cement Plas- ter Co. and the American Cement Plaster Co. The third plant, owned by the Texas Cement Plaster Co., is at Plasterco, Fisher County, a few miles from the mine at Hamlin, which supplies the raw material. The total quantity of gypsum mined in Texas in 1918 was 157,388 short tons, and the value of gypsum products was $834,560.
V Compiled from reports by C. L. Baker, B. F. Hill, G. B. Richardson, C. H. Wegemaim W. B. Wrather, and others.
Tbxas.
Ssi
NORTH-CENTRAL TEXAS, OEABAOTES AKB GEKEBAL BEIiATIOHS OF Tsis OTTSW DEPOSITS.
The largest area of gypsum deposits in Texas lies eat of the Oct of the Staked Plains, in the northern part of the State. The eds have a northeasterly strike and extend from Red River near Juanah to Colorado River in an irregular line, the sinuosities of
Gypsum roek
FioUBv 43, — Map of Texa sfekowiog locaUon of priacipal deposits of rock gypsoaou
hich are produced by the valleys of the eastward-flowing streams, his belt of gypsum beds is from 20 to 50 miles wide, and is a mtinuation of the deposits in Oklahoma that occur in the Greer ounty region. The beds are of different thicknesses, ranging from thin layer to 20 feet.
Near Acme,, only a few miles south of the Oklahoma-Texas bound- ly, gypsum is being quarried and milled by the Acme Cement Plas- ir Co. and the American Cement Plaster Co. 'Hie Acme Co. lakes Keene cement in one of its mills. The gypsum is exposed 1 nearly horizontal ledger along a narrow creek. It is closely ssociated with dolomite and occurs here in two beds, the lower
252 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
one nearly 22 fet thick and lying 19 feet below a 10- foot bed. Gyp- site also is used at Acme.
The rocks exposed at the surface in the vicinity of Quanak belong to the Clear Fork formation of the Permian series.
About 11 miles southwest of Quanah and 7 miles south and a little west of Goodlet, in the " breaks " of Pease River, all the strata which reach the surface in the Quanah area are well exposed, the detailed rock section being as follows :
Section at wooded half a mile west of the west line of sec, 287.
Ft In.
Limestone, coarse grained, soft 5
Shale, red and blue 26
Gypsum, soft, granular 3
Shule, red and blue , 25
Gypsum, base soft, upper part hard, white 10
Limestone, fossiliferous 8
Shale, red at base, gray above 11
Gypsum 9
Shale, calcareous, gray, containing some thin lime- stone layers that weather white 6
Limestotie, hard, light gray, weathering white ; promi- nent over much of field 3
Shale, gray and green 5 6
Gypsum, white and blue, hard 9
Shale, gray and red 8
Limestone, white, fine grained, perforated with innu- merable smaU holes about one-sixteenth of an inch In
diameter 4
Shale, blue and greenish gray 3 6
Gypsum; soft and granular in lower part; hard, blue,
tinted with red in upper part 21
Shale, red 5+
Base not exposed.
154 8+
In the section given above the bed of gypsum 21 feet thick appeals to be the same as that which is mined at Acme.
The following sections from Mr. Cummins's report will give an idea of the quantity of gypsum to be found at certain locaUties anJ the mode of its occurrence :
Section at Kiowa Peak, in the northeast part of Stonetcall County,
beginning at the bottom. Feet
Gypsum 60
Red clay 20
Gypsum 20
Red clay 35
Gypsum 19
Wegemann, C. II., A reconnaissance for oil near Quanah, Hardeman County r. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 621, p. Ill, 1916.
Texas Geol. Survey Second Ann. Rept., p. 458, 1891.
Texas. 25S
Section at Salt Creek, Kent County, Tex,, beginning at the hottoin.
Feet.
Spotted red clay 3
White massive gypsum 10
Red clay 30
Gypsum 1
Red clay 30
Gypsum 6
Red clay 20
Limestone m 1
The following notes oonceming localities south of Quanah are contributed by W. E. Wrather :
Along Double Mountain and Salt forks of Brazos Kiver, west of Aspermont, Stonewall County, there is a bed of massive white gyp- sum ranging in thickness from 20 to 30 feet or more. Within a few hundred feet stratigraphically above it there are several other beds of pure gypsum from 2 to 12 feet thick, which are exposed in Double Mountain. The thick bed is exposed likewise along Sweetwater Creek, in Nolan County, where it is more than 20 feet thick, and out- crops of it or of another thick bed of gypsum are found for many miles north and south of these localities. The stratigraphic succes- sion and number of gypsum beds in Haskell and Stonewall counties is shown in figure 49.
The principal beds of workable gypsum lie near the base of the Double Mountain formation. Observations made at perhaps a dozen widely separated localities along the outcrop of the Double Moun- tain beds in Texas show that the beds generally include a massive stratum of gypsum that is much thicker than other strata of gyp- sum either above or below it. This massive bed of gypsum, which is 20 to 30 feet or more thick, outcrops along Sweetwater Creek, in Nolan County, about 500 feet above the top of the dolomite exposed at Merkle, which immediately underlies the sandstone of Blowout Mountain and is taken as the base of the Double Mountain formation. Along the Double Mountain and Salt forks of Brazos River the massive gypsum is about 250 feet above the dolomite and is of ap- proximately the same thickness as along Sweetwater Creek.
At Medicine Mounds, in Hardeman County, the exact interval could not be accurately measured, though it is thought to be about 150 feet.
Until more detailed work has been done it can not be stated with certainty whether or not the massive gypsum represents a single continuous horizon. It seems probable, however, that it does not, for it has been observed that the beds thicken from north to south in the Double Mountain formation, which is in keeping with the in-
254 Gypsum Deposits Op The Timited States.
oft red sandy cJy
SdGtBy
hm straw of gyptum )rcpmita,spBringty fomsiUfefoua
igWycglor**
10* lighfrcolorSd ys
ndsMne ef
FiQDBE 49. — CnluBuur aaettOH Bttwlse strata exposed sIobb DasMc Mtnintain Frk ft Draioa Irem Flattop Mountain, HaBkeU Oaoat;, ti Up af l> tEowtitik Stonewall Countj, Tei.
deasiBg mterval irom Bed Biver southward between the main gyp- sum horkon and the dolomite deecribed.
In pktces along the range of the Gyp Hills, which lie as a role just west of the Kansas Citj Meideo & Oriit Railroad, gypsite has been noted though in the absence of any prQj)ecting to deter* mine the amount present it is impossible ta dlw any conclusion as to its commercial value* It is reasonable to assume, however, in view of the great antount of gj-psum present, that tremendous quantities of gypsite will be found in this section when the demand for its utilizaticm shall have arisen.
GXOLOOIO BELATZOlffl OF THE GTPSUX BEBS. By W. B. W&ATHKB.
The gypsum-bearing beds of the north Texas Permian are the southward continuation of the Greer formation.* These beds ex- tend in a direction west of south from Red River near Quanah, in Hardemm County, fbr a distance of about 150 miles, to the valley of Colorado River, south of which thej are covered by the Cretaceous deposits. Thiey were included by Cummins m the Double Moimtain formation of the Permian.
It sens tifeat the Blaine formation, in whidi three of the im- portiant gypsum beds of Oklahoma are found, does not extend south af iihe Wichita Mountains. As observed above, the Greer formation, which overiies the Woodward formation in Oklahoma, can be traced far into Texas in continuous outcrop* On paleontologic evidence it appears that the time intervals represented in Oklahoma by the Enid, Blaine, and Woodward formations, which have a total thickness of over 2,000 feet, according to Gould's estimate, is represented in Texas by the Clear formation alone. The thickness of the Clear Fork formation along Red River has never been accurately deter- mined because of the prevailing s6ft character of the sediments, which weather down into a rolMng plain, across which the thickness of beds can scarcely be ecwnputed. Along the Texas & Pacific Rail- way, east of Sweetwater, 12& miles south of Red River, the thickness of .the Clear Fork is not more than 7S0 feet. It seems, however, that there is a thinning of this formation from north to sou.
Near the base of the Double Mountain formation in Texas a massive cross-bedded gray or red coarse-grained sandstone is found. On Blowout Mountain, southwest of Merkle, in Taylor County, this sandstone is over 100 feet thick. Its outcrop has not been traced contmuously the entire distance sowthward from Red River to the Texas & Pacifii> Railway, but it is reasonably certain that the sand-
1 Goulds C. N., Geology and water resoHrcea of Oklahoma : U. S. GeoU Survey Water- Supply Paper 148, 1009.
256 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
stone capping a prominent scarp at milepost 175 on the Fort Worth & Denver City Railway, near the west edge of Wilbarger County, is the northward continuation of the sandstone of Blowout Mountain. It thickens from Red River southward from not more than 5 or 10 feet to over 100 f e§t in the area where it finally disappears under the Cretaceous in Taylor County.
Gypsum is f oimd throughout the Double Mountain formation to the point of its disappearance under the Tertiary deposits of the Llano Estacado, though by far the most promising commercial deJ)osits of gypsum occur in the lower portion of these -beds. The upper beds of the Double Mountain formation have been traced by Cummins, Gould, and others through the valley of Canadian Eiver, and have been found to connect with the Permian beds of eastern New Mexico. Near Red River gypsum is most prominently exposed in a stratigraphic interval of about 200 feet in the vicinity of Medicine Moimds, in southeastern Hardeman County. The beds which are quarried at Acme outcrop here, and the section is not dissimilar to that made by Wegemann in the breaks of Pease River, southwest of Quanah, though the main gypsum bed seems to be somewhat thider.
The columnar section (fig. 49) was made along the Double Moun- tain Fork of Brazos River from the base of Flattop Mountain, in southwestern Haskell County, to the top of Double Mountains, in Stonewall Coimty. It shows a total thickness of 1,170 feet of the Double Mountain formation, and this section probably falls nearly 1,000 feet short of representing the total thickness of the Double Mountain beds exposed east of the foot of the High Plains. It will be seen that thick beds of gypsum occur throughout the lower 600 feet of this section.
From the lithologic character of the beds it is evident that two divisions may be made in this section — a lower division, from 500 to 600 feet thick, in which varicolored clays relatively free from sand predominate, with thick beds of white massive gypsum and thin beds of fossiliferous dolomites; and an upper division that is marked by sands and sandy clays, which, where freshly exposed, are characteristically blotched with spherical greenish spots, rang- ing in diameter from that of a pinhead to one-half inch, supposedly due to the presence of iron in a ferrous state. This marking was aptly described by F. TV. Cragin, who named similar beds in north- ern Oklahoma and Kansas, presumably of about the same age, the "polka-dot" beds. These sands are conmionly cross-bedded and very massive, though they readily weather down into a soft, deep, sandy red soil, typical of this region. Southward they are more in- durated, and around Sweetwater they outcrop in massive strata, ft typical exposure occurring at Lake Trammel, south of that place.
Texas. 257
The two divisions that have been described are probably very nearly the equivalents of the Greer and Quartermaster formations of Oklahoma. If this is true, there is a corresponding thickening in these beds southward from Red River in the same or even a greater ratio than the thinning in the same direction in the Clear Fork beds. Gould estimates the thickness of the two divisions at not more than 500 feet in the eastern part of the Panhandle of Texas, near Red River, whereas the section given on Brazos River, 100 miles farther south, shows 1,170 feet, which is known to be consid- erably less than the total of the Double Mountain formation at this place.
Ctjlberson And Hudspeth Counties.
In Culberson County east of the Guadalupe Mountains there is an area of gypsum approximately 50 miles in length and averaging 15 miles in width. At the State boundary it is 25 miles wide and it extends northward into New Mexico. This gypsum, known as the Castile gypsum, outcrops in Texas over 600 square miles. In a few places this great gypsum plain north of the Texas & Pacific Railway and west of Pecos River is overlain by beds of later limestone and conglomerate. Good sections exposing 50 or 60 feet of gypsum* are shown along Delaware Creek and Cottonwood Draw. Another ex- posure of the same beds is on the Southern Pacific Railroad east of Finlay, in Hudspeth (formerly part of El Paso) County. This de- posit is now worked on a small scale.
The entire section of these Castile gypsum beds is from 300 to 500 feet thick, and the beds contain gypsum in a variety of forms and different degrees of purity. On the surface generally the gypsum is disintegrated and earthy. Besides the massive white granular vari- ety there is grayish or dark gypsum, and in some places blue or red tints prevail. In places also thin strata of gypsum are highly im- pregnated with bitumen to such an extent that they have a sooty black color. The presence of these beds on the surface can often be detected on a hot day by the odor, which is noticeable for a distance of several yards. In purity the gypsum ranges from pure material to mixtures with sand, pebbles, sulphur, limestone, and other sub- stances.
Locally selenite is abundant. Commonly the massive gypsum is considerably cracked and jointed, and in places there are many un- derground channels and caverns in it. All the streams and springs
Gould, C. N., The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 154, 1906.
' Richardson, G. B., Reconnaissance in trans-Pecos Texas : Texas Univ. Min. Survey BuU. 9, p. 22, 1904.
1245e7*— 20 17
258 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
within the gypsum plain are strongly impregnated with gypsum and many of iJiem witii salt and sulphur.
The exact geologic age of the Castile gypsum was for a IcHig time undetermined, owing to the scarcity of determinative fossils, thoagh from its association with Permian beds G. B. Richardson and others assumed it to be Permian. Later J. A. TJdden presented evidence, based on the presence of minute fossils, principally Foraminifera, which he thought tended to show that the gypsum was of Cretaceous age. Subsequent observations made at the a*equest of J. A, Udden, of the University of Texas, by Emil Bose and C. L. Baker, diow coiuilusively that the formation is of Permian age.
The locality mentioned above as being east of Finlay, in Hudspeth County, is in the Malone Mountains. It has the advantage of being sit- uated near the Southern Pacific Railroad, aaid the outctops are exten- sive and are favorable for working. J. A. Taff.* in his paper describ- ing this locality, says :
The Malone bed is so named because of the great development of gypsum it includes which occurs in the Malone M<mtains. The main gypsum Ml extends from the center of the mountain to the northwest end. ♦ ♦ The low- est rock exposed of the Malone Mountain horizon is a band of pale-yeUow flaggy limestone. Above this limestone occurs the first horizon of white, fissile, granu- lar gypsum, having a thickness of 45 feet Succeeding this gypsum there is 175 feet of massive blue granular Umestone. ♦ ♦ Above this limestone comes a seccmd horizon of gypsum of a thickness of 110 feet It is the same, litht- cafly, as the first horizon, a stratified, nearly pnre, friable, granular gypsum. It contains comparatively little earthy matter. On the east side of the soiitheast end of Malone Mountain there is a development of gypsum with a surface area of about 40 acres.
Gypsum is quarried in the Malone Mountains near Finlay for use in Portland cement made at El Paso.
F. W. Cragin and T. W. Stanton have studied these rocks and on paleontologic evidence refer them to the Jurassic*
SOUTHEASTERN TEXAS. nSEPLY Btr&IED BEPOSITS.
Great deposits of gypsum have been encountered in wells drilled for oil in southeastern Texas. At Spindletop, Jefferson County, 3 miles south of Beaumont, it is reported* that a salt dome buried to a depth of 1,650 to 1,950 feet is covered by perhaps 600 feet of
TTddeii, J. A., The age of the Castile gypsam and the RuBtler Springs fonnatten: A. Jonr. Sci., 4th ser., Vol. 40, pp. 151-156, 1915.
Udden, J. A., letter of Feb. 1917.
Taflf, J. A., The Cretaceous deposits : Texas Cteol. Survey Second Ann. Rept, pp. 721- T22, 1891.
*U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 266, 1905.
Harris, G. D., Oil and gas in Louisiana, with a brief summary of their occnrreoce adjacent States : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 429, p. 24, 1910.
Texas. 259
gypsum. At High Island, Chambers County, 1 mile from the coast and halfway between Sabine Pass and Galveston, several wells record very thick deposits of gypsum. One well passed through 600 feet of gypsum extending from 600 to 1,200 feet below the surface, and another well passed through gypsum from 900 to 1,300 feet and then through rock salt to 2,600 feet, the bottom of the well. A well in Duval County passed through SOO feet of gypsum lying between 515 and 815 feet below the surface, Pumpings taken from the well when drilling in this bed show fragments of pure-white and gray fine- grained gypsum and a considerable proportion of glassy selenite. These deposits are so deeply buried as to be cbnunercially valueless so long as gypsum is abundant at the surface in other parts of the Southwest and the market is small.
BROOKS COUNTY. By C. L. Bakeb.
South of Falfurrias, at the terminus of the San Antonio & Aran- sas Pass Eailway, gypseous sand and selenite form a southward- facing bluff 25 to 30 feet high, extending for several miles along the northern margin of a lake, f
About 6 miles east of Falfurrias there is a mound called Loma Blanca which covers an area of probably 50 acres and has an eleva- tion of approximately 75 to 100 feet above the level of the lake. Its northern side rises somewhat abruptly from a point near the water's edge and is covered with a soft gypseous sand that contains numer- ous blocks or boulders of selenite. About 6 miles south and a little west there is another mound of the same general form and height known as Alto Colorado, which is also said to eonsist of the same kind of gypsum.
The gypseous sand on Loma Blanca thins out toward the crest of the mound, and near the summit on the southern side a deposit of clear transparent selenite covers an area of several acres. The sur- face of this bare spot is rain pitted to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and near the middle there is a cave or shaft about 36 feet deep.
The selenite exposed in the cleared portion of the LcHua Blanca is in layers from 2 to 6 inches thick and is riectly transparent. Blocks free from rain pitting can be obtained through which ordi- nary printed letters can be easily read. The thickness of the deposit is unknown, but it is over 1,000 feet. Recently the Producers Oil Co. drilled four wells to depths exceeding 1,000 feet and found prac- tically the same material in each well throughout the whole depth. The deposit appears from the drilling records to be more or less cavernous. In two of the wells, which were approximately 500 feet
Harris, G. D., op. clt, p. 18.
260 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
apart, the drill passed through a cavity over 20 feet in depth. This cavern lies about 600 feet below the surface. Smaller cavities were found at different depths.
Mining of the gypsum deposits in Brooks County would not be difficult. They lie about 6 miles from the terminus of the San Antonio & Aransas Pass Railway and 14 miles from Sarita on the St. Louis, Brownsville & Mexico Railway. A branch of either line could easily be constructed to the mound. An open face of at least 60 feet may be obtained on any side of Loma Blanca.
The overlying gypseous sand is sufficietly pure to be used as land plaster, and much of it might be used in the manufacture of cement plaster and other structural materials. The main body of selenite is pure enough to be used for any purpose for which gypsum may be required.
OTHER LOCAUTIES. By B. F. Hill.
The clays and marls of the Cretaceous system are gypsiferous in many places, though no deposits of economic importance have been found. Some of the occurrences of this nature are mentioned here, as the content of gypsum is important in its relation to the soils derived from the beds. The Del Rio clay normally contains large quantities of iron pyrites. Where it has been subjected to the process of weathering the oxidation of the pyrite has set free the sulphuric acid that it contains, and this in Iwm has combined with the lime in the clay to form gypsum. Crystals of selenite thus formed are often conspicuous in the outcrops. In the marls and clays of the Upper Cretaceous in the trans-Pecos region, especially in Brewster County, there are extensive beds containing selenite. In the Lower Cretaceous limestones, especially those of the Washita group in the neighborhood of the Terlingua mining district, extensive caves have been formed. Many of the caves have subsequently been filled with gypsum in a variety of forms, including massive gypsum, selenite, and satin spar.
In that portion of Texas lying to the east of Brazos River there are numerous localities where the presence of gypsum has been noted. The geologic formations are of Tertiary and Quaternary age. R. A. F. Penrose, jr., and William Kennedy, in their reports (m this region, note the presence of gypsum in some places in considerable quantities in the clays. In the Midway (" Wills Point formati(Hi in particular, in Brazos County, gypsum occurs chiefly in the form of selenite, some crystals of which are 6 inches long and have
attracted considerable attention, although they are of no commercial importance.
Utah.
By R. W. Stone aiitl C. T. Lupton. BISTBIBUTION.
Commercial deposits of gypsum are abundant and widespread in central and southern Utah. Their distribution is shown on the map (fig. 50). Plaster mills have been operated at Nephi, Levan, and Sigiird, and plaster has been made by crude methods for local con- sumption at St. George and other places.
The known deposits of great extent are as follows : Juab County, near Nephi and Levan ; Sanpete and Sevier counties, from Mayfield to Sigurd ; Millard County, at White. Mountain, near Fillmore ; Emery County, east and south of Castle Dale : Wayne County, near Notom and in South Wash; Kane County, near Kanab; Grand County, between Grand River and La Sal Mountains ; Iron County, southeast of Kanarraville ; Washington County, several localities, particularly in the northeastern part of the county.
Several of these deposits are so far from a railroad or any market that there is no demand for their exploitation.
The gypsum area on the west flank of the San Rafael Swell Ls described by Mr. Lupton. Much of the information concerning other localities was obtained by Mr. Stone on a hasty reconnaissance of readily accessible gypsum localities which he made in August, 1916.
IiOCALITIES IN CENTBAL AND SOUTHEBN UTAH.
By R. W. Stone.
Nephi, Juab County.
The gypsum deposit at Nephi is at the mouth of the canyon of Salt Creek, 2 miles east of the railroad station (Xo. 1, fig. 50). It was discovered many years ago, before the town of Xephi was settled. A claim 600 by 1,500 feet was patented by John Hague and others in 1882 under the name of the Juab Plaster & Mining Claim. During the next few years rock gypsum was quarried and calcined in sorghum pans, and the plaster was used locally and shipped to Salt Lake City. In 1888 Messers. Hyde, Hague, and Whitmore incorporated their company and erected a mill. Operations at this point continue to the present time, the property being owned and worked by the Nephi Plaster & Manufacturing Co., W. L. EUerbeck, president.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The body of gypsum exposed in the south wall of Salt Creek (see PL XXXII, p. 246) extends from the track level, 5,450 feet above sea level, to 6,000 feet and the quarry face is more than 400 feet high. The quarry face, a great white scar on the mountain side, can
S]
Nurobe-s referred to in tact FiGURB 50. — Map sbosrfng dlstribatk of prtncipal gypsum deposits- la Utab.
be seen from the railroad for several miles north of Nephi. Tbo gypsum is 250 feet thick at the bottom of the quarry but widens above to 300 feet or more. Formerly the rock was taken out by quarrying, but the very high quarry face became dangerous, and
Utah. 263
c(nbination of quarrying, glory holes, and underground mining is now in use. A large shoulder of gypsum at the top of the quarry is be- ing removed by shooting the rock into a glory hole which is tapped be- low by a tunnel that lies wholly in gypsiun. In winter or inclement weather rock is mined in the tunnel. The gypsum is loaded in small steel mine cars, which are pushed by hand to the loading house at the top of a steeply inclined gravity tram. The loaded tram car, which carries the contents of three or four mine cars, in descending to the mill 400 feet below pulls up the empty car. The load is dumped automatically into a storage bin in the mill.
The present mill is of modern concrete and steel construction, made fire resistant with partitions of metal lath and gypsum plaster. From the storage bin the rock slides by chute to a nipper, from which it falls into a gyratory crusher. The "gravel" is elevated and run over Newaygo screens to steel storage bins, from which it is caxried by screw conveyers to the kettles. The present equipment for calcining includes two 10- foot kettles and one 8-foot kettle. The kettles dump direct to hot pits, from which the calcined plaster is elevated to Newaygo screens. After passing these screens it is pul- Arized in either a Raymond roller mill or a vertical burr mill. Three mixers are in use, one of them an especially designed tumbler mixer.
Water wliich is taken from Salt Creek 2 miles above the mill and conducted to it in a side-hill ditch has sufficient head at the turbine to make ample power.
The mill output includes land plaster, "gravel" for Portland cement mills, casting, finishing, hard wall, and dental plaster: Spe- cially colored plaster for casting and for exterior and interior walls was prepared in large quantity in 1914 for building at the Panama- Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, and the Panama- California Exposition at San Diego. Keenes cement is made also in a specially designed kiln.
A branch line of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad passes the mill.
The geologic structure in the immediate vicinity of the Nephi gypsum deposit seems to be comparatively simple, for a ledge of shaly limestone about 100 yards west of the gypsum is easily traced up the hillside, its strike being N. 10° E. and its dip 75° W., and a similar ledge about one- fourth mile ea of the deposit also ascends the hill, its strike ranging from N. 36° E. to N. 15° W., and its dip from 35° to 50° E. This ledge seems to be continuous to a point almost directly above the gypsum or 800 feet above the river, where it flat- tens. The vestem ledge, however, at an elevation of 50 feet above the top of the quarry seems to stop abruptly and red shale occurs in the line of strike. A ledge on which the tram is built on the east
gypsum; deposits op the united states.
side of the gypsum appears to strike N. 55° W. and dip 65° W. under the gypsum, but it terminates 100 feet below the top of the qi (See fig. 51.)
Furthermore, the tunnel driven from the mill 250 feet bedrock to the lower part of the quarry passes through various attitudes, and the outcrop along the face of the hill these two points shows complex structure. (See fig. 52.)
FiouBB 51. — Diagram showing geologic structure at gypsum quarry, Nephi, Utah.
The shale in the tunnel in contact with the gypsum appears to be conformable and to dip west at a high angle. In other words, there seems to be a conformable series from gray shaly limestone on the west through 200 feet of drab limy shale and through 250 feet of gypsum and a few feet of shale below it to a disturbed area on the east.
On the north side of the creek a limy ledge at the mouth of the valley strikes N. 20° E. and dips 85° W. On the hillside its
PiGOBB 52. — Cross section of strata that lie between gypsum mill and quarry, Nephi, Utah.
fctrike changes to N. 60° E. and its dip to 55° N. Opposite the mill and 200 feet above it this ledge strikes N. 35° E. and dips 45° N. From the mill or quarry this ledge is seen to form part of a northward-plunging anticline. It is not regular, however, or at least there seems to be a displacement of about 150 feet by a small fault or very acute downfold near the top of the arch.
Gypsum is not found under this arch on the north side of the eek. Just above the upper ledge of limy shale that outlines the structure there is green and red diale. Half a mile farther east there are
). OEOu>aicAL
Oii4lurd Datura] sL
Geological Survey Bxillettn 097 Plate Xiiit
GVPSUM QUARRY IH MILES EAST OF LEVAN, UTAH. Pbotogrsiib by R. W. Sums.
B. GYPSUM BED IN HORN SILVER GULCH, SOUTHEAST OF PbotogTsph by C T. LuptoD.
Utah. 265
several small ledges of gypsum and shale. If the gypsum is a regularly bedded deposit, as it appears to be, it would not show on the north side of the creek because of the sharply plunging anticline. The gypsum may be cut off at the top of the quarry by a fault, or there may be a very sharp small fold here, which is represented on the north side of the creek by the dent near the top of the structural arch. No evidence was found of folding within the gypsum or to support the idea that it is a tightly compressed fold. It would seem to be either a chunky, abruptly terminated lens or a body cut off at one or both ends by a curving fault. Gyp- sum is reported to outcrop in a canyon 1 mile south and is found at a numiber of points between Nephi and Levan. Whether there is a continuous bed has not been determined.
The greater part of this deposit, including a thickness of 250 to 300 feet, is first-class plaster rock, massive and free from im- purities; the remainder is somewhat fractured but usable, though on the margins it is interbedded with shale. Near the middle of the bed and high up in the quarry there is a block of anhydrite, which is easily recognized in mining and so avoided. Gypsum from the Nephi quarry, like that at Levan, is distinguishable from that of many other localities by its mottled light-brown color. The rock is dense and lusterless; its mottled character is shown in Plate XXXIII, A. Two analyses of the rock are given in the table on page 29.
The sedimentary origin of this deposit is shown by its bedded structure, which agrees with that of the country rock, by the inter- hedding of gypsum and shale, by the presence of calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and small quantities of potassium and sodium salts, and by the occurrence of rock salt near by in the same sedi- mentary formation. It is probable that the gypsum was deposited from the water of an inland lake or lagoon. The geologic age of the gypsimi is believed to be Jurassic, but this point has not been settled definitely for lack of paleontologic evidence. The red color of the overlying sedimentary formation is conspicuous and suggests that it belongs to the well-known " Eed Beds " of the Western States. The Wheeler Survey mapped the rocks of this area as Jurassic and re- ported in their text that " the Jurassic rocks are everywhere found to be very gypsiferous, and in some places good workable beds of gyp- sum are seen. One of these beds occurs at Salt Creek, near Nephi."
Levan, Juab Cx)Xjntt.
In the lower end of Levan Canyon there are several exposures of massive gypsum, the first one being IJ miles east of the village of
*Howen, E. E., U. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, p. 264, 1S5.
266 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Levan at the mill and quarry formerly operated by tbe Utah Cen- solidated Plaster Ca This propty, m)w owi by J. H. Moyk, of Salt Lake City, has been idle for a number of years. The gypsum is exposed in the steep valky wall in a triangular outcrop about 200 feet high and 250 feetwide at tlie base. The gypsum is massive, mot- tled, light brown, like tiiat at Nephi, and is tlMHight by some to be a continuation of that deposit. Gypim can not be teaeed cmik- uously over the 11 miles between the two quarries, although it is said to occur at a number of places. Faulting cnpHeates the prob- lem, and the known change of color in the red beds from pla to place at the same geologic horizon leaves correlaiioa depident on paleontologic evidence. Fossils, however, are very scarce in the strata closely related to these gypsum deports. The diui4)ed and faulted character of the geologic £trud;ure at this quarry is drawn in Plate XXXIV, A.
This deposit may be a short, thick lis bunched up by folding and faulting, but definite evidence as to its origin was not obtained. It is believed that the structire of this deposit is the same as that of &e Nephi gypsum deposits
Gypsum from the hillside quarry was damped into a bin iiom which it was drawn into steel tram ears that moved by gravity domi to Hie top of the milL The 2-kettle mill is ccnnpljely equipped, in- cluding Newaygo sca'een and sacker. Power was furnished by tur- bine, water being brought from the creek in a hillside ditdi.
About <Mie- fourth of a mile farther up the canyon tiiere is a small body of gypsum in the north wall, and three-fourths of a mile dbove the mill is a larger deposit, abo 400 f long at the base and 250 to 300 feet high. Two 10-foot adits in the base of this it- posit show light-brown mottled gypsum. There is a small body of gypsum about 400 feet above the creek, on the south side of the can- yon, at this point
Manti, Saxpete County.
According to Mr. O. Billings, of Manti, there is a flat-lying bed of gypsum 20 to 40 feet thick at the head of Manti Canyon, about 13 miles east of the town. The bed is said to be exposed for about 4 miles. Gypsum is reported to be abundant in ILiOwrys Mountain in the Wasatch Plateau, east of Manti.
Mayfield, Sanpete County.
A band of light-colored rocks is very conspicuous on the east side of Sevier Valley from Mayfield nearly to Richfield (No. 3, fig. 50). This** formation, which is believed to be of Jurassic age, carries beds of gypsum.
Utah. 267
Two miles northwest of Mayfield and only a &w rods south of the road leading to Gunnison there is a bed of gypsum about SO feet thick. It is exposed along a low ridge which trends. N. 35"" E. The gypsum is massive white and mottled and is well exposed where a small wash cuts through it 150 yards from the road. The bed dips 50 E. and is underlain by gray to buff shaly sandstone and oTerlain by 60 ft of paper-thin beds of gray sandy shale. This shale is ordain by red beds. The gypsum rests on an uneven sur- &ee at the one place examined ; between the gypsum and the under- lying regularly bedded strata there is a Uock of shaly sandstone, which lies with its bedding planes at a high angle to the contact.
The writer was informed at Mayfield that this ledge has been traced about 4 miles to the south. Whether it is exposed north of the Hayfidld-Gunnison road was not determined, but the same forma- tion was seen for several miles in that direction and is indicated on geologic maps as terminating west of Manti.
Salika, Sevier Countt.
An officer of the United States Forest Service, stationed at Salina, informed the writer that a ledge of gypsum that dips at a high angle is exposed on a ridge S miles east of Salina and extends north at least 3 miles to a small creek, where it has been quarried and burned. A rough stone kiln about 10 feet in diameter is used for making plaster. This ledge of gypsum was well exposed on the old twist road (now abandoned) in the northeast part of T. 21 S., 1 E.
It has been stated that gypsum was at cme time quarried and ground in a small mill near Salina, but that active operations have been suspended. The writer made inquiry of several old residents of Salina regarding this statement and found them all in agreement that there never had been any kind of a gypsum mill near Salina. A small quantity of plaster is made intermittently by crude methods, as noted above.
Sigurd, Sevier County.
The southernmost extensive exposure of gypsum in the 30 miles of nearly continuous outcrop ef gypsum-bearing beds in Sevier Talley, and the only place in the valley where the rock is being utilized on a commercial scale, is at Sigurd. Two plants of the Ameri- can Keene's Cement Co. and the Jumbo Plaster & Cement Co. are quarrying rock gypsimi and making plaster. The rock is quarried 2 miles northeast of the mills and hauled to them by wagon. It is reported locally that the gypsum was deposited as lenses, because
lU. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 103. 1904.
268 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
it is now found in small patches, tipping spurs, and capping knobs. An examination shows, however, that the original flat-lying beds have been upturned, faulted, and eroded. The seeming discontmuity is due to the outcrop between spurs being hidden by wash. At least three beds of gypsum are present. The lower one is 10 to 20 feet thick, the middle one 10 feet or less, and the upper bed appears to range from 20 to 50 feet in thickness. Both the upper and lower beds are quarried. Much of the rock is pure white finely granular gyp- sum, and some is light gray. Both white and gray rock are used. In some places the gypsum beds contain masses of coarse radiating selenite.
The gypsum beds outcrop around an anticline, which is several miles long, apparently terminating on the south near Glenwood and on the north about miles from Sigurd. The antidinal structure is complicated by minor folds and faults.
W. P. Paine, manager of the Jumbo Plaster & Cemt Co., reports that abundant gypsum is exposed a few miles east on Lost Creek, where there are many acres of plaster rock with no ovff- burden. The gypsum-bearing formation is gray and limy shales, with here and there a snlaU band of red beds, overlying the gypsum. Lithologically there is a close resemblance to the formation at Nephi.
The red shales and sandstones in which the gypsum beds occur were mapped by the geologists of the Wheeler Survey as Jurassic* The writer made a fruitless search for fossUs and therefore has no new data concerning the age of the gypsum.
Beds of impure gypsum, unsuitable for plar, occur in the same formation. One of these beds outcrops in the first small ridge east of the valley and along the road from the mills to the quarries.
The mills are operated by water power but have an auxiliary steam plant. One mill calcines pulverized gypsum in 10-foot kettles and the other burns lump gypsum in kilns.
White Mountain, Millard County.
About 8 miles west of Fillmore gypsum occurs in deposits of three types — gypsiferous clay, gypsum sand, and loose crystals (No. 2, fig 50). The gypsiferous clay covers an oval area approximately 3 by 5 miles in extent. Gypsum sand dunes occur in two areas, one of them a mile long and a third of a mile wide, the other an irregular area ap- proximately half a mile square. Mounds of loose small crystals cover an area about 2 miles long and half a mile wide. (See fig. 53.) The gypsum is believed to have been derived from the mountains on the east and to have been transported by streams to the White Moun-
n. S. Qeog. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Atlas Sheets 50 and M.
Utah.
tain playa, where it was redeposited with detritus. This a<5eounts for. the gypsiferous clay. Desiccation of this deposit has formed small gypsum, crystals at the surface, which have been swept up by the wind and collected into dunes of gypsum sand, estimated to cion- tain about 450,000 tons of pure gypsum.
It is well known that in late geologic time a considerable portion of Utah was submerged beneath a great lake. This lake was lowered by drainage over the rim and by desiccation until the bottom was exposed and the great Bonneville basin was divided into a number of separate basins. The existing lakes and playas occupy the bot- toms of these basins. Concerning the origin of .gypsum in the White Mountain playa, Gilbert has written as follows :
Iegcno
g & Gypsum
tSin gs Qyptum sand
]|c G/psum clay
r irhyolite
d Calcareous tufa
/
JV?ti, Jountain.Spr.
(
V/
t
N
2 Miles
In the southeastern angle of the Sevier Desert, there is a tract partiaUy partitioned from the gen- eral plain by a series of coul6es of basaltic lava extravasated during the Bonneville epoch. This contains several playas, marking localities where the drainage is checke<l but not completely impris- oned. The highest and most southerly of these differs from all the others in that its material is gyp- sum. It is probable that the deposit is independent
of any special chemical reaction and is due simply to discharge by evaporation of a mineral dissolved from the rocks. The streams whose waters occasionally flood the playa rise amongst strata of Jurassic and Triassic age, and sucl strata in the neighboring range are known to be highly gypsiferous. The heads of the streams were not examined. It was ascertained by digging in the playa that a portion of the deposit is amorphous and another portion crystalline. One phase of the precipitation results in the formation of smaU free crystals, which the wind sweeps from the surface of the playa and gathers into dunes. The dunes do not travel to a great distance but are arrested by a low rhyolitic butte near by, to which they have given the name of White Mountain.
Figure 53. — Map showing extent of gypsum deposit at White Mountain, Utah.
Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 1, p. 223, 1890.
270 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Cedar City, Iron County, To Glendajle, Kane County.
In Iron, Washington, and Kane counties extensive deposits of gyp- sum have been noted in strata underlying coal beds. A bed of white rock gypsum more than 100 feet thick is recorded by Lee in Coal Creek canyon, east ot Cedar City, Iron County. This bed is in red sedimentary rocks about 500 feet above a great thickness of red sandstone that makes a conspicuous cliff. In a report on the same area Richardson says that in a series of rocks composed of reddish and varicolored shale and sandstone of Jurassic age inter- calated beds of white gypsum occur abundantly for many miles. Mr. Richardson has furnished the following three sections from his unpublished notes (measurements were made with aneroid barometer) :
Section 4 miles east of Kanarravilley Utah.
Feet.
Conglomerate 25
Sandstone, red-brown, and shale 150
Limestone, gray I .i 20
Gypsum, white 200
Limestone, massive, gray, including thin beds of gypsum 500
About 200 feet below the top of this massive limestone there is a 25-foot bed of gypsum, and another bed, of unknown thickness, oc- curs near the base. This measurement, made with an aneroid, is part of a long section exposed southwest of the Union coal mine, in sec. 29, T. 37 S., R. 11 W. The 200-foot gypsum bed is 7,300 to 7,500 feet above sea level and dips 15° E. (No. 5, fig. 50).
Section 8 miles southeast of Kanarravilley Utah.
Feet.
Limestone, massive 25
Gypsum 200
Limestone, massive '. 400
The measurement was made in the SE. sec. 23, T. 38 S., E. 11 W., where the gypsum is 7,600 to 7,800 feet above sea leveL
Section on North Fork of Virgin River,
Feet.
Conglomerate
Sandstone, white, with streaks of red sandstone and shale 150
Gypsum 160
Limestone, massive 225
Limestone and shale 33
Sandstone, massive, scarlet.
1 Lee, W. T., The Iron County coal field, Utah : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, p. 361
Richardson, G. B., Harmony, Colob, and Kanab coal field, Utah : U. S. GeoL Surref BuU. 341, p. 381, 1909.
Utah. 271
This section is exposed near Levi Walker's ranch, in sec. 34, T. 39 S., K. 9. W.
Mr. Richardson reports that gypsum in thick beds is common from Kanarraville southeast at least as far as the valley of Kanab Creek east of GlendaJe, Kaiw County. These great deposits are in the midst of a sparsely settled region remote from a railroad and source of demand, so that doubtless they will long be undeveloped.
The writer was informed by Mr. Dennet, of Rockville, that there is a thick bed of massive white gypsmn near the Denn homestead (m Short Creek, in T. 39 S., R. 10 W. Others stated that gypsum is very abundant in thick beds near Mount Carmel, and Mr. Richard- son's Notes verify its occurrence in the valley of Muddy Creek at that place.
A large bed of gypsum is reported east of Toquerville in the valley just in front of the Hurricane fault. At La Verkin pure- white gypsum float is conspicuous in talus between the bridge over Vir- gin River and the warm sulphur spring in the river bank. Tlw float up the canyon wall leads to a 12-foot bed of massive white gypsum in the bank of the Hurricane irrigating ditch, about 300 feet above the river. On the opposite side of the river and half a mile farther upstream the La Verkin irrigating ditch is reported to cut through gypsum in several places, especially about one- quarter of a mile above the 800-foot tuni by which the water is conducted from the canyon wall to the settlement. One of these gypsum ledges exposed by the ditch is said to be 30 feet high.
The road west from Hurricane that crosses the lava and fords Virgin River near the north line of T. 42 S., R. 14 W., zigzags through several low ridges of tilted green and red sedimentary strata on the west bank of the river. In these beds, along this crooked stretch of road called Purgatory, there is considerable gypsum, but the rock is so deeply weathered that it may not be noticed by the casual observer.
Sl\ GEORGE, WASHINGTON COUNTY.
In the midst of red beds on both sides of Virgin River near Bloomington, 5 miles south of St. George, there is a green shale series, which contains several beds of white gypsum of a sugary texture. This shale is believed to be the same formation as that at Pulsatory, a locality Km Virgin River 10 miles northeast of St. George. There has been no development or prospecting, and because of their soft weathered character the thickness of the individual gypsum beds could not be determined. There seem, however, to be several beds from 5 to 15 feet thick. The road from Bloomington through Curly Hollow to the Apex mine passes through these beds, as does also
272 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
the road on the east side of the river from Bloomington to the Sullivan ranch. In Curly Hollow, west of Bloomington, some of the red beds exposed along the road appear to be gypsiferous shale, but close examination shows that they are composed of layers of gypsum one-half to 2 inches thick, with interlayers of shale a small fraction of an inch thick. Some of the gypsum layers are wavy, but those immediately above and below them are not.
Several old residents at St. George agree that the best exposures of rock gypsum in thick beds near that town are in South Mountam, about 15 miles to the south, and in Quail Canyon, south of Mokaich Spring. Both of these localities are a few miles over the State line in Arizona and were not visited by the writer. The writer was told at St. George that gypsum is exposed abundantly and for a long way on the road from Gunlock up Santa Clara River.
The Mormon temple and tabernacle at St. George are notable examples of frontier plaster work. The writer saw the intior d the tabernacle, which is ornamented with molded plaster work in strong relief, and was told by Mr. T. B. Cottam, of St. George, how the plaster was made 40 years ago. At a locality several miles from town loose blocks of gypsum weighing 300 to 400 pounds were pried out with a crowbar. These blocks were broken with sledges and run through a horizontal burr mill, which reduced the rock to the size of acorns and corn. It was then cooked in a rectangular sheet-iron molasses pan, with constant stirring by hand. The plaster was drawn after the first settle.
SOUTH WASH, WAYNE ANI> GARFIEIiD COUNTIES.
The gypsum of this locality is better known than the locality itself, which is difficult of access. J. E. Talmage, of Salt Lake City, discov- ered huge geodes of selenite or crystallized gypsum in the deserts of Wayne and Garfield counties, and under the auspices of the Deseret Museiun had 20 tons of these great crystals transported to Salt Lake City. They are now to be found in many museums in this si in foreign countries. The occurrence of the crystals has been described by Prof. Talmage as follows :
Here and there along the gorges are outcrops of gypsum varying in dreesof purity, and seams of this material cut through the country rock in all directions. In places veins of satin spar, as thin as a sheet of note paper, or even an Incb in thickness, can be traced for many hundreds of yards upon the surface of the ground in iminterrupted course, except for intersecting planes of the same material. On the walls of the ravines and canyons places are seen wh&e veins cross and recross each other with bewildering profusion. ♦ ♦ Gypeiw in all varieties may be found within a short radius. Fibrous and scaly lamlnte
1 Talmage, J. E., A remarkable occurrence of selenite : Science, vol. 21; pp. SWT, 18W. Moses, A. J., One of the gypsum crystals from the cave at South Wash, Wayne Coioty. Utah : Idem, pp. 230-281.
J
Utah. 273
plaster stone or rock gypsum in masses, lumps of pure alabaster, and f ragits of selenite crystals are scattered along the wacfties and strewn upon the bench Jaads. ♦ ♦
!Phe crystals occur in a cave, and this is Inclosed by a thick shell forming a mound. This selenite mass seems to have been left exposed by the weathering of loosened friable sand and clay, of which the hill whereon the mound is sit- uated is composed. ♦ ♦ ♦ Prisms of perfect form and varying in length from 1 to 5 feet and in weight from 10 to 100 pounds are of frequent occurrence. One of the most regular yet taken out is 4 feet long and the widest faces are 6 inches across. Cleaved slabs are obtainable 6 feet In length and 2i feet in breadth. One of the longest perfect prisms yet obtained extends 51 inches, and from one of its faces 19 smaller crystals sprout. Twins are common, as are also compound terminations of very ccnnplicated structure.
In 1871 G. K. Gilbert (then geologist on the Wheeler Survey) do- scribed occurrences of rock gypsum seen by him in these counties as heijig so extensive that a person could walk in one direction for about 2 miles without stepping off of gypsum. Geologists of the Wheeler Survey mapped the sedimentary rocks of this region as Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. The age of the gypsum is un- certain and will remain so until detailed geologic field work is done in this region,
Moab, Grand County.
By F. L. Hess.
At the edge of the village of Moab, in the southern part of Grand County, there is a deposit of rock gypsum of unknown extent. Weathering has formed a dingy white spongy secondary deposit, about 40 feet thick, which hides the gypsum bed. Poor outcrops along Grand Kiver suggest that the deposit is at least half a mile long; its thickness is unknown but probably is considerable. It is believed to be an interbedded deposit in rocks of Triassic age.
The spongy gypsum has been crushed and put on the road at Moab with good result. In fact, an outcrop of gypsum in this region may be recognized at once wherever a road crosses it, by the smooth, hard surface of the highway.
07Ps17M Along The West Flank Of The San Bafael Swell,
ITTAH.i
By C. T. LuPTON. LOCATION AND EXTENT.
The San Eafael Swell, along the west flank of which outcrop the Sypsum deposits here described, is an irregular, somewhat elliptical
U. Geol. Survey BulL 530, pp. 221-231, 1913. 124567**— 20 18
n
274 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
dome extending northeast and southwest in the east-central part of Utah, east of the Wasatch Plateau and west of Green Eiver. (See PI. XXXV.)
The San Rafael Swell is 60 to 80 miles long and 20 to 30 miles wide.
The gypsum-bearing rocks in this area outcrop in a belt ranginir in width from a few hundred feet in the vicinity of Cedar Moun- tain or Red Plateau, at the north end of the area, to 3 or 4, miles near the center of the west flank, along the road leading from Emery east- ward to the Globe ccper mine.
The gypsum exposures can be most easily yisited by leaviilg the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad at Price, from which town a daily stage traverses approximately the entire length of Castle Valley to Emery, 63 miles to the southwest. At any of the towns between Price and Emery (Cleveland, Huntington, Castle Dale, and Ferron) conveyances may be obtained for a trip to the gypsum beds, which outcrop several miles to the east. Proba;bly the most convenient point from which to visit the gypsum-bearing rocks is Cleveland, about 6 miles east of Huntington. A good road leads from Cleveland in % southeast direction to Buckhom Flat, located directly south of Cedar Mountain or Red Plateau. At the east side of Buckhom Flat the gypsum beds have been prospected and are reported to be well exposed. A good road has been built from Emery eastward across the outcrop of the gypsum to some copper prospects known as the Globe copper mine, on the west flank of the SwelL Next to the wagon road leading from Cleveland to Buckhom Flat, this road would be the best one over which to haul the gypsum should it be mined.
Travel by rail may be terminated also at Salina, on tlie Rio Grande Western Railway, on the west side of the Wasatch Plateau, where conveyance can be obtained across this plateau to Emery, in Castle Valley. The gypsum exposures situated near the south end of the Swell in the vicinity of Caineville, and also those near ihe north ead of the Water Pocket Flexure, near Notom post office, can be visited most easily 'by taking the stage from Salina to Loa, in Rabbit Valley, where conveyance can be obtained for the trip down Fremont River to Notom and Caineville.
Topography.
The topography of the area is rugged. Mesas and buttelike forms cut from massive sandstone, approximately 800 feet thick, underly- ing the gypsum-bearing formation and outcropping east of it] are the most striking features. In many places the walls of these mesas, buttes, and scarps are almost vertical cliffs 300- feet or more high- The outcrop of this sandstone surrounds the central part of tk
Utah. 276
Swell, which is locally known as Sinbad. The topography of the areas of gypsum-bearing rocks is in most places comparatively smooth, except along the streams, where badlands are common.
Geologt.
The gypsum-bearing rocks are of Upper Jurassic age and are the approximate equivalent of the Flaming Gorge formation of Powell. They rest with apparent conformity on a massive cross-bedded sand- stone, which is the Gray Cliff sandstone of Gilbert's Henry Moun- tains section, and is regarded as the same as the White Cliff sand- stone (Upper Jurassic) of southern Utah and the Uinta Mountains. There are about 1,350 feet of strata, mainly reddish in color, with two gypsum-bearing zones, one 200 feet below the top and the other 200 feet above the base. Between the two gypsum zones there is a series of red and gray sandstoie and sandy shale about 950 feet thick. The beds thus described correspond closely with the Flam- ing Gorge formation described by Gilbert as occurring in the Henry Mountains region, a comparatively short distance south of the San Rafael Swell, where he determined the thickness to be approxi- mately 1,200 feet.
The strata along the west flank of the Swell dip 3°-8° NW., but the strata along the east flank are in places much more steeply in- clined, ranging from almost flat to approximately 70° SE.
General Features Of The Gypsum Deposits.
The gypsum of this area is an interbedded deposit, precipitated in a shallow sea into which a large amount of sediment was carried, especially at the beginning and end of the gypsum-forming period. The greater part of the deposits take the form of alabaster. The gypsum of the upper zone has a reddish tint and is not quite so pure as the lower deposits, which are white. The gypsum of both zones is So compact and firm that it can be readily carved. The upper and lower portions of both gypsum belts in most places contain con- siderable sandstone and sandy shale interbedded with the gyp- sum. These impure portions probably will never be of -alue for mining, in view of the large amount of pure gypsum in the main parts of the beds.
At several places near the outcrop of the gypsum beds the over- lying strata are contorted and deformed. This condition is probably
Powell, J. W., Report on the geology of the eastern portion of the Uinta Mountains and a region of country adjacent thereto: U. S. GeoL wid Geog. Survey Terr., 2d div., pp. 40, 50. 51, 68, 92, 146, 151-153, 157, 1876.
2 Gilbert, G. K., Geology of the Henry Mountains, Utah: U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survev Kocky Mtn. Region, p. 6, 1877.
276 Gypsum Deposits 01* The United States.
due to the removal of portions of the underlying gypsum by ground water, and the consequent sinking of the covi The lower beds are purer and thicker than the upper, the exposures examined, given below in the discussion of at the different localities, illustrate this point. Very li or crystalline gypsum was noted.
In most places the upper gypsum bed outcrops in cliffs. This position is due to the character of the ov< underlying rocks, which are in most places fairly resistan' The lower beds containing gypsum usually outcrop in a valley in a broad belt, which corresponds closely to a true The rocks that underlie the gypsum are harder than graphically above it, and, as the gypsum is comparative!; eroded with the softer sandstone and shales. East of Eii the Globe Copper Mine road, the lower gypsum bed ot more than a mile on one of these dip slopes.
Localtties. 1
South Of Cedab Koxtntazv.
A gjrpsum prospect directly south of Cedar Mountal Plateau, at locality No. 1 (see PI. XXXV), near an unuse of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, in the NW. J SVi T. 19 S., R. 11 E. Salt Lake meridian, is a pit about 81 and 8 feet in dialneter. Only unconsolidated conglomerate* seen in this pit, on account of caving. On the dump w4 amount of grayish-green sandy shale and some pieces ing porous gypsum. It is reported by Parian McFarlane land, Utah, that the gypsum is at least 30 feet thick and t ber of claims have been staked and recorded in this local! the stratigraphic position of the prospect pit this is the 1 sum horizon. It is quite probable that when the mining is begun in the San Rafael region the first shipment wil from this locality, as there is a fairly good road leadin Cleveland to the railroad at Price and also a fair road 1 Green River on the railroad to the southeast. The gyps mined and moved to the railroad from this place at p smaller cost than from any other locality hereinafter dei
Sak Rafael Valley.
On the north side of San Rafael River, at the east end Bottom, at locality No. 2 (see PL XXXV), the lower ing zone was examined and the following section was mei
ji
/
,
,
/
Utah. 277
Section of gypsum-hearing rocks at the east end of Fullers Bottom along San
Rafael River, Utah,
Sandstone, grayish, thin bedded, locally has a greenish tint.
In many places these strata are much contorted and the Feet.
strata at the outcrop have a wavy appearance 50+
Gypsum,, fairly pure, becoming less pure at top and base 30-35
Sandstone, reddish, contains thin veins of gypsum 10
Gypsum, very pure 7
Sandstone, reddish, contains thin veins of gypsum 5
Sandstone, thin bedded, greenish gray 12-15
Total gypsum 37-42
The route from Castle Dale to this locality is down Cottonwood Creek and San Rafael River. The trip is easily made on horseback, but for wagon or 'buggy the road is very poor.
A sample of gypsum taken near the center of the upper bench at this locality was analyzed by J. G. Fairchild in the chemical labora- tory of the United States Geological Survey, with the following re- sult:
Partial analysis of gypsum from east end of Fullers Bottom along San Rafael
River, Utah.
Lime (CaO) 32.47
Sulphur trioxide (SOs) 45.63
Water driven off at G 20. 54
Chlorine (01) . 32
Iron Oxide (FeaOs) Trace.
This analysis shows an equivalent of 97.3 per cent of gypsum. Practically no anhydrite is present. The percentages of lime, sul- phur trioxide, and water given in the analysis approach very closely those of pure gypsum, which contains 32.6 per cent of lime, 46.5 per cent of sulphur trioxide, and 20.9 per cent of water. A striking characteristic of this gypsum is the unusually large amount of chlorine it contains, which is about 10 times greater than that in the gypsum from Alabaster, Mich. (See analysis, p. 29.)
Hokk Silver Ottloh.
In Horn Silver Gulch (No. 3, PI. XXXV), approximately 10 miles southeast of Ferron along the wagon road leading from Ferron to Green River Desert, the upper gypsum-bearing rocks are well ex- posed. The thickness of the only bed of gypsum noted in this imme- diate region was measured across an outcrop on the south side of the gulch. (See PI. XXXIV, B,) As noted in the general discussion of th gypsum, this bed has a slightly reddish tint and is much thinner than the beds at the lower horizon. The following section shows the character of the overlying and underlying rocks as well as the thick- ness of the gypsum at this place.
278 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States,
Section of gypsuwrhearing rocks in Horn Silver GtUch about 10 miles soutJieast
of Ferron, Utah,
- Feet.
Sand and clay, gray, fine grained ; sandstone, conglomerate at top 14
Sandstone, yellowish gray to brown ; tipper li feet very hard and forms a ledge 4
Gypsum, very slightly reddish, comparatively pure; contains nodules of variegated chert 11
Sandstone and sandy shale, in places ripple marked, thin bedded ; some very resistant beds 2 to 3 feet ; mainly reddish In color with a few thin bands and streaks of greenish-gray fine-grained sandstone (base unexposed) 210
Total gypsum 11
A sample of the gypsum near the center of the bed was analyzed by J. G. Fairchild in the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological Survey, as follows :
Analysis of gypsum from Horn Silver Gulch, 10 miles southeast of Ferron, Utah,
Lime (CaO) 32. 49
Sulphur trloxide (SOs) 45.88
Water driven off at 300" C 20.58
Chlorine (CI) .39
Iron oxide (FeiOs) Trace.
This analysis shows an equivalent of 97.9 per cent of gypsum. Practically no anhydrite is present. The chlorine content is slightly more than that of the sample collected at locality No. 2 along San Rafael River.
Cold Wash.
In Cold Wash (No. 4, PL XXXV and fig. 50), 20 miles east of Emery, gypsum which belongs to the lower horizon outcrops along the road from Ferron to the Green River Desert. A detailed section measured a short distance northwest of Dripping Spring, on the west side of Cold Wash, is as follows :
Section of gypsum-hearing rocks on Cold Wash ahout 20 miles east of Emery,
Utah,
Feet.
Sandstone, thin bedded, grayish In jaces. tints of red and
green . 50-f
Gypsum 35+
Sandstone, greenish gray, thin bedded 60±
Shale and sandstone, reddish, thin bedded 18
Sandstone, yellowish brown, thin beilded 15
Sandstone, yellowish brown. maslve 10
Sandstone, maroon and yellowish buff, thin bedded 15
Total gypsum 354-
Utah. 279
In many places it is impossible to obtain an accurate measurement* of the gypsum on account of its soluble character, the ground waters having dissolved part of the bed. At the locality above mentioned conditions were such that it was impossible to determine whether the total thickness of the gypsum was seen.
Dripping Spring issues from thin-bedded sandstone about 40 feet below the base of the gypsum bed and naturally it carries a great amount of gypsum. The water, which is cold, has a bitter taste that is emphasized when the water is heated. The bitterness possibly is due to the presence of epsomite, the sulphate of magnesium.
COLT QtTLOH.
About 8 miles east of Emery, in an intermittent stream course knoivn locally as Colt Gulch (No. 5, PI. XXXV), the following sec- tion of the upper gypsum-bearing rock was measured :
Section of gypsum-hearing rocks in Colt Gulch, about 8 miles east of Emery
Utah,
Ft. in. CJonglomerate, gray, fine grained ; pebbles consist of chert and limestone, ranging from sand grains up to pebbles 3 inches in diameter ; contains a few lenses of soft friable
sandstone 8±
Sandstone, gray 4
Gypsum, sandstone, and Ihaestone, with some red, gray, and
white sandy shale 16 6
Gypsum, pinkish, impure, and very shaly at base, fairly pure at top; contains chert fragments. (This portion of the bed probably corresponds with the section measured
at locality No. 3 in Horn Silver Gulch) 22
Shafe, snlmoii red, in places greenish gray 10 4
Gypeum, almost pure white 10
Shale, reddish, sandy 1 3
Gypsum, somewhat impure 4
Clay shale, sandy, salmon-red 11
Total gypeum 36
This section, which was measured oa the south side of Colt Gulch, ows that there is much more gypsum here than in the section measured 8 or 10 miles to the northeast, in Horn Silver Gulch.
inrBBT OSXEK.
On the west side of Salt Wash, north of Muddy Creek (No. 6, PI. XXXV) , 15 miles southeast of Emery and 6 to 8 miles south-south-
280 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
west of Colt Gulch, a detailed section of the upper gypsum rocks was measured as follows:
flection of gypsum-hearing rocks on the west side of Salt Wash north of Muddy
Creek, about 15 mites southeast of Emery, Utah.
Peet.
Conglomerate 5
Gypsum ; In places has a slightly reddish tint 52
Shale. interbe<lded with gray sandstone 29
Total gypsum . 52
It is probable that the gypsum shown in this section may con- tain sandstone and shale partings, and portions of the bed may be somewhat impure, as the exposure was not good. The gypsum from this locality can be shipped with little difficulty, as an excellent road has been graded from Emery to a point a short distance east of the outcrop. At this locality the road, which follows an approximate dip slope of the strata, is on the gypsum for at least half a mile. Con- siderable deposits of quartz and gypsum sands cover the surface near the outcrop.
Last Change Ckeex.
Very little is known regarding the details of the gypsum beds for a distance of 15 to 18 miles to the south from the locality last described. Sections of the gj'psum were not measured, but the pres- ence of the upper zone is assured by the "float" and the character of the water in Last Chance Creek where it is crossed by the wan trail connecting Caineville and Emery, which* is stratigraphically above the lower gypsiun horizon. The "water of this creek is so thoroughly saturated with gypsum and possibly some epsomite that it is practically unfit for the use of man or beast. A few miles south of Last Chance Creek, also known as Starvation Creek (No; 7, PL XXXV), a piece of gypsum "float" from the lower horizcm was found near the Caineville-Emery wagon trail. The main bed was not seen, but the undulating, contorted character of the strata at this place suggested that as much gypsum lies a short distance be- neath the surface as that measured at the exposure on San Rafael River (No. 2). A number of igneous sills and dikes were noted here ond some of the pieces of gypsum suggest that it had been slightly metamorphosed by the heat from these intrusions.
Ca11I£Viix£.
About 3 miles northwest of Caineville post office, approximately in the center of T. 28 S., R. 8 E. Salt Lake meridian (No. 8, PI. XXXV), the upper gypsum bed outcrops for 2 miles along the can-
Utah. 281
yon through which the Caineville-Emery wagon trail extends. The bed was not measured in detail but is approximately 8 feet thick and seemed to be very pure.
Kotom.
Along the east flank of the Water Pocket Flexure, near the north side of T. 30 S., R. 7 E. Salt Lake meridian, about 2 miles west of Notom post office (No. 9, PI. XXXV), a bed of gypsum undoubtedly representing the lower horizon is exposed near the wagon road ex- tending from Fruita to Notom. This outcrop, the exact thickness of which was not measured, is about 75 feet stratigraphically above the massive cross-bedded sandstone to which Gilbert applied the name Gray Cliff. Although the horizon of the upper gypsum bed was crossed in the vicinity of Notom it was not seen at any place. It is probably present, however, as it outcrops a few miles to the north in the vicinity of Caineville.
Othek Exposttbes.
Along the road leading from Emery eastward to the Globe Copper mine both gypsum horizons were noted. The upper or pinkish bed has apparently the same thickness as that noted in Horn Silver Gulch. It was impossible to obtain a measurement of the lower l)ed, as it outcrops on an approximate dip slope for a distance of more than a mile. Gypsum deposits were not observed elsewhere along the west flank of the Swell, but the writer believes that the beds of both horizons are continuous from the north to the south end of the Swell and that they may some day be valuable should transportation become less expensive.
Character Of The Gypsum.
The gypsum of both horizons is comparatively pure. The lower bed, however, probably contains less impurity than the upper. The upper bed, in addition to the slight discoloration, contains numer- ous small chert nodules of various colors. These undoubtedly would cause some difficulty in the preparation of the gypsum for plaster of Paris. The lower deposits contain very little chert and are almost white. From these deposits gypsum which would make white plaster could probably be obtained. Certain portions of the upper pinkish bed, which is compact and fine grained, might be used as alabaster, giving a varied effect from the pure white. The lower bed could also be used in this way, as it is apparently as solid as the upper bed. The two analyses of samples taken in this area, together with the analyses of gypsum from other localities in the United States are given in the table on page 29.
282 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UinTED STATES.
Development.
Gypsum is not yet being mined in the San Balael Swell. Except at the prospects south of Cedar Mountain or Eed Plateau, the gyp- sum of this district has not been prospected. On account of the excellent natural exposures, however, prospecting is unnecessary, as in most places the entire thickness of the beds is well exposed. It is possible that small quantities of gypsimi have been used by ranclers and others desiring plaster of Paris or land plaster, but the quantity removed from the field is insignificant. From the description given it is evident that the San Rafael Swell contains an enormous supply of gypsum, but probably no great quantity will be mined until better transportation facilities are available. It would be a comparatively easy matter to extend a railroad spur from either Green River or Price to these gypsum-bearing rocks. A railroad grade has beea made through the northern part of the San Rafael region connecting Green Riv.er with Price ; and although the road has never been used, it could be repaired with little labor and expense. As this grade crosses the gypsum beds in T. 19 S., R. 10 E., and as the gypsum- bearing rocks occupy a monoclinal valley, a railroad spur could ba very easily projected through the center of the gypsum belt for its entire length. The raw product then could be mined and trans- ported cheaply. Such a railroad would probably induce coal mining in the Cretaceous beds east and south of Emery along Muddy Creek and its tributaries.
Gypsum of the massive variety has a specific gravity of approxi- mately 2.32. This is equivalent to about 145 poimds to the cubic foot. The following estimates are based on the considerati(ms that the gypsum could be mined under cover to a distance of 2 miles from the outcrop, which, with the dip of 3° to would carry the bed about 800 feet below the sui'f ace, and that the gypsum-bearing beds are 60 miles in length on the west flank of the Swell. To be conservative, the upper bed is assumed to average 10 feet in thick- ness, and the lower beds to contain an average of 30 feet of gypsoin. These assumed thicknesses probably represent 25 to 50 per cent less than the true average. On this basis the beds of gjrpsum on the west flank of the San Rafael Swell are estimated to contain 9,701,600,000 tons— 2,425,400,000 tons in the upper bed and 7,276,200,000 tons in the lower bed.
Virginia.
By G. Stose.
Location.
Large deposits of gypsum and salt occur in a district 20 miles long, extending northeastward from the village of Plasterco, Va., and lying in Washington and Smyth counties. Much of it is in or near the valley of North Fork of Holston River, and is ac- cessible to railroad transportation by the Saltville branch of the Norfolk & Western Railway, which joins the main line at Glade
63*30'
63*00
82'30'
82*00
81*30'
sa'ao*
82*'00'
ai'ao'
50 Miles
FiQURB 54. — Index map of southwestern Virginia. Ttie area described and mapped in tbis report is indicated by tlie sliaded rectangle. Railroad connections for tliis area only are shown.
Spring. The location of this area is shown in figure 54. The location of two gypsum plants now in operation and of several gypsum work- ings and prospects some of which at present are not commercially workable because of lack of transportation facilities, are shown on the geologic map in figure 55.
Topography.
The area represented on the map (fig. 56) comprises a mountain ridge 1,000 feet high, separating parallel valleys and rising above an adjacent deeply dissected plateau. The ridge, named Pine Moun- tain at the southwest and Brush Mountain at the northeast, trends
Gypsum Deposits Of The Vnitbd States.
Ml.
Virginia. 285
in general N. E., and its elevation ranges from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. It is cut nearly at right angles by several deep water gaps through which pass the waters from Clinch Mountain that drain into North Fork of Holston Kiver, which flows south westward. The plateau to the southeast ranges from 2,000 to 2,500 feet in altitude, and its surface is dissected into narrow transverse ridges and rounded hills. ,
Geology.
The Kock8.
The rocks in which the gypsum occurs are of Mississippian (lower Carboniferous) age. A generalized section of the Carboniferous rocks derived from several detailed sections in the vicinity of the mines is as follows:
Generalized section of Carboniferous rocks in the vicinity of Saltville, Va,
Xewnian limestone:
Hai*d argillaceous limestone weathering to calcareous Feet, shale, including a few beds of crystalline lime-
Red calcareous sandstone and coarse crinoidal limestone, and a few beds of argillaceous lime- stone . 75
Light-blue laminated argillaceous limestone and calcareous shale, and a few thicker, purer, fos- siliferous limestones '. 1, 150
Massive gray and blue f ossiliferous limestone, in part granular and crystalline, and containing some chert 250
1,875+
Maccrady formation:
Earthy limestone and dark-gray shale, weathering light gray to green and crumbly, abundantly fossiliferous .— 125
Gray calcareous sandstone and some shaly argil- laceous or earthy limestone; harder fossiliferous sandstone at the top 120
Largely soft rocks, including shaly limestone and earthy sandstone, mostly concealed; apparently represented in places by red, green, and blue plas- tic clay, gypsum, and salt beds 335-[-
Red sandy sLale and red and array shaly Fandstone and in lower part soft light-buff shale, and thin . black carbonaceous shale containing coal seamlets and plant remains 120
700+
286 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Price sandstone:
Hard, irregular-bedded, rusty-gray sandstone, witli Feet.
some heavier beds 150-165
Largely shaly sandstone, with a few harder beds 150-205
Massive gray to reddish-gray sandstone, thin-bedded
toward top, and fine conglomerate with scattered white quartz pebbles generally at base 30- 55
Devonian rocks:
Thin-bedded sandstone and sandy shale conraining
brachlopods of Chemung age, 536 feet. Platy sandstone and slaty shale.
The Price sandstone is a hard, ridge-making rock which forms the ridge laiown as Pine Mountain and Brushy Mountain. The Mac- crady formation consists of soft and easily disintegrated material that is generally deeply eroded and poorly exposed and therefore forms valleys. The best exposures of this formation occur in the valley of North Fork of Holston River from Maccrady southwest, although they are there largely covered by the terrace and flood- plain deposits of that stream. The black shale and red sandy beds at the base are commonly exposed on the lower slopes of Pine Moun- tain, but the higher earthy limestones and shales of the formation are to be seen in few places. Northeast of Maccrady and southwest of Saltville red and olive to bluish plastic clays with gypsum occur in the midst of the Maccrady formation. The exact position in the| formation of this clay and gypsum has not been fully established, because in the broad flats where the gypsum occurs only soft clay iSi seen and no key rocks outcrop. However, the gypsum seems to re- place the middle earthy shales and sandstones, for to the northeast: it lies above the lower red siliceous beds of the formation, 120 feet or more thick, and at Saltville it lies below the sandstone that is 125 feet from the top.
The Newman limestone, although massive at the base, is com- posed largely of calcareous shales which weather readily to clay and soil. The formation forms high rounded hills.
The distribution of the rock is shown on the map (fig. 55).
Structure.
The rocks of the southeast side of the area shown on the map are part of a great mass of Cambrian dolomite and limestone which was thrust over the Carboniferous rocks on the northwest along a flat fault plane, as shown in the structure sections (figs. 56 and 57). The Cambrian strata dip rather uniformly 30® to SE.,
EUdcbb 00, — Structure Bectlons acroM Holeton Valley, Va., alonjt llncR indicated by letters on the marglDE of the fpologic map (llg. 65). Co, Newmnn llmeatone ; Cmc, MficcradLy formntion; Cp, Price samlgtooc : fiD, unJltterentintpd Bllnriau and Devonian rocks; aodlfTereutlatea Cambrian rocks, ametlj' dolomite. Scale, double (be scale ol figure 55.
gypsum: deposits of the united states.
successively older Cambrian strata appealing at the northwest. Massive gray dolomite and magnesian limestone of Cambrian age is adjacent to the fault throughout most of its course in the mapped area. A still lower Cambrian formation of red argillaceous shale and sandstone is exposed over part of the area northeast of Broad Ford, apparently on the axis of an overturned anticline, the break- ing of which may have conmienced the overthrust faulting.
The rocks northwest of the fault, except those immediately ad- jacent to it, dip uniformly 25°-40° SE., and range from Carbcm- iferous at the fault to lowest Silurian in Clinch Mountain, north-
L-U
J -J'
I - I'
H-H'
Figure 57. — Structure sections across Holston Valley, Va., along lines indicated by letters on the margins of the geologic map (fig. 55). On, Newman limestone; Cmc, Maccradj formation; Cp, Price nandstone ; SD, undifferentiated Silurian and Devonian rocks; e-, undifferentiated Cambrian rocks, mostly dolomite. Scale, double the scale of fig- ure 55.
west of the area mapped. The soft Carboniferous rocks near the fault are bent into an overturned syncline. The sections in figures 56 and 57 show that the beds in the syncline gradually rise and the fold flattens and shallows from southwest to northeast. The New- man limestone, which has a thickness of about 2,000 feet in the most southern section, is gradually reduced in thickness by erosion in the shallowing syncline until northeast of Saltville it is en- tirely removed. The soft Maccrady formation which underlies the
Virginia 289
Newman outcrops along the southeast side of the sjmcline for only a few miles in the vicinity of Saltville and Plasterco, being faulted out in the southwestern part of the area. The observed dips on the south side of the syncline are mostly vertical.
The fault plane is exposed at several places in the area, dipping at angles ranging from 20° to 60° SE. The trace of the fault plane on the surface is very crooked in the northeastern part of the area, owing to the fact that the plane probably has a low southeast dip and is somewhat folded along the strike, so that erosion to the surface level has produced promontories of the overthrust rock at the downf olds and reentrants at the upf olds.
This fault is not a local or minor fault, for it has been traced south westward in the Appalachians into the Rome fault, which has been, proved to have a horizontal displacement of at least 5 miles in the vicinity of Rome, Ga
It is concluded from a broad study of the structure that this fault of great magnitude and length did not originate in a broken fold but is of deeper-seated origin and is a shear plane that cuts diago- nally across the strata to a great depth, the beds locally at the contact, however, being folded and crumpled by the friction and drag of the overriding mass. Thus the overridden Carboniferous beds on the northwest are bent into an overturned syncline from Saltville south- west and the overriding Cambrian beds on the southeast show an anticlinal structure in places.
Origin Of The Deposits.
Explanations of the origin of these gypsum deposits published by W. B. Rogers, J. J. Stevenson, and E. C. Eckel were given by the author elsewhere,* together with his own interpretation of the origin, which may be summed up as follows: The gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia were probably derived from calcareous-argil- laceous sediments which originally contained disseminated gypsum that was precipitated by the partial evaporation of sea water in a temporarily inclosed arm of the sea. The gypsum has since been concentrated in favorable layers in the same formation by under- ground waters which circulated chiefly along the fault contact be- tween the Carboniferous and Cambrian rocks, dissolved the calcium carbonate from the adjacent earthy limestones, and segregated the gypsum in the more gypsiferous beds by chemical selection. Such transportation and concentration of gypsum are known to have taken place on a small scale in the satin spar veins in the adjacent clay, and
1 Stose, G. W., Geology of the salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 530, pp. 232-255, 1913; Virginia Geol. Survey Bull. 8, pp. 61-78, 1918.
124567**— 20 19
290 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
the "domes" of salt and gypsumr in the Gulf States, if correctly interpreted by Harris and others, are examples of the process on a gigantic scale.
This conclusion seemed warranted because the gypsum deposits have so far been found only in soft shales of the Maccrady for- mation adjacent to the fault and descending southeastward beneath the fault plane. Under this hypothesis the black rock in the gypsum is regarded not as a sedimentary layer but as the segregated insoluble impurities of the original deposit concentrated in a concretioimry ball-like form during the purification of the gypsum by recrystalliza- tion, and the alternating bands of pure and impure gypsum surround- ing these rounded masses would represent a stage in the process of purification by this method. The thick layers of pure gypsum in the gypsum mines would be regarded not as original deposits of pure gypsum but as more or less gypsif erous beds that have been purified by the removal of lime by solution and of argillaceous matter by its concentration in the concretionary balls, and by the addition of gyp- sum derived from the disseminated particles in adjacent beds.
An alternative explanation of the origin of gypsum tliat will also account for the close association of the gypsum beds with the fault plane is that conditions favorable to the deposition of gyp- sum increased toward the southeast; that while marine conditions accompanied by deposition of fossiliferous limestone and clay pre- vailed on the northwest side of the area which is now the Saltville syncline, represented by the barren Maccrady formation alonXorth Fork of Holston Eiver southwest of Saltville, the southeast side of this area was occupied by an estuary or lagoon partly inclosed by a barrier and in this lagoon gypsum and red clay were being deposited, represented by the gypsum deposits southwest and northeast of Salt- ville. Under this hypothesis the western edge of the gypsum deposits is just being exposed, and the gypsum will be found to extend south- eastward beneath the overthrust Cambrian dolomites, just as under the hypothesis of concentration along the fault zone. The thick beds of pure gypsum would thus be original deposits in which beds of argillaceous sediments had been so closely infolded that they appear as balls of black rock surrounded by bands of impure gypsum, the banding representing original sedimentation. The chief objection to this hypothesis is the abruptness of the change from thick marine sediments to equally thick nonmarine sediments, as displayed at Saltville and Maccrady, but this objection can be overcome by the assumption of extensive enrichment of the gypsum and salt beds by secondary concentration by circulating waters. A generalized record of one of the typical wells of the Mathieson Alkali Co. at Saltville is as follows:
VlfiGINIA* 291
Oeneralized tection of a well at Saltville, Va,
Thiclmess.
Depth.
Feet,
Feet.
79&
1,092
Liiiiflstond Bud ia)e
Shale and eypeyas
Mostly sfaaie with gvpsam and some rock salt ,
Mostly limestone witn shale, gypsum, and rock salt
Mostly shale with irpsum and rock salt
Mostly rock salt with little shale
The section at the river cliff southwest of Maccrady is as follows: Section of BJaceradj formation icest of Maccrady Va.
Dark impure massive limestone (Newman). Feet, Dark-gray to green crumbly fossillferous shale and earthy
gray limestones (upper part concealed) 65
Alternate thick earthy limestone, calcareous shale, and thin
crystalline fossillferous limestones (50
Massive-bedded bluish tough calcareous and argillaceous
sandstone with fossillferous calcareous layers 25
Gray sandstone, weathering brown 5
Shaly earthy contorted sandy limestone 34
Hard thick-bedded bluish calcareous sandstone 20
Softer shaly earthy sandttone 30
Thick bed of earthy sandstone 6
Hard impure limestone, with chert nodules 8
Thick soft earthy sandstone 10
Shaly earthy limestone 60
Thick-bedded to shaly earthy sandstone 45
CJorered, probably shaly earthy limestone and soft earthy
sandstone 200
Covered, probably red siliceous shale at top (seen elsewhere) 26
Red shaly sandstone and shale, mottled yellow i 10
Red shale In part, rest covered 25
Red shaly sandstone, mottled yellow 7
Shaly gray sandstcme, with phosphatlc fish plates 10
Sandy shale, In part covered 20
Soft shale, light buff to dark drab ; light-gray fire clay with
rootlets, leaves, and twigs at base 20
Black coaly fissile shale 2
SlaM>y blue even-grained irregular-bedded sandstone, weather- —
Ing buff (t( of Price sandstcMie). 688
It is not reasonable to believe that while several hundred feet of marine sediments were accnmnlating near Maccrady, nonmarine conditions prevailed a mile away, around Saltville, where hundreds of feet of clay, gypsum, and salt were deposited. It is possible that a minor thrust fault cuts the section at a small ravine just southwest of Maccrady and passes southwestward along the belt of the Maccrady formation, whereby the gypsum-bearing beds and the marine beds
292 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
of the Maccrady formation, once much farther apart, were brought close together. The thickness and sequence of the middle portion of the Maccrady formation given in the preceding section would there- fore be incorrect. The abrupt change in character of beds is more reasonably explained by assuming secondary concentration of the salt and gypsum.
Gypsum Industby. Earlier Development.
In 1835 Rogers mentioned the great possibilities of this gypsum deposit as a source of fertilizer for the agricultural lands of Vir- ginia. In 1836 he described these deposits as great detached masses of gypsum distributed along the Holston Eiver belt for 40 miles. He reported that an almost solid mass of gypsum 25 feet deep, 50 feet long, and 15 feet wide was opened at McCall's quarry (probably one of the pits on the Robertson place), borings indicating that it ex- tended to a depth of 100 feet, and stated that small openings had been made in the extensive exposures at the Buchanan banks in Walker Valley (Locust Cove), which indicated a great abundance of gypsum there.
Stevenson in 1885 reported extensive mining on the Robertson tract at the southwest end of the Saltville Valley, where some large masses close to the surface had at that time been worked out. He also reported that plaster had been dug for five years to a depth of 60 feet at Pierson's and under the limestone bluff south of the river on the Miller farm (at North Holston), in a deep shaft in the river bottom on the Taylor farm, and in a shaft north of the road on the same property (2 miles east of Broad Ford) ; and that extensive mining had been done by open pits and shafts on the Buchanan property, on Cove Creek, and in the small adjacent valley 3 miles west of Chatham.
Old caved-in pits where gypsum or " plaster," as it is commonly called, was mined from the surface in earlier days, are scattered along the belt of lowland from a point a mile west of Plasterco to the vicinity of Chatham Hill. Near Plasterco large pits, abandoned shafts, and caved-in ground mark the place where the Buena Vista Plaster Co. and the Robertsons formerly mined the gypsum and removed much of the available material close to the surface. Smaller openings were made by the same operators in the embayment about 1 mile to the southwest, but the deposits there have been only slightly explored. This tract is owned by the Buena Vista Plaster Co. and is at present leased to the United States Gypsum Co. In the broad flat at Saltville, where salt is extracted by the Mathieson Alkali Co., thick deposits of gypsum are reported in all the wells drilled for salt, and
Vibginia. 293
some beds at the surface were formerly mined for the manufacture of a kind of cement. The tract is owned by the Mathieson Alkali Co., which extracts brine but does not at present mine the gypsum.
At North Holston and in the embayment to the east several old gypsum pits on the Pierson and Miller farms were formerly worked for plaster but are now nearly obliterated. Several old pits are )'till visible near Broad Ford, most of them in the broad embayment the east. One in the river bank on the Taylor farm, about a mile !ast of Broad Ford, still exposes gypsiferous shales beneath over- hrust Cambrian dolomite. There are other pits on the Taylor farm and the adjacent Barnes place among the low hills north of the river. A large deposit was there opened by shaft and drifts but las long been abandoned and the workings filled with water.
Northeast of the Taylor farm the outcropping rocks continue to ippear favorable for the occurrence of gypsum, but the exposed area ot the Maccrady formation, which carries the gypsum, is narrow, and gypsum is not known to occur in quantity in the next 3 miles. Beyond to the northeast, however, on the Buchanan property, ex- tensive deposits occur and were mined on a large scale. The gypsum was crushed in a mill on the property, which was in operation about 1907. The smaller pits have caved in, but some of the larger pits are full of water and are reported to be very deep. The embayment widens at this point and numerous pits are scattered over Locust Cove Creek bottom and adjacent small valleys. Several pits were worked north of Chatham Hill, and the crude gypsum was crushed in a water-power mill on the river at Chatham Hill.
Present Operating Mines.
Two gypsum companies are operating in the area at the present tinie. The United States Gypsum Co., with offices in Chicago, has leased the Robertson tract from the Buena Vista Plaster Co. since 1909. This tract adjoins on the southwest the Mathieson Alkali Co.'s property at Saltville. The plant is located at Plasterco, in the nar- I'ow southwestward extension of the broad flat at Saltville. The orkings are reached by two main shafts, which are reported to be over 200 feet deep. The two sets of workings seem to be in distinct bodies of gypsum. A third abandoned shaft leads to an- other mass of the deposit, and other isolated bodies have been located by drilling over the bottom land. Large shallow deposits of gypsum on the eastern edge of the tract directly adjoining the Mathie on property were previously worked out by surface openings and shallow drifts by the owners.
The gypsum in this mine seems to be in partly or wholly detached luasses, some of great size, and not in. continuous beds. The gypsum
2d4 GYPSUM DEPOSITS OF THE UNITED STATES.
is moirtly a white to gray granocrystalline rock inclosed in clay, the gray variety being streaked with fine dark argillaceous material. In the material on the dimip of one of the abandoned shafts numerous small anhydrite crystals are scattered through the gypsunu The gypsum is brought to the surface by elevators and conveyed by tram cars to the mill, where it is roasted and pulverized for wall plaster and other purposes. Plaster bricks, tiles, and hollow blocks are also manufactured.
The Southern Gypsum Co.'s plant and office, which are at North Holston, are reached by the company's branch railroad from Salt- ville. The mine is located at an embayment of the lowland similar to that at Saltville, though not so large. The shaft to the mine in the lowland is connected by an aerial bucket tram with the main roasting and grinding plant at the railroad on the hillside to the north, where wall plaster and finishing plaster are made from the purer lump gypsum. A part of the crude product is ground directly at the lower mill near the shaft for land plaster, much of 'the gyp- sif erous clay being of the right mixture to be used in this way.
The bulk gf the gypsum is granular and crystalline (see PL XXXIII, B, p. 264), like that at the United States Gypsum Co.'s plant. Some large sheets of selenite have been encountered, and small veinlets of satin spar are common in the associated day. Some masses of anhydrite occur in the gypsum in the deeper workings. Some of the gypsum is finely banded with dark gypsum and in places fine dark argillaceous layers surround and merge into large rounded masses of black argillaceous material called " black rocL"" The banding of the gypsum suggests original bedding of the sedi- ments, but some of it may have a different interpretation. (See p. 290.) The extent, thickness, and purity of the gypsum have been, carefully determined by numerous borings over the river bottom in the embay- ment, and it has been demonstrated by the company that the gypsum here occurs in thick beds of wide extent, although they vary greatly in thickness, being apparently lenticular.
The gypsum was formerly mined for land plaster in open cuts at outcrops along the river. It is now mined from a shaft in the bottom land from which run several levels along the strike of the beds and inclines down the dip toward the southeast to a maximum depth of 200 feet. Rooms 100 feet across and 60 feet high have been stoped out; large gypsum pillars are left to support the roof.
Wyoming.
By R. W. STon.
Chabactek And Extent.
The workable gypsora deposits in Wyoming are confined to the ChogwateTy Embar, and Spearfish formations ("Red Beds"). The Chugwater jformati(m, the greater part of which is apparatly rep- resented by the Spearfish formation in the Black Hills, is presum- ably for the most part of Triassic age, althou in some areas it in- cludes beds of Permian and Pennsylvanian age. It is 600 to 1,600 feet thick and consists of soft massive red fine-grained sandstones, merging into shales, and including extensive gypsum deposits and a few thin limestone beds* The f onnation as a whole is brilliant red, which renders it a conspicuous feature in most portions of the outcrop area. The gypsum beds lie from 15 to 120 feet below the top of the forma- tion and near the bcom. The Chugwater in part overlies and in part is contnporaneous with and grades horizontally into the marine Embar formation. The Embar formation, which ranges in age from Pennsylvanian to early Triassic, consists of beds of gray, greenish, and yellowish shale, gypseous shale, and shaly limestone, including near their middle a persistent layer of nodular chert. The Embar rests on the Tensleep sandstone and is in part overlain and in part replaced by the lower red beds of the Chugwater formation. Where shaly its soft character, like that of the Chugwater formation, is commonly expressed by a valley.
The red beds (Chugwater formation), which are one of the most conspicuous geologic features in the Bocky Moimtain region, outcrop along the base of most of the mountain ranges in Wyoming and are exposed as the core of a number of secondary folds. The total length cf outcrop in the State in which there are one or more beds of gyp- sum over 4 feet thick is over 800 miles. Beds of gypsum 10 to 20 ft thick are common, and beds 30, 40, and some even 60 feet thick extend for miles.
Gypsite occurs in a number of localities, particularly in the south- em part of Albany County. This impure gypsum, or gypsum earth, is a secondary surficial deposit, usually occurring in depressions below rock gypsum. It is rarely more tlian a few acres in extent and as a rule is not more 15 feet thick.
Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The outcrops of red beds known to be gypsum bearing ar on the map (PL XXXVI), which was compiled by L, W. Ti former State geologist of Wyoming.
ECONOMIC DEVEIiOPMENT.
Gypsum was first developed in Wyoming about 1890, Buttes, on the Union Pacific Railroad, 9 miles south of Larai small plant for the manufacture of plaster of Paris and wal ter was erected, and this has since been in operation. The located near the quarry. Below a thin cover of surface there is a pure, almost white deposit of rock gypsum, which is to a depth of 15 feet. This depth, however, does not repres( entire thickness of gypsum.
Just south of the town of Laramie a very large bed of gypsii discovered about 1895. A Kansas company purchased the and erected a large plant in 1896, which, after operating a few was then taken over by another company. This mill and ai at the same place were making wall plaster from gypsite at Laj in 1918.
The deposit at Laramie is covered with about a foot of soil, is removed by means of plows and scrapers. Next below the burden there is 9 feet of gypsite that is free from extraneous ter. It is plowed, taken up in wheeled scrapers, and hauled storehouse of the mill. The material as delivered by the sci is so pulverulent that it is cooked without being ground.
At Basin, Big Horn County, a small mill has been operating several years on rock gypsum quarried on the Chicago, Burlii
6 Quincy Kailroad 8 miles north of GreybuU. The deposit he massive gypsum with a few red shale layers which are discardi hand picking after shooting off the solid. The rock is taken by' to Basin, where it is broken in a gyratory crusher, pulverized! tween French burrstones, and calcined over a coal fire. Coal proved more economical than natural gas from wells in the vici
A large part of the plaster made at Basin is molded into buil< blocks for exterior use. The appearance of buildings made of blocks is pleasing, and the weather seems to have no bad effecti them. Blocks that have been in walls exposed to the weather
7 years show no checking. This is due to the aridity of the mate, the annual precipitation in this valley being only 5 inches, n of which falls during the warm months.
In a country where wood for building purposes is scarce the expensive plaster blocks can be sold. The mill at Basin supplies the local market.
U
43*
/"
Wyoming. 297
k. small quantity of gypsum was quarried and calcined at Grey- 1 in 1915 and made into building blocks, and in 1916 a new mill Stucco, a few miles north of Greybull, began calcining local Dsum.
\.t Dayton, 16 miles west of Sheridan, a quarry has been opened 1 also one at Alcova, but these localities are too far from the rail- ids at present to warrant the erection of plants, except to supply i local demand.
The gypsum beds in Wyoming are so numerous and of such ex- it and purity that with proper facilities for transportation an )rnious industry could be supplied.
Localities.
The following description of localities is compiled from the writ- es of N. H. Darton, C. A. Fisher, C. E. Jamison, C. T. Lupton, D. Condit, G. B. Eichardson, C. E. Siebenthal, and L. W. Trum- 1. Acknowledgment of the writer's indebtedness to these geolo- ts is here made, and specific references to their work will be found the following pages. The description begins with the gypsum in V Black Hills, follows the deposits in order across the northern rt of the State, and thence southeast across the center of the State the Colorado boundary.
Black Hells.*
Grypsuni is abundant in the broad belt of red beds (in this area own as the Spearfish formation) encircling the Black Hills. The posits on the east side of the Black Hills are described under the psum deposits in South Dakota (pp. 242-243). East of Newcastle there are thick beds of gypsum in the lower por- wi of the Spearfish formation and a thick deposit at its top, which tends over a large area. The lower beds are 40 feet thick at some calities, and the upper bed is 30 feet thick. Extensive exposures of rpsum are found 5 miles southeast of Newcastle, a short distance >rtheast of the L A K ranch, in the middle of the formation, and psum beds underlie part of the alluvium in the valley of Stockade aver Creek, for several miles north of the L A K ranch.
Barton, N. H., Preliminary description of the geology and water resources of the othem half of the Black Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota and Wyoming:
S. Geol. Survey Twenty-first Ann, Rept., pt. 4, p. 518, 1901. Geology and water re- Circes of the northern portion of the Black Hills and adjoining regions in South Dakota Id Wyoming : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 65, 1909. U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, ewcastle folio (No. 107), p. 9, 1904; idem, Aladdin folio (No. 128), p. 8, 1905.
Richardson, G. B., Upper Red Beds of the Black Hills: Jour. Geology, vol. 11, p. 373,
298 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
In a deep bore hole at Cambria the Spearfish red beds ew feet thick, and the following subdivisions were recognized:
Sccitan of Spearfigh formation at Cambria, Wo.
Ft
Gypsum 8
Light reel shale 231
Gypsum 7
Red shale 58
Gypsum , 4
Bed shale and gypsum : 78
Gypsum 12
Red shale lying on Minnekahta limestone 8S
These deeply buried beds at Cambria need not be co future resource because of the extensive surface deposits main line of the railroad southeast of Newcastle.
In the vall 2 miles southeast of Mount Pisgah and IQ miles of Newcastle there are extensive exposures of gypsum not far the basal beds of the Spearfish formation, and on the north side Mount Pisgah a 30-foot bed at the top of the formation caps Butte, a prominent outlier 6 miles northeast of Cambria, A vief this thick bed capping Eed Butte is shown in Plate XXXVIl
In Oil Creek valley, T. 47 N., E. 62 W., a massive hite bed 25 feet thick is conspicuous. A few miles farther north gTj beds extend partly around Inyankara and Strawberry moun and in the vicinity of Sundance exposures of them encircle G Mountain and Gypsum Buttes. The main bed at these localities about 5 feet thick.
A few miles south of Aladdin a gypsum bed whidi averages feet thick outcrops continuously through Government and water valleys. It occurs about 100 feet above the base of Spearfish formation. Two miles northwest of Beulah, in Eedwa Valley, there are two beds of massive white gypsum, one of tl|8- f eet and the other 4 feet in thickness.
Several thin beds of gypsum occur near the top of the Speii formation along Belle Fourche Eiver northwest of the Black flfe near Devils Tower, but their thickness in few places exceeds 2 W-
The gypsum deposits on the west side of the Black Hilb relatively pure and if nearer to good markets would be valuablft
Itiobigniih by N. M. Darhm.
MeraOD OF MINING GYPSTTE, LARAMIE, WYO. PlioUigraph by E. F. Borcbanl.
Wyomtptg. 299
DltfT KIB U TIO V.
As red beds (Spearfish formation) encircle the Black Hills and rm the Sed Valley, so similar redl beds (Chngwater formation) rround tlie Big Horn Mountains, and by their softness make an- ber though not so conspicuous red valley. The Chugwater f orma- )n extends along the base of the steeper portions of the slopes of e Hig Horn Mountains. Along the east side of the mountains, liere the beds are nearly vertical, the outcrop is. narrow, but on e vrestern slope of the range the beds for the most part dip gently id acxjordingly have a wider and more conspicuous outcrop. On le east side the beds can be traced, with few interruptions, from kfe Montjia line across Sheridan and Johnson counties into Na- ona Coiinty, a distance of 200 miles. On the west side of the Lountains the red beds are almost continuously exposed for 175 liles from the Montana line to the southeastern part of Washakie iovvnty. Around the southern end of the Big Horii Mountains 5ocie deposits conceal the older formations.
East Slope.
Sheridan County. — Information is meager concerning the gypsum leds in Sheridan County. Two beds 50 and 60 feet thick are exposed Lodge G rass Creek, a few miles north of the State line in Montana (p. 137) y but according to Darton the principal gypsum bed in Sher- idan County is near the base of the Chugwater formation and aver- iges from 3 to 5 feet thick at most places. It outcrops almost con- tinuously from Pass Creek to Little Goose Creek. A quarry was opened several years ago near Dayton, west of Sheridan, but it has not been operated and no information is at hand regarding the de- posit at that place. Gypsum is well exposed on the head of Beaver Creek, a few miles southwest of Sheridan, and to the southeast as far as Big Horn.
Buffalo. — On the south fork of Eock Credi, which is tributary to Clear Creek at Buffalo, limestone is overlain by 200 feet of soft red sandstone containing much impure gypsum, and this is capped by a 20-foot bed of pure gypsum. Near the head of Sand Creek south- west of Buffalo, where the beds are nearly vertical, there is over 100 feet of gypsum, some of it pure.
Darton, N. H., Geology of the Big Horn Mountains : U. S. Oeol. Survey Prof. Paper 51, 1906. U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Bald Mountain-Dayton folio (No. 141), p. 15,
Lupton, C. T., and Condlt, D. D., Gypsum In the southern part of the Big Horn Moun- tain*, Wyo. : U. S. GeoL Survey BuU. 640, pp. 13157. 1916.
300 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
The continuity of outcrop of the red beds is interrupted we oi Buffalo by faulting and also where the beds cross the north forks of Powder Kiver.
Crazy Wonum Creek. — On Middle Fork of Crazy Woman Cwek, in T. 47 N., K. 83 W., there are a number of beds of very fine textund white gypsum, which, with 14 thin partings, amounting to abort 32 feet, make a total thickness of 125 feet. An analysis of gypsim from this locality is given in the table (p. 29).
Near Beaver Creek, a tributary of South Fork of Crazy Womii Creek, gypsum in beds 25 to 40 feet thick occurs locally near the top of the Chugwater formation, and exposures in a ravine show a larp amount of gypsum in the Embar formation both above and below the purplish chert member.
On South Fork of Crazy Woman . Creek the variable and dis- continuous character of the gypsum beds is evident. Rock exposures along the main valley aria not good, but it seems probable that gyp- sum is not present. Half a mile farther north, however, in T. 46 S, R. 83 W., there is about 90 feet of gypsum beds in the Embar fonm- tion. This thickness includes several shale layers, none of which is over feet thick.
Powder River. — On North Fork of Powder Kiver, near the Webb ranch, in T. 45 N., R. 83 W., there are beds of white and pink banded gypsum alternating with red shale which have a thickness of about 40 feet. This locality is northwest of Mayoworth and south of Tk Horn, a prominent projecting ridge on the front of the range. Near the Phillips ranch, on Bed Creek, there is much gypsum along the base of the main mountain front and southward for several miles. The deposits are found to be discontinuous when traced along the outcrop. The gypsum beds are in the Embar formation, and those above the purplish chert member have a greater thickness than those below, being as much as 100 feet when the intercalated red shale lay- ers are included.
In the vicinity of Barnum, in T. 43 N., B. 84 W., little gypsum is exposed, but the distorted attitude of the red shales supports the belief that gypsum beds probably of considerable thickness exist under the surface. If so they were once present and exposed at the surface but have been removed by solution. South of Barnum, along the valley of Buffalo Creek, there are numerous thick beds of gyp- sum. They are well exposed near Hole in the Wall, which is about 4 miles north of the Johnson-Natrona county line.
West Slope.
From the canyon of Big Horn Biver near the State line southeast along the west slope of the mountains to Shell Creek the outcrop of the Chugwater formation is narrow. Detailed information is not
Wyoming. 301
at hand regarding the gypsum. A bed several feet thick is reported near Cloverly, and it is said that gypsum from 10 to 15 feet thick is common along this side of the range. It is abundant south of Shell Creek as shown below.
Shell. — At the mouth of Shell Creek canyon, a few miles east of Shell, there is a bed of gypsum 12 feet thick. This may be the same as the bed near Cloverly and northward to the State line.
Hyattville, — On Paintrock Creek east of Hyattville there are several beds of gypsum, one 10 feet thick, in the Chugwater beds. At a point about 5 miles southeast of Hyattville and one-half mile west of the Hyattville-Tensleep road gypsum occurs in seven beds, ranging in thickness from 1 foot 8 inches to 13 feet, with a total thickness of 43 feet of gypsum exposed in less than 60 feet of strata. Most of tlie gypsum at this place is pure white, but some of it is brownish gray and has a red stain. In this same neighborhood, neai* Zeisman's ranch, in sec. 34, T. 49 N., E. 89 W., gypsum beds 4 to 10 feet thick alternate with red shale probably belonging in the upper part of the Embar formation. Two analyses of gypsum from these places are given in the table (p. 29).
Tensleep, — The gypsum near the top of the Chugwater formation at a point about 2 miles northwest of Tensleep, on the north side of Xo Wood Creek, is thicker than at any other outcrop of the Chug- water beds here described. It is 74 feet thick, and the upper 20 feet is impure. Near Burke's ranch, on the north side of Tensleep Creek, two gypsum beds, 2 feet and 4 feet thick, occur in the midst of red shales in the lower part of the Embar formation, but the principal beds IJe about 240 feet above the Tensleep sandstone. They consist of many layers interbedded with insignificant shale )3eds, the total thickness being about 90 feet, of which the shales constitute about 24 feet. The outcrops are stained reddish brown, but beneath the surface the gypsum is snowy white. The gypsum exposures in this vicinity in some respects rank among the most favorable deposits seen in the Big Horn Mountain region.
BigtraiU, — At the mouth of Buffalo Creek, a western tributary of No Wood Creek, the gypsum is in one bed 48 feet thick, lying 50 feet below the top of the Chugwater formation. It is mainly white and quite pure.
Redbanh, — Near the base of the mountain, along the valley of Cherry Creek, about 2 miles southwest of Kedbank, there is about 30 feet of gypsum with a few thin reddish shale layers in the Embar formation. Beneath this bed there are about eight gypsum beds, each 2 to 4 feet thick, scattered through an interval of 50 feet of red shale. The beds differ in thickness and disappear in a short distance along the outcrop, giving place to conglomeratic limestone, but a little farther along there appear other gypsum beds similarly stratified.
302 Gypsum Deposits Of Th£ United States.
No Wood. — About S miles northeast of No Wood, where No Wfiii Creek enters the canyon the upper portion of the Hxnbar iotm&m,. ccuiists largely of massive white gypsum beds, many feet tUdJ with a few interbedded shale layers. About a mile southwest (rffti canyon the upp part of the formation shows almost no gypsm, but about miles southwest of No Wood the Embar again ooiihi prominent gypsum beds. A thickness of 42 feet of gypsum uiftj interbedded layers of red sliale is exposed. This is the most soodhj westerly locality where gypsum beds of notable thickness were ob-j serv ed by Lupton and Condit.
Big Horn Rasix.
GypsKim occurs at a number of places in and around Big Horn Basin. Perhaps the most notable of these places, because the gyp*; sum there is being utilized, is Sheep Mountain, a topographic nence and structural anticline in the northern part of the baafc through which Big Horn Kiver has cut a short} canyon* Shefl Mountain is encircled by red beds carrying gypsum, which is qua ried near Stucco and Greybull.
iS>tucco. — Gypsum is being quarried from the upper part of Chugwater formation about one-half mile west of Stucco, a statioi on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad 8 miles northwei of GreybulL The gypsum occurs in 8 beds which are 1 to 6i feet thick, a total of 26 feet of gypsum in 70 feet of strata. The rodr is calcined in a mill completed in 1916 at Stucco. An analysis of tie gypsum is given in the table on page 29.
GreyhulL — Gypsum at the top of the Chugwater formation is fairly well exposed near the south end of Sheep Moimtain, aW 2 miles north of GreybuU, on the north side of Shell Creek. In ali 47 feet of gypsum is exposed in two beds, the upper one, which 34 feet thick, is separated by 2 feet of shale from the lower one* which is 13 feet thick. The total amount may be greater, as tfe section is partly concealed. A few beds of gypsum 3 to 4 feet thiA in the Embar formation, are exposed along the southwest base of Sheep Mountain about 2 miles from the mouth of Shell Creek
Cody. — Fisher reports the occurrence of an 8-foot bed of white massive gypsum 10 miles south of Cody in the upper part of the Morrison formation and a 30-foot bed of similar character 12 feet below the top of the Chugwater formation on Trail Creek a fe miles northwest of Cody. A little farther northwest the red beds outcrop again and continue in a nearly straight course to the State
LnptoB, C. T., and Cosdlt, D. D., Qypsmm in tbe soathem part of ttie Big Hora tains, Wyo. : IT. S. Geol. Survey Bull. WO, pp. 139-167, 1916.
Fi8her, C. A., Mineral resources of the Big Horn Basin : U. S. Geol. Survey Boll. p, 313, 1905. Geology and water resources of tbe Big Horn Basin Wyo, : U. & Survey Prof. Paper 53, p. 18, 1906,
WYOMIKG. 30a
line. They are reported to contain gypsum, but the thickness of the deposits is not known. Along the east front of the Absaroka Range 500 to 600 feet of red sandstone is capped by 20 to 30 feet of white gypsum.
TJiermopolis. — Within a few miles north and west of Thermopolig pure-white gypsum in beds 5 jto 25 feet thick occurs 30 to 50 feet below the top of the Chugwater formation. About 9 miles east of -Therroopolis, in the Red Spring anticline, there is a 16- foot bed of fairly pure gypsum near the top of the Embar formation, and in the upper part of the Chugwater formation there are two beds. The upper bed, 10 feet thick, lies about 33 feet above the lower bed, which is 42 feet thick. An analysis of gypsum from the north flank of Red Spring anticline is given in the table on page 29.
Owl Creek Mountains.
The mountains in Hot Springs County south of Owl Creek are a westward continuation of the Bighorn Mountains. The structure is an uplift or fold with Paleozoic rocks exposed at the core. Chug- water red beds outcrop around the base of the mountains and contain a thick bed of gypsum. This bed, which is 100 feet below the top of the Chugwater and above a prominent orange-colored sandstone, is 30 feet thick south of Embar and on Red Creek southwest of Thermopolis. It is very extensively exposed and 40 feet thick on the head of Muddy Creek in and near T. 7 N., R. 2 W.
Gros Ventre Range,
It was stated in an earlier report that gypsum of excellent grade occurs in very thick beds at many places around the Gros Ventre Mountains. The writer has not traced the source of this information, but finds it controverted by recent geologic work. Eliot Black- welder, who examined these mountains for the United States Geo- logical Survey in 1910, asserts in an unpublished land-classification report that no important beds of gypsum have been found in the many excellent sections of the red beds along the north slope of the Gros Ventre Range. In his report on T. 41 N., R. 113 W., Black- welder says that "Very thin laminae of gypsum have been found in the lower part of the Chugwater formation in this township, but no layers more than a small fraction of an inch thick." He says further that because of the many excellent exposures of the rocks thick beds of gypsum would have been seen had they been present. He found no gypsum in T. 41 N., Rs. 115 and 116 W., which are at the west end of the range.
Darton, N. H., Geology of the Owl Creek Mounfalna: R9tb Con lt S. Doc. 219, p. 19, 1906.
2U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 84, 1904.
304 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Salt River Range.
The Salt River Bange is in Lincoln County south of the Ventre Range. Although it was stated in the earlier report* the red beds, which are extensively exposed in several north-s folds in this region, contain plentiful deposits of gypsum, inquiry A. R. Schultz and G. R. Mansfield, geologists of the United St Geological Survey, who have worked in the area recently, elicit the information that gypsum was nowhere observed and, if pi at all, must be in very thin and inconspicuous beds.
Wind River Range And Vicinity.
Along the northeast slope of the Wind River Range for a distan of 100 miles the red beds are exposed almost continuously. information is at hand as to the occurrence of gypsum other th that it is abundant and in thick beds. The red beds are exposed in three areas along an anticline which passes east of Fort Wash Lander, and Dallas. The upper beds are pinkish and contain mu gypsum.
Fort WashaJcie. — In the bank of Little Wind River, in sec. 34, 1 N., R. 1 W., there is a deposit of gypsum 61 feet thick. It consi of massive beds several feet thick, interlaminated with thin sh layers and all upturned at a high angle. Near by in the Sage district gypsum beds range from 30 to 70 feet thick.
Laixder. — Red beds, brought up and exposed by an anticlinal fol north and east of Lander, contain an abundance of gypsum, as sho by the beds 40 feet or more thick near the Lander Experiment FarDu|
Hailey, — Unpublished notes made by a United States Geologi Survey field party, under the direction of C. J. Hares, shojvr that t red sandstone near the top of the Chugwater formation contains gyp*l sum beds of various thicknesses near Hailey on Beaver Creek south- east of Lander. The maximum thickness about 2 miles west of Hailey is 12 feet. Southwest of Hailey, about 50 feet below Ae Sundance formation, there is 10 feet of white gypsum, with thin redt shale partings.
Central Wyoming.
Conant Creek. — It is reported that gypsum beds of suflSicient thick- ness to be valuable for working outcrop for several miles around the end of an anticline on Conant Creek, a tributary of Muskrat Creek northeast of Lander. In view of the location of this deposit
1 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, p. 84, 1904.
3 Jamison, C. B., Geology and mineral resources of a portion of Fremont County, Wjo.: Vv'yomlng Univ. Bull. 2, ser. B, p. 84, 1911. Knight, W. C, Gypsum deposits in Wyomlos: y. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 228, p. 84, 1904.
8 Knight, W. C, op. cit., p. 88.
Wyoming. 305
and of the abundance of gypsum in Wyoming, the commercial im- portance of gypsum on Conant Creek, no matter how thick, is ques- tioned.
RattlesnoJce Green and Ferris mountains. — Gypsum has been re- ported in the slopes on the northeast side of the Eattlesnake Range, but no information is at hand regarding the thickness of the beds, ex- cept that no large deposits appear to be present. Gypsum beds are exposed in guldies and eanyons along the southern base of Ferris Mountains luid are reported in Green Mountains. All these locali- ties are remote from any market and 25 miles or more from a rail- road.
Alcova. — In the vicinity of Alcova, which is on North Platte River below the canyon and 80 miles above Casper, there is much gypsum in the lower part of the Chugwater formation. It is ex- posed in two areas, each 5 or 6 miles long, where a broad valley transverse to the river has been carved out of the Tertiary rocks. One area is at Alcova and the other 3 or 4 miles up the river at the mouth of the canyon.
Southeastern Wyoming.*
Caper-Doug'Uis area. — At the east end of Casper Mountain on Muddy Creek, in the upper part of the Chugwater formation, there is a 20- foot limestone member which makes a prominent wall in the steep-dipping beds. In the sandstones overlying this limestone there is an 8-foot gypsum bed. Outcrops of the Chugwater are contin- uous to the east for a few miles to the area where Tertiary deposits cover the older formations south of Glenrock. South of Douglas the Chugwater is again uncovered, and its conspicuous red outcrop extends up Wagon Hound and Labonte creeks. On both these creeks there is considerable gypsum near the base of the formation.
Seminoe Moiuntains. — Red beds outcrop around the eastern end of the Seminoe Mountains and along the south side for about 20 miles. North Platte River has cut through the mountains about midway of their length, so that the exposures on the two sides of the river are of nearly equal length. There are many outcrops of gypsum beds of considerable thickness, but measurements of them have not been
made.
Darton, N. H., Paleozoic and Mesozoic of central Wyoming : Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 19, pp. 403-470, 1908.
Darton, N. U., and Siebenthal, C. B., Geology and mineral resources of the Laramie Basin, Wyo. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 364, 1909.
Knight W. C, Gypsum deposits in Wyoming: TJ. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. 79-85,
Siebenthal, C. E., Gypsum deposits of the Laramie district, Wyo. : IT. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285, pp. 404-405, 1906.
Trumbull, L. W., Cement plaster industry in Wyoming: Min. World, vol. 26, p. 887,
124567**— 20 20
306 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
SMHey Mountains and Freeeeout Hills.— -A range in the BorAflulk part of Carbon County known as the Shirley Mountains is notour 10 miles long. Its eastward continuation, the Freezeout Hills, broad anticlinal arch about 15 miles long. Bed beds are expoBeij around the Freezeout Hills and along the southwest base of the Sw-I ley Mountains, the total length of outcrop being fully 30 mitafc; Gypsum is abundant in thick beds. The only measurement is Vf j Darton, who found a 30- foot bed in the Freezeout Hills.
Rawlins. — Rawlins is at the southern end of an uplift about 11] miles long, on the east and southwest sides of which the Chugwat formation occurs. A fault on the northwest side of the uplift mtkal the encircling outcrop discontinuous. For many miles the gypsom- bearing beds are concealed by later deposits, but at a point 12 mital north of Rawlins and on the southwestern slope of the uplift, * the beds dip steeply to the west, good gypsimi has been found. thickness of the gypsmn is not known.
Medicine Bow, — The Chugwater formati(m is exposed for seveidl miles in the valley of Little Medicine Bow Kiver, north of the toim of Medicine Bow. A section of the formation measured at the wel end of Flat Top Mountain about 3 miles northeast of the mouth of j Little Medicine Bow River, by C. F. Bowen, of the United States! Geological Survey, and heretofore unpublished, is given below.
Section of Chugwater formation, T, 23 N,j R. 79 W., Wpo.
Feet.
Sandstone, yellow to gray, cross-bedded 110
Shale, red 20
Shale and sandstone, mostly red 297
Gypsum 4
Shale, red, and concealed beds 261
Gypsum 4i
Shale, red and variegated . 54
Gypsum 8
Shale, red, contains thin beds of gypsum 14
Gypsum 10
Shale, red, with a few thin beds of gypsum 15
Gj-psum, contains a few thin sandy beds 19
Limestone 2
Gypsum 6
Shale, blue i
Gypsum 1'
Shale, red, sandy, 44
Gypsum " 8
Shale, red, sandy, and limestone . 115
Limestone, arenaceous, top crystalline 14
Total 1,007
Total gypsum , 00+
Wyomihg. 807
Elk Mountains — Around the northern end of the Elk Mountains, a small group south of Hanna and at the northern extremity of the Medicine Bow Range, the Chugwater formation is exposed in a curv- ing line. There are extensive beds of gypsum here, but to the south ak>ng the flank of the Medicine Bpw Bange the gypsum-bearing beds- are concealed or obscured by mountain wash or by Tertiary deposits,
Laramie Basin. — About 12 miles east of Medicine Bow is the west- em extremity of a series of exposures of red beds which can be traced along the west slope of Laramie Mountains south to the Col- orado line. Wherever the red beds wre uncovered gypsum is found in workable thickness. The only devel(ment of gypsum deposits in the basin, however, is at Laramie and B.ed Buttes* Gypsite is ied at Laramie and rock gypsum at Red Buttes.
Gypsite deposits are known at several places in tlie Laramie dis- trict. The principal one is that which is being worked just south of the city of Laramie. It has a depth of 9 feet and covers several hundred acres. The gypsite is dug with horse scrapers and goes di- rectly to the calcining kettles without grinding or screening. (See PI. XXXVII, B.) Other gypsite deposits in the vicinity are in sees. 3, 4, and SE. i sec. 28, T. 16 N., R. 73 W. ; on Soldier Creek, 1 mile below and 2 miles above the site of Fort Saunders; NE. J sec. 21, T. 14 N., R. 73 W. ; at the junction of Willow and Lone Tree creeks ; and in sees. 33 and 34, T. 14 N., R. 74 W.
One mile east of Sportsmans Lake, in sec. 7, T. 13 N., R. 73 W., a bed of pure rock gypsum has been exposed to a depth of 4 or 5 feet in a small pit. The full thickness of the deposit has not been determined.
Red Mountain shows the greatest thickness of rock gypsum in Laramie Basin. Just north of ie Wyoming-Colorado line, in sec. 9, T. 12 N., R. 76 W., at the north base of Red Mountain, the fol- lowing section was measured by C. E. Siebenthal :
Section at base of Red Mountairiy Albany County y Wyo.
Feet.
Gypsum, red, nearly pure 6
Shale, red 35
Gypsum 3
Shale, red 10
Gypsum : 4
Shale, reddish 55
Limestone, gypsiferous, banded 5
Shale, red, sandy 88
Gypsum, massive 67
Limestone, fossiliferous 1
Total 274
Total gypsum 80
808 Gypsum Deposits Of The Tjnitbd State&
The bed of gypsum at the bottom of the section has a thickness of 30 feet or more along 5 miles of outcrop in the vicinity of the mountain, which is about 12 miles east of Wyocolo, a station on the Colorado, Wyoming & Eastern Railway.
Eock gypsum does not outcrop in the immediate environs ai Laramie but shows a thickness of 9 or 10 feet at the north bade of a small hill in the SW, i sec. 2, T. 16 N., R. 78 W. At Red Butfces it has been quarried for many years 1 mile south of the station, and made into plaster. Two beds are present, about 10 and 20 feet thick, and there is a gypsite deposit near the mill which also is used.
Laramie Mountains. — The Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks on the east side of the Laramie Mountains dip to the east at high angles and were at one time covered with sediments of Tertiary age. Ero- sion has removed some of the cover and the old rocks are exposed in a few places along the west boundary of Laramie County. The red beds contain some gypsiun, but so far as known not in notable quantity or thickness.
Part Iii. Bibliography.
The following bibliography contains the principal publications of interest as supplementary reading in connection with this report:
GENEBAL BEFEBENCES. UNrTED STATES.
Adams, G. I., Gypsum deposits in the United States : U. S. Geol. Survey BulL 223,1904.
BuBCHABD, K F., The gypsum industry : U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources, 1909, pt. 2, 1910 ; idem, 1910, pt. 2, 1911 ; idem. 1911, pt. 2, 1912.
Ix>t7QHiJN, G. F., The g>'psum industry in 1914 : U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Re- sources, 1914, pt. 2, 1915.
Stone, R. W., The gypsum industry: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources,
1912, pt. 2, 1913; idem, 1913, pt. 2, 1914; idem, 1915, pt. 2, 1916; idem, 1916, pt. 2, 1917; idem, 1917, pt. 2, 1918; idem, 1918, pt. 2, 1919.
Canada.
Bailbt, L. W., and Ells, R. W., Lower Carboniferous belt of Alberta and West- moreland counties. New Brunswick; Canada Geol. Survey Rept. for 1876- 77, pp. 351-401, 1878.
Cole, L. H., Gypsum in Canada : Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, BulL 245, 250 pp., 1913.
Fletcheb, H., Explorations and surveys in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia : Canada Gl. Survey Rept. for 1875-76, pp. 369-418, 1877.
Jennison, W. F., Gypsum deposits of the maritime provinces: Canada Dept. Mines, Mines Branch, Bull. 84, 1911.
Technology And Chemistry.
Eckel, E. C, Cements, limes, and plasters, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1905. Hodgson, F. T., Mortars, plasters, stuccos, Chicago, F. J. Drake & Co., 1906. Hunt, T. S., Origin of gypsum, in Chemical and geological essays, ch. 8, 1875. Stone, R. W., Gypsum products, their preparation and use: Bur. Mines Tech.
Paper 155, 66 pp., 1917. Wilder, F. A., Properties and uses of mineral gypsum: Appalachian Eng.
Assoc. Trans., Bull. 33, 1909.
Befebences By States. Alaska.
BuBCHARD, E. F., Gypsum in Alaska: U. S. Geol. Survey Mineral Resources,
1913, pt. 2, p. 363, 1914.
Wright, C. W., Nonmetallic mineral resources of southeastern Alaska: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 314, pp. 79-80, 1907.
310 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
Arizona.
Blake, \V. P., Gj-psum deposits in Arizona : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp.
100-101, 1904 Lee, W. T., Geologic recomiaissance of a part of westerH Arizona : U. S. Geol
Survey Bull. 352, p. 36, 1908.
Arkansas.
HrLLj R. T., The Neozoic geology of southwestern Arkansas: Arkansas GeoL Survey, vol. 2, pp. 119, 241, 257, 1888.
California.
AISUKY, L. E., The structural and industrial material of California : Galifernia
State Min. Bur. Bull. 38, pp. 281-288, 1906. Bbadixy, W.- W,, HucPuknin, E., Logan, C. A., and Waking, C. Mines and
mineral resources of the counties of M<Miterey> San Benito, San Luis Obispo.
Santa Barbara, Ventura, Calif.: California State Min, Bur. Bienn. Kept,
1915-16, pp. 44, 142, 67, 1917. Cbawfobd, J. J., Gypsum (localities In Calif<*nia) : California State MineraV
ogist Twelfth Ann. Kept. pp. 323r-325, 1894.
State Mineralogist Thirteenth Ann. Rt, pp. 503-504, 1896.
Eakle, a. S., Minerals of California: California State Min. Bur. Bull,
pp. 184-186, 1914. Fairbanks, H. W., Gypsum deposits in California : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223,
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Oklahoma.
GfauLDTf €. N., Oklahoma gypsum: Okltthoma Dept. Geology Second Bienii
Kept., pp. 75-137, 1902. Gypsum deposits in Oklahoma : IT. S. Geol. Survey Buff. 223, pp. (5N7i
Exteirt and importanee of Oklahoma gypsum deposits: Mfn. Sci., vol
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Suppiy Paper 148, 1905. — FreMmiimry report oo the structural materials of OklahoniH:. OttAom*
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95, pp. 931-933, 1913.
BIBIOaRAPHY. 315
LiNDGKEN, Waij)emab, Gypsum deposits in Oregon: U. S. Geol. Survey BnlL 223,
p. Ill, 1904. Anonymous, Plaster mill of the Pacific Lime & Gypsum Co.: Pacific Builder
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South Dakota.
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of the central Great Plains: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 32, pp. 392 394, 1905. Richardson, G. B., Upper Red Beds of the Black Hills: Jour. Geology, vol. 11, pp. 365-393, 1903.
TJljrNESSEE.
Saffobd, J. M., Geology of Tennessee, p. 503, Nashville, 1869.
Texas.
Adams, 6. I., Oil and gas fields of the western interior and northern Texas coal naeasures and of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of ihe western Gulf coast : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 184, pp. 49-53, 1901.
Cummins, W. F., Geologj of northwestern Texas : Texas Grcol. Survey Second Ann. Hept, pp. 455-459, 1891.
Gould, -C. N., Geology and water resources of Oklahoma : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Stipply Paper 154, 1906.
The geology and water resources of the western portion of the Pan- handle of Texas : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 191, 1907.
Habbis, G. D., Oil and gas in Louisiana, with a brief summary of their occur- rence in adjacent States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 429, 192 pp., 1910.
Hill, B. F., Gypsum deposits in Texas : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. 68-73,
Mabcy, R. B., Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana : 32d <3ong., 2d sess., S. Ex. Doc. 54, pp. 52, 91, 171-174, 1853; 33d Cong., 1st sess., H. Ex. Doc. 15, pp. 52, 91, 148-151, 1854.
RiCHABDSoN, G. B., Reconnaissance in trans-Pecos Texas: Texas. Univ. Min, Survey, vol. 9, pp. 43-44, 1904.
Salt, gypsum, and petroleum in trans-Pecos Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey
Bull. 260, pp. 573-585, 1905.
SiMONDs, F. W., The minerals and mineral localities of Texas: Texas Univ. Min. Survey, vol. 5, pp. 36-37, 1902.
Udden, J A., The deep feoring at Spur: Texas Univ. Bull. 363, 1914.
Utah.
Anonymous, The gypsum deposits and plants at Gypsmm, near Nephi, Utah:
Rock Products, vol. 10, p. 57, April, 191L BorcjTWELL, J. M., Gypsum deposits in Utah: U. S. Geol. Survey BulL 223, pp.
lOa-110, 1904. Rock gypsum at Nephi, Utah : U. S. Geol. Survey Bll. 225, pp. 3-487,
Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 1, pp. 222-223, 1890.
816 Gypsum Deposits Of The United States.
LupTON, C. T., Gypsum along the west flank of the San Bafael Swell, Utah:
U. S. GeoL Survey Bull. 530, pp. 221-231, 1913. Talmage, J. E., A remarkable occurrence of selenite : Science, vol. 21, pp. 85-87,
Virginia.
Boyd, C. R., Gypsum In southwestern Virginia: Resources of southwest Vir- ginia, pp. 104-108, 1881.
Eckel, E. C.> Salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia: U. S. Geol Survey BuU. 213, pp. 406-416, 1903.
Gypsum deposits in Virginia : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 223, pp. 3-37, 19W.
Stone, W. H., Gypsum plant in southwestern Virginia: Manufacturers Beo, pp. 51-52, Aug. 20, 1908.
Stevenson, J. J., Notes on the geological structure of Tazewell, Russell, Wise, Smyth, and Washington counties of Virginia : Am. Philos. Soc. Proc., vol 22, pp. 114-161, 1885.
Stose, G. W., Geology of the salt and gypsum deposits of southwestern Virginia: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 50, pp. 232-255, 1913.
Wyoming.
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Dabton, N. H., Preliminary description of the geology and water resources of the southern half of the Black Hills and adjoining regions in South Da- kota and Wyoming : U. S. Geol. Survey Twenty-first Ann. Rept, pt 4, pp. 516-518, 584-585, 1901.
U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Newcastle folio (No. 107), p. 9, 1904.
— ' Preliminary report on the geology and underground water resources of
the central Great Plains : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 32, pp. 392-394, 1905.
and 0*Harba, C. C, U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Aladdin folio (No.
128), p. 8, 1905.
Geology of the Owl Creek Mountains : 59th Cong., 1st sess,, S. Doc. 219,
p. 19, 1906.
Paleozoic and Mesozoic of central Wyoming : Geol. Soc. America Bull,
vol. 19, pp. 403-470, 1908.
and SiEBENTHAL, C. E., Geology and mineral resources of the Laramie
Basin, Wyo. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 364, 1909. Fisher, C. A., Mineral resources of the Big Horn Basin: U. S. GeoL Survey
Bull. 285, p. 313, 1905. Geology and water resources of the Big Horn Basin, Wyo. : U. S. Geol
Survey Prof. Paper 53, p. 18, 1906. Jamison, C. E., Geology and mineral resources of a portion of Fremont
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pp. 79-85, 1904. Lupton, C. T., and Condit, D. D., Gypsum in the southern part of the Big Horn
Mountains, Wyo. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 640, pp. 139-157, 1916. Mouldy, R. B., and Slosson, B. E., The Laramie cement plaster : Wyoming Agr.
Coll. Tenth Ann. Rept., 1900. Richardson, G. B., Upper Red Beds of the Black Hills : Jour. Geology, vol U.
pp. 365-393, 1903.
SiEBENTHAL, C. E., Gypsum deposits of the Laramie district, Wyo. : U. S. GeoL
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Index.
A.
Page. Abbott, & Hickox, deposit worked by. 68 Absaroka Range, Wyo., deposit 303
Acknowledgments for aid 142,297
Acme, Calif., d[H>8its near 63
Acme, Okla., mill at 235
Acme, Tex., mills at . ; 250
Acme Cement Plaster Co., opera- tions by 237-238
Age of deposits 26-27
Akron, N. Y., deposits at 209, 210-213
specimen from, plate showing 196
Alabaster, Micb., alabaster at 124
deposit at, discovery of 129
quarrying at 127
Alabaster, occurrce of 84,
124, 223, 272-273, 281
properties of 17
use of 33,43
Aladdin, Wyo., deposit near 298
Alamo Creek, Calif., deposits on 84
Alamogordo, N. Mex., white sands
near 184-186
Alaska, bibliography of 309
deposit in 47
mining in 47-48
Alcova, Wyo., deposits at and near. 305
quarry at 297
Alpine Plaster Co., deposit worked
by 76-76
Alteration, gypsum produced by 22, 25-26
Altona, Okla., section near 227
Amboy, Calif., deposit in a lake bed
at, plate showing 77
deposits near 81-82
American Cement Plaster Co., opera- tions 211-213,222,233 quarry of, at Watonga, Okla.,
plate showing 222
American Gypsum Co., operations
by 222
Analyses of gypsite 60,
61, 67, 68, 71, 72, 76, 97
Analyses of gypsum 27-29, 74, 82, 99,
182, 186, 214, 248, 277, 278
errors in 30-32
Ancho, N. Mex., deposits at 171
Anhydrite, alteration of, to gypsum. 157
occurrence of 19-21, 93, 108-110,
150, 152, 154, 156, 167, 224
properties of J.8-19
Antelope Valley, Calif., deposits in. 65
Arden, Nev., deposit near. 155-158
geologic section at 155
Page. Arizona, bibliography of 310
deposits In 49-56
Arizona Gypsum Plaster Co., mill
of, plate showing 50
Arkansas, bibliography of 310
deposits in 57
Arkins, Colo., dp>osit near 87-88
Artesia, N. Mex., section near 175
Aspermont, Tex., deposits near 253
Aubury, Lewis B., cited 80
Augusta, Ark., deposit at 57
Avawatz Mountains, Calif., deposits
in 82-83
B.
Bailey, E. H. S., Grimsley, G. P.,
and, cited 111-120
Baker, C. L., on deposits in Brooks
County, Tex 259-260
Bakersfleld, Calif., deposits near 70-73
Banding in rock gypsum, plate show- ing 196
Bar hypothesis, Branson's, outline
of 23
Barnum, Wyo., deposits near 300
Basin, Wyo., milling at ; 296
Bear Creek, Kans., natural bridge
on 118
Bear Island, Fla., deposit on 95-98
Beaver Creek, Wyo., deposits on_ 299, 300 Beckham County, Okla., deposits
in 229, 230
Belcoda, N. Y., deposits near 207
Belle Fourche River, Wyo., deposits
on 298
Belle Isle, La., deposits at 121
Bellevue, Mich., deposit at 124
Belva, Okla., quarry at 234
Benson, Ariz., deposits near 50
Bertie limestone member of the Sa- lina formation, nature and distribution of, in
New York 192
Best Bros, quarry, Kling, Kans 118, 120
gypsum bed in, plate showing — 120
Beulah, N. Y., deposits at 207
Beulah, Wyo., deposit near 298
Beyer, S. W., analyses by 28, 109
Bibliography 309-316
Bickford, Okla., quarry and mill at. 234
section near 227
Big Gypsum Valley, Colo., deposits
in 94
Big Horn Basin, Wyo., deposits in_ 302-303
Index.
Page. Big riorn Mountains, Wyo., deposits
encircling 299-302"
Big Snowy Mountains, Mont., de- posits encircling 134
Bigtrails, Wyo., deposit near 301
Bltterwater Valley, Calif., deposits
in 88
Black Hills, S. Dak., deposits 239-242
sections in 239, 240
Blackbawk, S. Dak., deposits near — 245
mill at 249
Blake, W. P.. cited 53,54-66
Block, polished, of granular gypmis, from North Holston,
Va plate showing 264
polished, of mottied gypsum, from Nephl, Utah, piate
showing 2S4
Blowout Mountain, saaidst<Bie
of 253,256-256
Blue Rapids, Elans., deports Bear. 112-113
Boards, gypsum plastcar 4&-44
Bo wen, C. F., cited 13d> 13
section by 306
Bowler, Mont, deposit near 137
Bownocker, J. A., on deposits in
Ohio 218-22a
Branson, E. B., cited , 23
Brawley, Calif., depoct west of 6&
Brazos County, Tex., deposits in 260
Brakes River, Double Mountain Fork
of, deposits on 253-255
Salt Fork of, deposits on 253
Brewster County, Tex., deposits in_ 26
Bridger, Mont., deposit near 137
BriBkman, H. F., cited 68-7a
Buckskin, Nev., deposit near 164
Buena Yista Lake, Calif., deposit
near 73
Buffalo, N. Y., record of well at 210
Buffalo, Wyo., deposits near 299-dOO
Buffalo Cement Co., operations 0t- 209-210 Baffalo Creek, Wyo., deposits on_ 300, 301 BuU Pen Creek, S. Dak., section (m. 243 Burdiard, E. F., on deposits in
Alaska 47-48
Burnt Island, Fla., deposit on 96-M
Butte capped with a bed of gypsum, near Cambria, Wyo., plate showius 298
Caballos Menntoins, N. Ifex., de- posits in 172
GBdnevfile,. Utah, deposit near 290-2ai
Calcasieu Parish, La., deposit in 121
Chlcined gypsum, production of 94, 36-87
Calcining, methods of 39-4a
Calcdoaia, N. Y., deposits at 20T
G&lhonv F. H. H., cited 9, 98
CHfornia, bibtiograpby of 310
deposits in 68-86
southern climate- of 58-50
map of, showing stribu- tioB gypsum de- posits . — ..— — .. 68
Page. California Gypsum & Mineral Co.,
deposit worked by— 67-68 Cambria, Wyo., butte capped with gypsum near, plate
showing 298
section at 2W
Canllus, N. Y., quarry near 199
Camillus shale member of the Salina formation, nature and distribution of, in New
York 192-m
Caaada, bibliography on 309
Cane SpringB, Calif., deposits near T3 Castua Cnek, Caltf., deposits ob— €1
CurdfiE giantr origfai of IM
Carrizo Plain, CalK., deposits In 83 gypsite quarry on, pte sbowteg 7<$
Carter, Okla section near
Casper Moimtatn, Wyo., deposits
near 305
CastaiCr Calif,, deposit near 75,77
Citfta, Obio, mine and nrill near- 222, 223 Gastilc gypsum, occnrrenee of, in
Texas 257-258
Cave Creek, Kans., deposit on 118
Oavem, Montr, deposit at 136
CaTerns, occurrence of, ha Te!ia8_ 259-M5 Cayuga Junetioa, N. Y.,- quarry and
mill at 2©201
Cdar City, Utah, deposits near 270
Cedar Mountain, Utah,* psoiqiect
sovtb of '.
Cement, Oftkt., deposit at... 228-229, 236 Centecmial Prairie, S. Dak., de- posits in 2W
CentervUle, Iowa> dosit at 1©7-11
wen at, record of 1'
Cerro Blanco, N. M., gypsana cap- ping, plate slMwfaig — Charley Canjnon, CaKf., deposit f— Chemistry of gypsnm, l>ib}iography
et
Cherry Creek, Wyo., deposits
Chichagef Ictond, Ahiska, dcqosit
mining wi 47-4S
Chugwater fermation, Wyoi, section
Chupadera Mesa, N. Bfez., deposits
in 164-1?
Cibola "PjmmMfr N. Mez., deposits
in lOT
Clifford Miiler qnsMrry, near Fayette-
vfhe, N. Y., bed 196-1'
ClockWlle, If. Y.. depostt ttt
Cloudcroft, N. Max., deposfts near_ 16&-I
Cloverly, Wyo., deposit near 301
Clyde, N. Y., deposits at
Coftidale, Golo,, depoift w o rke d at— CoftHnga, Calif., deposit near, plate
showing
deposits near 01-
Cody, Wyo., deposfts near
Cold Brook, Dak., section on
Cold Was*, Utah, deposit on
section on 278
Index.
Page.
Colorado, bibliography of 310-311
deposits in, localities of- 19-20, 87-94
nature of 87
Colorado City, Colo., deposits worked
near 89
Colorado Desert, Calif., deposits in 79
Colorado Springs, Colo., thick bed of gypsum at, plate show- ing 89
:olt Gulch, Utah, section in 279
Composition of gypsum 16, 27-29
Sonant Creek, Wyo., deposits on 304-305
Consolidated Pacific Cement Plaster Co., deposit worked
by 82
Consolidated Wheatland Plaster Co., mine and mill of, near
Mumford, N. Y 206-207
Consumers Gypsum Co., operations
by 221-222
Corona, Calif., deposits near 77
Cost of gypsum plaster 41-42
of plaster mills 40-41
Cottonwood Creek, Calif., deposits
on 70-71
Coyote Buttes, N. Mex., deposits in- 167
Cramer, Colo., deposit near., 90
Crazy Woman Creek, Middle and South forks of, Wyo.,
deposits on 300
Crystallization of gypsum 16, 17
Crystals, impure, plate showing 18
occurrence and origin of, in
Kansas 118-119
Culberson County, Tex., deposit
in 257-258
, Prank T,., Jr., cited 55
CumminB, A. P., cited 252-253
Custer, 8. Dak., gsrpsum beds south- west of, plate showing- 242
D.
I>trrow, Okla., quarry and mill near. 234
Darton, N. H., dted 239, 24<247
on deposits in New Mexico — 161-186 Day, D. T., cited 95
Dayton, Wyo., quarry at 297,299
Death Valley, Calif., deposits in 82-83
Dehydration by grinding 30-32
by intruded rock, revolts of — 145-146
Deposition of gypsum, methods of 21-26
Deposits, age of 227
eflorescent, nature and distribu- tion oU la CalifHTBia— 85-86 formation of, by alteratton.. 22, 25-26 by disintegration and me- chanical reaceumula-
tion 22, 26
by ground water. — 21,22,23-25 by sea OT lake water- 21-22, 22-23 intbedded, nature and distri-
bvtioa oU iB, CaUforDia. 86
Deposits, localities of, in California, Page.
map showing 58
in Kansas, map showing 112
in New Mexico, map show- ing 162
in Ohio, map showing 218
in Oklahoma, map show- ing 224
in the United States, map
showing 34
in Wyoming, map showing- 296 on San Rafael Swell, Utah, map showing distribution
of 276
periodic-lake, nature and distri- bution of, in Cali- fornia 86
See aJso under Map and names of States.
De Queen, Ark., dK>8it at 57
Des Moines River, Iowa, deposit on_ 101-
103, 104-106
Dickinson, W. 0. analysis by 28
Dimmit Lake, N. Mex,, section at_ 174-175
Domes, deposition of gypsum In 24-25
Double Mountain formation, Tex.,
deposits in 253-257
Douglas, Ariz., digging and calcining
of gypslte at 49-50
gypsite deposit at, plate show- ing 50
manufacture of products at 50
Douglas, Wyo., deposits near 305
Dudley, Calif., deposits near 64-65
Duke, Okla. deposit near 232
Dunes, formation of - 22,26
Duran, N. Mex., deposit at 171'
Duval County, Tex., deposits in 259
E.
Eagle River, Colo., deposits on 92-93
East Paradox Valley, Colo., deposits
in 94
Eaton Riids, Mich., deposit at 124
El RitOr N. Mex., thick bed of gypsum opposite, plate show- ing 184
Eldorado, Okla., dosit near 232
mill at 234-235
Elm Fork, Okla., sections on 231
Elk Mountains, Wyo., deposits in 307
Emery, Utah, deposits near 279, 281
Empire Gypsum Co., mining and mill- ing by, at Garbutt,
N, Y 204-205
Empire Mountains, Ariz., deposit in. 52-53 Erosion of gypsum by rain, plate
showing 16
F.
Falrchild, J. G., analyses by— 29, 277, 278
Fairplay, Colo., deposits near 92
Palfurrias, Tex., deposits near . 259
Payetterille, N. Y., quarries and mills
near 196-197
Index.
Page.
Feldman, Ariz., deposits near 55-56
Ferguson, Okla., mill at 235
Ferris Mountains, Wyo., deposits in. 305 Ferron, Utah, gypsum bed in Horn Silver Gulch near, plate
showing 265
Fillmore, Calif., deposit near 85
Fillmore, Utah, deposits near 268-269
Finlay, Tex., quarry near 258
Fire Pulp Plaster Co., deposit
worlced by 75
Fishack Gjiisum Co., operations by — 222
Fisher, C. A., cited 174-175
Florida, bibliography of 811
deposits in - 95-98
Forest Grove, Mont., deposit at 134
Fort Apache Reservation, Ariz., de- posit in 51
Fort Dodge, Iowa, deposit at 101-103,
mining at 103-104
plate showing 104
outcrop near, plate showing 80
Fort Hill, N. Y., quarries near 207
Fort Washakie, Wyo., deposits near. 304 Fountain Creek, Colo., deposits on — 89
Freeman, O. W., cited 134
Freezeout Hills, Wyo., deposits in . 306
French Point, Calif., alabaster on 85
Froeling, Henry, analysis by 29
Fryingpan Creek, Colo., deposits on_ 92 Fuel, expense for, in Oklahoma— 232-233
Fullers Bottom, Utah, section in 277
Future of production in New York — 215
Q.
Gallina, N. Mex., deposits near... 179-181
deposits near, plates showing 179
Gait, Nev., deposit near 168-159
Garbutt, N. Y., quarries and mills
near 204-207
Garbutt Gypsum Co., mine and mill
of, at Garbutt, N. Y. 205-206 Garden of the Gods, Colo., deposits
in 89
George, D., on deposits in Colo- rado 87-94
Gerlach, Nev., deposits near 150
Gies, W. J., analyses by 28, 186
Gilbert, G. K., cited — 89-90, 269
Glass Mountain, Okla., cap of massive gypsum on, plate show- ing - 226
Glen Eyrie, Colo., deposit near 89
Glendale, Utah, deposits near 271
Goodman, Mont., thin deposit at. 132-133
Gould, C. N., cited 224-225
Government Valley, Wyo., deposit in. 298 Grand Rapids, Mich., mining and
milling at 124-126
Grand River, Colo., deposits on 92,93
Grandville, Mich., discovery at 129
quarrying at 126-127
Granite Hill Plaster Co., operations
of 221
Granules in polished block of gyp- sum, plate showing 2M
Grapevine Canyon, N. Mex., deposits
In no
Greer County, Okla., deposits 229-232 Green Mountain, Wyo., deposits en- circling 298
Green Mountains, Wyo., deposits in. 305 Greenacre ranch, Colo., deposits
near '. 88
Greenhorn, Colo., deposit near. 90
Greybull, Wyo., deposits near 302
quarrying and milling at 297
Grimsley, G. P., and Bailey, B. H. S.,
cited 111-120
Grinding of gypsum, loss of water
from 30-32
processes of 3-39
Gros Ventre Range, Wyo., deposits
not found in 303
Gross, Arthur, analysis by 18*
Gunnison River, Colo., deposits on 93-94
Gyp Hills, Tex., gypsite in 255
Gypsite, analyses of 60,
61,63,67,68,71,72.76,91
deposition of : 21,23-24
deposits of, in California 58-86
digging and calcining of 38-W
mining of, at Laramie, Wyo.,
plate showing 298
properties and occurrence of 17
Gypsum, Colo., deposit near M
Gypsum, Kans., deposit near 11&-116
Gypsum, N. Y., quarries near 202
Gypsum, Ohio, mine at, plate show-
sections near 219-220
Gypsum, Oreg., deposit at 236
quarrying and milling at 237-238
quarry and loading platform at,
plate showing 236
Gypsum, fibrous. See Satin spar. Gypsum Buttes, Wyo., deposits i-
circling 298
Gypsum Canyon, Calif., deposits in. 77 Gypsum Hills, Kans., deposits in. 117-118
H.
Hackberry Creek, Okla., section at
mouth of 231
Hackberry Island, La., deposit on. 121
Hailey, Wyo., deposits near 804
Hanover, Mont., deposit at 186-136
Harmon County, Okla., deposits in. 229-232 Hatcher, Carpenter & Andrus, analy-
Haworth, Erasmus, on deposits In
Kansas 111-120
Hawthorne, Nev., deposit near 155
Heath, Mont, deposit at 134-135
Hell Canyon, S. Dak., three gypsum
beds in, plate showing. 242 Henquenet cave, Kans., deposit ex- posed in llJ
Hermosa, S. Dak., deposit near 245
Ikdex.
Page.
lermosa Creek, Colo., deposits on 94
less, F. Li., on a deposit at Moab,
Utah 273
on deposits In California 68-86
Ugh Island, Tex., dosits at 259
mgard, B. W., cited 61
Illl B. F., on deposits in Texas 260
lolston River, North Fork of, Va.,
deposits on 283-294
North Fork of, Va., structure
of rocks on 286-289
lope, Kans., deposit at 115
lorn Silver Gulch, Utah, deposit
in 277-278
deposit In, plate showing 265
section in 278
lot Springs, S. Dak., deposits
neer 244-245
gypsum bed in blulf near, plate
showing 242
loward, Colo., deposits near 91
Indspeth County, Tex., d>08it in. 257-258 lumboldt Range, Nev., deposits in. 146-149
geologic section in 142-143
Snnters Hot Springs, Mont., deposit
forming at 138
Button, J. Q., on deposits in South
Dakota 239-249
HyattviUe, Wyo., deposits near 301
Idaho, bibliography of 811
deposits in 99-100
Imports, quantity and value of 38
Indian Falls, N. Y., deposit near— 209 IndianapoUs, Okla., deposit at— 228-229
Information, sources of 15
Inyankara Mountain, Wyo., deposits
adjoining 298
Iowa, bibliography of 311
deposits in 20, 101-110
J.
Jackson County, Okla., deposits in. 229-232 Jamesvllle, N. Y., quarries and
mills near 197-199
Jones, SL D., deposit worked by — 73-75 Jones, J, C, on deposits in Ne- vada 139-160
K.
Kanarraville, Utah, sections near— 270
Kansas, bibliography of 311-312
crystalline gypsum in, occur- rence of 118-119
deposits in, geography of 111-112
geology of. 112
localities of 112-120
origin of 120
map of, showing localities of gypsum dosits and limits of the Permian
series 112
quarrying and milling in ;. 119-120
124567**— 20 21
Page. Kay, G. OQ deposits at Center-
vUle, Iowa 107-110
Keenes cement, production of 119, 120
Kelley Plaster Co., operations by. 222, 223
Kern Lake, Calif., deposit near 71-73
Kettleman Plains, Calif., d>08it in. 73-75
Kibbey, Mont., deposits near 133
Kiowa Peak, Tex., section at 252
King City, Calif., bed of gypsum on mesa north of, plate
showing 80
deposits near 80
, Kans., deposit at 118
bed in quarry at, plate showing. 120
L A K ranch, Wyo., deposit near — 297
La Verkin, Utah, deposits near 271
Labonte Creek, Wyo., deposits on 305
Lamy, N. Mex., deposits near 163, 173
Land, Ariz., deposit near 50-51
Land plaster, use of 33, 42
Lander, Wyo., deposits near 304
Laramie, Wyo., milling of gypsite
at 296
mining of gypsite, at, plate
showing 298
Laramie Mountains, Wyo., deposits
in 807-308
Las Vegas, Nev., deposits near 159-160
Last Chance Creek, Utah, Indica- tions on 280
Lee, W. T., cited 51
Leighton, Henry, D. H. Newland and, on deposits in New York 187-217
Levan, Utah, deposit at 265-266
quarry near, plate showing 265
Lime, Oreg., mill at 237
Little Fountain Creek, deposits on. 89, 91 Little Goose Creek, Wyo., deposit on. 299 Little Gypsum Valley, Colo., deposits
in 94
Little Medicine Bow River, Wyo., de- posits on 306
Little Wind River, Wyo., deposit on. 804 Localities of gypsum deposits. See names of Staiee.
Lockwood & Smith, operations by 221
Lodge Grass Creek, Mont., deposit
near 137
Lodge Grass Creek, Wyo., deposits
near 299
Loma Blanca, Tex., deposit in 259-260
Lomo de las CafUis, N. Mex., de- posits in 167
Lone Tree Creek, Wyo., deposit on 307
Lookout Peak, S. Dak., section on — 247 Los Cerillos, N. Mex., deposit near — 177
outcrop near, plate showing — 178 Lost Hills, Calif., deposits in 65-67
mound of gypsum in, plate show- ing 66
Louderback, G. D., cited 147-148, 151
Index.
Page.
Louisiana, bibliography of., 812
deposits in 20, 121
Loveland, Colo., gypsum quarry at,
plate showing 88
LoTelock, Ner deposits near 14G-149
Ludwig, Ner deposit at 153-155
geologic section at 153
Lupton, C. T., on deposits on the San
Rafael Swell, Utah. 273-282 liuzor Peak, Ney., deposits at the
base of 150
Lycoming Calcining Co., mining and
milling by, at Garbott,
N. Y 206
Lyndon, N. Y., quarry near, plate
showing 196
Lyon, Mont., deposit near 138
Lyons, N. deposits at 201
M.
Maccrady, Va., section of the Mao
crady formation near . 291
McKittrick, Calif., deposits near 67-70
McLure Valley, Calif deposits in 64-65
McMillan, N. Mex deposits at 176
Malone Mountains, Tex., deposits in. 258
Manlius, N. Y., quarries in 199
Mansfield, 6. B., acknowledgment to. 99
Manti, Utah, deposit at 266
Map of area In Ohio, showing loca- tion of deposits 218
Kansas showing localities of de- posits 112
New Mexico, showing localities
of deposits 162
Oklahoma, showing localities of
deposits 224
San Rafael Swell region, Utah, showing distribution of
deposits in 276
southern California, showing distribu tion of de- posits 58
the United States, showing lo- calities which produce
gypsum 34
Wyoming, showing areas known
to contain gjrpsum 296
Maria Mountains, Calif., deposits in. 78-79
Maricopa, Calif., deposits near 70
Marsh & Co., operations by 221
Martisco, N. Y., deposits near 199
Massive gypsum. See Rock gypsum.
Maxwell, N. Y., deposit near 207
Mayfield, Utah, deposits near 266-267
Mayoworth, Wyo., deposits near 300
Mecca, Calif., deposits near 79
Medicine Bow, Wyo., deposits near 806
Medicine Bow Range, Wyo., deposits
in 807
Medicine Lodge, Kans., deposits near. 117
Meinzer, O. B., cited 186
Mendota, Calif., deposits near 59-61
Mesa Yeso, N. Mez., deposits in
and near 167
Mesa Junanes, N. Mez., dMstts in. 106
Mesa Lnoero, N. Mex., deposits in M
section of 164
Messers Creek, Ark., deposit near 57
Metz, Calif., deposits near 80
Michigan, bibliography of 312
deposits in, deyopment of.. 121-129
geology of 122
nature and extent of. 20,122-124
Midway, Calif., deposits near TO
Millegan, Mont., deposits near 131
MRl, gypsum, first built in the United
States 161
BOlls, plaster, arrangement and cost
of 4041
Mining, methods of 38
methods of, plates showing — 104,298 Minnekahta, S. Dak diosits west
of 242-243
outcrop near, plate showing 236
Miser, H. D., on deposits ta Ar- kansas
Mississippi, ocenrroice in . — 130
Mississippian rocks, deposits in 1O8-110
Moab, Utaki, deposit at
Moapa, Ney. deposit near.
2!I3
Monar Plaster Co., mine and mill
of, at Garhntt, N. Y— 206
Montana, h&liosaphy of . 312
deposits in, age and distrilrati<m
of 131
localities of 181-138
Montezuma, N. Y., deposits near 200
Montpelier, Idaho, deposit near
Morrison, Colo., deposits near
MottUng in polished block of gyp- sum, plate showing 264
Mound House, Nev., deposits near. 150-153
Mount Carmel, Utah, deposits at 2T1
Mount Plsgah, Wyo., deposits near 298
Muddy Creek, Utah, deposit near. 27280 Mumford, N. Y., quarries and mills
near 204-20T
Muttleberry Canyon, Nov., deposits
near 147-1<9
N.
Nacimiento uplift, N. Mex., deposit
in 181-182
National Wall Plaster Co., quarry of,
near Fayetteville, Nj Y- 1' Nephi, Utah, deposit at, deyelopment
of 261-263
deposit at, geology of 2J-265
quality of 265
polished block of gypsum from,
plate showing 264
quarry near, plate showing 246
Nevada, Wbliography of 313
deposits in, developraeot of 141-1
geology of 142-1
localities of 20, 146-1
nature and distribution
of 139-1
OTigin of 144-146
Index.
New Mexico, biblioflrraiy of 313
deposits in, distribution of, map
showing 162
geology of 161-163
localities of 20. 161, 163-186
relations of generalized columnar section,
showing 162
New York, bibliography of 818-314
deposits in, geology of 189-194, 196
localities of 194r-217
origin 'of 216-217
physical and chemical
nature of 213-214
gypsum resources in 215
mining In, history of 187-188
method of 188-189
Newark, N. Y., quarries near 201-202
Newcastle, Wyo., deposits near 297-298
Newland, H., cited 214
Newland, D. H., and Leighton, Henry, on dQ[K>sits in
New York 187-217
Niagara Gypsum Co., manufacturing
by 208-209
No Wood Creek, Wyo., deposits on. 801, 802 North Holston, Va., mining and mill- ing at 294
polished block of gypsum from,
plate showing 264
North Rush, N. Y., deposit at 207
Notom, Utah, deposit near 281
O.
Oakfield, N. Y., operations in 207-209
O'Brine, D. B., analysis by 29
Ohio, bibliography of 314
deposits in, development of 221-223
distribution of 20, 218-220
localities of, map showing. 218 Oil Bubble mound, Calif., deposit in. 66 Oil Creek yalley, Wyo., deposit in. 298 Oil lands, holding of, as gypsum
claims 83, 86
OJai Valley, Calif., deposits in 85
Okarche, Okla., mill at 285
Okeene, Okla, quarry near 284
Oklahoma, bibliography of 314
deposits in, deyelopment of 232-235
distribution and nature of 20,
224, 225-232
geology of 224-225
localities of, map showing 224
Olustee, Okla., section near 231
Oregon, bibliography of 315
deposits in, development of.. 237-238
geology of 286-237
nature and occurrence of. 236 Origin of the dosits. Bee under
names of States. Oro Grande, N. Hex., deposits near. 170
Oro Junta, Colo., deposit near 90
Orton, Edward, cited 218
Oscuro, N. Mez., deposits near . 168
r
Page.
Owl Canyon, Colo., deposit in 88
Owl Creek Mountains, Wyo., deposits
in 803
P.
Paintrock Creek, Wyo., deposits on. 801 Palen Mountains, Calif., deposits in. 19, 78
Palmdale, Calif., deposits near 75-77
deposits near, plates showing 76, 77
Palmer, Chase, analyses by 28, 97
Palmyra, N. Y., deposits at 201
Panasof&ee, Fla., deposits near 95-98
Paoli mine, location of 59-61
Parsons, Arthur L., cited 214
Pass Creek, Wyo., deposit on 299
Pease River, Tex., section on 252
Pecos Valley, N. Mex., deposits in. 173-176 Pedemal Peak, N. Mex., deposits
near 173
Perry Park, Colo., deposits in 88-89
thick bed of gypsum in, plate
showing 88
Phelps, N. Y., quarries near 202
Phillips Hills, N. Mex., deposits in.. 168 Piedmont, S. Dak., quarrying and
milling at 248-249
Pinos Wells, N. Mex., white sand
Pittsford shale member of the Sallna
formation, nature and
position of, in New
York 193
Plaster, gypsum, preparr.tion and
cost of 88-42
gypsum, uses of 38,84,43-46
Plaster Bluff, Ark., deposit at 57
gypsum bed at, plate showing 51
Plaster boards,. types and uses of 43-44
Plaster Creek, Mich., discovery and
development on 128-129
Plaster of Paris, setting of 40
Plasterco, Va., deposits near 288-294
Plasterco, Tex., mill at 250
Point Aux Chenes, Mich., quarry at. 129
Point Sal, Calif., deposits on 84
Port Gibson, N. Y., deposits near. 202-203 Powder River, North Fork of, Wyo.,
deposits on 300
Prairie Spring, N. Mex., deposits
near 168
Primm, Okla., mill at 235
Production of gypsum 33-37
Properties of gypsum 16-17
Pueblo, Colo., deposits near 89-90
Q.
Quail Canyon, Ariz., deposit in 51
Quanab, Tex., deposit near 251-253
Quarrying, methods of; 38
R.
Rapid City, S. Dak., deposits near. 245-246 Battlesnake Range, Wyo., deposits
in 305
S24
Page.
Xawlins, Wyo., deposits near d06
Bed Bstte, Wyo deposit on 29S
Bed Buttes, Wyo., quarry and mill
at 296
quarrying at i. 307, 308
Bed Creek, Wyo deposits on 300
Bed Mountain, Wye, deposits on — 307-08
section on -.. 307
Bed Plateau, Utah, prospect south
of 276
Bed River, Okla., escarpment capped with gypsum ledges on,
plate showing 226
North Fork of, section on 230
Bed Valley, S. Bak deposits in.. 240-242
Bedbank, Wyo., deposits near 301
Bedington, Ariz deposit reported
n,ear 55
Bedwater Valley, S. Dak.-Wyo„ de- posit in
section in 246
Behydration of ground gypsum 30-31
Bhodes farm, Kans deposit at 116
Biceville, Mont, deposit at 131-132
Blchardson, a B., cited 247, 248
Bico quadrangle, Colo., deposits in — 94 Bincon Colorado. N. Mex., gypsum in north wall of, plate
showing 178
Rio Chama, N. Mex., deposit on 179-181
Rio Ga'Una, N. Mex., deposits on. 179-181 Rio Salad ., N. Mex., deposits on— 182-184
Roads, euriicing cf, with gypsum 273
Boaring Fork, Coo., deposits on 92, 93
Bock Cre, Sou.'i Fork of, Wyo.,
deposit on 299
Bock gypsum, comparison of, with
anhydrite 18-19
properties and occurrence of 17, 19
Bockville, Utah, deposit near 271
Bogers, A. F., cited 19
Rogers, G, S., cited 24-25
Bogers, W. B., cited 292
Boman Nose Gypsum Co., quarrying
and milling by 234
Boofing, tile and monolithic 44—46
Bosario siding, N. Mex., outcrop of gypsum near, plate
showing 178
Boswell, N. Mex., section near 174
Buedi, Colo., deposit worked at 92
Bush Springs, Okla., deposit at— 228-229 mill at 229, 235
S.
Sacramento Mountains, N. lex., de- posits in 169-170
8t. George, Utah, deposits near— 271-272 making and use of plaster at 272
Bt. Ignace, Mich., quarry at 128
8t. Ignace Peninsula, Mich., deposit
on 122
St. Martin Islands, Mich., deposits
on 122, 129
9t Thomas, Nev., deposits near — 160
Page.
Salina, Utah, deposit at M
Salina fonnation, geology ol in New
York 189HaHlW
Salt Creek, Tex., section at 253
Bait Biver Bange, Wyo., depositi not
ftrand in 304
Salt Wash, Utah, sectioii on 280
SaltTiUe, Va., deposits near 283-294
generalized section of a
at 291
generalized section of Carimnif-
erous rocks near. 285-286
San Andrea Mountains, N. Mex., de- posits in 171-172
fian Jose Biver, N. Mex., dq;M>sit on. 184
outcrop on, plate showing 184
Ban Miguel copper mine, N. Mex.,
section west of 181
San Pedro Biver, Aria., deposits on. 64-J)6 San Bafael Biver, Utah, deposits
on 27277
San Bafael Swell, Utah, deposits on,
access to 244,282
dexo8it8 on, development of 282
general features of 275-276
geology of 275
localities of 276-281
map showing 276
quality of 281
location of 273-274
topography of 274-275
San Ysidro, N. Mex., cIUEb of gypsum 8 o u t h w e St of, plate
showing 184
Sand Creek, Wyo., deposit on 299
Sands, white, analyses of 186
white, formation of 22,
occurence of 81, 184-186
west of Tularosa, N. Mex.,
plate showing 185
Sandusky Bay, Ohio, deposits near. 218-220 Santa Barbara Creek, Calif., depoaUs
of alabaster on 84
Santa Catalina Bange, Aria., depoait
in 53-64
Santa Bita Mountains, Aria., gypsum
not known in 52
Satin spar, formation of 22
from a J&ssure in day, plate .
showing n
occurrence of 18,
83, 115, 224, 260, 272-278
properties of
Scandinavian Coal Co.6 hole, corre-
Schaller, W. T., analyses by 28, 182
Secondary deposit of fliM>ngy gypsam,
plate showing 18
Seepage of water, mound of gyp- sum deposited by, plate
showing W
Selenite, crystals of, plate showing. 16, 196
formation of
phenocrysts of, plate showing- 2N properties of. — —
S2S
Page.
109, 114, 118-lld, 18A, 136, 141,
151, 166, 16-160, 17, 195, 202,
224, 225, 257, 269, 200, 272-273
iit and bent, plate showing; 16
trancarencv and Incipient cleavage of, plate
showing 17
Seminoe Mountains, Wyo., deposits
in 805
Seneca River, N. 7., deposits on 201
Senorfrti), N. Vex., deposit at . IBl
Serritas Mountains, Ariz., deposit re- ported fn 92
Beven Rivers, N. M, section near- 175 Shale, deposHSon (ft, upon gypenm — 166
Whaler, M. K., <dted 181-182
19hea4. A. C, analyses by 29
Sheep Mountslns, Wjou, deposits -en-
cir<£big 302
Bhell, Wyo., deposit near 801
Shirley Mmratains, Wyo., deposits
in 806
Shoemaker, W. V., cited 135
Siebenltial, C. a., 807
Sierra Fra Cristobal, N. Mez., de- posits in 1T2
Sigurd, Utah, deposits near 267-268
quarrying and milling at 267, 268
Sinbad Valley, Colo., deposits hi 04
Smith, J. P., cited 142-143
Smith, R. A., en depoeftts in Michi- gan 122-129
Smoky Hill River, ., gypsum
ciTstals on 119
Snake Rh"er, Oolo., oeearpeBces 92
Snake River, Idaho, deposit on 99-100
Snake Ri-ver, Oreg., tnaniies and
mills on 237
Snider, li. C, ra depoits la Okk
homa 224-235
Soapstene Island, Tla., deposit on 06-8
Socorro, N. Mex., deports east of- 1'06-168
Soldier CreeSk, Wyo., deposits -on 307
Solomon, Kans deposits near 114-115
Solution; effects of, on rock gypsum,
ptafte shewing 16
South Dakota, bibliography of 315
deposits in, development of 348-249
geology of 239-242
localHies of 242-247
South Mountains, Aris., deposit in 51
South Mountains, Calif., deposit in. 85
South Park, Colo., deposits near 92
South Wash., Utah, crystalline de- posit at 272-273
Southard, Okla quarries imd mill
at 234
Spearflsh, S. Dak., deposits near.. 246-247 deposits near, plates showing. 243, 246 Spearflsh formation, shale of, min- eral composition of , 248
Spindletop, Tex., deposit at 268-259
Sportsmans Lake, Wyo., deposit
near 807
Page. Spring Moontain Raflipe, 1ler,eotloB cttrtoaiHeroaB strata in : 158
Springport, N. deposits act 200
HTBce Creek, Colo depoirits oa 93
Btarhe, N. ¥., deposit in 194-195
SteTBE, George, analyses by 28, 29,
66, 76, 62, 248 on J3nors in the chemical anal-
jtim of gypsum gO-32
Stevenson, J, J., cited 0, 292
Stocicade Beaver Creek, Wyo de-
posttfl on 297
Stone, R. W., Analyses of gypsum 27-29
Arisona 49-56
TTorida 96-98
Gypsum hidratry. The 88-46
Idaho—- -99-190
Introduction ; 15-16
Tjn itp[1|iTm- 121
Mineralogy and geology of gyp- sum 16-26
Mississippi 130
Montana 131-138
4>hio: Development in 1918— 222-223
Oregon '. 236-268
Texas-; 260-260
Wyoming 296-308
Jones, J. C, and. Deposits in
southern Nevada 165-160
and l&ty, G. F, Iowa 101-110
and Dopton, C. T., Utah 261-282
Smith, R. A., and, Michigan : Economic develop- ment 124-128
Stone CJlty, Codo., deposits near 89, 91
Stose, G. W., on deposits in Vir-
ghila 288-294
Strawherry Mountain, Wyo., deposits
adjoining 298
Structure, banded, in massive gyp- sum, plate showing 16
mottled, in massive gypsum,
plates gftiowlng 16, 264
Stucco, Wyo., deposits near 802
mill at 297
Sturgis, S. Dak., de pos its near 246
Sullivan, B. C, analyses by 60, 63,
67, 71, 72, 74
Suur City, La., deposits at 121
Sunflower Valley, CallL, deposits in. 64-5
Suwanee, N. Mex., deposit near 184
Sweetwater Creek, Tex., deposits on- 253
Swlssvale, Colo., deposits near 91
Syracuse salt member of the SaUna formation, nature and distribution of, in New York
T.
Table Mountain, Colo., deposits near- 88
Table Mountain, Nev., deposit at 150
Taff, J. A., cited 258
Talmage, J. E., cited 272-273
Technology, bibliography of : 309