Analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021–23
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, performed a two-part study to (1) assess water use and temporal
Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: pubs.usgs.gov.
Prepared in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources Analysis of Water Use Associated With Hydraulic Fracturing and Determination of Baseline Water Quality in Watersheds Within the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Scientific Investigations Report 2024-5045 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey
Analysis of Water Use Associated With Hydraulic Fracturing and Determination of Baseline Water Quality in Watersheds Within the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 By S. Alex Covert and G.F. Koltun Prepared in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources Scientific Investigations Report 2024-5045 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2024 For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit https://www.usgs.gov or call 1-888-ASK-USGS. For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, visit https://store.usgs.gov/. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner. Suggested citation: Covert, S.A., and Koltun, G.F., 2024, Analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2024-5045, 61 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20245045. Associated data for this publication: Covert, S.A., 2024, Data from quality-control equipment blanks, field blanks, and field replicates for baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P1EDHXB9. Koltun, G.F., 2024, Annual streamflow statistics for selected streamgages in and near the shale play area of eastern Ohio (through water year 2021): U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P1G2W3JQ. ISSN 2328-0328 (online)
Acknowledgments Thanks are extended to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources for their cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey in completion of this study and for providing hydraulic fracturing water use data for analysis in this report.
Contents Acknowledgments iii Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Purpose and Scope 5 Description of Study Area 5 Coal Mining 5 Oil and Gas Drilling 5 Site Selection 8 Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing 9 Streamflow Trend and Change Methods of Analysis 10 Streamflow Trend and Change Results 12 Trends in Annual Minimum and Median Daily Streamflows and Annual Daily Streamflow Nonexceedance Probabilities 12 Temporal Trends in Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) Statistics 15 Changes in Nonexceedance Percentiles of Daily Streamflows 15 Baseline Water Quality 16 Previous Studies 16 Sampling Methods and Laboratory Analysis 16 Geospatial Analyses 19 Statistical Analyses 20 Quality-Control Results 20 Data Treatment Based on Quality-Control Results 20 Baseline Water-Quality Results 20 Hydrologic Conditions Captured by Sampling Events 30 Water Types Based on Major Ions 30 Sources of Salinity 32 OEPA Aquatic Life Use Criteria 36 Relation Between Water Chemistry and Drainage-Basin Characteristics 36 Summary and Discussion 41 Water Use and Changes in Streamflow 41 Baseline Water Quality 41 References Cited 42 Appendix 1. Quality-Control Results (detailed) 46 Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 47
Figures
1. Line graph showing historically reported crude oil and gas production in
2. Map showing study area consisting of 10 sites used in the analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water
3. Map showing density of horizontal oil and gas wells and waste injection wells
4. Map showing lands associated with or affected by coal mines within and
5. Bar graph showing annual water use for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio during
6. Bar graph showing monthly average water use for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio
7. Screen capture of Environmental Flow Component settings used for the
8. Scatterplot of annual minimum daily mean streamflow by climatic year for
9. Scatterplot of annual minimum daily mean streamflow by climatic year for
11. Quantile-Kendall plot for Wakatomika Creek near Frazeysburg,
12. Scatterplot of full and pre-2012 period streamflows versus nonexceedance
13. Scatterplot of full and pre-2012 period streamflows versus nonexceedance
14. Boxplots showing the distribution of 15-minute instantaneous streamflows (or gage heights) for the study period (6/23/2021-3/16/2023) overlaid with points representing the streamflows (or gage heights) at the times of sampling to characterize baseline water quality in selected watersheds within the shale
15. Major cation and anion percentages for water-quality samples collected from the 8 sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the
16. Binary mixing curves for chloride-to-bromide ratios from eight sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of
17. Constituent concentrations that differed at a statistically significant level (p-value <0.05) between samples with and without a component of brine at sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale Tables
1. Site information for 11 sites used in analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water quality in watersheds
2. Monthly and annual total precipitation, in inches, during the baseline water-quality study period compared to long-term average monthly and annual
3. Site information for sites used in analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio,
5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds
6. Constituents and properties indicating a relation between measured value and streamflow at most sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in
7. Wilcoxon rank-sum test Z-values and p-values between median concentrations of selected constituents for samples with and without a component of brine at sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in
8. Ohio Environmental Protection Agency aquatic life use criteria and exceedances used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within
9. Environmental and drainage-basin characteristics compiled by upstream drainage basin used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within
10. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients between median concentrations or levels of constituents and drainage-basin characteristics in watersheds within
11. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients for drainage-basin characteristics in Conversion Factors U.S. customary units to International System of Units Multiply By To obtain Length inch (in.) centimeter (cm) foot (ft) meter (m) mile (mi) kilometer (km) Area square mile (mi2) square kilometer (km2) Volume barrel (bbl; petroleum, 1 barrel=42 gal) cubic meter (m3) Flow rate cubic foot per second (ft3/s) cubic meter per second (m3/s) Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:
°F (1.8 × °C) + 32. Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:
°C (°F - 32) / 1.8.
Datums Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Supplemental Information Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm at 25 °C). Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in either milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (µg/L). A water year is the 12-month period from October 1 through September 30 of the following year and is designated by the calendar year in which it ends. Abbreviations Cl:Br
chloride-to-bromide GIS
geographic information system mg/L
milligram per liter NTRU
nephelometric turbidity ratio unit NWIS
National Water Information System NWQL
National Water Quality Laboratory ODNR-DMRM Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Mineral Resources
Management ODNR-OGRM Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Oil and Gas Resources
Management OEPA
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency OMZA
outside mixing zone average OMZM
outside mixing zone maximum QC
quality control RPD
relative percent difference TPC
total particulate carbon µg/L
microgram per liter USGS
U.S. Geological Survey
Analysis of Water Use Associated With Hydraulic Fracturing and Determination of Baseline Water Quality in Watersheds Within the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 By S. Alex Covert and G.F. Koltun Abstract The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, performed a two-part study to (1) assess water use and temporal trends and changes in streamflow, and to (2) characterize 2021-23 baseline water quality, as they relate to oil and gas extraction activi ties in selected eastern Ohio watersheds. Between calendar years 2010 and 2019, hydraulic fracturing water withdraw als totaling about 27,168 million gallons were reported at 643 locations in Ohio. In 2021, wells developed with hydrau lic fracturing were the source of most of the oil and gas produced in Ohio. Daily streamflow time-series data from seven study gages and two reference gages were used to assess temporal trends and changes in streamflow. The study gages were in basins with reported water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing. The reference gages, which have long periods of record and were subject to minimal streamflow regulation, were in nearby basins with no hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals. Trend slopes for the period of record annual minimum and median daily streamflows and for annual daily streamflow nonexceedance probabilities less than 0.9 were all uniformly positive at the study and reference gages. This trend indicates a consistently increasing pattern over the periods of record, except for high flows. In addition, analyses of annual stream flow statistics showed no general indication that low flows or extreme low flows at the reference or study gages have low ered, become more frequent, or lengthened in duration since 2010, when records for hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals began in Ohio. In fact, in almost all cases, the opposite was indicated. Nonexceedance percentiles of daily streamflows were compared between the full and pre-2012 periods of record for reference and study gages. The streamflows associated with nonexceedance percentiles in the lower quartile of daily streamflows determined for the full period of record were larger than or equal to those determined for the pre-2012 period of record for all study and reference gages. This indi cates that low flows did not decrease during the post-2011 period of record when water was withdrawn for hydraulic fracturing. Water-quality data were collected eight times at each of eight sampling sites (six of which were colocated with the study gages). Sampling was done during a variety of flow conditions to assess baseline water quality. In 2021, the 8 sam pling sites had drainage basins that were wholly or partially within 7 of the 10 most active counties in Ohio for oil and gas development. As part of the record of baseline conditions, water-quality data were used to assess (1) water types based on major-ion chemistry; (2) sources of salinity to streams; (3) exceedances of aquatic life use criteria; and (4) the correla tions between water chemistry and drainage-basin characteris tics, such as density of oil and gas wells, density of wastewater treatment plants, or the percentage of different types of land cover (agriculture, developed, forest). Seven of the water-quality sampling sites were desig nated as coal-mine impacted based on criteria developed for assessing mine-drainage impacts in Ohio. Mine drainage from historical coal mining in the region likely affected the quality of these streams and complicated the use of some constituents typically used as indicators of oil and gas influence. Based on major-ion chemistry, three main types of water were in the study area―sulfate (three sites), calcium-bicarbonate (one site), and mixed bicarbonate-chloride (four sites) type waters. One site had samples with a higher proportion of sodium and chloride ions than other stream samples, indicating potential contamination with oil-field brine or road salt. Binary mix ing curves revealed that 11 samples from 4 of the sampling sites likely contained a component of brine. The results of the baseline assessment of surface-water quality in the study area showed no exceedances of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency aquatic life use criteria. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients indicated no significant positive correlations with the density of vertical or horizontal oil and gas wells.
2 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Introduction Hydraulic fracturing is a process in which water, chemi cal additives, and proppants (solid materials used to keep hydraulic fractures open during or after the fracturing process) are injected under high pressure into wells completed in shale formations to create fractures that facilitate the release of natural gas and oils. About 30-50 percent of the injected water returns to the surface after the pressure is released (Gregory and others, 2011) and is called "flowback." Flowback water and brines that are naturally present in the shale are copro duced with the oil and gas throughout the lifetime of the well and are referred to as "production water." Production water contains elevated concentrations of major ions and trace ele ments leached from the shale formation, including calcium, magnesium, sodium, bicarbonate, sulfate, chloride, bromide, barium, iron, and strontium, when compared to natural surface waters. Flowback and produced water also contain elevated concentrations of total dissolved solids—sometimes exceeding 100,000 milligrams per liter—that, if accidentally released to streams, could potentially impair water quality, and detrimen tally affect aquatic life in surface waters (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency [OEPA], 2011; Pichtel, 2016). Crude oil production in Ohio increased more than 280 percent from 2012 to 2021, and natural gas production increased more than 2,500 percent (fig. 1). In 2021, the drain age basins for sites sampled to evaluate baseline water quality were wholly or partially contained within 7 of the 10 most active counties for oil and gas development (Belmont, Carroll, Guernsey, Harrison, Jefferson, Monroe, and Noble Counties; fig. 2; ODNR-OGRM, 2023b) in Ohio. In 2021, hydrau lic fracturing in those seven counties accounted for most of Ohio's oil and gas production with wells in the Utica Shale (Late Ordovician), Point Pleasant Limestone (Late Ordovician), and Marcellus Shale (Early Middle Devonian) accounting for 85.7 percent of oil production and 96.7 percent of natural gas production. Of all wells drilled in Ohio in 2021, about 90 percent targeted Utica Shale and Point Pleasant Limestone (ODNR-OGRM, 2023a). Streams and lakes have been the primary sources of water withdrawn for hydraulic fracturing in eastern Ohio where shale-gas extraction is most active (fig. 3). While it is undeniable that withdrawing water reduces streamflows or lake levels, more information was desired by state regulatory agencies and the public about the magnitude and importance of those withdrawals with respect to the amount of water present in the lakes or flowing in the streams. To help answer questions about potential effects of shale-gas development on surface-water quantity and quality, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, analyzed streamflow time-series data from nine streamgages and collected baseline (2021-23) water-quality data at eight stream sites. Baseline water-quality data help document current (2021-23) conditions and can be compared to future water-quality data to identify possible changes caused by shale-gas production or other activities, should they occur. Year 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 Natural gas production, in millions of cubic feet Crude oil production, in millions of barrels Figure 1. Line graph showing historically reported crude oil and gas production in Ohio, 2012-21. Data are from Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Oil & Gas Resources Management ODNR-OGRM, (2023a).
Introduction 3 ! ! ! ! ! ! O h o
Ri e r Mu s k n gum R e r S ti w ater r e e k W h e e n g
re ek Y e o w Cr e e k W a k a t o mik a
r e e k r e R oih O STARK WAYNE ATHENS NOBLE PERRY LICKING HOCKING VINTON BELMONT MUSKINGUM MONROE HOLMES GUERNSEY WASHINGTON MORGAN COSHOCTON CARROLL TUSCARAWAS KNOX HARRISON ASHLAND COLUMBIANA JEFFERSON MEIGS MAHONING SUMMIT CADIZ BARNESVILLE WHEELING WEST VIRGINIA OHIO 40°50' 40°30' 40°10' 39°50' 39°30' 39°10' 80°50' 81°10' 81°30' 81°50' 82°10' Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, variously scaled, North American Datum of 1983 Study area watersheds were delineated using StreamStats Ohio (USGS, 2019) Streamflow Watershed, by analysis Water quality Streamflow and water quality Municipality Road County boundary Study gage and identifier National Weather Service weather station in Wheeling, WV (USC00469482) EXPLANATION 20 MILES 20 KILOMETERS OH WV PA Map area Figure 2. Map showing study area consisting of 10 sites used in the analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23.
4 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 O h o
Ri e r Mu s k n gum R e r S ti w ater r e e k W h e e n g
re ek Y e o w Cr e e k W a k a t o mik a
r e e k Ohio River STARK WAYNE ATHENS NOBLE PERRY LICKING HOCKING VINTON BELMONT MUSKINGUM MONROE HOLMES GUERNSEY WASHINGTON MORGAN COSHOCTON CARROLL TUSCARAWAS KNOX HARRISON ASHLAND COLUMBIANA JEFFERSON MEIGS MAHONING SUMMIT CADIZ BARNESVILLE WHEELING WEST VIRGINIA OHIO 40°50' 40°30' 40°10' 39°50' 39°30' 39°10' 80°50' 81°10' 81°30' 81°50' 82°10' Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, variously scaled, North American Datum of 1983 Study area watersheds were delineated using StreamStats Ohio (USGS, 2019) Streamflow analysis watersheds Municipality Study gage and identifier EXPLANATION Producing Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, and Marcellus Shale well Injection well, active and plugged 20 MILES 20 KILOMETERS OH WV PA Map area Figure 3. Map showing density of horizontal oil and gas wells and waste injection wells within and around the study area of eastern Ohio, 2021-23.
Description of Study Area 5 Purpose and Scope This report describes methods and results of a two-part study designed to (1) assess water use and temporal trends and changes in streamflow, and to (2) characterize baseline water quality (2021-23) in eastern Ohio, as they relate to hydraulic fracturing and (or) other oil and gas extraction-related activi ties. Streamflow time-series data from eight gages were used to assess temporal trends and changes in streamflow. Waterquality data were collected at about 3-month intervals between 2021 and 2023 at eight sampling sites on streams near the eastern edge of Ohio where shale-gas drilling is particularly focused (fig. 2). Six of the sampling sites were colocated with gages whose streamflow data were used to assess temporal trends and changes in streamflow, and the other two sampling sites were colocated with other gages. Description of Study Area The study area is in the eastern half of the State and con sists of 10 drainage basins (covering 1,373 square miles) with predominantly forest (about 41-82 percent) and agricultural (about 11-48 percent) land cover (fig. 2; table 1). The study basins lie wholly or partially in Belmont, Carroll, Coshocton, Guernsey, Harrison, Jefferson, Monroe, Muskingum, Noble, and Washington Counties, counties with histories of coal min ing and vertical oil and gas drilling. These counties were some of the most active for oil and gas development in Ohio in 2021 (ODNR-OGRM, 2023b), giving watersheds in this area the potential to be affected by oil and gas drilling activities. The long-term (1988-2023) average annual precipitation was 39.1 inches at a weather station operated by the National Weather Service in Wheeling, W. Va. (USC00469482) located near the baseline water-quality study drainage basins (fig. 2; Midwestern Regional Climate Center, 2024). The baseline water quality was surveyed from June 2021 through March 2023. Annual precipitation totals during 2021-23 at station USC00469482 in Wheeling, W. Va. were 82.4, 91.3, and 110.5 percent of the long-term average (table 2). Coal Mining The study area lies within the Ohio coal region where more than 4 billion tons of coal have been extracted since 1800 (Wright, 2022). Lands associated with coal mines (active, remediated, and abandoned) are present in all eight drainage basins used to establish baseline water quality— although only about 0.2 percent of the Little Muskingum River (station 03115400) drainage basin contains lands associated with coal mines (fig. 4). In 2022, Belmont County was the second highest coal-producing county in Ohio (Wright, 2022). Mine drainage can increase specific conduc tance and concentrations of total dissolved solids, sulfate, iron, manganese, arsenic, aluminum, total carbon, and dis solved organic carbon in receiving streams and cause water quality in drainage basins to be impaired so that they do not support a normal assemblage of aquatic life (Helsel, 1983; Haefner and Simonson, 2010; Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Mineral Resources Management [ODNR-DMRM], 2016). Oil and Gas Drilling Oil and gas drilling has been active in Ohio for more than 150 years (Ohio Oil & Gas Association, 2013), most recently in the eastern one-third of the State. As of March 2023, there were approximately 3,794 vertical oil and gas wells and 438 horizontal oil and gas wells in the drainage basins used to establish baseline water quality (fig. 3). Most of the vertical wells were completed in the Ohio Shale (23.6 percent; Late Devonian), Gordon Sandstone (13.0 percent; Pennsylvanian), Berea Sandstone (10.0 percent; Late Devonian), Clinton Sandstone (3.7 percent; Early Silurian), and Clinton Group (3.2 percent; Early Silurian). Most of the horizontal wells were completed in the Point Pleasant Limestone (90.4 percent), Utica Shale (8.0 percent), and Marcellus Shale (1.6 percent; ODNR-OGRM, 2023b). Waste injection wells, depending on their type, can be used to dispose of hazardous and (or) nonhazardous fluids in deep underground porous geologic formations. Seven active and nine plugged waste injection wells are within the study basins used to establish baseline water quality—one active injection well each in the Stillwater Creek (sta tion 03125338) and Leatherwood Creek (station 03141870) drainage basins and three plugged injection wells in the Little Muskingum River (station 03115400) drainage basin. The Duck Creek (station 03115786) drainage basin contained the most injection wells—five active and six plugged (fig. 3; ODNR-OGRM, 2023b). In addition to oil-field fluids from Ohio, fluids disposed of in Ohio injection wells may originate from out of state. The ODNR-DMRM regulates the spreading of oil-field fluids on township roads for dust control in the State of Ohio. Within the eight drainage basins of the baseline water-quality sites, permits to spread oil-field fluids were issued during the study sampling period (2021-23) to two townships in Carroll County, two townships in Harrison County, two town ships in Monroe County, three townships in Noble County, and three townships in Washington County (Wendy Booth, ODNR-OGRM, written commun., 2023).
6 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 1. Site information for 11 sites used in analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing and determination of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Sites are listed in order from smallest to largest drainage area. Site types are defined as follows: F, streamflow data were collected from these sites as part of a water use associated with hydraulic fracturing assessment; QW, water-quality data were collected from these sites as part of a baseline water-quality assessment and contained shale-gas wells completed in the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale in their upstream drainage basins. ID, identification; USGS; U.S. Geological Survey; mi2, square mile; n.r., not reported because record was combined with station 03113990] Site ID (fig. 2) USGS station number Site name Shortened site name Site type Decimal latitude Decimal longitude Drainage area (mi2) Land cover type (percent) Devel oped Forest Agricul ture Mill Creek near Coshocton OH Mill Creek F1 40.362846 −81.862356 Stillwater Creek above Piedmont Lake OH Stillwater Creek QW 40.084167 −81.127222 Leatherwood Creek near Kipling OH Leatherwood Creek QW, F 39.990072 −81.495676 Wheeling Creek below Blaine OH Wheeling Creek QW, F 40.067016 −80.808420 Short Creek near Dillon vale OH Short Creek QW, F 40.193404 −80.734248 Captina Creek at S.R. 148 at Armstrongs Mills OH Captina Creek QW, F 39.906740 −80.935929 n.r. Captina Creek at Arm strongs Mills OH n.r. F 39.908684 −80.923984 — — — Wakatomika Creek near Frazeysburg OH Wakatomika Creek F1 40.119722 −82.136389 Yellow Creek near Ham mondsville OH Yellow Creek QW, F 40.537842 −80.725078 Little Muskingum River at Bloomfield OH Little Musk ingum River QW, F 39.563129 −81.203724 Duck Creek below Whipple OH Duck Creek QW 39.508889 −81.423056 1Reference sites for analysis of water use. Table 2. Monthly and annual total precipitation, in inches, during the baseline water-quality study period compared to long-term average monthly and annual precipitation at climate station USC00469482 in Wheeling, WV. [Data are from the Midwestern Regional Climate Center cli-MATE (application tools environment; 2024). Long-term average monthly and annual precipita tion is for the period of record (1988-2023). Blue shading indicates the time range of the baseline water-quality study, June 2021-March 2023. Gray shading indicates long-term average precipitation for the period of record. Jan., January; Feb., February; Mar., March; Apr., April, Aug., August; Sep., September; Oct., October; Nov., November; Dec., December; NA, not applicable] Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual Annual percentage of long-term average Long-term average NA
Description of Study Area 7 O h o
Ri e r Mu s k n gum R e r S ti w ater r e e k W h e e n g
re ek Y e o w Cr e e k W a k a t o mik a
r e e k Ohio River STARK WAYNE ATHENS NOBLE PERRY LICKING HOCKING VINTON BELMONT MUSKINGUM MONROE HOLMES GUERNSEY WASHINGTON MORGAN COSHOCTON CARROLL TUSCARAWAS KNOX HARRISON ASHLAND COLUMBIANA JEFFERSON MEIGS MAHONING SUMMIT CADIZ BARNESVILLE WHEELING WEST VIRGINIA OHIO 40°50' 40°30' 40°10' 39°50' 39°30' 39°10' 80°50' 81°10' 81°30' 81°50' 82°10' Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, variously scaled, North American Datum of 1983 Study area watersheds were delineated using StreamStats Ohio (USGS, 2019) Watershed Municipality Surface mine Underground mine Study gage and identifier EXPLANATION 20 MILES 20 KILOMETERS OH WV PA Map area Figure 4. Map showing lands associated with or affected by coal mines within and around the study area of eastern Ohio, 2021-23.
8 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Site Selection Daily mean streamflow data (hereafter referred to as "daily streamflow" data) from nine USGS streamgages (hereafter referred to as "gages") in eastern and east-central Ohio were used to assess temporal streamflow trends and changes (fig. 2; table 3). The gage on Captina Creek at Armstrongs Mills, OH (station 03114000, drainage area 134 square miles), was discontinued in 2003 and another gage (station 03113990, drainage area 127 square miles) was installed upstream later that same year. The records for the two gages on Captina Creek (stations 03113990 and 03114000) were merged into a single record intended to be representa tive of flows at station 03113990, effectively yielding eight gage records for analysis. Before merging the Captina Creek datasets, daily streamflows from station number 03114000 were multiplied by a simple drainage-area ratio for the two gages (127/134) to estimate streamflows from sta tion 03113990, referred to as Captina Creek at S.R. 148 at Armstrongs Mills OH. Six of the gages (collectively referred to as "study gages") have drainages that contain withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing reported to the ODNR-OGRM. Two of the streamgages, on Mill Creek (station 03140000) and Wakatomika Creek (station 03144000; referred to as "refer ence gages"), had no reported hydraulic fracturing withdraw als within their drainages (fig. 2; table 3). In addition to having no hydraulic fracturing withdrawals, the two reference gages were chosen because (a) their basins are close to the shale play area (the geological region in Ohio with promising potential for commercial extraction of oil and gas from its shale forma tions) that contains the drainage basins that had hydraulic fracturing withdrawals, (b) both had long (more than 84 years) streamflow records, and (c) their drainages contain no dams and have minimal streamflow regulation (Falcone, 2017). Eight sites were selected for baseline water-quality sam pling (fig. 2; table 1). The sampling sites, located on tributar ies to the Ohio River, were selected in part because they had vertical oil and gas wells and horizontally drilled Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale gas wells in their upstream drainage basins. The water-quality sampling sites were colocated with USGS gages that monitor stream flow and (or) stage. Six of the eight water-quality sampling sites were colocated with the same gages used to assess tem poral trends and changes in streamflow. Table 3. Site information for sites used in analysis of water use associated with hydraulic fracturing in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Sites are listed in order from smallest to largest drainage area. See table 1 for site specifics. Years of record determined by dividing the number of days with reported flows by 365.25. ID, identification; mi2, square mile; —, no value assigned; n.r., not reported because record was combined with station 03113990.] Site ID (fig. 2) USGS station number Begin date (mm/dd/yyyy) End date (mm/dd/yyyy) Years of record Sen's slope for climatic year minimum daily mean streamflow (median percent change per year) Sen's slope for water year median daily streamflow (median percent change per year) 103140000 11/1/1936 9/30/2021 10/1/2000 9/30/2021 12/1/1982 9/30/2021 10/1/1941 9/30/2021 310/1/1927 39/30/2021 — n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r. n.r. 103144000 10/1/1936 9/30/2021 10/1/1941 9/30/2021 10/1/1958 9/30/2021 1Reference site used for analysis of water use. 2Slope is statistically significant at a 5% level. 3Composite date for stations 03113990 and 03114000.
Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing 9 Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing As previously stated, about 30-50 percent of the water injected for hydraulic fracturing is returned to the surface as "flowback." In some cases, some of the returned fluids are recycled or reused (usually for further fracturing practices), but most of the returned fluids are disposed of by injecting them into deep geologic formations via wells that are specifi cally designed for that purpose (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2016). Chen and Carter (2016) reported that the percentages of recycled water used for hydraulic fractur ing in Ohio steadily decreased from 2011 to 2014, as did the percentage of wells put into production using recycled water. In Ohio, between calendar years 2010 and 2019, hydrau lic fracturing withdrawals were reported at 643 locations, based on hydraulic fracturing facility and water-use data pro vided by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Bradley Lodge, ODNR-Division of Water, written commun., 2022). Of those 643 locations, 366 (56.9 percent) were on streams, 205 (31.9 percent) were in reservoirs, 51 (7.93 percent) were in ponds, and 21 (3.27 percent) were from other sources such as municipal supplies. Hydraulic fracturing withdrawals totaled about 27,168 million gallons between calendar years 2010 (the first year with reported withdrawals) and 2019. That is the equiva lent volume of a rectangular column that has a base the size of an American football field including end zones (360 feet by 160 feet or 57,600 square feet) and a height of about 11.94 miles (for comparison, commercial aircraft fly at heights of about 5-7 miles). Annual hydraulic fracturing withdrawals in Ohio did not exceed 100 million gallons until 2012 (fig. 5). Consequently, the 2012 date will be treated as a potential change point when assessing trends in streamflow. Hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus Shale and Utica Shale (like those present in eastern Ohio) are associ ated with some of the highest average water uses nationally (Gallegos and others, 2015). Between 2010 and 2019, annual withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio peaked at about 5,755 million gallons in 2017 and then decreased to about 4,371 million gallons in 2019. Between 2012 (when annual withdrawals first exceeded 100 million gallons) and 2019, average withdrawals by calendar month ranged from about 226 to 349 million gallons (fig. 6). On average, water use for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio was highest during April and May and lowest during January and December. The national average per capita domestic water use (includes indoor and outdoor uses at residences for things such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, watering lawns and gardens, and maintaining pools) in 2015 was about 82 gallons per day (Dieter and others, 2018). Consequently, 1 million gallons of water would supply about 12,195 person-days of water, or, 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 Water use, in million gallons Calendar year 1,354 3,957 3,349 2,890 5,755 4,737 4,371 Figure 5. Bar graph showing annual water use for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio during calendar years 2010-19. Data are from Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Bradley Lodge, ODNR-Division of Water, written commun., 2022).
10 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Monthly average water use 2012-19, in million gallons Calendar month Figure 6. Bar graph showing monthly average water use for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio during calendar years 2012-19. Data are from Ohio Department of Natural Resources (Bradley Lodge, ODNR-Division of Water, written commun., 2022). in other words, it would provide the water used by a single person for a little less than 33.4 years. At the peak of hydrau lic fracturing water use in Ohio (in 2017), the annual amount of water withdrawn for hydraulic fracturing (5,755 million gallons) could have supplied the average water used by a single person for over 192,150 years or supplied a small town, like St. Clairsville, Ohio, for over 38 years (based on the July 1, 2021, U.S. Census estimated population of 5,048 [U.S. Census Bureau, 2022]). To provide additional context, the city of St. Clairsville lies within the Wheeling Creek drainage basin where one of the study gages (station num ber 03111548) is located (fig. 2, site 4). The average stream flow at that gage in calendar year 2017 was 114 cubic feet per second (equal to about 26,893 million gallons per year), which coincidentally also happened to be the average streamflow for the period of record at the gage through the 2021 water year. So, the total amount of water use reported for hydraulic frac turing in all of Ohio in calendar year 2017 constituted only a little more than 20 percent of water passing that single study gage. Although the amount of water used for hydraulic fractur ing was substantial, it still represented a small fraction of the water discharged in streams. Streamflow Trend and Change Methods of Analysis The "Exploration and Graphics for RivEr Trends" (EGRET) package (Hirsch and De Cicco, 2015) provides a variety of tabular and graphical outputs that can be used to evaluate whether selected streamflow characteristics are changing over time. EGRET analyses of long-term changes in streamflow characteristics are based on time-series smooth ing methods pioneered by Cleveland (1979) and Cleveland and Devlin (1988). EGRET performs Locally WEighted Scatterplot Smoothing (lowess) on annual streamflow statistics (relevant to low, high, and mean flows) to produce plots that show patterns of change over time spans of about a decade or more. Lowess is a nonparametric method that can deter mine the coordinates of a smooth line (hereafter referred to as a "lowess smooth") representing the central tendency of the relation between dependent and independent variables. Plotting the lowess smooth along with the annual data makes it easier to visualize how the dependent and independent vari ables covary. When the independent variable is time, the low ess smooth shows the central tendency of how the dependent variable has changed over time. A detailed description of the smoothing method can be found in Hirsch and others (2010).
Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing 11 Mann-Kendall tests (Mann, 1945) were used in some cases to assess temporal trend. The Mann-Kendall test makes no assumption about the shape of the trend (for example, whether it is linear or nonlinear) but, instead, tests whether values tend to increase or decrease overall. The null hypoth esis for the Mann-Kendall test is that there is no trend in the series. Unless stated otherwise, all tests of statistical signifi cance described in this report are based on a significance level (alpha value) of 0.05. Sen's slope (the median of the slopes of all lines through all pairs of points) was computed to deter mine the median linear rate of change in the natural logarithms of annual streamflow statistics (Sen, 1968). Quantile-Kendall plots were prepared for each study gage using the EGRET framework and methods described by Hirsch (2018). In a quantile-Kendall plot, daily stream flow nonexceedance probability is plotted versus the trend slope for streamflows associated with those probabilities. The trend slope is determined with Sen's slope (Sen, 1968) and expressed in percent change per year. Larger nonexceed ance probabilities are associated with larger streamflows and smaller nonexceedance probabilities are associated with smaller streamflows. Each point in the Quantile-Kendall plot is color coded according to the p-value for a test of the null hypothesis that the trend slope is zero. Points plotted in red indicate a statistically significant likelihood that streamflows at those nonexceedance probabilities have nonzero trend slopes. The Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) software, version 7.1 (Nature Conservancy, 2009), was used to compute 67 potentially ecologically relevant statistical parameters from the USGS daily streamflow time series for study and refer ence gages. The IHA statistical parameters provide informa tion on high, low, and median flow characteristics. This study focused on the potential impact of water use for development of hydraulic fracturing wells; therefore, only statistics related to low flows were examined because that is where the impact of water withdrawal would be most likely to be observed. The statistics examined include the following: magnitude of annual 1- and 7-day average mini mum flows; frequency and duration of annual low-flow pulses; magnitude, frequency, and duration of extreme low flows during each water year; and the annual number of zero-flow days. The classification of daily streamflow data into differ ent flow categories was based on nonparametric criteria. The IHA software makes three passes through the daily streamflow data for each gage to assign each day to a flow class. During the first pass, each day was initially classified as a low or high flow. During the second pass, all days that were initially clas sified as high flows were reclassified as either a small flood, large flood, or high-flow pulse. During the third pass, some of the initial low-flow days were reclassified as extreme low flows. Flows that exceeded the 75th percentile of the daily flows for the period were classified as high flows. All flows below that level initially were classified as low flows; how ever, low flows were subsequently reclassified as extreme low flows if they were less than the 10th percentile of daily flows. High-flow pulses were defined as contiguous periods when the daily flow was greater than or equal to 75 percent of the flow values and low-flow pulses were defined as contiguous periods when the daily flow was less than or equal to 25 percent of the flow values. A screen capture of the Environmental Flow Component selections used in the IHA analyses is shown in figure 7. For more detail on the classification process, see the IHA user's manual (Nature Conservancy, 2009). The gages whose streamflow records were ana lyzed (including Captina Creek [station 03113990] where records from two gages were merged) had between 21 and 85 equivalent years of observed flows (table 3, determined by dividing the number of reported daily flows divided by 365.25 days/year) and averaged about 68.7 years. The IHA user's manual (Nature Conservancy, 2009) suggests 20 years of record as a baseline requirement for the amount of data needed for an IHA analysis; however, it states that more years of record may be needed depending on the (1) degree of cli mate variability, (2) the frequency of occurrence or variability of the particular parameter, (3) the severity of the hydrologic alteration that you are trying to detect, (4) and whether the goal is to characterize the central tendency or range of interan nual variability. R language (R Core Team, 2017) scripts were developed to process outputs from the IHA analyses and create timeseries plots with lowess smooths overlaid on the annual IHA statistics. The lowess smooths were used to assess temporal trends in the IHA statistical parameters. In particular, the lowess smooths were examined to see whether there was an observable change in slope of the smoothed line around 2012 when annual hydraulic fracturing water use in Ohio first exceeded 100 million gallons. If withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing began to appreciably affect flows around 2012, one might expect the annual 1- and 7-day minimum flows and the median of extreme low-flow period minimums to show indica tions of decline beginning around 2012. Also, metrics describ ing the frequency and duration of low-flow pulses and extreme low-flow periods might increase (indicating more frequent and (or) longer low-flow pulses and extreme low-flow periods) because of the withdrawals. The daily streamflow records for each gage were also analyzed to determine daily flows associated with selected daily nonexceedance probabilities (that is, the probabilities that selected flows are not exceeded) in each water year. In the absence of persistent streamflow-altering factors such as climate change or changes in regulation, if withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing started to appreciably reduce streamflows beginning around water year 2012, then streamflows associ ated with at least some nonexceedance percentiles should decrease. In that case, points in a scatterplot of streamflows versus nonexceedance percentiles computed for the entire period of record should plot on or below points computed using only data from the period before water year 2012.
12 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Figure 7. Screen capture of Environmental Flow Component settings used for the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration analyses (Nature Conservancy, 2009). Streamflow Trend and Change Results The sections "Trends in Annual Minimum and Median Daily Streamflows and Annual Daily Streamflow Nonexceedance Probabilities," "Temporal Trends in Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) Statistics" and "Changes in Nonexceedance Percentiles of Daily Streamflows" describe results from analyses designed to assess temporal trends in a variety of streamflow characteristics. EGRET analyses provided information on trends in climatic-year (April 1- March 31, designated by the beginning year) minimum daily streamflows, water-year (October 1-September 30, designated by the ending year) median daily streamflows, and flows over a range of nonexceedance probabilities. Analyses of statis tics determined with the IHA software program provided information on temporal trends in the magnitude, frequency, and duration of a variety of low-flow characteristics. Finally, analyses of nonexceedance percentiles of daily streamflows provided information about the relative magnitude of flows in the lower quartile of daily streamflows before and after annual hydraulic fracturing water use in Ohio first exceeded 100 mil lion gallons. Trends in Annual Minimum and Median Daily Streamflows and Annual Daily Streamflow Nonexceedance Probabilities Sen's slopes of the period of record climatic-year annual minimum daily streamflows and water year median daily streamflows were positive for all reference and study gages (table 3); however, the slopes were not statistically different than zero for some gages. Figures 8 and 9 show examples of trend plots for a study gage and a reference gage, respectively. The Sen's slope value was statistically significant for the data shown in figure 8 but not in figure 9. Irrespective of statisti cal significance, the uniformly positive Sen's slopes for the study and reference gages indicate a consistent tendency for low and median flows to have increased over the periods of record. Quantile-Kendall plots showed positive trend slopes for flows with nonexceedance probabilities of 0.90 and less for all reference and study gages (see figures 10 and 11 for example). While trend slopes were not statistically significant for all nonexceedance probabilities, these results indicate a consistent pattern for all but high flows to have increased over the periods of record at both the study and reference gages.
Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing 13 Climatic year Annual minimum daily flow, in cubic feet per second EXPLANATION Lowess smooth Annual value Figure 8. Scatterplot of annual minimum daily mean streamflow by climatic year for Yellow Creek near Hammondsville, Ohio—03110000. Climatic year Annual minimum daily flow, in cubic feet per second EXPLANATION Lowess smooth Annual value Figure 9. Scatterplot of annual minimum daily mean streamflow by climatic year for Wakatomika Creek near Frazeysburg, Ohio—03144000.
14 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Nonexceedance probability of daily mean streamflows Trend slope, in percentage of change per year −0.5 EXPLANATION
P-value 0.05-0.1 Figure 10. Quantile-Kendall plot for Yellow Creek near Hammondsville, Ohio—03110000. Nonexceedance probability of daily mean streamflows Trend slope, in percentage of change per year −0.4 −0.2 EXPLANATION P-value 0.05-0.1 Figure 11. Quantile-Kendall plot for Wakatomika Creek near Frazeysburg, Ohio—03144000.
Water Used for Hydraulic Fracturing 15 Temporal Trends in Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) Statistics With one exception (Little Muskingum River [sta tion 03115400]), the slopes of lowess smooths fit to the annual 1-day and 7-day average minimum flows at all the study gages were positive since about water year 2010 (the first water year with reported hydraulic fracturing withdrawals). The exception, the Little Muskingum River (station 03115400), had a negative slope that may be an artifact of a couple of uncharacteristically high flows in the early to mid-2000s and a 13-year gap in the record between water years 1982 and 1996. In addition, the slopes of the lowess smooths fit to the annual number of low-flow pulses since 2010 were near zero or nega tive at four study gages (indicating no change or decreasing numbers of low-flow pulses) and positive (indicating increas ing numbers of low-flow pulses) at two study gages. At the reference gages, the slopes of the lowess smooths fit to the annual number of low-flow pulses since 2010 were positive at one gage and negative at the other. Annual IHA flow statistics and R scripts to produce plots (41 per gage) showing trends in selected annual IHA statistics for all the study and refer ence gages are available in the accompanying data release (Koltun, 2024). With only one exception (Leatherwood Creek [sta tion 03141870]), the slopes of the lowess curves fit to the annual median low-flow pulse durations (in days) were negative since 2010, indicating generally decreasing lowflow pulse durations at the study and reference gages. The Leatherwood Creek (station 03141870) study gage had a positive slope; however, the indication of increasing low-flow pulse duration was weak (based on inspection of the vari ability of annual median low-flow pulse duration values in combination with the lowess smooth line). For five of the six study gages and both reference gages, the slopes of lowess smooths fit to the annual median of extreme low-flow period minimum flows were positive between 2010 and 2021 (indicating increasing flows associ ated with extreme low-flow period minimums). The slope of the lowess smooth for Captina Creek (station 03113990) was negative for the same period, indicating extreme low-flow period minimums were decreasing; however, it is notable that the portion of the lowess smooth from 2010 to 2021 still plotted higher than most of the lowess smooth before 2010. Even though there were indications that extreme low-flow period minimums were decreasing at Captina Creek (sta tion 03113990) between 2010 and 2021, they still tended to be higher than during most of its earlier record. Also, of note for Captina Creek (station 03113990) is the positive slope in the lowess smooth for the median day of the year associated with the extreme low-flow period minimums. The positive slope suggests that minimum flow periods at Captina Creek (station 03113990) have been gradually shifting to later in the calendar year. The slopes of the lowess curves fit to the annual number of extreme low-flow periods between 2010 and 2021 were negative (indicating decreasing numbers of extreme lowflow periods) for all reference and study gages. None of the gages experienced zero-flow days during that same period. Changes in Nonexceedance Percentiles of Daily Streamflows The percentage of daily streamflows that did not exceed a given streamflow magnitude is referred to as its nonexceed ance percentile. Nonexceedance percentiles were computed for the reference and study gages for two time periods. The first time period was computed based on the record through water year 2011 (referred to as the "pre-2012 period"), before annual withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing exceed 100 mil lion gallons in Ohio. The second time period was based on the entire period of record through water year 2021 (referred to as the "full period"). Scatterplots of nonexceedance percentiles less than or equal to 25 percent (the lower quartile of daily streamflows) versus streamflow were prepared for each gage record for both the pre-2012 and full periods. The streamflows associated with each nonexceedance percentile determined for the full period of record plotted at or, more commonly, above those determined for pre-2012 period for all study and refer ence gages (for examples, see figures 12 and 13). If low flows decreased (relative to the pre-2012 period) in the post-2011 period when withdrawals were being made for hydraulic fracturing, the percentage of observations that did not exceed a given low-flow value would increase when the two periods were combined. In fact, the opposite was observed, indicating that low flows did not decrease during the post-2011 period.
16 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 −1 0 Nonexceedance percentile Streamflow, in cubic feet per second Full record Full record Pre-2012 record EXPLANATION Figure 12. Scatterplot of full and pre-2012 period streamflows versus nonexceedance probabilities for Wheeling Creek below Blaine, Ohio—03111548. Baseline Water Quality Previous Studies The study area has an extensive history of coal, oil, and gas production and subsequently, several waterquality studies have been done in eastern Ohio (Pfaff and others, 1981; Engelke and others, 1981; Helsel, 1983; Jones, 1988; Sedam, 1991; Sedam and Francy, 1993; ODNR-DMRM, 2016; OEPA, 2017). More recently, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Muskingum Watershed Conservancy District, did a study to assess base line (2015-16) surface-water quality at 30 surface-water sites within the Muskingum River watershed that were in the early years of shale-gas development (Covert and others, 2018). Sampling Methods and Laboratory Analysis Water-quality data were collected eight times at each of eight sites from June 2021 through March 2023. Sampling was done during a variety of flow conditions and included field parameters and major ions, trace elements, and nutrients (table 4). When sites were fully wadable, multiple vertical, depth-integrated, isokinetic samples were collected with a DH-81 sampler using an equal-width-increment method described in the USGS National Field Manual (USGS, vari ously dated). When sites were not fully wadable, multiple ver tical, depth-integrated, isokinetic samples were collected from one or more points in the wadable portion of the stream or, if available, from a nearby bridge. Samples from the multiple verticals were composited in a churn splitter and then pro cessed using standard USGS methods (USGS, variously dated; Wilde and others, variously dated). All samples were analyzed for turbidity, total dissolved solids, major ions, trace ele ments, nutrients, and dissolved organic carbon (table 4). Field measurements of water temperature, specific conductance,
Baseline Water Quality 17 −1 0 Nonexceedance percentile Streamflow, in cubic feet per second Full record Full record Pre-2012 record EXPLANATION Figure 13. Scatterplot of full and pre-2012 period streamflows versus nonexceedance probabilities for Mill Creek near Coshocton, Ohio—03140000. dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and alkalinity were made onsite according to standard protocols (USGS, variously dated). Water temperature, specific conductance, pH, and dis solved oxygen were measured using YSI data sondes, and the reported value of each parameter was the median of at least three readings taken across the stream cross section. Sulfide concentration was measured in the field with a Hach DR2000 spectrophotometer by use of the methylene blue method (Hach Company, 1989) for grab samples collected in the thalweg. Turbidity was measured in the field using a portable Hach 2100P turbidimeter on a subsample of the unfiltered, composited sample (obtained from churn splitter). Alkalinity was measured in the field using a Beckman 250 pH meter on a subsample of the unfiltered, composited sample (obtained from churn splitter). Analyses for total dissolved solids, major ions, trace elements, nutrients, and dissolved organic carbon were done at the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in Denver, Colorado. Analytical methods are listed in table 4. The terms "detection limits," "reporting levels," and "censored values" are often used in discussions of chemical concentrations. The detection limit is traditionally defined as the lowest concentration (or amount) of an analyte that can be measured and reported with 99 percent confidence that the analyte concentration is higher than zero (Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, 2018). The reporting level is the lowest measured concentration that may be reliably measured and is statistically determined (USGS-NWQL, 2015). Censored values are values less than the reporting level and are reported using a less-than sign in front of the reporting level value. The analytical results are available online from the USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) database (USGS, 2023a). USGS station numbers (table 1) and param eter codes (table 4) are needed to retrieve these data.
18 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 4. Constituents and properties, reporting levels, and analytical methods used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [NA, not applicable; ft3/s, cubic foot per second; °C, degrees Celsius; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; ICP-AES, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy; μg/L, microgram per liter; S2-, sulfide; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; GCM, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry] Constituent or property Parameter code1 Filtering status Reporting level Unit Analytical method Streamflow NA NA ft3/s USGS TWRI 3-A10.2 Temperature, water NA NA °C Calibrated thermometer.3 Specific conductance, field NA NA μS/cm at 25 °C Temperature-compensated conductivity instrument and sensor.3 Dissolved oxygen, field NA NA mg/L Amperometric method, using a temperature-compensated meter with a polar-graphic membrane-type sensor.3 pH, field Unfiltered NA Standard units pH meter and electrode.3 Turbidity Unfiltered NA NTRU EPA method 180.14 Total dissolved solids, residue at 180 °C Filtered mg/L Residue on evaporation at 180 °C, gravimetric; USGS method I-1750-89.5 Alkalinity, field Filtered mg/L CaCO3 Inflection point titration method.3 Carbonate, field Filtered mg/L Inflection point titration method.3 Bicarbonate, field Filtered mg/L Inflection point titration method.3 Calcium Filtered mg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Magnesium Filtered mg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Sodium Filtered mg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Potassium Filtered mg/L ICP-AES; Method 3120.6 Bromide Filtered mg/L USGS method I-2057-85; ion chromatography.5 Chloride Filtered mg/L USGS method I-2057-85; ion chromatography.5 Total sulfide7 Unfiltered mg/L S2- Field spectrophotometer; Hach method 8131; Equivalent to EPA Method 376.2 and Standard Method 4500- S2-D for wastewater.8 Sulfate Filtered mg/L USGS method I-2057-85; ion chromatography.5 Fluoride Filtered mg/L USGS method I-2057-85; ion chromatography.5 Silica Filtered mg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Aluminum Filtered μg/L USGS method I-2020-05; ICP-MS.9 Arsenic Filtered μg/L USGS method I-2020-05; ICP-MS.9 Barium Filtered μg/L USGS method I-2020-05; ICP-MS.9 Boron Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-95; ICP-AES.10 Iron Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Lithium Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Manganese Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Strontium Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Zinc Filtered μg/L USGS method I-1472-87; ICP-AES.6 Ammonia Filtered mg/L as N Colorimetry; USGS method I-2525-89 and I-2522-90.6 Nitrate plus nitrite Filtered mg/L as N Colorimetry; USGS method I-2547-11.11 Orthophosphate Filtered mg/L as P Colorimetry; USGS methods I-2601-90 and I-2606-89.6 Total particulate nitrogen Suspended mg/L EPA method 440.0.12 Total phosphorus Unfiltered mg/L as P Colorimetry; EPA method 365.1.13 Total dissolved nitrogen Filtered mg/L Alkaline persulfate digestion; USGS method I-2650-03.14 Total particulate carbon Suspended mg/L EPA method 440.0.12
Baseline Water Quality 19 Table 4. Constituents and properties, reporting levels, and analytical methods used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23.—Continued [NA, not applicable; ft3/s, cubic foot per second; °C, degrees Celsius; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; ICP-AES, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy; μg/L, microgram per liter; S2-, sulfide; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; GCM, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry] Constituent or property Parameter code1 Filtering status Reporting level Unit Analytical method Dissolved organic carbon Filtered mg/L USGS method O-1122-92; UV-promoted persulfate oxidation and infrared spectrometry.15 1Parameter codes are used to identify the constituent and units of measure in the USGS National Water Information System—Web Interface. Some parameter code definitions include information about the methods used to measure the constituent. 2Data are from Kennedy (1984). 3Data are from Wilde and others (variously dated). 4Data are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993a). 5Data are from Fishman and Friedman (1989). 6Data are from Fishman (1993). 7United States Environmental Protection Agency Methylene Blue Method 8Data are from Standard Methods Online (2021). 9Data are from Garbarino and others (2005). 10Data are from Struzeski and others (1996). 11Data are from Patton and Kryskalla (2011). 12Data are from Zimmerman and others (1997). 13Data are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993b). 14Data are from Patton and Kryskalla (2003). 15Data are from Brenton and Arnett (1993). Lands associated with surface and underground coal mines.—Four data classes were merged to calculate the percentage of lands associated with surface coal mines for each site's drainage basin: (1) Surface Industrial Minerals (IM) Mine Operations, (2) Surface Mines, (3) Surface Coal Mine Operations, and (4) Disturbed Reclamation Land. Two data classes were merged to calculate the percentage of lands associated with underground coal mines for each site's drainage basin: (1) Underground Mine Extents and (2) Abandoned Underground Mines (ODNR-DMRM, 2023). Active and plugged waste injection wells.—Specific well types within the oil and gas database were compiled to represent only active and plugged injection wells. Plugged injection well types included (1) MapSymble pl_injection and (2) WL_STATUS FR or PA. Active injection well types included (1) MapSymble injection and (2) WL_STATUS AI (ODNR- OGRM, 2023b). Wastewater treatment plants.—Specific records within the NPDES database were compiled to represent wastewater treatment plants. Permits included (1) FACILITY_N %WWTP% (OEPA, 2023). Geospatial data were obtained and compiled using a Geospatial Analyses geographic information system (GIS; ArcMap [Esri, 2023]) to assess potential relations between geospatial characteristics and water quality. Drainage basin boundaries for the sampling sites were delineated using StreamStats—a USGS, GIS-based web application (USGS, 2019). The drainage basins were used to aggregate and summarize land cover data and other characteristics within each sampling site's upstream drainage basin. Summary geospatial data were divided by the drain age area of the site—producing a number per square mile—to better facilitate comparisons among sites with different sized drainage areas. The following geospatial data types, sources, and trans formations were used in analysis of: Oil and gas wells (both vertical and horizontal).— Specific well types within the oil and gas database were compiled to represent only producing oil and gas wells (rather than dry holes or plugged wells). These well types included MapSymble=(1) gas, (2) gas show (meaning some gas), (3) gas with oil show, (4) gas and oil show, (5) oil, (6) oil and gas, (7) oil show, and (8) oil with gas show. Selected only records with WL_ STATUS PR, WELL_TYP OG_R, and DT_STA TUS 3/16/2023 (ODNR-OGRM, 2023b).
20 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Land cover, including forest, agriculture, and devel oped.—Specific land cover classes within the 2021 NLCD data were compiled so that (1) forest included 41, 42, 43, 52 classes; (2) developed included 21, 22, 23, 24 classes; and (3) agriculture included 81 and 82 classes (Dewitz, 2023). Township, Municipal, County, State, and Federal roads.—Specific road types within the ODOT road inventory were compiled so that ROUTE_TYPE CR, SR, TR, MR, or US (Ohio Department of Transportation, 2023). Townships with permits to spread brine.—The follow ing townships are in Carroll County: Lee, Loudon; Harrison County: Cadiz, German; in Monroe County: Bethel, Malaga; in Noble County: Jackson, Noble, Olive; Washington: Aurelius, Fearing, Salem (Wendy Booth, ODNR-OGRM, written commun., 2023). Statistical Analyses Descriptive and summary statistics for censored data (those with values less than the reporting level) and uncensored data were computed in Statistical Analysis System (SAS) JMP version 14.3.0 statistical and graph ing software (SAS Institute, Inc., 2023). Censored-style boxplots were created using a USGS-developed function (boxPlot.lcens/smwrQW) in RStudio software package (RStudio, Inc., 2023) to compare the range, median, and outliers of the water-chemistry data. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test (Wilcoxon, 1945) was used to test differences among median constituent concentrations in samples with a brine component versus samples containing no brine. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (Spearman, 1904) were used to identify correlations between water chemistry and drainagebasin characteristics that could affect water quality. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient is a nonparametric test that measures the strength and direction of monotonic associa tion between two variables. The Spearman's rank correlation coefficient is computed on the ranks of the data values instead of on the values themselves. All concentrations less than the reporting level for a constituent were assigned a single value that was less than all reported concentrations, so that ranks of values less than the reporting level were tied, yet less than the rank for the lowest measured concentration. The strength of the relation is denoted by the Greek letter rho—the closer rho is to +1 or −1, the stronger the association. Positive values of rho signify a positive correlation and negative values of rho signifies a negative correlation. For purposes of this report, the strength of the correlation between two properties or constituents is defined as follows, based on the absolute value of rho: very strong correlation 0.80-1.0; strong correlation 0.60-0.79; moderate correlation 0.40-0.59; and weak correla tion 0.20-0.39. Quality-Control Results Quality-control (QC) samples collected during sampling consisted of blanks and replicates. Blank samples were used to check for contamination potentially introduced during sample collection, processing, equipment cleaning, or analysis. Replicate samples were used to determine the reproducibility or variability in the collection and analysis of environmental samples. All QC samples were collected and processed accord ing to protocols described in the "National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data" (USGS, variously dated). More detailed QC information is in appendix 1. To ensure sample integrity and final quality of data, QC samples (one equipment blank, three field blanks, and five replicate samples) were collected for all constituents except those measured or analyzed in the field (alkalinity, bicarbon ate, carbonate, dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, sulfide, turbidity, and water temperature) and sent to the National Water Quality Laboratory (Covert, 2024). Data Treatment Based on Quality-Control Results Sampling and analytical variability were evaluated using replicate analyses. When analysis of water-quality data identified statistically significant differences between samples containing a component of brine versus samples without a brine component, the authors assessed whether the observed difference in median concentrations between groups was higher than the maximum difference in concentration between QC replicate pair samples. There were no instances of differ ences being the result of sampling and analytical variability rather than actual environmental differences between groups. Baseline Water-Quality Results This report documents the occurrences and concentra tions of a suite of constituents measured between June 2021 and March 2023. Many of the measured constituents have been found to be present at elevated concentrations in sedi ment associated with construction of well pads, in flowback and produced waters associated with oil and gas development, or in coal-mine drainage. As part of the record of baseline conditions, water-quality data were used to assess (1) water types based on major-ion chemistry; (2) sources of salinity to streams; (3) the potential for stream water to adversely affect aquatic life; and (4) the relation between water chemistry and drainage-basin characteristics. Summary statistics are presented for physical water-quality properties and chemi cal analyses for streams (table 5). Complete analytical results are available online from the USGS NWISWeb database (USGS, 2023a).
Baseline Water-Quality Results 21 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a). [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Stillwater Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C 1,320 1,530 Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L 1,020 1,220 Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L
Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L 1,320 1,640 Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
22 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Leatherwood Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
Baseline Water-Quality Results 23 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Wheeling Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C 1,330 1,540 1,890 Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L 1,020 1,170 1,560 Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L
Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L 2,040 2,340 3,120 Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
24 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Short Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C 1,080 1,430 1,560 Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L 1,130 1,260 Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L
Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L 1,220 1,740 1,980 Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
Baseline Water-Quality Results 25 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Captina Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L
Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
26 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Yellow Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
Baseline Water-Quality Results 27 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Little Muskingum River Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
28 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum Duck Creek Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L
Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
Baseline Water-Quality Results 29 Table 5. Minimum, median, and maximum concentrations or levels of constituents and properties in streams used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (USGS, 2023a).—Continued [°C, degree Celsius; µS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; mg/L, milligram per liter; NTRU, nephelometric turbidity ratio unit; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; µg/L, microgram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; less than] Constituent or property Minimum Median Maximum All sites Temperature, water, °C Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C 1,890 Dissolved oxygen, mg/L pH, standard units Turbidity, NTRU Total dissolved solids, dry, at 180 °C, mg/L 1,560 Alkalinity, mg/L CaCO3 Carbonate, mg/L Bicarbonate, mg/L Calcium, mg/L Magnesium, mg/L Sodium, mg/L Potassium, mg/L Bromide, mg/L Chloride, mg/L Total sulfide, mg/L Sulfate, mg/L Fluoride, mg/L Silica, mg/L Aluminum, μg/L
Arsenic, μg/L Barium, μg/L Boron, μg/L Iron, μg/L
Lithium, μg/L Manganese, μg/L Strontium, μg/L 3,120 Zinc, μg/L
Ammonia, mg/L as N Nitrate plus nitrite, mg/L as N Orthophosphate, mg/L as P Total particulate nitrogen, suspended, mg/L Total phosphorus, mg/L as P Total dissolved nitrogen, mg/L Total particulate carbon, suspended, mg/L Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L
30 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 The distributions of water-quality sampling results at each sampling site were visually compared by use of boxplots (app. 2, figures 2.1A—2.1KK). Median flows were determined by using 15−minute instantaneous streamflows at the sam pling sites for the entire study period (6/23/2021-3/16/2023). Evaluation of the boxplots indicated that higher-than-median concentrations or levels of several constituents and proper ties generally occurred in samples collected during less-thanmedian streamflows (denoted by black dots on boxplots) at most of the sites, as listed in table 6. Constituents and proper ties that were generally observed at higher values in samples collected during higher-than-median streamflows (denoted by blue dots on boxplots) include those typically associated with runoff—turbidity, aluminum, zinc, and nitrate plus nitrite (table 6). Hydrologic Conditions Captured by Sampling Events To characterize water chemistry over a range of sea sons and hydrologic conditions, a total of eight samples were collected at about 3-month intervals at each of eight water-quality sampling sites. The variation in hydrologic conditions that was captured by the sampling was assessed by creating boxplots showing the distribution of the 15-minute instantaneous streamflows (or gage heights) at the sampling sites for the entire study period (6/23/2021-3/16/2023) and overlaying them with points representing the streamflows (or gage heights) at the times of sampling (fig. 14). Continuous streamflow was not determined at Stillwater Creek (sta tion 03125338) during the study period, so its sampled varia tion is shown using gage heights in figure 14. Streamflows (and gage heights for Stillwater Creek [station 03125338]) at the times of sampling were distributed throughout the box rep resenting the interquartile range (the range containing 50 per cent of the observed instantaneous values), and frequently extended a little above and below the interquartile range. That indicates that although sampling did not capture the extremes in flow (both high and low), it did capture a wide range of flows, typically including one or more streamflows in the first and fourth quartile of streamflows that occurred during the sampling period. Water Types Based on Major Ions Patterns in major-ion composition at eight sampling sites were examined by constructing trilinear diagrams (fig. 15). This type of diagram uses the relative percentages of major cations and anions to classify water types (Hem, 1985). The study samples were plotted with two other sources of water (oil and gas brines and samples affected by road salt) to provide context. Data for brines originating from verti cal (58 brine samples from Blondes and others, 2018) and horizontal (2 Marcellus Shale brines [AppMSB16-17] and 20 Utica Shale brines [AppMSB36-55] from Blondes and others, 2020) oil- and gas-drilling activities in Ohio and Pennsylvania (hereafter referred to as "oil and gas brines") were plotted on the trilinear diagram as points of refer ence, as were results for water samples affected by road salt. Horizontal well brines did not have bicarbonate values, but, typically, because of the high concentrations of chloride in brines, the relative percentage makeup of chloride compared to bicarbonate for total anions is enough to mask most bicar bonate value differences where brine samples are plotted. To put this in perspective, all but one of the vertical brines had bicarbonate percentages of 0.001 to 0.3 (not including the maximum value of 4.4 percent). For the purposes of this study, it was acceptable to use the horizontal brine data (without bicarbonate values) that plot in the middle of the linear pattern of oil and gas brines (indicated as grey squares) in the upper diamond graph of figure 15. The water samples affected by road salt included a sample of road salt runoff from beneath a bridge in Western Springs, Illinois (sample RS-2 in table 2 of Panno and others [2005]) and samples of groundwater collected from monitoring wells at a salt-storage facility in Valparaiso, Indiana (wells TW-2, TW-94D, TW-94E, MW-3, MW-4, MW-5, and MW-7 in table 1 of Risch and Robinson [2000]). The samples that plot close to the oil and gas brines or road salt-affected samples have a higher proportion of sodium and chloride ions than other stream samples and might contain a component of road salt or oil-field brine. The trilinear diagrams showed that samples from Short Creek (station 03111500), Stillwater Creek (sta tion 03125338), and Wheeling Creek (station 03111548) were calcium-magnesium-sulfate-type waters (hereafter referred to as "sulfate-type waters"; fig. 15). The highest specific con ductance (higher than 756 microseimens per cm [µS/cm]), elevated concentrations of total dissolved solids (higher than 541 milligrams per liter [mg/L]), sulfate (higher than 254 mg/L), calcium (higher than 93 mg/L), and magnesium (higher than 40 mg/L) relative to other samples were observed in the sulfate-type waters. A relation between elevated sulfate concentrations and coal-mine drainage was determined in past studies (Helsel, 1983; Haefner and Simonson, 2010). Surface and underground coal mines are prevalent in the region (fig. 4). The Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Abandoned Mine Land Program assessed drainage basins in Ohio that were impacted by abandoned mine lands (ODNR- DMRM, 2016). The program developed criteria (table 6 of ODNR-DMRM, 2016) to identify and assess the severity of mining impacts based on concentrations of eight waterquality constituents and properties. For the purposes of this study, describing severity of impact was not an objective, and therefore, if any constituent concentration for a site met one of the ODNR-DMRM criteria for mild, moderate, or severe mine drainage, then the site could be classified as "mine impacted." Sulfate values for seven of the eight sites in the baseline water-quality analysis fell into one of the mild, moderate, or severe mine drainage impact categories of the ODNR-DMRM criteria. The only exception was Little Muskingum River (sta tion 03115400) with sulfate concentrations (12.1 to 19.4 mg/L) less than 76 mg/L (table 6 of ODNR-DMRM, 2016), which is considered to have "no detectable mine drainage impact."
Baseline Water-Quality Results 31 Table 6. Constituents and properties indicating a relation between measured value and streamflow at most sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. Property or constituent Percent of sample concentrations greater than median1 that occurred at the specified flow conditions Greater concentrations generally occurred at less-than-median flows (low flow) Specific conductance Total dissolved solids Alkalinity Bicarbonate Carbonate Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bromide Chloride Sulfate Fluoride Arsenic Barium Boron Lithium Manganese Strontium Ammonia Greater concentrations generally occurred at greater-than-median flows (high flow) Dissolved oxygen pH Turbidity Total sulfide Silica Aluminum Iron Zinc Nitrate plus nitrite Orthophosphate Total Particulate nitrogen Total phosphorus Total dissolved nitrogen Total particulate carbon Dissolved organic carbon 1For these calculations, median concentration and median flow at each individual site were determined. Median flows were determined by using 15-minute instantaneous streamflows at the sampling sites for the entire study period (6/23/2021-3/16/2023). The number of samples having greater-than-median concen trations of a constituent under the specified flow conditions (either greater-than- or less-than-median) at an individual site were summed for all sites and divided by the total number of samples in the entire dataset that were collected at (1) less-than-median flow (low flow) or (2) greater-than-median flow (high flow).
32 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek 1,000 10,000 100,000 Discharge, instantaneous, in cubic feet per second Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 60,578 58,182 59,082 58,337 51,422 56,334 55,257 59,971 60,578 EXPLANATION Number of values Gage height Streamflow during sampling Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 14. Boxplots showing the distribution of 15-minute instantaneous streamflows (or gage heights) for the study period (6/23/2021-3/16/2023) overlaid with points representing the streamflows (or gage heights) at the times of sampling to characterize baseline water quality in selected watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio. The trilinear diagrams also showed that samples from Little Muskingum River (station 03115400) were the only calcium-bicarbonate-type waters (fig. 15). Most of the remain ing samples were mixed bicarbonate-chloride-type waters and included Captina Creek (station 03113990), Yellow Creek (station 03110000), and a few samples each from various other drainage basins (fig. 15). The oil and gas brines and road salt-affected waters are sodium-chloride-type waters. Ion compositions enriched in chloride and sodium plus potassium relative to the other surface-water samples were observed in a few samples at Captina Creek (station 03113990; depicted as light blue squares in figure 15), indicating a chemistry intermedi ate between that of calcium-bicarbonate waters and oil and gas brines or road salt—best seen on the cations triangle (lower left) of figure 15. The highest chloride concentra tion (44.2 mg/L) among all sites was measured in a sample collected at Captina Creek (station 03113990). These samples at Captina Creek (station 03113990) might contain a compo nent of oil-field brine or road salt. Sources of Salinity Binary mixing curves (fig. 16) were prepared follow ing methods described in Whittemore (1988) to help identify samples with components of oil-field brine or saturated halite (road salt) solution (should they exist). The binary mixing curves show how the chloride:bromide (Cl:Br) ratio of dilute stream water would change with the addition of increas ing amounts of two concentrated solutions—oil-field brine and saturated halite (road salt) solution. The brine and halite solutions and the dilute, unaffected stream water are referred to as "endmembers" because they represent the starting and
Baseline Water-Quality Results 33 Magnesium waters Calcium waters Mixed cations Sodium and potassium waters Sulfate waters Bicarbonate waters Mixed anions Chloride waters Calciummagnesiumsulfate waters Mixed bicarbonate and chloride waters Calcium-bicarbonate type Sodium-chloride waters ANIONS Percent calcium Percent chloride CATIONS Percent magnesium Percent sulfate plus chloride Percent calcium plus magnesium Percent sulfate Percent bicarbonate Percent bicarbonate Percent sodium plus potassium Percent sodium plus potassium Captina Creek Duck Creek Leatherwood Creek Little Muskingum River Short Creek Stillwater Creek Wheeling Creek Yellow Creek Oil and gas brines Road salt EXPLANATION Figure 15. Major cation and anion percentages for water-quality samples collected from the 8 sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. stopping points of the possible mixing process. Data from the eight sites used in the analysis of baseline water quality were plotted with the binary mixing curves to evaluate whether any samples were representative of road salt or brine end members (fig. 16). The Cl:Br ratios of the brine endmembers were determined using chemical data from multiple samples of oil and gas brines produced from the Berea Sandstone and Clinton Formation, which are two of the primary target forma tions for vertical wells drilled in the study area (Blondes and others, 2018), as well as from the Utica Shale (Blondes and others, 2020). Two road salt endpoints were used to show a range of possible concentrations. The uppermost Cl:Br value for the road salt endpoint (depicted as a light blue square in [fig. 16]) is road salt runoff collected beneath a bridge in Western Springs, Ill. (Panno and others, 2005). The lesser road salt endpoint (depicted as a yellow square in [fig. 16]) was computed as the mean of three samples of road salt applied in northeastern Ohio (collected by Knuth and others, 1990). The light blue square shown between these two values represents a concentrated saline solution made by Panno and others (2005) from road salt collected at an Illinois Department of Transportation salt-storage facility. The area designated as dilute water in (fig. 16) is based on the maximum chlo ride concentration (12 mg/L) and the maximum Cl:Br ratio (521) reported by Panno and others (2005) for samples of Midwestern precipitation, soil water, and groundwater deemed to be unaffected by sodium chloride contamination. Water samples collected as part of this baseline study in which uncensored bromide concentrations were observed are plotted on figure 16. Twenty-four samples (representing all
34 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 1,000 10,000 100,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000 1,000 Chloride concentration, in milligrams per liter Mass ratio of chloride to bromide Dilute water Utica Shale brines Yellow Creek Short Creek Duck Creek Dilute stream and Utica Shale brine mixing line (top) Dilute stream and Berea Sandstone brine mixing line (bottom) Dilute stream and road salt mixing line (top) Road salt endpoint (Knuth and others, 1990) Clinton Formation brines Wheeling Creek Little Muskingum River Captina Creek Dilute stream and Clinton Formation brine mixing line (bottom) Dilute stream and Berea Sandstone brine mixing line (top) Dilute water box Road salt endpoints (Panno and others, 2005) Berea Sandstone brines Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Dilute stream and Utica Shale brine mixing line (bottom) Dilute stream and Clinton Formation brine mixing line (top) Dilute stream and road salt mixing line (bottom) EXPLANATION Figure 16. Binary mixing curves for chloride-to-bromide ratios from eight sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds sites except Little Muskingum River [station 03115400]) plot ted outside of the dilute water region and between the bounds of the lower road salt (depicted as dotted black line) and upper Berea Sandstone brine mixing curves (depicted by dashed black line; figure 16). Panno and others (2005) determined that septic effluent, wastewater treatment plant effluent, animal wastes, and water from field tiles (agricultural subsurface drainage systems) plots between the brine and road salt mix ing curves. Eleven samples from four sites showed a component of brine in the binary mixing curves. These samples plot ted outside of the dilute water region and within the bounds of the upper and lower mixing curves, between dilute water and brines from the Clinton Formation (depicted by solid black lines) and Berea Sandstone (depicted by dashed black lines). No samples plotted inside of the Utica Shale mixing curves (depicted by solid green lines). Captina Creek (sta tion 03113990) had six samples (depicted as red diamonds) with a component of brine. Three samples (depicted as light blue dashes) from Little Muskingum River (station 03115400) plotted within the bounds of the Berea Sandstone and Clinton Formation brine mixing curves (fig. 16). Single samples within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. from two other sites plotted within the bounds of the Berea Sandstone and Clinton Formation brine mixing curves— Leatherwood Creek (station 03141870; denoted by plus sign) and Duck Creek (station 03115786; denoted by triangle; fig. 16). Based on binary mixing calculations, the maximum percentage of brine input denoted by these samples is less than one percent—0.08 percent—Berea Sandstone brine, and 99.92 percent dilute water. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to test differences between median constituent concentrations for samples with a component of brine (11 samples) and samples containing no brine (42 samples; figs. 17A, B, C, and D). Results indi cated statistically significant differences between median concentrations of bromide, chloride, arsenic, and barium for sites with and without a component of brine in their drainage areas (table 7). Boxplots for these constituents showed higher median concentrations at sites with a component of brine in their drainage areas compared to sites without a component of brine (figs. 17A, B, C, and D). It should be noted that the increased concentrations of constituents in samples contain ing a component of brine does not necessarily mean that the elevated concentrations were caused by the brine.
Baseline Water-Quality Results 35 Brine sites Non-brine sites Barium, in micrograms per liter (11) (42) D Brine sites Non-brine sites Arsenic, in micrograms per liter (11) (42) Chloride, in milligrams per liter (11) (42) B Bromide, in milligrams per liter (11) (42) A (11) Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Outlier EXPLANATION Figure 17. Constituent concentrations that differed at a statistically significant level (p-value <0.05) between samples with and without a component of brine at sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. A, bromide; B, chloride; C, arsenic; and D, barium. Table 7. Wilcoxon rank-sum test Z-values and p-values between median concentrations of selected constituents for samples with and without a component of brine at sites used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Categories were compared using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Constituents that were different at a p-value of <0.05 are shown. Z-value, standard score or num ber of standard deviations an element is from the mean; P-value, statistical significance of a test result based on Z-value; less than] Constituent Z-value P-value Bromide <0.0001 Chloride Arsenic Barium <0.0001
36 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 OEPA Aquatic Life Use Criteria Measured pH and constituent concentrations at the eight sampling sites were compared to OEPA aquatic life use criteria based on beneficial use designations to assess the potential for adversely affecting stream biota (table 8). Stillwater Creek (station 03125338), Leatherwood Creek (station 03141870), Wheeling Creek (station 03111548), Short Creek (sta tion 03111500), and Duck Creek (station 03115786) are des ignated as warmwater habitat (WWH), while Captina Creek (station 03113990) and Yellow Creek (station 03110000), as well as Little Muskingum River (station 03115400), are designated as exceptional warmwater habitat (EWH; Ohio Administrative code 3745-1-24 [LAWriter Ohio Laws and Rules, 2023a]). If a constituent or property is not included in table 8, the OEPA has not established an aquatic life use crite rion for that constituent or property. The results of the baseline assessment of surface-water quality in the study area showed no exceedances of aquatic life use criteria as contained in Ohio Administrative Code 3745-1-35 (LAWriter Ohio Laws and Rules, 2023b). Relation Between Water Chemistry and Drainage-Basin Characteristics Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were used to identify correlations between water chemistry and selected drainage-basin characteristics that could affect water quality (tables 9 and 10). Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated using median water-chemistry values for each site and drainage-basin characteristics that included (1) the density of producing vertical oil and gas wells, (2) the density of producing horizontal gas wells that were tapped into the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, and Marcellus Shale, (3) the density of active and plugged injection wells, (4) the density of wastewater treatment plants, (5) the percentage of lands associated with underground coal mines, (6) the percent age of lands associated with surface coal mines, (7) the density of road miles, (8) the percentage of township lands with permits to spread brine for dust control, and (9) the percent age of land cover for agriculture, developed, and forest. In the "Summary and Discussion" section, only significant positive correlations are mentioned. A positive correlation means that as the drainage basin characteristic increases (either in density or percentage), so does the median concentration or level of the constituent or property. Caution must be used when inter preting the correlations, because correlations were among the drainage-basin characteristics themselves (table 11). Table 10 shows correlations between water chemistry and selected drainage-basin characteristics for the eight sites used in the analysis of baseline water quality. There were no statistically significant correlations between the density of vertical or horizontal wells and median characteristic values. Median parameter values were predominantly positively cor related with the density of wastewater treatment plants and the percentage of land associated with surface mines and predomi nantly negatively correlated with township lands with permits to spread brines.
Baseline Water-Quality Results 37 Table 8. Ohio Environmental Protection Agency aquatic life use criteria and exceedances used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Exceedance, criteria were not met; OMZM, outside mixing zone minimum; OMZA, outside mixing zone average; %, percent; less than; WWH, warmwater habitat site designation; EWH, exceptional warmwater habitat site designation; NA, not applicable; °C, degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligram per liter; μg/L, micro gram per liter; e, the base e exponential function; ln H, the natural logarithm of the water hardness; N, nitrogen] Property or constituent Units Aquatic life use criteria Exceedance OMZM (or similar) OMZA1 (or similar) Dissolved oxygen % of saturation for WWH (2) None Dissolved oxygen % of saturation for EWH (2) None pH NA NA None Dissolved solids dry at 180°C mg/l NA 1,500 None Arsenic µg/l None Barium mg/l Varies3 by hardness using the following equation: e(0.8713 [ln H] + 3.003) Varies3 by hardness using the following equation: e(0.8713 [ln H] + 4.458) None Boron µg/l 33,000 3,900 None Strontium mg/l Varies3 by hardness using the following equation: e(1.299 [ln H] + 1.994) Varies3 by hardness using the following equation: e(1.299 [ln H] + 2.945) None Zinc µg/l Varies4 by hardness using the following equation: e(0.8473 [ln H] + 0.884) Varies4 by hardness using the following equation: e(0.8473 [ln H] + 0.884) None Ammonia mg/l as N Varies5 by water temperature and pH (2) None 1For dissolved oxygen, OMZA means outside the mixing zone minimum 24-hour average. 2Could not compute. 3The criteria at a water hardness of 350 mg/L calcium carbonate are used for water hardness greater than 350 mg/L. 4The criteria at a water hardness of 400 mg/L calcium carbonate are used for water hardness greater than 400 mg/L. 5Found in tables 35-2 (WWH) and 35-3 (EWH) of Ohio Administrative Code 3745-1-35 (LAWriter Ohio Laws and Rules, 2023b). Table 9. Environmental and drainage-basin characteristics compiled by upstream drainage basin used in analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Sites are listed in order by smallest to largest drainage area. See table 1 for site specifics. Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus refers to a well completed in the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale. Numbers in parentheses are densities per square mile; ID, identification; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; &, and; mi2, square mile; %, percent] Site ID (fig. 2) Producing vertical oil & gas wells1 Producing oil and gas wells that are tapping Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus 1 Active and plugged waste injection wells1 Wastewater treatment plants2 Lands as sociated with underground coal mines (%)3 Lands as sociated with surface coal mines (%)3 Total road miles4 Township lands with permits to spread brines for dust-control (%)5 27 (0.712) 24 (0.633) 1 (0.026) 141 (3.720) 154 (2.216) 47 (0.676) 1 (0.014) 2 (0.029) 214 (3.079) 113 (1.157) 51 (0.522) 5 (0.051) 375 (3.838) 112 (0.911) 15 (0.122) 4 (0.033) 427 (3.472) 115 (0.91) 98 (0.772) 2 (0.016) 426 (3.354) 110 (0.748) 133 (0.905) 411 (2.796) 1846 (8.790) 41 (0.195) 3 (0.014) 692 (3.295) 1317 (5.065) 29 (0.112) 11 (0.042) 1 (0.004) 898 (3.454) 1Data are from Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Oil & Gas Resources Management (2023b). 2Data are from Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (2023). 3Data are from Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Mineral Resources Management (2023). 4Data are from Ohio Department of Transportation (2023). 5Data are from Wendy Booth, Ohio Department of Natural Resources-Division of Ohio and Gas Management, written commun. (2023).
38 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 10. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients between median concentrations or levels of constituents and drainage-basin characteristics in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well, refers to a well completed in the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale. %, percentage of drainage area; -, negative] Parameters and constituents Vertical oil & gas well density1 Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well density1 Injection well den sity1 Wastewater treatment plant density2 Lands associated with underground mines Lands associated with surface mines Road miles density4 Township lands with permits to spread brines Agriculture land cover Developed land cover Forest land cover Specific conduc tance, field 8−0.310 8−0.143 8−0.216 8−0.561 7, 8−0.929 Dissolved oxygen, field 8−0.643 7, 8−0.710 8−0.524 pH, field 8−0.571 7, 8−0.710 8−0.643 Turbidity 8−0.357 8−0.317 7, 8−0.833 8−0.286 8−0.262 8−0.595 8−0.335 Total dissolved solids 8−0.214 8−0.286 8−0.076 8−0.464 7, 8−0.857 Alkalinity, field 8−0.310 8−0.167 8−0.127 8−0.659 7, 8−0.929 Carbonate 8−0.214 8−0.357 8−0.190 8−0.415 7, 8−0.857 Bicarbonate 8−0.310 8−0.167 8−0.127 8−0.659 7, 8−0.929 Calcium 8−0.214 8−0.286 8−0.076 8−0.464 7, 8−0.857 Magnesium 8−0.214 8−0.286 8−0.076 8−0.464 7, 80.857 7, 80.898 7, 8−0.857 Sodium 8−0.548 8−0.647 8−0.366 7, 8−0.905 Potassium 8−0.381 8−0.119 8−0.304 8−0.512 7, 8−0.952 Bromide 8−0.317 8−0.146 8−0.548 8−0.333 8−0.122 8−0.333 8−0.407 Chloride 8−0.476 7, 8−0.863 8−0.293 8−0.691 Total sulfide 8−0.268 8−0.225 7, 8−0.732 8−0.366 8−0.293 8−0.610 8−0.356 Sulfate 8−0.214 8−0.286 8−0.076 8−0.464 7, 8−0.857 Fluoride 8−0.333 8−0.071 8−0.419 8−0.464 7, 8−0.905 Silica 8−0.333 8−0.634 7,8−0.810 8−0.048 8−0.024 8−0.357 8−0.240 Aluminum 8−0.333 8−0.444 8−0.310 8−0.048 8−0.167 Arsenic 8−0.122 8−0.167 8−0.119 8−0.439 8−0.048 8−0.132 Barium 8−0.143 8−0.024 8−0.333 8−0.191 8−0.119 8−0.333 8−0.108 Boron 8−0.500 8−0.444 8−0.537 7, 8−0.976 Iron 8−0.439 8−0.571 8−0.643 7, 8−0.857 8−0.024 8−0.691 7, 8−0.874 Lithium 8−0.214 8−0.286 8−0.076 8−0.464 7, 8−0.857 Manganese 8−0.333 8−0.381 8−0.512 8−0.214 Zinc 8−0.343 8−0.531 −0.192 8−0.655
Baseline Water-Quality Results 39 Table 10. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients between median concentrations or levels of constituents and drainage-basin characteristics in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23.—Continued [Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well, refers to a well completed in the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale. %, percentage of drainage area; -, negative] Parameters and constituents Vertical oil & gas well density1 Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well density1 Injection well den sity1 Wastewater treatment plant density2 Lands associated with underground mines Lands associated with surface mines Road miles density4 Township lands with permits to spread brines Agriculture land cover Developed land cover Forest land cover Strontium 8−0.238 8−0.238 8−0.241 8−0.561 7,8−0.905 Ammonia 8−0.247 8−0.412 8−0.423 8−0.083 8−0.249 Nitrogen, nitrate plus nitrite 8−0.214 8−0.241 8−0.238 8−0.072 8−0.191 Orthophosphate 8−0.178 8−0.203 8−0.260 8−0.076 8−0.115 Total particulate nitrogen 8−0.252 8−0.012 8−0.331 8−0.060 Phosphorus 8−0.146 8−0.500 8−0.119 8−0.293 8−0.214 8−0.168 Total dissolved nitrogen 8−0.262 8−0.167 8−0.293 8−0.072 8−0.262 Total particulate carbon 8−0.286 8−0.171 8−0.476 8−0.171 8−0.119 Dissolved organic carbon 8−0.048 8−0.073 8−0.429 8−0.464 8−0.024 Total positive (%) Total negative (%) 1Ohio Department of Natural Resources-Division of Oil and Gas Management, 2023b 2Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Surface Water, 2023 3Ohio Department of Natural Resources-Division of Mineral Resources Management, 2023 4Ohio Department of Transportation, 2023 5Wendy Booth, Ohio Department of Natural Resources-Division of Ohio and Gas Management, written commun., 2023 6Dewitz, 2023 7Significant correlation (alpha 0.05), also bolded and italicized. 8Negative correlation, also shaded gray.
40 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Table 11. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients for drainage-basin characteristics in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. [Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well, refers to a well completed in the Utica Shale, Point Pleasant Limestone, or Marcellus Shale. %, percentage of drainage area; −, negative] Drainage basin characteristic Vertical oil & gas well density Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well density Injection well density Wastewater treatment plant density Lands associated with underground mines (%) Lands associ ated with surface mines (%) Road miles density Township lands with permits to spread brines(%) Agriculture land cover (%) Developed land cover (%) Utica, Point Pleasant, or Marcellus well density 2−0.595 Injection well density 2−0.393 Wastewater treatment plant density 2−0.220 2−0.390 Lands associated with un derground mines (%) 2−0.548 1, 2−0.761 Lands associated with surface mines (%) 2−0.476 2−0.048 Road miles density 2−0.143 2−0.500 Township lands with per mits to spread brines (%) 2−0.317 2−0.300 2−0.293 2−0.659 2−0.342 Agriculture land cover (%) 2−0.571 2−0.330 2−0.634 Developed land cover (%) 2−0.168 2−0.431 2−0.121 2−0.368 Forest land cover (%) 2−0.119 2−0.561 1, 2−0.786 1, 2−0.929 1, 2−0.738 1, 2−1.000 1, 2−0.826 Total positive (%) Total negative (%) 1Significant correlation (alpha 0.05), also bolded and italicized. 2Negative correlation, also shaded gray.
Summary and Discussion 41 Summary and Discussion Water Use and Changes in Streamflow Between calendar years 2010 and 2019, hydraulic fractur ing withdrawals were reported in 643 locations, with streams and reservoirs being the most common sources for with drawals (Bradley Lodge, ODNR-Division of Water, written commun., 2022). Annual withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio totaled about 27,168 million gallons between 2010 and 2019. Annual withdrawals peaked at about 5,755 million gallons in 2017 and then decreased to about 4,371 million gal lons in 2019. Average withdrawals by calendar month ranged from about 226 to 349 million gallons, with April and May typically being the highest withdrawal months—January and December being the lowest. Water withdrawn within a drainage basin for hydraulic fracturing may or may not be detectable in a streamgage's record depending on factors such as the proximity of the gage to the withdrawal location(s), the magnitude of the withdrawal(s) relative to the magnitude of the streamflow, and whether the withdrawal(s) were made from streams instead of ponds or reservoirs. Withdrawals made from ponds or reser voirs may have no detectable impact on downstream flows depending on the outlet characteristics of the pond or reservoir and (or) if outflow from the pond or reservoir is regulated. Other factors, such as changes in other sources of water use, discharges within the drainage basins, or changing climate also can confound the ability to detect streamflow changes caused by hydraulic fracturing withdrawals. The amount of water used for hydraulic fracturing in Ohio was substantial but represented a small fraction of the water discharged in streams. The environmental impact of those withdrawals was not evaluated in this study. The reader is referred to Dieter and others (2018) for a brief discussion of some potential environmental impacts associated with hydrau lic fracturing, including issues surrounding water availability, water quality, and the disposal of wastewater and associated potential for seismicity. Daily streamflow data from nine USGS gages in eastern and east-central Ohio were used to assess temporal streamflow trends and changes. The records for two gages on Captina Creek (stations 03113990 and 03114000) were merged into a single record intended to be representative of flows at the Captina Creek (station 03113990) gage in current (2023) oper ation. Two of the gages that had no hydraulic fracturing with drawals within their drainages were used as "reference gages." The remaining streamgages (referred to as "study gages") had hydraulic fracturing withdrawals within their drainages. Sen's slopes of the period of record annual minimum and median daily streamflows were positive for all reference and study gages, indicating a consistent tendency for low and median flows to have increased over the periods of record. In addition, the trend slopes were positive for all flows with nonexceedance probabilities of 0.90 and less for all reference and study gages. These results indicate a consistent pattern for all but high flows to have increased over the periods of record at both the study and reference gages. The Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) software (Nature Conservancy, 2009) was used to compute annual values of 67 potentially ecologically relevant statistics from daily streamflow time series for the study and reference gages. Analyses of annual IHA statistics showed no general indica tion that low flows or extreme low flows have gotten lower, become more frequent, or increased in duration since 2010, when records for hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals began. In fact, in almost all cases, the opposite was indicated. Analyses of nonexceedance percentiles of daily stream flows from reference and study gages indicated flows in the lower quartile of nonexceedance percentiles were typically larger for the period of record than for the pre-2012 record (before annual withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing exceeded 100 million gallons in Ohio). This indicates that low flows did not decrease during the post-2011 period when hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals were occurring. It is possible that the higher discharges for the low flows at both study and refer ence gages reflect the results of shorter-term climate fluctua tions or possibly more permanent changes in climate. In either case, reductions in streamflow caused by hydraulic fracturing withdrawals (if measurable at the gages) appear to have been more than offset by wetter climatic conditions. Baseline Water Quality Lands associated with coal mines are prevalent in the study area region. Sulfate values for seven of the eight sites in the baseline water-quality analysis indicated some degree of mine drainage impact based on ODNR-DMRM crite ria. The only exception was Little Muskingum River (sta tion 03115400). Because of the potential impacts from mine drainage at these seven streams, the use of constituents such as specific conductance, total dissolved solids, sulfate, iron, manganese, arsenic, total carbon, and dissolved organic carbon as indicators of oil and gas influence was complicated. Wheeling Creek (station 03111548), Short Creek (sta tion 03111500), and Stillwater Creek (station 03125338) had the highest maximum specific conductance values and the highest median concentrations of total dissolved solids and sulfate. Stillwater Creek (station 03125338) also had the high est maximum (223 μg/L) and median (183 μg/L) concentration of manganese. These three sites were classified as sulfatetype waters based on major-ion chemistry and have some of the highest percentages of lands associated with surface and underground coal mines in their drainage basins—a potential source for these elevated values. Trilinear diagrams also revealed that a few samples at Captina Creek (station 03113990) had a chemistry intermedi ate between that of calcium-bicarbonate-type waters and oil and gas brines or road salt and might contain a component of oil-field brine or road salt. Sources of chloride in water sam ples were also evaluated using binary mixing curves and ratios
42 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 of chloride-to-bromide. These ratios indicated that 11 sam ples from 4 sites (Captina Creek [station 03113990], Little Muskingum River [station 03115400], Leatherwood Creek [station 03141870], and Duck Creek [station 03115786]) likely contained a component of brine from the Clinton Formation or Berea Sandstone. Captina Creek (station 03113990) had the most samples (six) with a component of brine. The other three sites with samples having a component of brine, poten tially indicative of oil and gas contamination, all had brine injection wells in their upstream drainages as well as having the top three highest densities of vertical oil and gas wells. Concentrations of arsenic, barium, bromide, and chloride were statistically higher in samples with a component of brine than in samples without a component of brine. 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46 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Appendix 1. Quality-Control Results (detailed) Equipment Blanks Prior to field sampling, one equipment blank (Covert, 2024) was processed in a laboratory setting in June 2021. Concentrations of most constituents in the equip ment blanks were less than the reporting levels with the following exceptions: (1) chloride was detected in one blank sample at a concentration of 0.079 mg/L, 0.059 mg/L greater than the reporting level of 0.02 mg/L; (2) total particulate carbon (TPC) was detected in one blank sample at a concen tration of 0.097 mg/L, 0.003 mg/L less than the reporting level of 0.1 mg/L (Covert, 2024). The detected concentration of chloride in the equipment blank (0.079 mg/L) was at least 91 times less than the lowest chloride concentration in the environmental samples (7.24 mg/L), making the contribution by sample equipment negligible. After the detection of TPC in the equipment blank from the churn splitter and total particu late carbon and nitrogen apparatus, these pieces of equipment were recleaned prior to field use. Subsequent field blanks collected contained no detectable concentrations of TPC (Covert, 2024). Field Blanks Three field blank samples were collected for 27 analytes (Covert, 2024). The range of blank results was compared to the range of all environmental results and was calculated as the percentage of values greater than the reporting level in environmental samples that also were less than the maximum blank value (ideally, 0 percent). Field blanks had concentra tions greater than the reporting level for chloride, fluoride, dissolved organic carbon, and orthophosphate (Covert, 2024). For chloride, fluoride, and dissolved organic carbon, the per centage of environmental samples with concentrations greater than the reporting level and less than the maximum field blank concentration was 0 percent. For orthophosphate, however, 40.6 percent of the environmental samples were greater than the reporting level (<0.004 mg/L as P) and less than the maximum blank concentration of 0.00811 mg/L as P. The orthophosphate concentrations in samples collected during the same week as the blank detection sample were all less than the reporting level except for one at Yellow Creek (0.019 mg/L of P; station 03110000). Analytical Bias and Variability To determine and track bias and variability (or uncer tainty) associated with the measured values of chemical concentration with time, the USGS Quality Systems Branch operates independent, external, blind sample projects for inorganic, nutrient, and organic constituents (USGS, 2017a). Metrics obtained from the USGS Quality Systems Branch for orthophosphate (parameter code 00671, method code PHM01) indicated false positive rates of 0, 0, and 4 percent for 2021, 2022, and 2023, respectively, in blind blanks sent to the laboratory. NWQL examined the analytical run data for the late 2022-early 2023 samples that have a high bias and did not find anything unusual. The analyst reported that the associated quality-control samples were within acceptable limits. Still, this positive analytical bias in early 2023 may indicate that the source of orthophosphate contamination in the March 2023 field blank for this study could have been introduced in the laboratory. Replicate Samples Five sequential replicate samples were collected for 27 analytes (Covert, 2024). The variability of concentra tions was assessed using relative percent differences (RPD) for replicate sets having two values over the reporting level (Covert, 2024). The RPD in concentrations between replicate paired samples (for example, c1 and c2) were calculated as [100*(c1-c2) / ((c1+c2)/2)]. A criterion of 20 percent differ ence or less was considered acceptable. Concentrations for 25 of 27 analytes differed by less than 20 percent median RPD. Only 2 analytes, aluminum and iron, differed by greater than 20 percent median RPD, at 23.4 and 94.6, respectively. The RPD for aluminum replicates ranged from 5.61 to 169 percent, and the differences between the environmental and replicate concentrations ranged from 2.20 to 64.6 μg/L. RPDs for iron replicate values ranged from 33.8 to 169 percent, and the dif ferences between the environmental and replicate concentra tions ranged from 13.6 to 97.2 μg/L. References Cited Covert, S.A., 2024, Data from quality-control equipment blanks, field blanks, and field replicates for baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P1EDHXB9. U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2017a, Quality Systems Branch: U.S. Geological Survey web page, accessed October 1, 2023, at https://qsb.usgs.gov.
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 47 Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties Concentrations or levels of constituents and properties at eight sites used in the analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23 (table 2.1). The sampling sites are arranged, left to right, in the order of increasing drainage area. When applicable, the report ing level has been displayed as a dashed black line across the boxplots (fig. 2.1A-KK), and censored values beneath this line have not been shown. For y-axis titles, "N" represents nitrogen and "P" represents phosphorus. Table 2.1. Constituents correlated to the boxplots of figure 2.1 A-KK. Constituent Boxplot letter Alkalinity H Aluminum U Ammonia DD Arsenic Barium W Bicarbonate J Boron Bromide O Calcium K Carbonate Chloride P Dissolved oxygen D Fluoride S Iron Y Lithium Z Magnesium Manganese AA Nitrate plus nitrite EE Organic carbon KK Orthophosphate FF pH E Phosphorus HH Potassium N Silica T Sodium M Specific conductance Streamflow (discharge) A Strontium BB Sulfate R Temperature, water B Total particulate carbon JJ Total dissolved nitrogen Total particulate nitrogen GG Total dissolved solids G Total sulfide Q Turbidity F Zinc
48 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 2,000 4,000 Specific conductance, in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius Temperature, water, in degrees Celsius B 1,000 Discharge, instantaneous, in cubic feet per second A Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1. Boxplots showing the 37 constituent concentrations at eight sites used in the analysis of baseline water quality in watersheds within the shale play of eastern Ohio, 2021-23. A-KK.
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 49 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 Turbidity, in nephelometric turbidity ratio units F pH, in standard units E Dissolved oxygen concentration, in milligrams per liter D Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
50 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Carbonate concentration, in milligrams per liter Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Alkalinity concentration, in milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate H 1,000 2,000 4,000 Total dissolved solids, dried at 180 degrees Celsius, concentration, in milligrams per liter G Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 51 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Magnesium concentration, in milligrams per liter Calcium concentration, in milligrams per liter K Bicarbonate concentration, in milligrams per liter J Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
52 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Bromide concentration, in milligrams per liter O Potassium concentration, in milligrams per liter N Sodium concentration, in milligrams per liter M Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 53 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 3,000 10,000 Sulfate concentration, in milligrams per liter R Sulfide concentration, in milligrams per liter Q Chloride concentration, in milligrams per liter P Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
54 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 3,000 10,000 Sulfate concentration, in milligrams per liter R Sulfide concentration, in milligrams per liter Q Chloride concentration, in milligrams per liter P Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 55 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 Aluminum concentration, in micrograms per liter U Silica concentration, in milligrams per liter T Fluoride concentration, in milligrams per liter S Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
56 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Boron concentration, in micrograms per liter Barium concentration, in micrograms per liter W Arsenic concentration, in micrograms per liter Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 57 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area 1,000 Manganese concentration, in micrograms per liter AA Lithium concentration, in micrograms per liter Z 1,000 Iron concentration, in micrograms per liter Y Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
58 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Ammonia concentration, in milligrams per liter as N DD Zinc concentration, in micrograms per liter Strontium concentration, in micrograms per liter 1,000 2,000 5,000 BB Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 59 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Total particulate nitrogen concentration, in milligrams per liter GG Orthophosphate concentration, in milligrams per liter as P FF Nitrate plus nitrite concentration, in milligrams per liter as N EE Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
60 Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Total particulate carbon concentration, in milligrams per liter JJ Total dissolved nitrogen concentration, in milligrams per liter Phosphorus concentration, in milligrams per liter as P HH Censoring level Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
Appendix 2. Boxplots of Concentrations or Levels of Constituents and Properties 61 Stillwater Creek Leatherwood Creek Wheeling Creek Short Creek Captina Creek Yellow Creek Little Muskingum River Duck Creek Sites ordered, left to right, from smallest to largest drainage area Organic carbon concentration, in milligrams per liter KK Constituent Concentration Streamflow not available Less than median streamflow Greater than median streamflow EXPLANATION Number of values Maximum value Minimum value 75th percentile 25th percentile 50th percentile (median) Figure 2.1.—Continued
For more information about this report, contact Director, Ohio-Kentucky-Indiana Water Science Center U.S. Geological Survey 5957 Lakeside Blvd. Indianapolis, IN 46278-1996 or visit our website at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/oki-water Publishing support provided by the Pembroke and Baltimore Publishing Service Centers
Covert and Koltun—Analysis of Hydraulic Fracturing Water Use and Baseline Water Quality in the Shale Play of Eastern Ohio, 2021-23—SIR 2024-5045 ISSN 2328-0328 (online) https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20245045
Plates & figures from the original
