The coal fields of Great Britain : their history, structure, and resources ; with notices of the coal-fields of other parts of the world

Hull, Edward · 1873 · Historical

Commissioners appointed by Her Majesty to enquire into the coal-resources* of Great Britain, and matters connected

This 1873 document, The coal fields of Great Britain : their history, structure, and resources ; with notices of the coal-fields of other parts of the world, is preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library for research and reference. Original source: archive.org.

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Godfrey Lowell CABOT SCIENCE LIBRARY

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The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Characteristic

Fossils Of The Coal Formation.

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The

Coal-Fields Op Great Britain:

Their

iistorg, Slrmtttw, attb es0M;rfes

With

Notices Of The Coal-Fields Of Other Paats Of The World.

EDWAED glJLL, M.A., F.E.S.,

Director of the Gwltal Survey of Ireland;

Profeuor of Geology in the Royal College of Science Dublin i Master in Engineering (Hon.

Causa), University of Dublin ; Honorary Member of the Edinbutgh,

Clasgow, Dudley, and Midland Geological Societies.

93iit9 inapt an illttttrationt.

Third Edition, Revised And Enlarged,

lanODTINO THE REPOBTB OF THE ROYAL COAL-COIOCISDIOK.

Edward Stanford, 6 & 7, Charing Cross.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

to

Wateou and Uazell, Printen, London and Aylesbury.

To

€%t JBnRors of SIR RODERICK I. MURCfflSON, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

Late Dirkctor-Oenebal Of Tbi Oeolooical 8Urvky Up The United Kingdom.

Pkeface To The Thibd Edition.

So many years have elapsed since the publication of the first edition of this work, and so great has been the advance in our knowledge of the Coal-fields of nearly all countries within this period, that, in order to make the reader acquainted with it, I have found it necessary to re-write the greater portion of the book.

Within the interval here alluded to, the following are some of the more important events which have occurred in reference to the subjects herein treated : —

1. A great step towards completion has been

made in the Government surveys of the British coal-fields.

2. In British India, the Government surveys

of the important coal-fields lying along

Vlll PREFACE.

the valley of the rivers Damuda and Nerbudda have been completed, and the results published.

3. An important addition to our knowledge of

the coal-fields of the European continent has been made, by the publication of the joint work of Professors Geinitz and Fleck, and Dr. Hartig, entitled Steinkohlen Deutschlands und Anderer Lander," in three elaborate volumes, containing descriptions illustrated by maps and drawings of the coal-fields of Europe, together with their palaeontology, and the technical and mechanical operations connected with coal-mining ; to this may also be added the pubKcation of Dr. Hochstetter's New Zealand," in which the coal-fields of that wonderful island are very folly described.

4. The fourth and last event I would here 0 record, is the publication by the Eoyal

Commissioners appointed by Her Majesty to enquire into the coal-resources* of Great Britain, and matters connected

Preface. Ix

with the consumption of coal. In the

following pages I have endeavoured to

embody the results arrived at by the

Commissioners with the subject-matter

of the work, so as to bring them within

reach of the general public.

The addition to this work of the maps of

individual coal-fields, together with its growth

in size, owing to the number and variety of

details, renders an increase of cost unavoidable,

for which I trust the reader will consider he

gets full value.

From amongst the numerous expressions of approval which this little work has received, both from public men and reviewers, the author is contented to select one, extracted from the speech of the Earl of Derby (then Lord Stanley), dehvered before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Birmingham, in 1866. Speaking on Coal-question," his Lordship says, " For those who desire to go more deeply into the facts of the case, as far as they are known, than is possible within the limits of an oral address, I should recommend

X Preface.

two books on the subject, published within the last two or three years, — one by Mr. Hull, the other by Mr. Jevons. They differ somewhat widely in conclusions. The one takes what we may call the sanguine view ' of the case, the other a view comparatively despondent ; but in both one and the other you will find what is, perhaps, more important than the inferences of those authors, and that is, a very ample stock of materials upon which to found your own conclusions." — Daily NewSy 11th Sept., 1866.

List Of Illusteations.

Plates.

Fb05TI8FI£CE — PLATE OF CHARACTEBIfifTIC FOSSILS OF THE FORMATI05.

1. Map of Coal-basin of South Walks . .82

3. Map of Coalbbook Dalb Coal-field . .130

4. Map of Coal-fields of Kobth Wales . .139

5. Map of South Staffobdshibb Coal-field 155

6. Map of North Staffobdshirb Coal-field .168

7. Map of South Lahcashibe Coal-field 184

8. Map of the Warwiceshirb Coal-field .220

9. Map of the Leicestebshibb Coal-field 225

10. Map of Tobkshibe, Debbtshire, aud Notts. Coal-field 281

12. Map of Bbitish Isles, showdvo original Coal-abeas 464

13. Oenebal Map of Bbitish Coal-fields.

Woodcuts.

1. Portion of Frond of Pecopteris lonchitica

5. Vertical Section in Lower Coal-measures near Wig an

6. Section across the Coal-field of South Wales

7. Section across the Pembrokeshire Coal-field

8. Section across the Bristol and Somersetshire Cjal-fibld

9. Section across the Coal-field of Coalbrook Dale .

10. Section of Upper and Lower Coal-measures of Coal-brook

Dale

11. Section across the Denbighshire Coal-field

12. Section across the Anolesea Coal-field

13. Section across the South Staffordshire Coal-field

14. Section across the North Staffordshire Coal-field

15. Section across the Lancashire Coal-field

16. Section across the Warwickshire Coal-field

17. Section across the Leicestershire Coal-field

18. Section across the Yorkshire Coal-field

19. Section across the Lbinstbr Coalvield

20. Section across the Leitrim Coal-field

21. Section across the Coal-field of Liege

22. Section across the Coal-field of Valenciennes

23. Ideal Transverse Section of England

Page

Contents.

Page

Intboduction 1

Part I.

Chapter I.

HisTOBY OF CoAL-MiNiNQ — Tiitroductoiy Remarks— Mention of Coal in the Bible — Mention of Coal by Theophrastus, B.C. 238 — Pliny the Elder— Strabo — Ancient Britons — Flint-axe found imbedded in Coal — Axe of solid oak found in Derbyshire—Stone hammers at Ashby-de-la-Zouch — Romans in Britain — Cinders found in Roman ruins — Old Works near Wigan probably referable to them — Cinders at Castlefield, Manchester — Coins amongst Cinders at North Brierley — Works at Benwell and Magna — Lanchester— XTriconicum — Anglo-Saxon Period — Mention of Coal in the Saxon Chronicle (852)— On the derivation of the term " Coal"- Britishname "Glo" — Superseded by the Saxon "grsBfan" — afterwards " Col '—Anglo-Norman Period — No mention of Coal in the Doomsday Book — Two references the Boldon Book, 1183— Old Roman Proverb— Reign of Heniy III.— Use of Coal prohibited— Edward I.— Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centxiries — Difficulties of Coal-mining before the Invention of the Safety-Lamp — Agricola's Writings — Pennant's Account of the Flintshire Collieries — Camden's Account of Coal- Works in Warwickshire in 1600 ; and of the Cannel Coal of Lancashire in the I7th Century — Coal- Works in Ireland (very ancient) — Hamilton's Letter on the Works of Ballycastle— Old Coal-Works in the Lothiana — Campbell's Account of the Coal Trade in 1670,

Xiv Contents.

Pagb

16d0, 1760— Sir J. Clerk's Account of the Collieriea of Whitehaven — Revolution in Coal-Mining after the invention of the Safety-Lamp and Steam Engine — Past and present Coal Produce of Great Britian — Produce of all the Countries in the World — Produce of Great Britain each year from 1854-70 — Increase, and its causes 9

Chapter Ii.

FoBACATiON OF CoAL — Two Theories — Fragmentary Character of the representative Plants — Brongniart's classification — langley's Experiments on the perishable nature of Plants when immersed — Uniformity of the Coal-vegetation — Arctic Regions — Climate of the Coal-Period — Growth of the Coal-Plants — Ferns — Calamites — Sigillaria — Stigmaria — Lepidodendron — Lepidostrobi — Halonia — Lycopodites — Knorria — Ulodendron — Conif eree — Stembergia — Trigonocarpum — Noeggerathia — General character of the Coalvegetation — Fossil Shells — Gdppert's Observations on Carboniferous Plants 40

CHAPTER III. FoRMATioir OP Coal— Sir W. Logan's Observations in South Wales — Underclays — Theory of Oscillations — its difficulties — Darwin's Researches on the Elevation of Land — Application to the Theory of the Formation of Coal — Evidences that the Coal Formation is of Estuarine Origin — Fossils — Enormous Subsidence of the Bed of the Sea in South Wales and Nova Scotia — Aquatic habits of the Sigillaria, &c. — Swamps of the Mississippi, <&c. — ¥ature of the Strata associated with Coal — Composition of Coal — Observations of Bischof — Analyses of Coal — Clay Ironstone — Faults — Millstone Grit— Toredale Rocks — Carboniferous Limestone — Permian Rocks— New Red Sandstone — How a Coal-seam was formed— Tabular View of the Formations . . .63

Part Ii.

CHAPTER I. South Walks Coal-field — Topographical extent — Structure — Anticlinal Axis — Scenery — Deep Valleys — Surveys —

Contents. Xv

Page

General Suocesaion of Strata — Anthracite and Bitnminoos Ooal-Districta — Formation of Anthracite — Disturbances of the Strata in Pembrokeshire — Greneral Succession of the Ooal-series — Pennant Grit-series — List of Coal-seams- Ironstones— Faults — Fossils — Resources — Estimates of Messrs. Yivian and Clark, Commissioners .82

CHAPTER n.

Bristol and Somsbsbtshiss Coal-field — Topographical description—Greological Structure— Succession of Strata — Number of Coal-seams — Divisions of the Coal-measures — Section of the Coal-series — Flexures and Faults — Resources— Mr. Prestwich's Estimate — Concealed Coalbasin 104

CHAPTER m.

Fo&BST OF Dean Coal-field — Structure — Scenery — Succession of Formations — Succession of Coal-seams — Iron Produce Horses" or Rock-faults— Resources . .116

Chapter Iv.

FoBSST OF Wtre Coal-fibld — Extent and Structure — Per-mian

'Breccia — Section of Coal-formation — Fossils . . 122

Chapter V.

Shbewsbubt Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Permian Rocks — Alberbury Breccia — Limestone Band in Coalmeasures — Coal-field of the Clee Hills — Structure — Basaltic Covering — Coal-fields of the Forest of Wyre, Shrewsbury, and Clee Hills formed near old Land . . . 126

Chapter Vi.

Coalbbook Dale Coal-fibld— Extent and Structure— Surveys —Mr. Prestwich's Memoir — Denudation of Upper Cosdmeasures — Permian Beds — Succession of Coal-seams — Simon fault — Upper Coal-measures— Faults— Fossils — Ironstones— Extent to which the Coal-field has been exhansted— Resources 130

Xvi Contents.

CHAPTER Vn. Coal-fields op Noeth Wales — General arrangement — Denbighshire Coal-field — Succession of Strata — Permian Bocks — Coal-series — Ironstones — Fossils — Large district with Coal yet undisturbed — Resources — Rapid increase of Coalproduce 139

CHAPTER VIII. Flintshire Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Coal-series — Lower Coal-measures, and their Fossils — Extension of the Coal-measures under the Dee — Resources . . 140

Chapter Ix.

Anolesea Coal-field — Structure and Extent — Great Fault — Succession of Strata and Coal-seams — Permian and Trap Rocks — Number of Collieries and Coal-produce . . 152

CHAPTER X. South Staffobdshike Coal-field — Extent — Scenery— Physical Geology — Succession of Strata — Coal-seams — Southerly thinning away of Strata — Cannock Chase — Trap Rocks — Rowley Rag — Greenstone and Volcanic Ash — Mr. Allport's observations — Ironstones — Fossils — Resources — Mr. Hartley's Estimates — Produce of Coal and Iron, &o, . 155

CHAPTER XI. North Staffoedshire Coal-field— Structure and Extent — Faults — Permian-beds — Succession of Strata — Coalseries — Ironstones — Fossils — Resources — Coal and Iron Produce 168

CHAPTER Xn.

Cheadle Coal-field — Goldsitch Trough — Haematite — Cheshire Coal-field 180

CHAPTER Xni. South Lakoashibe Coal-field — Extent — Western boundary —Faults — General range of the Beds — Succession of Formations— Coal-series at St. Helens — Wigan — Bolton — Lower Coal-measures or Crannister Series — Series at Man-

Contents. Xvu

Pagb

cheater— Oldham— Mountain Mines — Cheshire Coal-field- Marine Fossils in the Middle Coal-measures — Iron Ores — Faults — Fossils from the Upper, Middle, and Lower Coalmeasures — Resources — The Manchester Coal-field — Upper Coal-measures — Iron Ore — Thickness of Carboniferous Rocks 184

CHAPTER XIV. The Buknley Coal-basik — Structure and Position — Section across the Pendle Ridge — Thickness of Carboniferous-series — Coal-seams at Burnley — Gawthorpe-series — Ironstone — Coal-produce of Lancashire 203

CHAPTER XV. Park Gate Coal-field, Cheshire — Structure — Coal-series . 210

CHAPTER XVI. Ikoleton akd Btjbton Coal-field — Position — Structure —

Permian Beds — Coal-series 212

CHAPTER XVIL Cumberland Coal-field — Structure — Succession of Strata — Coal-series of Whitehaven, Workington, Maryport — Faults — Permian Beds — Resources 214

CHAPTER XVnL Warwickshirb Coal-field — Extent and Structure — Succession of Strata — Coal-seams — Extent of Coal under Permian Rocks — Resources — Trap RocksProduce . 220

CHAPTER XIX. Lbicestbbshire Coal-field — Extent and boundaries — Succession of Strata — C Jal-series of Moira and Coleorton districts — Igneous Rocks — Rock-faults — Salt Water in Main Coal — Resources — Fossils 225

Chapter Xx.

Derbyshire akd Yorkshire Coal-field — Extent and Structure

— Escarpment of Magnesian Limestone — Millstone Grit —

Historical Notices — Succession of Strata, Derbyshire, and

Notts. -Coal-series at Shireoak — Bamsley — Cinderhill —

b

XVm CONTENTS.

Paob

Principal Coal-seamB — Coal-Beries at Halifax — Foasils — Exteiuion of the Coal-field below the Permian and Triassic Strata — Probable Basin shape — Views of Professor Ramsay — Ackworth Bock — Quantity of Coal concealed — Depth of the Top Hard Coal at yarions points — Thickness of the Magnesian Limestone — Kesources — Mr. Woodhouse's Estimates — Produce 231

CHAPTER XXI. CoAL-FiBLD OF DuRHAM AND NosTHUMBERLAND — Topographical extent and structure — Sjmclinal axis — Extension below the Magnesian Limestone — Southern Limits — Lower Carboniferous Rocks — Greneral Series of Strata — Principal Coal-seamji — Coal-series — Basaltic Dykes — Faults — Coal under the Sea — Resources — Mountain Limestone district — Coal-seams therein — Produce of Coal . 252

Chapter Xxil

CoAL-TisLDS OF ScoTLAKD — Range of the Carboniferous Rocks — Geological Age of the Coal-fields — Lower and Upper Coal-series — Change which the Lower Carboniferousseries undergoes in its extension from England into Scotland— General succession of Strata 266

CHAPTER XXIIL Coal-field of the Cltdb-basin — Range and Structure — Trap Rocks — Coal-series — Upper — Middle — Lower — Co and Lronstone — Blackband Ironstone — Gas Coal — Fossil Remains of Upper and Lower Series 272

CHAPTER XXrV. Coal-fields of Mid-Lothian and HIddinqton — Range and Structure — Thickness of Beds — Coal-series of Mid-Lothian — East Lothian Coal-field— doal-seriea — Lower Carboniferous Rocks .280

Chapter Xxv.

Coal-field of Fifbshibb — Coal-series — Invertiel Coal- Lower Carboniferous-series— Trap Rodka — Clackmannan Coal-field— Position— Coal-series . . . .286

Contents. Xix

Paob

Chapter Xxvi.

Coal-field of Atbshire — Position and Structure — Carboniferous-seriea — Coal-serioB at Ayr — Dalmellington — IgneouB Bocks 289

Chapter Xxvii.

Lbsmahaoo Coal-basin — Geological Position— Coal-series at Coal Bom and Auchenheath— Cono&ie Coal-fidd — Position and Structure— Cbal-series at Canobie and Sanquhar — Brora Coal-fidd — Geological Position of Strata — Section of Strata— Coa[->le&2 of S3bye— Resources of the Coal-fields of Scotland— Produce of Coal and Iron .293

Chapter Xxviii.

Casboniferous Rocks of Ibbland— Anthraxiferous and Bituminous Districts — Southern Group of Coal-fields- Northern Group — Southern Group, Succession of Strata— Coal Districts of Clare, Limerick, and Cork — Queen's Co., Kilkenny, Tipperaiy— Section of Castlecomer Coalbasin— Fossils 300

Chapter Xxix.

NoBTHESK Gbottf OF CoAL-FiELDS — Coalfield of Leitrim Historical Notices— General Succession of Beds — Coalseries at Salronan — Details — Ironstones — Tyrone Coalfield— Its Importance — Structure— (General Succession of Beds — Coal-series at Coal Island — Antrim Coal-field — (Geological Structure and Position— Ballycastle Coalseries — Fossils — Basaltic Rocks— Section in Murloch Bay —Geological Age, Lower Carboniferous— Resources of the Coal-fields of Ireland— Produce 307

Chapter Xxx.

Oh thb Quaktitt of Coal in thb goncealbd Coal-fields — Views of Sir R Murchison, Messrs. Jukes, Ramsay, Godwin-Austen, Prestwich, and the Author — Table of available Quantities of Coal in the Visible Coal-fields — Summaiy of Amount of Coal under Newer Formations — General Summary of Coal Resources of Great Britain and Ireland . 320

Xx Contents.

Part Iii.

Chapter I.

Pagb

Coal-fields of Eubope — France and Belgium — Range — Structure — Contortions of Strata — Coal-fields of Central France — Coal-fields of Rhenish Prussia — Structure of the Saarbrook Coal-field — Thickness of Strata — Fossils — Coal-fields of Saxony — Basiu of Zwickau-Chemnitz — Fossils — Coal-field of the Plauenschen Grundes — Other Saxon Coal-tracts — Westphalian Coal-fields — Structure and extent — Coal-field of Ibbenburen — Of Piesberg in Hanover — Fossils — Bohemian Coal-fields — Wealden Coal of N.W. Germany — Silesian Coal-fields — Fossils — Moravian Coal-fields—Other Coal or Anthracite Districts of Switzerland, Savoy, and Italy— Spain— Russia— Poland . 330

CHAPTER n.

Coal-fields of Ikdia — Geological Surveys — Geological Age of the Damuda Coal-formation — Fossils — Ramganj Coalfield— Karampura Coal-field — Bokaro Coal-field — Jherria Coal-field — S. Karampura Coal-field — Ramgurh Coalfield— Kurhurbari Coal-field — Deoghur Coal-field — Nerbudda Coal-field — Assam Coal-fields — Summary . . . 352

Chapter Iii.

Coal-fields of China — Observations of Baron Richthofen — Geological Age of the Chinese Coal-formation — Coal-fields of Malaysia and Japan — Labuan in Borneo — Coal-fields of twa/io— Victoriar-New South Wales— Rev. W. B. Clarke's Classification of Strata — Coal-districts of Newcastle, &c. — Queensland— Tasmania — Coal-fields of New Zealand — Geological Age of Coal-strata— North Island Coal-tracts — South Island Coal-tracts — Massacre or Coal Bay — Motupipi — Pakawau — Provinces of Nelson and Canterbury — Fossils— Coal-districts of Kawai— Otago— Future of New Zealand 362

Contents. Xxi

Paob

AnacA — Remarkable scarcity of Fossil Fael — Livingstone's Discoveiy of Coal on the Zambesi 387

Chapter Iv.

NoBTH Ahebica — British Possessions — Coal-field of Newfoundland— New Brunswick and Nova Scotia — Coal-series and Fossil-remains — Cumberland Coal-field — Colchester and Hants — Picton — Richmond and Cape Breton . . 388

Chapter V.

Amsricak States — Original Extent of Coal-formation — Probable connection with Europe — Position of Old Carboniferous Land— Professor Rogers' Survey — Appalachian Basin — Illinois — Indiana — Kentucky — Missouri — Arkansas— Michigan — and Texas Coal-fields — Their extent and areas — Total area of United States' Coal-fields — Position of the Strata over the Central Districts — Changes on approaching the Alleghany range — General Structure of this Mountain Chain — Springs of Petroleum and Salt — Thickness of Coal-beds — Sir C. Lyell's Account — Succession of Lower Carboniferous Rocks — Fossils — Animals and Plants — Richmond Coal-field — Its age and structure — Coal-fields and Lignite Strata in Colorado and New Mexico — Utah Territory — Vancouver Island — Valley of the Mackenzie — Arctic Regions — CaUforma — NorthPacific Coast — Analysis of Coals — Disco Island — Trinidad — OriginofJIineral Pitch— Mr. Walls' Survey . .396

Chapter "Vx

CoAir-FiELDS OF SouTH Amsbica — Brazil — Coal-districts of Rio Grande do Sul— Section of Strata— S&o Sepe— Sfto Jeronymo — Coal-fields of Banda Oriental — Geological Age of these Coal-fields— Fossils— Coa,/{eW of ChiU— Analyses of Coal — Geological Age 410

Chapter Vil

AjorvAL Pboduotion of Coal ik Vabious Countries — Bate of Annual Increase of Production of British Coal — Produce of British Coal-fields for 1870 . . .416

XXll CONTENTS.

Part Iv.

Chapter I.

Paob

An Ikquibt into thb Physicai. Limits of Deep Coal- MniKG — Vertical limit of 4,000 feet adopted by the Boyal ConmusBioners, the same as that originally adopted by the Author*— Increase of Temperature and Pressure — Experiments at the Puis de Grenelle — Keu-Saltzwerk — Greneva — Mondorff — Cornwall — Monkwearmouth Colliery — DukLnfield Colliery — Rose Bridge Colliery — Differences in the rate of increase at Dukinfield and Rose Bridge, and cause — General results of observations — The '' Invariable Stratum" — Table of Increase of Temperatures — Yentilation of Mines — Experiments at Rose Bridge — The Air Current — Effect of increased circulation — Effect of humidity or dryness of Air — Hygrometric observations in Coal Mines, Durham, Lancashire, N. Wales, &c. — Effects of Pressure of Strata 442

CHAPTER n.

DxTBATiON OF ojTB. CoAL SupPLT — Estimates of Coal-resouroes by the Royal Commissioners and the Author — Annual increase of consumption of Coal — Its causes — Increase of Popidation— Professor Jevons' Views — Mr. Price Williams' Views — Duration on the bases of diminishing ratio, and of arithmetical increase — Waste in combustion — Waste in working — The remedy — Neoessity for Mining Schools 449

Part V.

Chapter I.

Physical Geology of the Carboniferous Rooks— Stni easterly aUenwxtion of the Cocd-mecuures of ihe North of EngUmd — Comparative Vertical Sections — Arrangement of Strata in the South of England 459

CONTENTS, Tm

CHAPTER n.

Page

Origin or Coal-basis — Yinble British Coal-basins — Partly oonoealed Coal-basins — Basins not originally so formed — Idnes of elevation and depression aooompanied by denudation — Original distribution of the Coal-formation— Terrestrial Movements at the close of the Carboniferous period — South of England — Distribution of Permian Strata — Terrestrial Movements at the dose of the Permian and Triassic periods — Basin-shape of Coal-fields due to intersection of these two axes — Distribution of Mesozoic Strata 462

CHAPTER m.

DiSTKiBUTioir OP THB Mesozoio FoBMATiovs—South-easterly attenuation of Strata — Comparative Sections — Denudation of Mesozoic Strata — Arrangement of Strata along a K.W. and S.E. line — MaTimum denudation towards the Northwest— Results of arrangement of Strata . .471

Afpejtdiz 481

Ltdex 487

Introductory.

1 of the exhaustibility of our coalighly complicated one ; for whUe an action is beyond all possibility, a d sensible failure in the supply of only possible, but certain in course

ites in Parliament have brought into 3 a subject which, from the days of Peel's premiership, has more or less .e serious consideration of pubUc men. )n of the learned Dr. Buckland regardin Dbable exhaustion of the British coalfields io"vm to have influenced the measures of that statesman ; and in the former debates on the Commercial Treaty with France, the statistical information produced by Mr. Vivian is believed to have materially influenced our Legislature in favour of the measures of Government. I refer to this debate as illustrating how diver-

2 Intboductoby.

sified are the opinions entertained on this subject by some of the most eminent poUticians, and which are only a reflex: of those of the pubUc generally.

The want of reliable evidence being thns acknowledged, I ventured on the attempt to supply it, having at command some of the materials, and being assisted by friends who possessed considerable local knowledge of special coal-fields. In 1866 this, and the cognate questions, were entrusted to Eoyal Commissioners, who have now issued an able Eeport, which places the question of the resources of the coal-fields beyond the pale of speculation, and famishes data for the guidance of the statesman and pohtical economist, upon which to found his own conclusions.

The first evidence of a decreasing supply of coal wiU be a sensible rise in the price ; but, through the agency of railways, this wiU not become general until the resources of aU the coal-fields shall have become developed to their full capabilities ; because, where the supply shortens in one district, a corresponding impetus will be given to mining in others now only partially opened up.

Two illustrations may be mentioned. Many

Intboductoby. 3

of US may live to see the southern half of the South Staffordshire coal-field exhausted, or nearly so ; but while this consummation is approaching, the northern half of the same great coal-tract is far from being developed to the extent of which it is capable. The exhaustion of the southern portion is already telling upon the northern.

The interesting and instructive coal-field of Coalbrook Dale, in Shropshire, is fast approaching extinction as a coal-producing district. There is probably not more coal than will last for a quarter of a century, at the present rate of consumption. But there is a neighbouring coal-field, that of Denbighshire, capable of producing about five times its present supply. Between Brymbo collieries on the north and those of Buabon on the south, there is a large area, well stored with coal, which has only recently been disturbed. Other examples will be found in the following pages.

In speaking of the exhaustion of a coal-field, I do not use the term in an absolute sense. There will always be bands of coal, besides leavings, in the coal mines, sufficient to aflford a small supply to the immediate neighbourhood for domestic purposes. A coal-field may be said to be exhausted, when it is necessary to import largely

b2

4 Iktboductort.

from neighbouring districts for manufacturing and more general purposes. From various causes, large quantities of coal have been left in old workings, much of which it will be impossible ever to recover.

I have already said, that the British coal-fields can never be utterly exhausted. This is strictly true. Even disregarding the coal-beds which lie concealed beneath formations newer than those of the Carboniferous period, there are, in some districts, coal-seams which are buried 6,000, 8,000, and perhaps 12,000 feet beneath the surface, and which can never be reached. I refer particularly to the great coal-basin of South Wales, which, as Mr. Vivian has shown, is capable of supplying the whole of England with coal ; but for, I believe, a far shorter period than Mr. Vivian estimates it. In a future page I shall enter in greater detail into this subject; and here content myself with stating the broad fact of the enormous depth of some of the coal-beds in that basin, on the authority of the late Sir H. T. de la Beche and Sir W. Logan, through whose energy the magnificent geological survey of this district is now in the hands of the public. Now, without assigning in this place any theoretical limit to the depth at which coal may be worked, few will

Intboductoby. 5

be disposed to deny that coal-seams at these depths might as well be buried beneath the waters of the Atlantic, for all the probability there is of their ever being rendered available.

There are other districts, principally in the Midland counties, where the coal-strata, though not themselves of any very great thickness, dip under higher formations till they reach vast depths. For instance, there is no reason to* doubt that coal underhes the plain of Cheshire, between the coal-fields of Lancashire on the north, Staffordshire on the east, and Flintshire on the west ; yet, in order to reach the highest workable coal-seam at Northwich, it would be necessary to carry the shaft which reaches the great salt rock at least 4,000 feet deeper than at present.*

There are, however, very large districts in Staffordshire, Leicestershire, and Warwickshire, overspread by formations belonging to the Permian and Triassic systems, where coal may be reached at depths within 3,000 or 4,000 feet. In

It has been estimated that there are in England and Wales no less than 48,465 millions of tons of coal at a greater depth than 4,000 feet, and reaching down to 10,000 feet from the surface, where the temperature wonld be higher than that of boiling water. — Report of Coal-Commission," vol. i., p. 17.

6 Intboductory.

the north-eastern counties of Durham, Yorkshire, and Notts, there are also vast stores of fossil-fuel within reach, but overspread by formations belonging to the age of the Permian and Trias. In Durham, the Magnesian Limestone, which attains there a thickness of 600 feet, has for several years been penetrated in various places down to the underlying coal ; and the same formation, in *its southerly extension into Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire, bids fair to give rise to a coal-producing district of large extent and capacity.* One of the deepest mines in England, that of Shireoak, near Worksop, belonging to the Duke of Newcastle, is situated on the Magnesian Limestone; and a few years since, after obstacles of no ordinary kind had been triumphantly surmounted, was carried down into the long-wishedfor coal-seam, at a depth of 610 yards.

The depth of many coal-shafts in the north of England is already very great. The "Arley mine" is now worked at Eose Bridge colliery, near Wigan, at a depth of 816 yards (2,446 feet).t The ''cannel" seam is reached by shafts 600 yards in depth, in at least two colUeries ; Pendleton colliery, near Manchester, is 636 yards

See Map.

t Appendix A. ; see Brit. Assoc. Bep., 1870, p. 80.

Introductory. 7

deep ; Duckinfield, in Cheshire, 686 yards. The Monkwearmouth pit, near Sunderland, has a depth of 530 yards: and collieries with shafts between 400 and 500 yards are not uncommon in the coal-fields of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Durham.*

Notwithstanding, however, all that art and industry can invent to facilitate mining at great depths, — notwithstanding the increased powers of the machinery and improvements in ventilation, the employment of flat wire ropes, the substitution of steel for wrought uron, and the use of two or more "lifts'* or stages, at intervals from the bottom of the mine, — we must ultimately reach a depth at which the temperature will be so high as to prohibit inexorably mining operations. What that depth may be I shall discuss in a future chapter : in the meanwhile, let us review briefly the progressive course of coal-mining from its infancy to the present time.

Some of the collieries in Belgium are of great depth ; one of these, I am assured, reaches 982 yards or 860 metres, and some in Saxony reach 800 yards and upwards.

Paet I.

Chaptee I.

Fbaoments In The Hi8T0Bt Of Coal-Mtninq.

The first attempts at coal-mining are enveloped in obscurity; but even from the chronicles of those days, when nothing was thought worth recording save the accession of a prince, the feuds of neighbouring states, and the details of a battle, enough has been incidentally noted to enable us to trace back the art of coal-mining to very early times.

Its beginning was sufficiently humble. The nature and property of coal being httle understood, there was nothing in the outcropping of a black substance along the sides of a hill or the banks of a brook to arrest attention ; but it is not improbable that from the earliest periods — at any rate from the time in which implements and weapons of metal replaced those of flint — fossil

10 The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

fuel may have been employed for smelting purposes. Fortunately on this point we are not left altogether to conjecture, aa I shall have occasion to show presently.

Like many other treasures of Nature, the use of coal did not become general until its necessity had become paramount. While in the days of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman art, and those which immediately succeeded, the plains of England were overspread with almost continuous forests, growing, as in Staffordshire and Lancashire, frequently in dense luxuriance over the mineralized forests of geologic ages, and while these forests readily yielded an abundance of fuel for all the purposes of the times, it was both unnecessary and improbable that the labour and risk of mining should become general. The precious mineral was reserved for a generation to whose very existence it is almost a necessity ; a generation that, without its aid, could scarcely (as far as we can see) have arrived at the position in art, industry, and navigation, which it has attained in the nineteenth century.

I must now ask my reader to accompany me through a few of those details in the history of coal-mining which I have been able to collect. I do not profess to have exhausted the subject ;

Fbaoments In The Histobt Of Goal-Minino. 11

for the more I have entered into it, the more am I satisfied that much remains to reward the industry of the antiquarian. The notices we find are hke stepping-stones for crossing a river; sometimes they are large, copious, and closely placed, at other times wide apart, so that we have to make a leap perhaps over several centuries at a time; but I have no doubt farther researches will enable us to add to the number of the stone steps, so as to lessen the gaps, if we cannot hope to make a continuous road from the shore of the past to that on which we stand.

It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the frequent references to coal in the Sacred Scriptures cannot be considered as pointing to that mineral as at present understood. The original word doubtless means charcoal, which, like the Latin term, may be employed to designate fuel of both kinds. I should not, however, be so confident that coal itself was not sometimes intended, if there was any certainty of its existence as a product of the Holy Land or Arabia ; but as far as I am aware it is only to be found very sparingly in Lebanon on the one hand, and near the shores of the Black Sea and Bosphorus on the other.

Period before Christ. — Theophrastus, a Greek

12 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitaik.

author who Kved about 238 years before the Christian era, describes, in brief but determinate language, the nature, uses, and source of coal. It is a sufficient proof of this mineral being intended, that the description appHes accurately to it, and to no other. He says : " They call those fossil substances (xv? avffpoKosi) anthracite (or coal), and when they are broken up for use, are of an earthy character (yeaeis) ; nevertheless, they inflame and bum even like charcoal {Kaddirep oi avdpatcryijy and are used by the smiths." He adds, that the coal is found along with amber and other substances in Liguria, and in Elis on the road to Olympias over the mountains.*

There are several other passages in the same work descriptive of combustible minerals, but described in such vague language that it is impossible to identify them. The passage above quoted is, it appears to me, sufficient; and its value would scarcely be strengthened by the addition of a score of others which might be applied to as many different substances.!

It is scarcely necessary to give the original passage of which the above is a literal translation, and varies only sightly from that of Mr. John Hill, who edited an edition of the History of Stones" in 1746. Pennant also notices ihe passage, and does not hesitate to refer it to coal.

t See also the same author in "Ilepi AiJdmfP Art. 49.

Fbagments In The History Of Coal-Mining. 13

The passage in Pliny* is of little service, though sometimes quoted as referring to coal. Speaking of a certain earth (Chia terra), he merely says of it that " Bitumini simillima est ampelitis." Theophrastus, in speaking of this stone, says : " There is a certain earth in Cilicia, which is heated and becomes glutinous. With this they smear the vines (as a protection) against worms." Strabo reiterates the above description — in all probability only quoting it.

Ancient Britons. — It might scarcely be credited, were it not established on incontestable evidence, that there were coal mines amongst those savage clans and roving barbarians, such as we are generally taught to consider the Britons of prehistoric times. The discovery of a flint-axe stuck into a bed of coal exposed to-day in Monmouthshire is a fact which, like the occurrence of a soKtary fragment of a plant in a very ancient rock, proves a great deal more than appears at first sight. If we accept the theory, that flint weapons were the earliest representation of three stages of civilization, of which bronze implements were the second, and iron implements the third, this discovery carries us back to a very

*Nat. Hist., lib. xxxv. 16.

14 The Coal-Fiblbs Of Gbeat Britain.

early period, antecedent to the invasion of the Romans.

Sir C. Lyell informs us, on the authority of the late Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, that a rude ornament, made of cannel coal, was found on the coast in the parish of Dundonald, lying fifty feet above the sea-level, on a surface of boulder clay, and covered with gravel containing marine shells. The writer adds: " If we suppose the upward movement to have been uniform in central Scotland before and after the Roman era, and assume that as twenty-five feet indicate seventeen centuries, we should then carry back the date of the ornament in question to fifteen centuries before our era, or to the days of Pharaoh, and to the period usually assigned to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt.*

Coining down to less ancient times, I may mention the foUowing case. Near Stanley, in Derbyshire, some years since, while some miners were engaged in driving a heading through the " Kilbum coal,'* they broke into some very old excavations, in which they found axes or picks formed out of solid oak. The implements were entirely destitute of metal, and were cut out

Antiquity of Man," p.. 55,

Fbagments In The Histoey Of Coal-Mining. 15

from one solid piece of timber. It is hard to imagine the nse of such an instrument where iron was known ; while it is also difficult to conjecture how an axe of this kind could have been formed without the assistance of iron. The neighbourhood of these old workings abounds in iron-ore, several beds of clay iron-stone occurring both above and below the KUbum coal. If the use of these ores had been known, it is scarcely to be supposed that the miners would have made use of picks formed entirely of oak. Implements which appear to have belonged to an equally early period are stated to have been found in old coal-workings near Ashby-de-la-Zouch, consisting of stone hammer-heads, wedges of flint, as also wheels of solid wood.*

Whittaker states that there is indubitable evidence from the discoveries at Castle-Field, near Manchester, that the Britons had made use of coal in that neighbourhood. He refers to the existence of fragments of coal in the beds of sand under the Koman road, and in a pit a few feet deep contiguous thereto. But I very much doubt the value of such evidence. Those acquainted with the Drift, or Post-pliocene deposits

Mammat's Geological Facts."

16 The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Britain.

of Lancashire and Cheshire, know that drifted fragments of coal are extremely plentiful therein ; and there is strong probability that those upon which he dilates so enthusiastically were carried to their beds in the sand long even before the time of the Aborigines of Britain ; and not by the hand of man.

Bomans in Britain. — That the Eomans were acquainted with the use of coal during their occupation of Britain is highly probable, both from what we know of the character of the race and from circumstantial evidence. They had stations in many places close to the out-crop of valuable coal-seams, and cinders have been found amongst the ruins of Eoman towns and villas. I may here mention a case which has always appeared to me as probably referable to this period. Wigan in Lancashire was a Roman station. Not far to the north of that town, a bed of coal — one of the most valuable in Lancashire, and known as the "Arley Mine," — out- / crops along the banks of the river Douglas. Not long since, while driving a tunnel to divert the course of the river, this coal-seam of 6-feet in thickness was found to have been mined in a maimer hitherto altogether unknown. It was found to have been excavated into a series of

Fbagments In The Histobt Of Coal-Minimg. 17

polygonal chambers, with vertical walls opening into each other by short passages, and on the whole presenting on a ground plan something of the appearance of a honeycomb. The chambers were stated to be regular both in size and form over an area of at least 100 yards in one direction, and were altogether different from anything within the experience of the miners of the district. Local tradition ascribed these excavations to the Danes, though I could not discover upon what groxmds. We should probably be nearer the truth in assigning them to the Bomans during their sojourn in these parts. There is something in the symmetrical arrangement and regularity of the works peculiarly Eoman, reminding one of their tesselated pavements, or the ground plans of their baths and villas, in which symmetry of form appears to be the guiding spirit. It would, however, have been more satisfactory had the evidence rested on the discovery of works of art within the excavations. But it is time to return from this digression to the more sure word of history.

If Whittaker, the historian of Manchester, has been unsuccessful, as it appears to me at least, in establishing upon satisfactory evidence the use of coal by the Ancient Britons, he has been more

18 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

fortunate in showing that fossil fuel from the Lancashire coal-field was burnt by their successors, the Eomans. Castle-Field — an original settlement of the Britons — was afterwards possessed by the Romans under the name of Mancunium. In the course of time it has slightly changed its name, and developed into the metropohs of the northern counties of England. Whittaker states, that amongst other Roman remains turned up about a century ago, cinders and scoriae were discovered in several places, as well as the " actual refase of some considerable coal-fire."*

The same author also relates, that in the West Riding of Yorkshire, near North Brierley, a quantity of Roman coins, the very best indices for dates, were found "carefully reposited " amid many beds of coal-cinders heaped up in the adjacent fields. t

Horseley, speaking of some inscriptions found at BenweU, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Condercum of the Romans, states that there was " a coahy not far from that place, which is judged by those best skiUed in such affairs to have been

- History of Manchester," vol. i, p. 801. t Ibid, vol. i., p. 803.

Fbagments In The Histoby Of Coal-Mining. 19

wrought by the Eomans."* , Wallis also states, that in digging some of the foundations of the city of Magna, or Caervorran, in Northumberland, in 1762, cinders, in all respects similar to those derived from coal, were found in considerable quantity.!

Mr. T. J. Taylor, in an article on the "Archseology of the Coal-trade," J also refers to the discovery of coal-cinders as part of the relics of the Roman stations of the neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, notices of which are contained in the records of the Antiquarian Society of that town.

Similar evidences of the use of coal by the Romans are stated to have been discovered at Lanchester, and Elchester, in the county of Durham.

One of our most laborious investigators in the field of archaeology, Mr. T. Wright, considers that the Shropshire coal-field was " discovered " by the Romans. Not far from the borders of this coal-field stood the ancient Uriconium, now the village of Wroxeter ; and during the recent explorations, which resulted in bringing to light many

Britaimia Bomana."

t Hist, of Northumberland."

; Proc. Axchftol. Institute of Newcastle, vol. i., p. 151.

20 The Coal-Fields Op Geeat Bbitain.

objects of interest ixx the domestic arrangements of the Eoman inhabitants, considerable quantities of coal — both in the raw state and partially consumed — were found, having been used apparently in heating the ovens. The fragments appeared to be of inferior quality, such as occurs when they are extracted at no great depth from the out-crop of the seams.* It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that metallic mining was very largely carried on by the Eoman colonists along the border counties of Flintshire, Denbighshire, and Shropshire, many of the principal lead mines having been opened up by them.

Assuming, from the general consideration of the case, that coal was not unknown to the Romans — though they do not appear to have invented a name for it while in Britain, and it was probably used more from curiosity than from necessity — we enter upon the Anglo-Saxon period, in which there is documentary evidence of the use of pit-coal for domestic purposes.

Anglo-Saxon Period. — Britton, in his description of Peterborough Cathedral, renders into modem English the following paragraph taken

" Intellectual Observer," No. 4.

Fbaoments In The Histobt Of Coal-Mining. 21

from the Saxon Chronicle of the Abhey of Peterborough : — About this time (a.d. 852) the Abbot Ceoked let to hand the land of Sempringham to Wulfred, who was to send each year to the monastery 60 loads of wood, 12 loads of coal, 6 loads of peat, 2 tuns fall of fine ale, 2 neats' carcases, 600 loaves, and 10 kilderkins of Welsh ale, 1 horse also each year, and 30 shillings, and one night's entertainment.' " How Wulfred was to send the provident abbot " one night's entertainment " it is not necessary for our purpose to inquire ; but this statement of the chronicler is highly valuable as establishing the fact that coal was at this early period an article of household consumption. It may also have been made use of by the monks, who were the artificers and craftsmen of their times, in the manufacture of metaJ-work for the churches and monasteries. In connection with this period, it is matter for discussion whether our term *coal," which is evidently identical with the German " kohle," has been derived from our Saxon ancestors, or whether, on the other hand, the Germans have derived it from us. It is probable the term was in general use before the invasion of the

Cathedral Antiquities," vol. v.

22 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Normans, otherwise the French or Latin name would in all probability have been adopted. The Saxon name col (German hohle) appears to have superseded the old British name glo and if introduced into Britain at the colonization of the country by the German tribes, it is in favour of the supposition, that the art of coal-mining was practised in Europe during the first centuries of the Christian era.*

I have been favoured with the following note on the derivation of the word Coal, by my relative, the late Mr. William J. Leacock, which I give entire : —

'' There are only five copies extant of the original Saxon Chronicle, of which four are in the British Museum. The original Anglo-Saxon words used in reference to Wulfred's rent to the Abbot of Peterborough are — *anb tpaelp po'Sup paepan,' t.., in modem English letters, and twaelf rothur greefan.' Bosworth, in his A.S. Dictionary, gives under Graefe, an ; m. Coal : Carbo fossilis. Chr. 852 {ue.y the above passage), so that this seems to be the only passage in which the term is used. No derivation is given, and I can find no parallel in the Dutch or German ; but perhaps, as we have Anglo-Saxon Greaf or Graf,' Dutch the same, German ' Grab,' and so through all the northern languages, for a trench or ' grave,* it simply means the ' dug-up ' earth.

'' I find, however, in the A.S. Dictionary, Col. plur. cola, colu. [Ters., Teiresia h6al, Dutch hool.] Coal, carbo: with reference to Psalm xviii. 12, 18, and cxxxix. 11, t.., the Psalms by Spelman, London, 1640, the division of the Vulgate being used.'

" There is also Gled, Gloed, plur., with many parallels in the northern languages, meaning a burning coal, coal, fire ; carbo, used in Psalm xviii. 12, etc.

Fbagmbnts In The History Of Coal-Mining. 23

If we have derived the term " coal " from our Saxon forefathers, from whom did they derive it ? On this point my late esteemed and erudite friend, the Eev. W. C. Coleman, a man ho combined an nnusal amount of linguistic and scientific knowledge with an ardent love of natural history, has favoured me with his views on this interesting topic, in a letter which I gladly avail myself of this opportunity of publishing.*

My correspondent says : Eegarding the derivation of the word coal, I believe it is to be referable to a pretty widely-spread root, signifying simply Black, Sanscrit it is w, and in Arabic character K=kala, This occurs in TurMsh in the form K=kara, with the dialectic change of r for 1 ; — e.., Kara-on, the Black water ; Kara Denghoz, the Black Sea ; Kara Dagh, the Black Mountain. Also in Greek, in the form KeKcuvoy

" In Somers* A.S. Dictionary, the word Qrcefa is not to be found ; bat which means a grove as well as a grave. He gives ' Col. carbo., a coal to bom ; but says nothing about derivation.

The following is Richardson's etymological accoxmt of the

word Coal.* He says it is ' of unsettled etymology. A.S.

Jol: German and Dutch, Kohle: Swedish, KoV Yossius derives

rom the Greek, yoLKeos pro yrjKeo, Ignis epitheton. Wachter

rom yriKoeaf, comburere. Ure seems to decide for the Swedish

Quilla, Westro-Goth KyUa, accendere ignem (to kindle a fire).''

Dated from Burton-on-Trent, 5th Feb., 1862."

24 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

used for Black by Homer, and wMch implies the existence at an earlier period of a simpler form, JKeXa?. No doubt the root occurs in other languages, but I have not the means of examination at hand. Perhaps the Arabic .U gar asphalte, may also have something to do with it."

Anglo-Norman Period. — It is matter for surprise, as well as regret, that in the great survey of England carried out by William the Conqueror, and recorded in that most matter-of-fact of all books, the Domesday Book, no instructions were deUvered to the commissioners for inquiring into the extent and value of the mineral property of the central and northern counties. They appear to have confined their investigations entirely to the extent, rights, and ownership of the surface land, together with the classification of the inhabitants ; but throughout the counties of York, Lancashire, Derby, and Nottingham, abounding in coal and other minerals, no mention whatever is made of these latter sources of wealth.

In order to test this point, I turned to the page relating to Chellaston in Derbyshire, where a most valuable bed of gypsum, or alabaster, underlies a large extent of surface at no great depth, and crops out as a sold bed ten or twelve feet in thickness. This mineral (which we know

Fbagments In The Histoby Op Coal-Mining. 26

to have been worked centuries ago) could not even at that time have been undiscovered, for the ploughshare scrapes its surface in many places, and it may well be supposed to have been a source of wealth to the owner. Yet there is no mention made of the mineral value of the property in the 'Dom Boc." Even the lead mines of Derbyshire, known to have been worked by the Eomans, are unnoticed, and therefore we need not be surprised that coal receives no mention.

However, in the Boldon Book, containing the census of portions of the northern counties, and published in the reign of Henry II., we find at least two references to coal. It is here stated that the carpenter of Vemouth (now Wearmouth) who is an old man, holds twelve acres for life for making carts and harrows for the tenants, and that the smith (Faber) has an equal quantity of land for the iron-work of the carts, and finds the requisite coal (carbones invent). I think this passage cannot be considered as referring to charcoal obtained from wood. In this sense the verb invent would be inapplicable, but is not so when used in reference to a kind of fael which requires discovery. The census of Seggefeeld follows very closely upon that of Vemouth, and

26 The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Britain.

here also the smith of the village is said to find the coal for his forge.* What a curious insight into the customs of those times is aflforded by these passages ! In the small communities of Vernouth and Seggefeeld, the carpenter and smith are bound to keep in repair, and probably provide, the implements of agriculture for the farmers in consideration of a certain extent of land ; money being probably not in general use amongst the villagers of that period.

In 1180, a grant of land was made to a collier (as stated by Bishop Pudsey) for providing coals to a cartsmith at Counden, in the county of Durham ; another instance of a similar kind.

The year 1259 is memorable in the annals of coal-mining. Hitherto the mineral had not been recognized by authority, or in any pubhc document ; but in that year King Henry IH. granted a charter to the freemen of Newcastle-on-Tyne for liberty to dig coals. Under the term " seacoal" a considerable export trade was established

Inqnisitio de consnetadinis, et reditibns totius Ep'atus Dnnelmensis, Anno 1188. The difficulty of reading this work, which, like the Domesday Book, is fnll of abbreviations and elliptical expressions, is great. As examples, I quote the passages above alluded to : — Vemouth. Faber xii. acr* ferramentf caruc' & carbones qm' invent." Faber, 1 bo vat. ferrametj carruc'. que fac*. & carbon' invent."

Pbagments In The Histoby Of Coal-Mining. 27

with London, and it speedily became an article of consumption amongst the various manufacturers of the metropolis. But its popularity was short-lived. An impression became general that the smoke arising therefrom contaminated the atmosphere, and was injurious to the public health. Tears of experience has proved the fallacy of the imputation; but in 1306 the outcry became so general that the Lords and Commons in Parliament assembled presented a petition to King Edward L, who issued a proclamation forbidding the use of the offending fuel, and authorising the destruction of the furnaces and kilns of all who should persist in using it. This was a year before the monarch's death, and the year which saw the overthrow of his life-long attempts upon the throne of Scotland, through the intrepidity of Eobert the Bruce. But the proclamation against coal was as abortive as the endeavour to conquer the patriotism of the Scots. Prejudice gradually gave way as the valije of the fossil fuel became better known, and from that time downwards its use became more extended ; and it is very probable that throughout the 14th and 15th centuries coal was extracted near the outcrop of the beds over most, if not all, of the coalfields of Britain and Lreland. Historical records

28 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

are still extant from which .we learn that collieries were opened during the 14th century in various parts of Yorkshire, Durham, andNorthumberland.

The anonymous author of the History of Fossil Fuel " observes in reference to the 13th century : " The strongest and most unequivocal proof that this species of fael (coal) was in use amongst us during the reign of Henry the Third, is to be found in an inquisition preserved among the additions to Matthew Paris's History, of the date of 1246. Here we find it called cargo marisy or sea-coal — an appellation retained through succeeding centuries — with express mention of making pits to win it, and of the wages of the colliers that wrought in them."

Leland* has the following passage : " The haynes of the se-coles ly sometime upon clines of the se, as round about Coquet Island, and other shores ; and they, as some will, be properly called se-coles ; but they be not so good as the coles that are digged in the inner part of the lande."

We have numerous references to the use of coal in the 14th century, t Surtees, in his

" Itinerary," vol. viii.

t Coal seems to have been discovered near Newcastle early in the 13th century ; according to Rymer*s Foedera," it was

Fragments In The History Of Coal-Mining. 29

" History of Durhain," mentions a coal-mine in connection with the vicarage of Merrington, in the county of Durham, in 1343; and also notices the sinking of pits at Ferryhill; in the same county.

Mr. Taylor, in the Memoir already alluded to, says : " We have thus a tolerably clear historical account of the Newcastle coal-mining and its adjuncts in the 14th century. We have seen that collieries were then certainly opened over a considerable extent of our coal-field, since they were being worked in the districts of Newcastle, Elswick, Birtley, Winlaton, Merrington, and Lanchester. To these may be added coal-mines in Bedhngtonshire, the produce of which was probably shipped in the river Blyth (Northumberland), for we find the Bishop of Durham in 1368 appointing a supervisor of the mines of that district. That coals were also shipped from Sunderland in the same century we have proof in the rolls of Whitby Abbey in 1396, when ' 13 shillings and 4 pence were paid to William Eede of Sunderland for four chaldrons of coal.'

made an article of trade in London in the reign of Richard 11. (1881), and generally bnmt by the inhabitants of the metropolis in the year 1400. Proc. Archceol. Inst. Newcastle, vol. i.

30 THE COAL-FffiLDS OP GBEAT BBITAIN.

The use of coal in London was resumed within a few years after its prohibition by the king in 1306 ; as we find in the " Petitiones in Parhamento," in 1321-2, a claim made for ten shillings on account of coal which had been ordered by the clerk of the palace, but the payment for which had been neglected.

Amongst other incidental notices of coal in the 14th century is that of -ffineas Sylvius, afterwards Pius II. On his visit to Scotland he had opportunities of witnessing the poor receiving as alms at the gates of the monasteries pieces of coal, which,'* he states, " they bum in place of wood, of which their country is destitute."*

Coal-miues are also mentioned in the abbey leases of this century. Tynemouth priory had a coUiery at Elswick in 1330, let at a yearly rental of six marks, to be paid so soon as the tenant commenced working the coal. The rent of another new coUiery in 1334 is stipulated at 405. yearly, t

In the reign of Eichaxd II., about the year 1381, coal was made an article of trade in London (Eymer's Feeder a). In 1400 it was burnt

" Mnei Sylvii Opera," p. 448. (See Appendix.) t Proc. Arch. Inst. Newcastle, vol. i.

Fragments In The History Op Coal-Mining. 31

generally for fuel in the metropolis, and in 1625 throughout the greater part of England.

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the coal-trade flourished greatly, and continued to be regarded as an important source, not only of local but of national revenue, by succeeding monarchs. In the reign of Charles I. the trade was burdened by excessive taxation and grievous monopoKes. After the capture of Newcastle by the Scottish army, the House of Commons undertook the regulation of the coal-trade, by which step supplies were shipped into the port of London for the use of the poor, coals having previously risen to the price of 4Z. per chaldron.*

The difficulties under which mining operations were carried on before the invention of the steam engine, and more particularly of the "Davy lamp," must have been very great. An anonymous writer in the "Builder" states, that in many mines the only alternative the mediaeval miner had to pitch darkness was the phosphorescent gleam from dried fish.f Those who wish to understand the art of mining as it was carried on at this period wiU find their curiosity amply gratified by turning over the pages of

Hist. Fos. Fuel," p. 816. t See Appendix £.

32 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Agricola's treatise on mining. This author, who wrote in the middle of the 16th century, has illustrated the various processes by a profusion of quaint drawings on a large scale. The horsegin, which survives to the present day in many districts, was the engine chiefly employed both for lifting the coal, and for getting rid of the water. This latter object was also sometimes effected by means of pumps turned by windmills, or through tunnels driven with great labour to an outlet at a lower level.

Pennant, in his account of the collieries of Flintshire, states that there is documentary evidence to show that the coal-seams of Mostyn were worked in the time of Edward I. ; and in the 17th century, Dublin and the eastern parts of Ireland were supphed from this district.*

In the year 1600, or thereabouts, coal was worked at Bedworth in Warwickshire, as we learn from Camden, who describes the process, and says that the miners assured him that large toads had been found in the solid coal.f In this century

" Tonr in Wales," vol. i. (1784.)

t Camden's " Britannia," Gough's edit., vol. ii., p. 464. This belief amongst miners of the existence of live toads in coal is very extraordinary, and is almost co-extensive with mining itself. I was assured by a miner in Lancashire, near Ormskirk,

Fbagmekts In The Histobt Of Goal-Mining. 33

ako the mineral treasures of the bishopric of Durham were well known ; and early in the 17th century the cannel-coal of Lancashire was used, not only by the poor for candles, but was manufactured into various articles of ornament or use. Camden, in speaking of the discovery of this most valuable description of coal at Haigh, near Wigan, says : " This neighbourhood abounds with that fine species of coal called canal or candle. It is curious and valuable, and besides yielding a clear flame when burnt, and therefore used by the poor as candles, is wrought into candlesticks, plates, boxes, etc., and takes a fine polish like black marble."*

Dr. Plot, Professor of Chemistry at Oxford, writing in 1686, describes with much minuteness the working of coal and clay-ironstone at Tunstall and Silverdale in North Staffordshire, and also the process by which the reduction of the ore was effected.f

That coal was worked in Ireland at least as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century,

that a toad had been brought up in a piece of coal from a mine thirty-dz yards in depth, which immediately revived on reaching the sorface t

"Britannia," vol. iii., p. 890.

t " Natural Hifttory of Staflfordshire/*

34 The Coal-Fields Of Gkbat Bbitain.

and possibly mucli earlier, may be inferred from the following account given by Hamilton in his " Letljijrs on the Coast of Antrim." He relates that in 1770 the miners of Ballycastle, in pushing forward an adit towards a bed of coal in an unexplored part of the coal-field, unexpectedly broke into a narrow passage, which proved to have been carried several hundred yards to a bed of coal, and then branched off into chambers. Pillars had been left at proper distances, and some remains of tools and baskets were found, which speedily crumbled to pieces. Those who are aware how the accounts of mining operations are handed down through several generations, will readily admit that the old works here mentioned, and of which aU local tradition had been lost, must have been carried on at least a century and a half before the period when they were afterwards discovered, which would throw back the date nearly to the beginning of the 16th century.

In Scotland the coal-seams of the Lothians and Fifeshire were probably worked at a very early period. The ancient Celtic name still adheres to the little sheet of water, Loch Glow, lying near the border of the Fifeshire coal-field, and along whose banks thin coal-seams crop out.

FBAGMENTS IN THE fflSTORT OF COAL-MINING. 35

Agricola, and after him Camden, mentions that in his time there existed in the latter county old coal-pits, filled with water, and sttrrounded by mounds of refase called coal-heughs ; and he adds that " many of the beds of coal have been on fire for centuries, and the heat still continues to melt the snow on the surface." These old coal-works would appear to have been at least as old as the 16th century.

In reference to the coal-miners of Scotland, it will probably surprise many persons to learn that they were held in a state of actual and legal slavery down to the year 1799, when the Act of George III. chap. 66, was passed, by which all colliers in Scotland were declared free from servitude.t

After the great Fire of London, the Lord Mayor was granted an impost of one shilling per chaldron for rebuilding the city, which was fiirther increased to three shillings. An additional tax of two shillings was afterwards imposed by Parliament in 1670, for the purpose of rebuilding fifty-two parish churches; and in 1677 a farther tax of three shillings was laid

Camden's " Britaimia/' vol. iv., p. 114. This elaborate work was published in 1607. t Lord Cockbum's " Memorials of his Time " (1856).

d2

36 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

on, partly for rebuilding St. Paul's. The duties for rebuilding the city churches were continued during the reign of Queen Anne. At the period of the great war with France the coal-tax rose to nine shillings and fourpence per chaldron, the whole of which has been repealed, with the exception of the City and Orphans' Duties, amounting to one shilling and a penny per ton.

Campbell, in his " Political Survey of Britain," published in 1774,* gives us some interesting details of the coal-trade in his time. He states, that although coal was employed in manufactures for several hundred years, it did not come into general use till the reign of Charles I., and was then sold for seventeen shillings a chaldron. In 1670, about 200,000 chaldrons, and at the Eevolution (1690) upwards of 300,000, and in the reign of George III. (1760) double that quantity, was annually consumed in Britain. He adds : " There is little room to be alarmed from the apprehension of their (the mines) being exhausted, as the present works are capable of supplying us for a long series of years, and there are many other mines ready to be opened when any of these shall fail," — a piece of information

Vol. ii., p. 80.

FEAGMEKTS IN THE HISTOBY OF COAL-MININa. 37

whicli must have been exceedingly consolatory to those of the last gefieration, but not so assiiring to us who have lived to see the annual consumption of more than 110 milUons of tons.

Sir John Clerk, in a letter to a friend, written in 1739, gives an interesting account of the collieries of Whitehaven.* The coal-beds, even at that time, were worked far tmder the sea, so that, as the writer observes. Sir James's riches in part swim over his head, for ships pass daily above the very ground where his colliers work. The coals were drawn up by an engine turned by two horses, which went their circuits at full trot every eight hours, and three changes were employed every twenty-four hours. Sir John Clerk then proceeds to give a long and minute account of the quantity of coal raised, its cost, and how much the proprietor cleared after paying all expenses, which amounted to the very moderate figure of 600Z. a year, or thereabout. The writer also states that the upper coal-seams were much exhausted near the sea, but that untouched treasures lay below.

We have now reached the margin of a new epoch in the history of coal-mining, marked by the invention of the steam-engine by Watt in BeloDgiog to Sir James Lowther.

38 The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

1784,* and of the safety-lamp by Sir Hmnpkrey Davy in 1815. With these inventions a thousand new uses for the application of coal sprung into existence ; railways, factories, steam-boats, ironfurnaces were multiplied ; and Britain, owing to her enormous riches in coal and iron, taken advantage of by a people endowed with indomitable energy and inteUigence, was enabled to place herself in the front place amongst the nations of the old world.

At the commencement of this century, the quantity of coal raised in Great Britain probably did not exceed ten millions of tons. In 1819, according to Mr. E. C. Taylor, the produce of our collieries was thirteen millions. In 1829, or ten years afterwards, 2,018,976 tons were shipped into the port of London alone. In 1840, the total quantity raised in Britain, according to Mr. M'Culloch, was thirty miUions. Since then the increase has been rapid, though fluctuating.

The inventions of Watt extend over a quarter of a century ; bnt the year 1784 was that in which he patented the invention of the parallel motion of the piston-rod, the counter for recording the strokes, the throttle-valve, the governor, and the indicator. In that year also he patented a locomotive engine. The " first practical steam-boat " was Ihe " Charlotte Dnndas," built by Symington in 1801. The first effective locomotive engine was patented by Trevithick and Vivian in 1802. And at the trial on the Manchester and Liverpool railway, George Stephenson's engine, the " Rocket," gained the prize in 1829.

Fbagmekts In The Histobt Of Coal-Mining. 39

In 1850 was passed the Act of ParUament for the appointment of inspectors of coal-mines, a measure loudly caUed for by the frequent occurrence of appalling accidents. The total loss of life to persons employed in, and about, the collieries of Great Britain during the two years immediately following the passing of the Act, averaged 985 per annum ; and the previous mortality was probably greater. Mr. Dickinson, one of H.M. Inspectors for Lancashire, has made a comparison of the mortahty amongst the collieries of Belgium and those of this country, which shows that, as estimated by the number of hands employed, the proportion of deaths in Great Britain to those of Belgixmi were, in the year 1852, as 5-33 per thousand to 4-06 ; yet, when estimated by the standard of the quantity of coal raised, the comparison is in favour of this country, having been in the years 1851 and 1852 in the proportion of one life for every 31,000 tons in Belgium, to one life for every 54,822 tons in Britain. The result is owing to the more extensive employment of underground machinery in the coal-mines of this country than in those of the Continent.*

Memoirs of the lit. and Ihil. ' Society of Manchester, ToL xii.

CHAPTER n.

On The Plants And Animals Of The Cabbonifebous Pebiod.

The vegetable origin of coal was recognised as

far back as 1786 by the philosopher Hutton,*

and is demonstrable, not only by its microscopic

stmctnre, its combustible properties and chemical

composition, but also by certain phenomena

which may generally be observed in reference to

its position in the strata.

Of the two theories of the formation of coal, the

first, which refers its origin to drift-wood carried

down by streams, and imbedded in estuaries, is

certainly inapplicable to the vast majority of

coal-seams ; the second, according to which the

vegetable materials grew on the spot where we

now find them in the form of coal, is the only

one which is in harmony with the phenomena

♦ James Hutton, "Theory of the Earth/* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1785.

PLANTS, ETC., OF THE CABBONIFEBOnB PEBIOD. 41

whicli generally present themselves amongst British coal-measnres.

The subject will be more intelligible to the reader if he become in some degree familiar with a few of the leading members of that luxuriant flora which flourished in the Carboniferous period.

That we have only a fragmentary wreck of the plants of this period must be evident ; for although vegetation attained a vigour which has never before or since been equalled, yet the number of species of coal-plants as yet determined is only about one-twentieth of that of living plants now growing over Europe alone. The number of species noticed by Adolphe Brongniart was 500, which are classified as foUows : —

Thallogens .

6 species.

Acrogens .

Donbtfal .

This number has since been increased by Professor Goppert, who estimates the known species of fossil plants of the Carboniferous period to be 879 ; these he classifies as foUows : —

Histoire des Vegetanz Fossiles." (Appendix D.)

42 The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Britain.

Cellxtlabes, including Fungi, AlgsB, etc., 18 species.

¥asculabbb, 866 species, of which 772 are CryptogavMy or Ferns, Calamites, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, etc. ; and are PhaneroganiSy such as Gycads, Conifers, etc.

The cellular Cryptogams are few in number, and of doubtful character ; the great majority of the fossil plants of this period belong therefore to the vascular Cryptogamic class; the gymnosperm Phanerogams, CycadeaB, and ConiferaB, are also represented in the Carboniferous flora, but by a much smaller proportion of species.

The perishable nature of plants under moisture or water is perhaps the principal cause of the fewness of the species preserved. For instance, there is every probability that there were grasses, mosses, and. sedges, but of these we have scarcely a trace. It is probable, however, that individuals of a few species predominated very largely, as is the case now in our pine forests, and in the great cypress swamps at the mouth of the Mississippi. Dr. Lindley, by a very interesting experiment, appears to have arrived at a clue to account for the large preponderance of certain classes of plants amongst those which have been preserved. By immersing in cold water for two years a large number of plants, as nearly as possible representatives of those of the coal-measures,

Plants, Etc., Of The Cabbonifebous Pebiod. 43

he obtained the following results. He fotmd that the dicotyledonous plants are in general incapable of resisTbing decomposition when immersed for two years, with the exception of the Coniferae. 2ndly, That monocotyledonous plants are less liable to decomposition, but that grasses and sedges perish rapidly. Srdly, That fungi, mosses, and equisettmis disappear, while ferns have a great power of endurance, the effect of immersion being only to destroy all traces of fructification; a- satisfactory reason why fossilferns seldom present this portion of their structure, though the fronds themselves occur in great numbers, and in admirable preservation.*

There appears to have been an uniformity in the vegetation of the Coal-period, to which there is now no parallel. The same genera, and many of the same species, ranged throughout the whole of Europe, and of North America from the Arctic regions as far south as the thirtieth parallel, that is to say, over a space comprehending about forty-five degrees of latitude ; and this uniformity of vegetation is continued vertically, for we find the same species ranging throughout the whole

lindley and Hntton : '' Fossil Flora/' vol. iii.

44 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

series of strata, sometimes amoimting to a thickness of at least 14,000 feet.

But perhaps the most inexplicable phenomenon in connection with this subject is the occurrence of coal and Carboniferous plants in the Arctic regions. They have been brought from Melville Island, in lat. 76. Specimens of coal, fossilwood, and shells belonging to Carboniferous types have been brought to this country by Sir E. Belcher from Albert Land, in lat. 78*" of the western hemisphere, and by Mr. Lament from Spitzbergen, in about the same parallel in the eastern, where the country is described as frightfully barren and desolate, and entirely destitute of vegetation, with the exception of saxifrages, reindeer moss, and similar dwarfish plants.* Eeasoning from analogy, we could never have supposed that in latitudes now subject to the severest frosts throughout the greater part of the year, and even deprivation of light for a long period, a vegetation could have flourished allied to that of the tropics, or at least to that of the warmer temperate zones of the present day. But, in truth, the period of the coal-formation was entirely unique ; it was never fore-

Lignite and large trees have also been found in Iceland, but of what period is uncertain.

Plants, Etc., Op The Oarbonifebous Pebiod. 45

stalled, and has never been repeated ; and of some of the most important coal-plants, such as Sigillaria and Lepidodendron there are no living representatives. The general opinion of the highest authorities* appears to be that the climate did not resemble that of the equatorial regions, but was one in which the temperature was free from extremes ; the atmosphere being warm and moist, somewhat resembling that of New Zealand and the surroundiug islands, which we endeavour to imitate artificially in our hothouses. Of the plants that are commonly preserved to us, the ferns seem to take the lowest rank, and the conifersB the highest, the CalamiteSy SigillariiBy and Lepidodendron occupying intermediate positions.* The ferns constituted a most prolific class, occurring in vast quantities in the shales which overlie the coal-seams. The Sigillariae, Lepidodendrons, and Calamites appear to have formed the greater mass of coal ; and the roots of the former especially (Stigmariae) penetrate in vast quantities the under-clays or floors of the coal-seams. Coniferous trees, however, formed a considerable portion of the mass of the coal,

See Sir C. Lyell, Elementary Geology," Sth edit., p. 899. t Dr. J. D. Hooker On the Vegetation of the Carhoniferous Period." Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. ii., p. 895.

The Goal-Fields Of Great Britain.

and seem to have grown in company with the more characteristic plants above mentioned. I now proceed to give a short description of the genera which have been most prohfic and characteristic amongst the flora of this ancient period.

Ferns. — These form a very large proportion of the Carboniferous flora; and, with the exception of their fructification, which has almost always disappeared, are preserved in great perfection. They are represented at the present day by the ,, ,, , . , arborescent forms of

AlethoptenB lonohitica.

Portion of frond ; two-fhizdB Mt. size. From a thC TrOpiCS, Which specimen in the Natural Hiitozy Miueum,

Manchester. flourish m Ccylon,

the islands of the Pacific, and the Indian Archipelago, where they are so abundant as to equal in numbersthe whole of the phanerogamic plants. The most abundant species in British coalmeasures are: Alethopteris sjii PecopteriSy of which

Plants, Etc., Of The Cabbonipebous Period. 47

there are about eight species of the former, and 30 species of the latter; Sphenopteris, 30 species ; NeuropteriSy 22 species.* Of the 140 species known in Britain, 60 occur in the same formation in North America, some ranging from Nova Scotia as far south as latitude 35°.t It is, however, to be remarked that we know little of the habits of the ferns of the coal-period, whether they grew out of the ground, or were parasitic on the tnmks of trees ; and it is even extremely uncertain what proportion of the large assemblage of species were tree-ferns, as we never find the fronds attached to their stems; and the stems themselves are of extreme rarity.

Calamites.J — This is an abundant genus, and is considered by Brongniart to be represented in our day by the Equisetacece of which the horsetail of our swamps and ponds is a famiUar

I omit CyolopteriB, as it is still uncertain whether it belongs to the fern tribe. Mr. Salter believed it to be the leaf of a eomfer. See Geologist," vol. iii

t Hooker. Ibid, mira cit., p. 404.

I More recent researches appear to show that Calamites differs essentially from EquisetacesB, and in many of its internal characters approaches Sigillaria. The following is the description of this genns by Lindley and Button : Stems jointed, regularly and closely furrowed, hollow, divided internally at the joints by a transverse diaphragm, etc. Leaves (?) verticillate, very narrow, numerous, and simple." — Fossil Flora."

The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

example. Mr. Carruthers has confirmed this opinion, uniting to the Calamites, Asterophyllites, Annularia, and Sphenophyllmn, as its leaves; whilst Volkmannia, a small slender cone composed of imbricated scales, in which he has discovered sporangia filled with spores, corresponding to the living horsetails, he believed to be its fruit.* This family extends from Lapland to the Equator, attaining the greatest number of species in the temperate zone. The fossil genera differed from the recent in the absence of the encircling sheaths at The Calamites almost always occur leafless, and frequently attain a length of twenty feet.

SiGiLLARiA. — This plant is perhaps, individually the most abundant, and has contributed more than any other to the production of coal. It has no living representatives ; and about sixty species are known. Sigillaria may be readily distinguished from the stems of other plants,

" Cryptogamic Forests of the Coal Period ; Boyal Institution of Great Britain, April 16, 1869.

Calamites verticillatTU. From a specimen in the Natural tlie JOUluS Histoiy Hnseum, Manchester. One-fourth natural size.

Plants, Etc. 9 Of The Cabbonifebous Pebiod. 49

Tig.9.

and externally, of LepidodendroUy of which family it is a member, by the flutings and striae of the bark being disposed longitudinally, or parallel to the axis of the tronk, and impressed with leaf-scars at regular intervals between the farrows. The internal structure of the stem is precisely the same as in Lepidodendron, to which, according to Mr. Carruthers, it is closely allied. The first has been described by Goldenburg.

The magnified sections of calcified specimens, figured and described by Mr. E. W. Bioney, F.E.S.,* throw a very clear Ught on the internal structure of this genus. They show (1) a central axis of large and small polygonal vessels, having their sides barred. (2) This is enclosed by a narrow cyliQder of vascular tissue, arranged in a radiating series, and divided by medullary

Fniflent of SigilUria. Half lutiural lise, oompntMd. From a specimen in the Natural History Moseom,

Joam. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. xviii. ; 8 plates.

£

60 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

rajrs.* (3) JNext a narrow zone of small round bundles of fine vascular tiBsue. (4) A broad zone of delicate cellular tissue, which, in the specimens, has generally been destroyed, and replaced by mineral matter. (6) Beyond this a wide zone (occupying about half the diameter of the stem) of coarse cellular tissue, gradually passing into an outer circle of small hexagonal utricles, arranged in radiating series. (6) The whole enclosed in a thin outer bark of coarse cellular tissue. The structure of a specimen of Lepidodendron is similar to the above, except that it wants the internal cylinder (2) of radiating vessels.

A silicified section, on being submitted to microscopic examination by M. A. Brongniaxt, led him to the conclusion that SigiUaria formed a peculiar family of Goniferce but without any Kving representative.! Dr. Hooker considers it a cryptogamic plant, alUed to Lepidodendron.

SigUlarise attained noble proportions in the Carboniferous period. Sir Charles LyeU men-

The supposed mednllary rays, which have been described in SigiUaria, Mr. Garmthers considers to be the accidental result of desiccation in particular specimens.

t Archives dn Museom d*Histoire Natorelle," torn, i., 1889.

Plants, Etc., Of The Gabbonifebous Pebiod. 51

tions an indiYidaal seventy-two feet in length, found at Newcastle.* They expand to a breadth of six to eight feet at the base, and from this taper towards the smnmit. Stems are frequently found standing erect on the roof of the coal, traversing several series of strata.! The character of the foliage is altogether uncertain, but the nature of the root has been clearly demonstrated by Mr. E. Binney, from observations in the Manchester coal-field. Enormous rhizomes, or root-stalks, radiating from a central axis, and spreading horizontally, had frequently been observed and described, under the name Stigmaria ficoides. They are covered over by multitudes of smaU circular indentations, from which emanate carbonized rootlets, penetrating the clay in which the rhizomes are imbedded. They were at first supposed to be a distinct genus of plants ; but when Mr. Binney discovered, in the neighbourhood of Manchester, several upright stems of Sigillaria attached by their bases to these spreading rhizomes, it became evident that these portions stood in the relation of stem and root ; and fossil-botany now labours under the disad-

Elements of Geology," 5ih edit, p. 876. t Several stenui were found standing on the upper snrfaee of a eoal-sean at Dixonfold, near Manchester.

E 2

62 The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

vantage of having two generic names for different parts of the same plant.*

LBPmoDENDRON.t — This is an abundant and large-sized plant of the Coal-period ; one specimen from the Jarrow coal-mine being more than 40 feet in length, and 13 feet in diameter near the base. Notwithstanding its size, it has been shown by Brongniart to have its representative in the diminutive club-moss (Lycopodium) of our mountain heaths. This tribe is generally trailing; but in the neighbourhood of the tropics there are a few erect species, one of which, L. densum of New Zealand, attains a height of three feet.

Several fine specimens are in the geological collection of the Maseom of Natnral History, Manchester. In one of them the upper part of the stem is a large Sigillaria, the lower part passing downwards into massive rhizomes (Stigmariffi). The internal stmctore both of the rhizome and rootlet has been very clearly made out by Mr. Binney. The central axis of the former consists of a bmidle of large vessels, disposed longitudinally, and snrronnded by a zone of cellnlar tissue with medullary rays. The outer zone or bark next succeeds. The central axis of the rootlet consists of a bundle of polygonal vessels, surrounded by a ring of cellular tissue inclosed in its outer covering of bark. — Joum. Geol. Soc. vol. xv.

t Diagnosis: — " Lepidodendron. Stems dichotomous, covered near their extremities by simple linear or lanceolate leaves, inserted upon rhomboidal areolie ; lower part of the stem leafless ; areolae marked near their upper part by a minute scar." — Lindley and Hutton.)

Plants, Etc., Of The Carboniferous Period. 53

A. fragment of Lepidodendron may be easily distanguislied from Sigillaria by the mamaer in vMcTi tlie leaf-scars are arranged spirally around tlie stem, giving it a scale-like aspect, from which it derives its name. There are about twenty British species, distinguished by the form and arrangement of these scars.*

In the hollow trunks of Lepidodendra small oval or conical bodies (Lepidostrobi) have frequently been found, often in numbers. They are evidently catkins or fruit-cones ; the outer surface was covered by scales or bracts, within which were contained seeds or spore-cases. See %4,

When enclosed within the trunk, they are found in an erect position : in other words, with their major axis parallel to that of the tree. Dr. Hooker, by a series of careful observations, has shown the Lepidostrobi to be the fruit of the tree itself, and accounts for their presence in the trunks by supposing them to have been washed in by heavy rains and floods when the trunks themselves were standing hollow and decayed.!

Memoirs of the Geological Survey, vol. ii., part 2, p. 440, with plates.

t In Lord Stamford's museum at EnviUe there is a specimen of Lepidodendron, collected by Mr. H. Beckett, containing three species of bivalve shells.

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

nf.4.

Lepidostrobns onuttnt in a nodule of ixonslone. In tho firiBtol Mnwnm. (Hooker.)

The leaves of Lepidodendron were linear, and have been found attached to the stem.* The root is supposed, though without any degree of certainty, to be represented by Halonia a portion of a plant covered with projecting scars spirally arranged, and originally supposed to have been a plant allied to Lepidodendron itself. At the same time, the root has never been found attached, and it is not improbable that Stigmaria may have constituted, at least in some of its varieties, the root of both Sigillaria and Lepidodendron.

Lycopodites. — This was a genus of plants allied to Lepidodendron or probably belonging to it, with pinnated branches, and leaves inserted all round the stem in two opposite rows, not leaving clean and well-defined scars.

The genuB Enorria of Sternberg no longer exists as such, according to the view of Prof. Goppert, who is of opinion that it is only a form of Sagenaria or Lepidodendron; and that the

For figures of which see the " Fossil Flora.**

PLANTS, BTC.y OF THK CASB0NIF8B0US PBBIOD. 55

most common species in the Lower Carboniferous Bocks, Knorria imbricatay belongs to Sagenaria Wdtheimiana*

UiiODENPBON. — K plant of which the afiSnities are altogether imcertain. It was of considerable size, reaching 2 feet in diameter : the bark is covered with leaf-scars in qnincmix order, and is impressed with large circular branch (?) scars at alternate and regular intervals.

CoNiFEBiB. — It is not without significance, as bearing upon the theory of " Development," that coniferous trees formed a very important part of the flora of this ancient period of the world's history ; so that, as remarked by Sir C. Lyell, their presence precludes us firom characterizing the Carboniferous flora as consisting of imperfectly developed plants, the Coniferae taking a high, though not the highest, position in the ranks of vegetable organization, t

The prevalent type seems to have been that

" Ueber die fossile Flora der Silorischen der Devonischen nnd unteren Eohlenformation/' 1859.

t EleraeBts," p. 874. The late Mr. Hugh Miller has demonstrated the existence of Conifertt at a much earlier period —that of the Old Bed Sandstone of Scotland. See Footprints of the Creator,'* p. 199. Ptof. Goppert has recently shown that the Conifero make their appearance amongst the upper Devonian rocks. — Joom. Qeol. Boc." yoI. xvi.

66 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

of the Arauoarian or Norfolk Island Pine; but seed-cones resembling those of the genus PiniLS have also been found. One specimen from the Newcastle coal-field is figured by Lindley.*

The Coniferae of the Coal period differed from those of the present day in the large size of their pith; and the remarkable, and for a long time inexplicable, fossil, found generally in sandstones, known as Sternbergia, has been demonstrated by Professor Williamson to be the pith of these trees.

The Uttle ribbed nodular mass, Trigonocarpvm found in great numbers throughout the coal-measures, formerly considered as the fruit of a palm, is now believed to have been that of a coniferous plant, which, like the nut of the yew-tree, was enclosed in a fleshy envelope. With regard to the leaves, it is now believed that some which were formerly supposed to belong to palms, as Nceggera- a beautiful fan-shaped frond, were in reality those of Coniferae, represented in the recent sub-tropical coniferous tree Salisburia adi-

" FoBsU Flora," vol. iii., p. 48.

t NcBGOESATHiA. — genus of plant very abundant in the coal-measures of Germany, and named after the distinguished Professor of the Umversity of Bonn.

Plants, Etc., Of The Cabbonifebous Pebiod. 57

antifolia. Thus it appears that all evidence of the existence of palms amongst the Carboniferous flora has been obliterated.

These details may appear to some iminteresting ; but they serve to show how necessary is a large acquaintance with the vegetation of the present, before we can rightly understand that of the past. An acquaintance, however varied, with the recent botanical productions of our own country, would tend to throw Uttle light on the nature of that flora which flourished upon the same spot so many ages back. The tropics, and even the diametrically opposite portions of the earth, as New Zealand, Australia, and Norfolk Island, have to be searched in order to furnish analogous productions ; and where these are sought for in vain, as in the case of several Carboniferous genera, we are at a loss how to picture before our minds those bygone structures of which we find but the defaced ruins.

We have only here described those forms which were most proKfic — many more must have existed of which we have no trace. We may, however, folly accept the opinion of Hugh Miller, that this was "a flowerless vegetation.'' We feel pretty certain on other grounds than the mere absence of their remains, that those orders of

58 THE COAXi-FIELDS OF GREAT BEITAIK.

plants which refresh our senses with their flowers and fruits (as these terms are commonly understood) existed not in the true Coal-period. There is every reason for believing that the Bosacea, Leguminosecdy and a few other tribes adapted to charm the eye and minister to the wants of man, only appeared as the harbingers of man himself; therefore, with all the luxuriance of the foUage, and the denseness and stature of the trees which overspread the great lagoons of the Carboniferous period, the general effect must have been sad and sombre in the extreme. But it persisted, through long ages, in unspeakable loneliness and silence, echoing neither voice nor sound, except when some giant of the forest snapped in twain, and fell heaviLy into the arms of its The sun shone warmly down by day upon that world, and the moon and stars by night illumined its wide plantations of dark slumberous pine-trees. But man was not there to behold, nor even a maxnmiferous beast of the field, or bird to fly above in the open firmament of heaven ; and only at rare intervals did the sluggish stealthy reptile force a path through the thick jungle. There was a painful absence, throughout the landscape, of the moving creature that hath life.

Plants, Etc., Of Thb Cabb0Nifbb0U8 Pebiod. 69

Tesl eountlessyean of dumge have passed lineetheni Change to the earth's lair sorfaee, change to men ; Woods, hills, plains, islands, seas, are swept away ; Unnnmbered states have crumbled to decay : While 'neath the soil, a thousand fathoms deep, The fallen monarchs of the forest sleep.'*

Fossil Shells of the Coal-series of England.

The moUnsca of the true Goal-measare period are eonimed to a few genera and species. Bivalves are most numerous, after them Cephalopods, and Gasteropods are rare.

In the upper and middle Coal-measures of England, the most abundant, and frequently the only shells, belong to the genera Anthracopteray Anthracomyay and Anthracosia bivalves formerly supposed to be allied to the genus Unto, and hence the inhabitant of fresh water.f In some of the beds of shale, however, in the lower Coalmeasures of Lancashire, these genera are found associated with the distinctly marine genera

Oxford University Prize Poem, Coal," by T. L. Thomas. 1S68.

t The late Mr. Salter, by whom the first two of the above names were proposed for the Unio-like shells, states that Anthraeosia was covered by a strongly-wrinkled epidermis, like the MyadsB ; bat altogether unlike the smooth epidermis of the Unionide. — Trans. Brit. Assoo., 1861. The genos Anthracosia was established by Professor King.

60 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain*

GoniatiteSj and Aviculo-pecten ; so that they appear to have been of estuarine, and possibly marine, habit.

Amongst the dark shales of the lower Coalmeasures immediately overlying the Millstone Grit, fossil moUusca are found often in great numbers, and in considerable variety over the coal-seams. Of the Cephalopods, Nautili and Qoniatites are plentiful ; Orthoceras found plentifully near Burnley, in Lancashire. Of the Gasteropods, Macrocheilibs Cypricardia (De Koninck),|and Loxonemay all these are scarce. Of the Conchifers, Axinus Anthracosia (often associated in the same bed with Aviculo-pecten and Goniatites), Posidonomyay Aviculo-pecten. This last is most frequently represented by the species papyraceus which occurs in the dark shale overlying some of the coal-seams of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Li this position its vertical range is only a few inches ; but within these limits the thin flattened valves, impressed on the dark groundwork of the shale, lie so thickly strewn that the form of the shell itself is almost lost, and there only appears a confused assemblage of very fine and sharply-cut ribs, radiating from a number of central points, and crossing each other in mazes of network.

Plants, £T0., Of The Cabbomifeboub Pebiod. 61

Some of the above genera and species occur %piongst the coal-measnres of the south of Ireland, ranging through the shales overlying the Carboniferous Limestone upwards into the Coalbearing strata themselves.*

Of the Pteropods, we find representatives in Bellerophon and Conularia.

Of the Brachiopods, which are so abundantly distributed in the Lower Carboniferous Bocks, forming, both as individuals and species, the majority amongst the mollusca of the Mountain Limestone, we very rarely find any examples in the lower coal-series of England, with the exception of the Lingula. Two or three species of this shell are not uncommon in the shales of Lancashire and the Northern counties. Spirifer ProducttcSj OrthiSy AthyriSy and Bhynconellaj have also been found in Lancashire, Denbighshire, Coalbrook Dale, and South Wales.

The Annelids are represented by SpirorbiSj which is abundant both in the black shales of the lower, and limestone bands of the upper coal-measures.

See Explanatory Memoirs io accompany sheets 187 to 147 of the Geological Survey of Ireland ; also Griffith's Geological Map of Ireland."

62 THE OOAIi-FIELDB OF GREAT BBITAIN.

cover the surfaces of tiie fine micaceous flagstones.

The flora of the "Cuhn," belonging to the Lower Carboniferous series of Devonshire, contain twenty-three species, of which one plant is marine.

Professor Goppert, in his work on the Flora of the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous period, shows that it is very different from that of the Upper Carboniferous, or true Coal-measures.

The Lower Carboniferous series contains 108 species, of which only seven pass upwards, and a single plant, Neuropteris Loshiiy survived into the Permian period.

CHAPTER ni.

Fobmauon Of Goal.

When Sir William Logan, twenty years ago, was engaged on Ms great survey of the coal-field of South Wales, he found it to be an invariable rule that every coal-seam reposed on a bed of clay (underclay) penetrated by the rootlets of Stigmaria ficoides.'* This observation has been extended to every coal-field in Britain ; and although the character of the underclay varies considerably, sometimes becoming a hard siliceous stone, yet the presence of the carbonized rootlets shows that it has borne the same relation to the coal as have the softer underclays. This observation of Sir W. Logan established the hypothesis that the plants of which coal is formed grew upon the spot where we now find them mineralized, and that the underclays formed the soil from whence they sprung.

Geological Transactions;" 2nd Beries, vol. vi.

64 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Now these underclays are distinctly stratified, showing that they have been deposited under water ; and hence it was supposed that in order to become the receptacles for the growth of luxuriant forests, they must have been elevated into dry land ; and then, after having been covered by vegetation, again submerged to be overspread by sands and clays and other sedimentary materials which combine to form the strata of the coalmeasures. This theory required a series of oscillations over a large extent of the earth's surface, which seemed rather improbable, and not in accordance with observations on changes of level which have been made in various parts of the world. That there are slow elevations, and subsidences of the surface in operation more or less extensively, is proved by phenomena exhibited on our sea-coasts,* where in some cases, old seabeaches are found at elevations far beyond the reach of the waves and in others where forests, and even towns, are known to have been enguKed ; and the whole of the geological record teaches us that similar vertical movements have been taking place from the earliest periods.

Along the eastern coasts of South America,

For many ezampleB, see Lyell'g " Principles of Geology."

Foemation Of Coal. 65

Mr. Darwin has described the existence of a succession of terraces, rising in tiers from the sealevel up to an elevation of 1,200 feet. He has shown that each of these terraces has in turn been for a long period subjected to the action of the waves, which have swept away a vast quantity of material, and hollowed out caverns in the rock.*

Now as the whole of the land, from the highest terrace down to the level of the ocean, has evidently been under the sea, to have attained its present position it must have been elevated, and each coastline marks a pause in the process of elevation. Here is an example of a constant change of level, with pauses; and it probably famishes an illustration of Nature's mode of action during the Coal-period. The process, however, in this case must be reversed and instead of periodical elevations it is necessary to infer a slow and gradual subsidence of the seabed, accompanied by pauses marked in many cases by the formation of a seam of coal.f

Voyage of the Beagle," vol. iii., p. 200.

t This illastration has previously been employed by Mr. Binney, to whom, more than to any author, we are indebted for our present knowledge of the cirenmstances under which coal has been formed. It is, however, so apt, that I have no hesitation in reproducing it here.

r

66 The C0Al-Field6 Ov Gbeat Bbitain.

But another qneBtion requires elucidation. The coal-seams are associated with strata deposited under water ; and all recent investigation strengthens the probability that this water was generally estuarine, sometimes marine. In the northern coal-fields of England, some of the coalseams are covered by black shales containing remains of fishes and marine shells, as GoniatiteSj Aviculo-pecten Orthoceras; and along the coast of Dunbar, in Scotland, bands of limestone, with marine shells, as Spiriferj ProductuSj etc., rest upon coal-beds, and on the upright stems of Sigillaria.* In coal-measures belonging to the higher portion of the Carboniferous series, bivalves which were formerly supposed to belong to the fresh-water genus Unio have since been found in the same stratum with Modiola and Aviculo-eaten. For this genus we adopt the name Anthracosia of Professor King,! though beUeviag it to have lived ia seas or estuaries. Mr. Binney has shown the probability that the little coiled shell (Microconchus carhonarius) is

These limestones contain fossil representatives of the Carboniferous limestone of England ; and it is well known that a portion of the coal-measures of Scotland are of earlier date than those of England.

t Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist., Jan., 1855.

Fobmation Of Goal. 67

in reality a coiled Serpula or SpirorbiSy which attached itself to the coal-plants and lastly, the minute crostacean ahnndant in coal-shales, aad supposed to have belonged to the fresh-water genus CypriSy is with more probability leferred to the marine genus Cythere. Whilst admitting, therefore, the occasional presence of lacustrine strata associated with the coal-measures, I think we may conclude that the whole formation has been essentially of marine and estuarine origin — a conclusion at which we might arrive on other grounds, when we consider that the formation was at one period continuous over the greater part of Central North America, and would have required for its generation a lake of a size at least six times the area of all the great lakes of that continent united.

There are two conclusions which strike us most forcibly when reflecting on the formation of our coal-fields ; — the enormous subsidence of the sea-bed, and the lapse of time it must have required to produce a series of strata, with their coal-seams, in all, several thousand feet in thickness.

BecoUecting that every bed of true coal repre-

It b scarcely necessary to remark that Serpula is a marine annelid

f2

68 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

sents a land-surface, or at least a sea-level, when we find, as in the case of the coal-field of Sonth Wales or of Nova Scotia, strata with coal-beds through a thickness of 10,000 or 12,000 feet, it is evident that this is a measure of the actual sinking of the sea-bed for this one geological period ; or, to take an example : — the height of Mont Blanc is about 15,000 feet ; now the vertical displacement which the South Wales coalfield underwent was nearly sufficient to have brought the summit of the Alps to the sea-level. Of the lapse of time in tiie formation of our coal-fields we can have but a faint conception ; it is only to be truly measured by Him with whom a thousand years are as one day. But the magnitude of the time is only surpassed by the boundlessness of the providential care which laid up these terrestrial treasures in store for His children, whom He was afterwards to call into being. Let me therefore dismiss this subject with one illustration. Mr. Maclaren, by a happy train of reasoning, for which I must refer the reader to his " Geology of Fife,"* arrives at the conclusion that it would require a thousand years to form a bed of coal one yard thick. Now,

Page 116.

Formation Of Coal, 69

in the South Wales coal-field there is a combined thickness of coal amounting to one hundred and twenty feet, or forty yards, which, according to this hypothesis, would have required a period of 40,000 years for its formation. If we now assume that the 12,000 feet of sedimentary material was deposited at the average rate of two feet in a century, corresponding to the rate of subsidence, it would have required ii??il£? + 40,000=640,000 years to produce this coal-field I have spoken of the difficulty of conceiving frequent elevations of the sea-bed during the long period of subsidence in order that a land surface might be laid dry for the growth of vegetation. A much more probable supposition is, that the coal-plants were fitted to grow either partially submerged, or at the sea-level. Analogy would lead us to this conclusion in the case of Sigil-

In this eBtimate I have adopted a medium between two extreme estunates given by Lyell, Elements,*' pp. 886, 887. For a good r49umi of this subject, see Jukes* Manual of Geology," p. 95, et seq.

Professor Phillips attempts a calculation of the time required for the production of the South Wales coal-field founded on the supposition of the sedimentary materials having been formed at the month of a large river, such as the Ganges, and the carbonaceous portions having been stored up at the rate of one inch in 127*2 years ; the result arrived at being about half a million of years. — " Life on the Earth,** p. 184.

70 THE GOAL-FIELDB OF aBBAT BRITAIN.

laria GcUamiteSy &c. and among the dense forests of larger trees there may have been an undergrowth of reeds and grasses.

The great swamps at the estuary of the Mississippi, and those along the coasts of Louisiana, Nova Scotia, and the tropical lagoons of the African coast, famish us with the nearest representations of the nature of those forests that have produced our coal-beds ; but none of them are strictly analogous. The physical conditions of the Goal-period stand alone, and we cannot but conclude that they were ordained beforehand for a great and evident purpose.

The strata which are associated with the coal consist of sandstones, which were once sand ; shales and fire-clays, which were once fine mud. Some of the shales are so highly carbonaceous as to be nearly black, and form impure coal caUed " bass." Bands of limestone occur in the higher beds of the coal-measures in England, and throughout the greater portion of the formation in Scotland.

The sandstones are frequently rippled, and obliquely laminated, showing the prevalence of currents ; they also contain fragments of drifted plants. The shales are generally laminated, showing a slow and tranquil deposition. The

Fobmation Of Coal.

general succession of strata which accompany coal is shown

Fig. 6.

in the annexed section, taken from the neighbonrhood of fei Wigan, and belonging to the lower coal

Suoceenon of Strata in Lower Coal-measures, near tVigan, Lancashire.

Black StaAlet, wltli ATlevlo-pwten.

BbalM, with MleanoM Nodvlet, oontotailag

OooUate*. Oor. BvUioB Mam. Uaderday, with StlcinariA. Sandacgaa.

Mleaceoiia Shal*.

Flacg7,ilpplrd

p MkaeMoaYlacaandflhalaa.

Stroiif aaadj Shale, fte.

Ortj Shala, with Modlola, linfoia, tbo.

Coal, 16 iMhas thick, UanBtotar

Clay andhanl Oaanfatar, wltt Siffnaaita.

Saadatone, with aprifht ttena of SfgUtete.

Tiovgh Shftla, with taadaof bowloM.

Dark Shalaa, with nodolaa of Irpnatonaa.

measures, or Gannister series.

Of coal, as a mineral, I must here say a few words. AU the coal of the older formations, except the better sorts of " cannel," presents, in a cross-section, a truly laminated aspect, and consists of layers of glossy, bituminous coal, alternating with thinner bands of anthracite. The former class presents no trace of organic struc; tore ; while in the latter ,under the microscope, the various tissues of Araucaria, Sigillaria, and

72 THE COAL-FIEIiDB OF GBSAT BBITAIK.

other plants, as well as their fractification, may be detected.

There can be no doubt bnt that this laminated stractnre is the result of accumulation under water ; and Bischof adopts this view upon other considerations. He says, " The conversion of vegetable substances into coal has certainly been eflfected by the agency of water." The same great authority believes that coal has been formed, not from the dwarfish mosses, sedges, and other plants which now contribute to the growth of our peat-bogs, but from the stems and trunks of the forest-trees of the Carboniferous period, such as Sigillariae, Lepidodendra, and Coniferse.

The earthy portion of coal, which after combustion forms ash, is disseminated in minute particles throughout the entire mass, which could only have occurred by infiltration; but before woody fibre is in a state to admit of the infiltration of sediment mechanically suspended in water, it must have undergone partial destruction. Hence we may conclude that, as the forest-trees successively fell through age or accident, they were immersed in water — which

Chemical Geology/' vol. i. Messrs. Panl and Dniminosd's Trans.

Formation Of Coal. 73

must have been shallow, and which held in suspension particles of clay or sand. Mr. H. Taylor gives the following analysis of the ash of a good coal-seam from Newcastle : —

Silica 59*56

Alumina 12 19

Peroxide of iron . . . 16 96

lime 9 . 99

Magnesia . . . 1 18

Potash 1-17

Bischof has shown that this analysis does not much differ from that of many of the shales with which the coal is associated.

The conversion of wood into coal may take place in four different ways ; namely, —

1. By the separation of carbonie acid and carbtiretted

hydrogen.

8. „ ,, carbnretted hydrogen and water.

4. „ ,y carbonic acid, carbnretted

hydrogen and water.

And from the mean of 67 analyses given by Bischof, it appears that by three of these processes the wood

Lost and Yielded.

In 1 — 78 0 per cent. 22 0 per cent, of coal.

In 2—67 -8 „ 41-7

In 8—46 -6 „ 64-6

74 The Ooal-Fiblbb Of Gbbat Bbitain.

The copious discharge of carhonic acid and carhtiretted hydrogen given off by wood in its conversion into coal, appears to have taken place for the most part during the progress of decomposition in the Coal-period ; for it has been found by a comparison of the analyses of true coal with the lignite of the Tertiary strata, that the difference in the per-centage of oxygen and hydrogen in these two classes of minerals is not very great. In lignite the oxygen is only 1-64 per cent., and the hydrogen only 0'38 per cent, less than in true coal. It would therefore appear that, in the long lapse of time between the Carboniferous and Tertiary periods, the coal experienced an extremely slight loss of substance. In the coal-fields these gases are constantly escaping in jets from the shallower seams ; but in the deeper parts are pent up at an enormous pressure, and by their elastic force materially assist the miner in his excavations.

Analysis of 6 Specimens of Coal from Newcastle, Glasgow, Laneashire

, Edinburgh, and Durham (Bischof).

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen & Nitrogen. Earths.

Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Hin. Kax. Min.

Analysis of Anthracite from Pembrokeshire, by SchafhduUJ* Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen and Nitrogen. Earths.

Dana's "Mineralogy."

Fobscation Of Goal. 75

Analysis of Brawn Coal (Lignite), from Elbogen.* CarboQ. Hydrogen. Oxygen ft Nitrogen. EartliB.

Of Britaiii it may be emphatically said, " whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass." Clay-ironstone abounds in the shales of every coal-field, either in the form of nodules or in thin courses. She has also erected more altars to Vulcan than any other country, and the products of her Carboniferous rocks — the coal, ironstone, and limestone — have enabled her to take the foremost place in the industrial arts.

The coal-formation is very frequently traversed by vertical fractures or faultSj which, within a few yards or feet, completely change the series of strata and the mineral character of the district. These faults are actually vertical dislocations of the rocks, the beds having been upheaved or depressed, as the case may be, tens, hundreds, or even thousands of feet along the line of fracture. Many examples will be produced when we come to treat of the coal-fields ; but I may mention that some of the faults which traverse the coal-districts of Lancashire and Staffordshire dislocate the strata to the amount

♦ Phillips' "Mineralogy."

76 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

of 600, 700, or even 1,000 yards ! How graphically has that grand old geologist, the patriarch of Uz, described these throes of our great mother Earth : " He pntteth forth his hand upon the rock, he overtnmeth the mountains by the roots 1"

The Coal-measures of England rest upon a series of hard and coarse sandstones and shales — called MiQstone Grit; this agaia on a thick series of shales and grits, the Toredale rocks, which pass downwards by the iDtennixture of courses of limestone into the great calcareous deposit, the Carboniferous Limestone. This last formation attains in Derbyshire a thickness of 5,000 feet, and is surcharged with marine fossils throughout; indeed, it is almost wholly composed of the shells of mollusca, the calcareous habitations of corals, or the broken skeletons of Crinoidea or "stone lilies." These last must have covered the bottom of the ocean in countless myriads, forming miniature forests, which rose generation after generation upon the accumulating layers of their perished ancestors, imtil their remains were sufficient to form thick beds of limestone, extending for many miles in every direction. In some parts of Derbyshire and Yorkshire the limestone appears to be composed

Pobmation Of. Coal. 77

of little else than the disjointed skeletons of Crinoidea.

The Coal-measures are overlaid by the Permian formation, - consisting of three members : the lower composed of red and purple sandstones, marls, calcareous conglomerate, and breccia; the middle, of magnesian limestone of the northeastern counties ; the upper, of gypseous marls and sandstones. This formation is unconformable to the Coal-measures, and to the Trias which succeeds it.

Next in succession is the Trias, or New Bed Sandstone, which, in the absence of the Permian strata, sometimes rests directly upon the Carboniferous rocks. It consists of two members, the Bunter and Keuper ; the middle member, the Muschelkalk, being absent in Britain.

The Bunter Sandstone consists of three members: the lower, soft red and variegated sandstone ; the middle, quartzose conglomerates and red pebbly sandstone ; the upper, soft-streaked and variegated sandstone. Upon this the Keuper series rests unconformably, the upper surface of the Bunter Sandstone being frequently eroded and waterwom. The Lower Keuper Sandstone is introduced by calcareous breccia, and passes upwards into the Bed Marl.

78 Thb Goal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitaik.

We are now in a position to comprehend in some measure the formation of a coal-seam in olden time.

Let us suppose that a certain bed of coal has been completed by the growth of luxuriant plants over a low-lying tract subject to inundations from the sea. Rising ground of granitic, schistose, or other rocks in the distance defines the margin of the basin and the boundaries of a continent from which the sedimentary materials of the coal-strata are derived. That growth of vegetation marks a period of rest; but now a slow subsidence of the whole tract commences. The brackish waters of the estuary and the sisilt waters from the ocean invade the jungle, carrying dark mud in suspension, with floating stems of trees and fronds of ferns. Presently the mud subsides, and covers in one uniform sheet the accumulated vegetation of centuries. The process of subsidence goes on, while the sea-currents and rivers pour into the estuary fine sand and mud, in which branches and stems of trees from the uplands are included. This process continues until the sinking of the ocean-bed either altogether ceases, or is counterbalanced by the rapidity with which the sediment is deposited. The basin becomes gradually shallower, and the

FOBliATION OF GOAL. 79

plants begin to reappear, ccimnencihg perhaps at the coast, and creeping seaward until the whole basin is again overspread by a forest of huge cryptogamic trees, arborescent ferns, and conifers. These, generation after generation, flourish and die ; their leaves, branches, and trunks falling around and gradually accumulating till the pulpy mass attains a thickness of 20, 60, or 100 feet. The process concluded, the basin again commences to subside, the waters return and bury the mass for hundreds of centuries; stratum after stratimx accumulates, till the vegetable pulp is subjected to the pressure of, it may be, thousands of feet of solid matter. Meanwhile, chemical as weU as mechanical changes ensue, and in process of time what was once a forest is changed into a bed of coal. By a repetition of this process, with local variations, we may conceive the formation of any number of coal-seams, amounting, in some districts, to fifty or sixty, and embraced within a vertical thickness of several thousand feet of shales, clays, and sandstones. Ages roll on, the strata are moved from their foundations ; upheaved from the sea-bottom, the rains, rivers, and currents sweep away a portion of the covering, and the mineral treasures are brought within the reach of mining industry.

The Goal-Fiblbs Of Obbat Bbttain.

The following view of the formations which lie immediately above and below the Coalmeasures may prove useful for reference. It is applioahle, I believe, to the whole of Britain. The tripartite division for the Coal-measures of England and Wales is not, as yet, generally recognised, but every day's experience tends to make such a division more than probable.

Tdlmlar View of the Trias, Permian and Carboniferous Series in England and Wales,

New Bed Sandfltone or Trias.

Reaper

Biinter

r Bed marl.

/ Upper mottled sandstone.

Conglomerate beds.

Permian Bocks

Carboniferous Bocks.

/ Upper red sandstone of St. Bees', etc.

Upper and lower magnesian limestones and marls of the Northern Counties.

Lower red sandstone of Lancashire, Cumberland, Yorkshire, etc. (on the same horizon with)

Bed sandstones, marls, conglomerates, and breccia of the Central Counties and Salop. (Bothe-todte liegende.)

/ Upper coal-measures, with Spirorbis Upper limestone and thin coal-seams.

Carboniferous Middle coal-measures, with thick coal-seams.

1 Lower coal-measures or Gannister series, with thin coal-seams and wuuuuerviui I Lower Carboniferous fossils.

I Millstone grit, with thin coal-seams.

Fobmation Of Goal. 81

CarboniferouB' Lower BockB. jCarboniferooB

Upper limestone Bhale, or Toredale rocks.

GarbonifeToos limestone, with shales, sandstones, and coal in the Northern Counties, and Sootland. , Lower limestone shale.

Old Bed Sandstone and Devonian BookB.

Having given a brief sketch of the nature of coal, its origin, and the strata with which it is associated, we are now prepared to pass on to the consideration of the coal-fields.

Paet Ii.

Chaptee I.

The Great Coal-Field Of South Wales.

The coal-field of South Wales is the largest in Britain, with the exception of that of the Clyde Basin, and contains almost as great a vertical thickness of strata as any coal-field in the world, amounting to upwards of 10,000 feet.

It is separated by Caermarthen Bay into two unequal portions. That to the east of the bay stretches to Pontypool, in Monmouthshire, a distance of 56 miles, and is the larger portion. The smaller extends to St. Bride's Bay, a distance of 17 miles, and is washed by the waves of the Atlantic. The greatest transverse diameter is 16 miles, in the meridian of Neath, in Glamorganshire.

The general form of the coal-field is that of an oval basin or trough, lying nearly east and west- It is deeply indented by the bays of Swansea and

r.- ffitft az.

ORD OAVEff

MfLFORD OAVEJV

L&#x27;

The Gbeat Coal-Field Of South Wales. 83

Caennarthen, which overspread the upturned edges of the strata as they cross from shore to shore. The beds also rise and crop out towards the north, beyond which the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone mark the limits of the coal-producing area, often terminating in a series of fine escarpments with northerly aspects.

The coal-field east of Caennarthen Bay is traversed throughout nearly the whole of its length by a remarkable anticlinal axis, which has been traced ♦ from the north of Risca, by Pontypridd and Ton-yr-fail, across the Lesser Ogwr, by Nant-Tyrus, the Masteg ironworks, and Baglan, beneath Swansea Bay. The basin is thus divided into a northern and southern trough, lying on either side of the great anticlinal axis, and of which the former occupies twice the area of the latter. The effect of this axis is to bring the lower coals within reach of mining operations along a considerable tract of country.f

It is also worthy of note that this line of elevation is so placed as to be nearer to the

Mr. H. Huswy Vivian, M.P., and Mr. G. T. Clark, Rep. Coal-Commissions, vol. I, pp. 1 and 9.

t This flexure is very well represented on the horizontal seetioDB of the ooal-field, published by the Geological Survey, and drawn by Mr. Williams and Sir H. de la Beche.

G 2

84 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbttain.

southern side of the basin, where the dip inwards along the margin is steepest ; so that, were it not for the existence of this flexure, the lowest seams (which are of great value) would have been placed at depths far beyond the reach of mining operations, within a comparatively short distance of their actual outcrop. The result of this arrangement of the strata, however, is most favourable for their recovery by mining; as, in consequence of the anticlinal, these seams of coal are brought again either near to the surface, or within depths where they may ultimately be rendered available. The effect of this anticlinal is shown, though not to its full extent, by the accompanying section (Fig. 6, p. 86) across the coal-field in a north and south direction. Another anticlinal axis ranging in a parallel direction enters Caermarthen Bay south of Kidwelly,

. Scenery. — Along its northern border, the coalfield partakes of a mountainous character, rising into loffcy tabulated or slightly sloping hills, terminating abruptly, and indented by deep valleys, which often coincide with lines of dislocation, or faults. These valleys, extending inwards in a southerly direction, afford facilities for working the seams of coal by means of adits and galleries stretching far beneath the hills. Be*

The Gbeat Coal-Field Of South Wales. 85

yond the limits of the coal-measures, the hard siliceous sandstones and conglomerates of the Millstone Grit form an encircling zone; and from beneath these the stiU harder rocks of the Carboniferous Limestone rise to the surface, and present towards the north a range of scarped terraces, often broken through by valleys and gorges which have been determined by faults, but on the whole preserving a general direction parallel to the strike (direction) of the beds, and attaining elevations of 2,000 feet. Along the southern boundaries of the coal-field, these Lower Carboniferous formations produce rich and varied scenery, but not of so bold and elevated a character as along the northern margin.

It is, as remarked by Mr. Clark, mainly owing to the intersection of the coal-field by the great valleys of the Nedd, Afon, Ogwr, Taff,Khymney, . and Ebbw, and their subordinates, the Ely, Bhondda, Cjmon, Sirhowyy and the Afon Llwyd, that there are more than ordinary facilities for working coal economically ; as much of it is recoverable simply by driving adits from the outcrop. On this account it is, that the coal-pits are generally shallow as compared with those of the north of England.

Surveys. — As far back as the close of the 16th

The Coal-Fields Of 6Beat Bbitaik.

S

e

o

O

fa a

s

century, George Owen, a native of Pembrokeshire, drew up a very clear description of the physical features of the South Wales coal-field, tracing I the trend of the coal-seams and I beds of mountain limestone, and S pointing out the relationship of

0 these formations to their representatives in Gloucester and

1 Somerset.* After the completion I of the Ordnance Surveys, the g geological delineation at first I commenced by Sir E. Logan I was subsequently completed by Sir H. T. De la Beche and Mr. WOliams, during 1837 and fol- S lowing years. They have left us I a series of beautifully-executed maps and sections, presenting

the details as far as they were I discoverable at a time when the i coal-field had been very partially I explored by mining operations.

1 This work was left behind in MS., bnt was afterwards published in the Cambrian Register," and reflects the highest credit on the author.

THE GBBAT COAIi-PIBLD OP SOUTH WALES. 87

Of these documents it was stated by one competent to judge, that they at once placed the proprietors of coal-property in the possession of information which it would have taken thirty years to acquire by the advance of mining enterprise.

Very recently a fresh survey has been undertaken for the Eoyal Coal-Commission by Messrs. H. Hussey Vivian and G. T. Clark, with the assistance of Mr. Evan Daniel, of a very elaborate nature, in which the areas of the different groups of seams, according to depth, are represented on eighteen plans ; and furnish us with a complete anatomy of the structure of the district. This work, accompanied as it is by elaborate tables containing the area, thickness, and quantities of coal in each seam, has been one of more than ordinary labour.

General Succession of Strata, and their thichieeees, in Mon/mouthshire.

Coal-measures. — Shales, with ironstones ; sandstones, including the Gower series," and coal-beds, of which there are about twenty-five more than two feet thick. Total thickness, 11,650 feet.

Millstone Orit (Farewell Bock). — Beds of hard sandstone and conglomerate, with partings of shale (Merthjr Tydvil); thickness, 880 feet.

Carboniferous Limestone. — Upper beds consisting of alternating dark shales with bands of limestone, passing downwards into massive beds of the latter ; thickness, 1,000 feet.

88 The Goal-Fields Of Geeat Britain.

Old Bed Sandstone. — Conglomerate, red and brown sandstone, marls, and calcareons comstones, 8,000 to 10,000 feet in thickness.

Westward of Swansea Bay the Millstone Grit disappears, and the Lower Coal-measures rest directly upon the Carboniferous Limestone. At Haverfordwest this latter also vanishes, and inland from St. Bride's Bay the Coal-measures repose on Lower Silurian Bocks.

Anthracite and Bituminous Coal-Districts. — It is well known the coal-seams undergo a remarkable change in their extension from the east towards the west. While in the former direction they are bituminous, or gaseous, upon reaching the centre of the area, the same coal-seams become semi-bituminous, or " steam coals," and farther west, gradually pass into anthracite. Sir H. De la Beche states that this change takes place along a plane, dipping gently towards the S.S.E. ; so that in the same spot, while the coals at the base of a hill may be anthracitic, those which outcrop along the heights above may be bituminous. Nor is this alteration in the character of the coals accompanied by outbursts of igneous rock, or by violent crumplings and contortions of the beds, as is the case in the Alleghany Mountains of America, where a similar

The Great Coal-Field Op South Wales. 89

change has been produced ; on the contrary, the strata are usually but slightly thrown out of the horizontal position. Other causes must therefore be sought for.

To the agency of a high internal temperature we must doubtless refer this change in the constitution of the coal-seams. Whenever experiments or observations have been made, it has been found that the temperature increases with the depth ; and in the case of the South Wales basin, some of the seams have originally been covered by ten or twelve thousand feet of strata, and their temperature in consequence raised above that of boiling water. Under such circumstances, the gases, we may suppose, would be slowly liberated from the coal-seams, and anthracite would be the result.. But how are we to account for this metamorphic action taking place over one portion of the coal-field, and not over the other? This is, indeed, a problem difficult to solve, since the conditions in either portion do not seem to have been materially different. We may oflfer conjectural solutions of it, such as the greater increase of temperature over the western, or anthracitic, region, as compared with that over the eastern ; or that owing to fissures, exceptionally nume-

90 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

rous in the western area, greater facility was afforded for the escape of the gaseous products. But none of these reasons are quite satisfactory,* and this remains one of the problems in physical geology which yet await solution.

Pembrokeshire. — The western limit of the coal-field, containing only anthracite coal, has been subjected to considerable terrestrial disturbance, which may to some extent account for the change which the coal has undergone. The general structure, along a line drawn from north to south, is represented in the following section. Fig. 7, from a drawing by Mr. Prestwich. J

Fig. 7. -SECTION ACROSS THE PEMBROKESHIRE COAL-FIELD. Bight Miles.

m, Goal-measures.

ff. Carboniferous limestone.

o. Old Bad Sandstone.

The eoal-field of the Donetz in Southern Bnssia presents phenomena similar to those here described.

t Mr. Prestwich has instituted a just comparison between the flexures of the Pembrokeshire coal-field, and those of the Somersetshire coal-field along the base of the Mendip Bills, with the flexures of the Franco-Belgian coal-trough. Similar views were previously enunciated by Mr. B. Godwin-Austen.

9He Gbeat Coal-Field Of South Wales. 91

OeneraZ StLCceasion of the Coal-aeriea in Olcunuyrganehvre cmd Monmovihahi/re.

Upper Ptllmgare Series more than 8,400 /eet.

Permant Qrit

Seriee, 8,246 /00.

Lfncer Coal-

MeasureSf 450 to S60/eet.

Millstone Orit.

1. Sandstones and shales down io the

Mynydd Isslwyn coal,.

2. Strata, with twenty-six coal-seams

down to the Haghes vein; nine seams over two feet in thickness.

Hard and thick-bedded sandstones, etc., with fifteen coal-seams ; five over two feet in thickness.

Principally shales, rich in ironstone and coal-seams, of which there are thirty-four in all, and eight above two feet in thickness.

Represented in the sonth by the Gower series.

It will be observed from the above general suinmary, taken from the Memoir of Sir H. T. De la Beche,* that the richest coal-bearing strata lie at the top and bottom of the formation, the central portion, formed of the Pennant Grit, being comparatively impoverished.

The Lower Coal-measures along the southern borders of the field form a well-marked zone, very rich in coal and ironstone, and distinguished by a remarkable group of fossil shells of marine genera ; some of the species — as is also the case

Memoirs of Geological Btirvey, vol. i.

92 The Coal-Fields Op Great Bbitain.

in the lower measures of the north of England — Shaving survived from the period of the Carboniferous Limestone. It is a very remarkable fact that these lower measures appear to form the upper limit of this essentially marine fauna, the shells which occur in the higher beds being confined to the genus Anthracosia and its allies; and whatever may have been the conditions under which this genus of molluscs lived — whether (as once supposed) in fresh water, or brackish, or marine — the extent of its range, as compared with the Goniatites, Nautili, Pectens, Spirifers, and other shells of the Lower Coal-measures, seems to point to some marked physical difference in the original state of the middle and lower portions of the coal-formation.

The fossils of the Lower Coal-measures are found principally in the ironstones. The coalseams occur in greatest number and thickness along the southern outcrop, where the series attains a thickness of nearly 1,000 feet.

Pennant Orit Series. — The lower measures are surmounted by a great series of sandstones, introduced by the " Cockshoot rock," and included under the general term " Pennant Grit," the same by which this series is designated in

The Great Coal-Field Of South Wales. 93

Somersetshire. These sandstones form a fine range of escarpments, offcen reaching 1,000 feet in elevation; and within these escarpments is enclosed the great central table-land of Glamorganshire, composed of the higher strata of the Coal-meastires. Along the deep valleys by which this region is intersected, the coal-beds often crop out, and are worked by timnelling into the heart of the hills. The whole series of strata, from the uppermost PeUengare beds down to the Millstone Grit, is from 10,00Q to 12,000 feet in thicfcuess, containing about eighty seams of coal, of which twenty-five are from two feet upwards, with an aggregate thickness of eighty-four feet of workable coal.* This great series is only surpassed in vertical development by that of Nova Scotia and Saarbruck ; and it should be recollected that, as there is no certainty that the original uppermost beds of the Coal-measures are amongst those now existing on the central table-land, we are in ignorance of the actual thickness of the formation as originally deposited.

The following is a complete series of the coalseams, with their corresponding names or desig-

The combined thickness of all the coal-seams, small and great, is stated by Professor Phillips to reach 120 feet.

The Ooal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

nations, along the north and south outcrop, and their ascertained thicknesseB, either individually or in groups. The series commences with the lowest bed, which has, in consequence, the largest area, and terminates with the uppermost.

Coal-Seams of the Souih Wales Basm,

Name in ascending Order of each Seam or Vein of Ckal, One Foot and upwards in

Distinguishing the

respective Crops of the

Veins, with their various

Thicknesses.

North Crop.

South Crop, NorthofAntioUiial.

South of Anticlinal.

Crops.

Crowifbot Tsln.

ft. in. North or6p - I 6 Sonth crop (north of anticlinal) -.20

Donbtfnl, and under these ... 2 0 Plan No. 1 - - —

Pimp Qoart ▼ein.

Ridar.

Fonr and Fiye

Feet Tain. Coal.

Five Quarten

vein. Cribbwr Eawr

vein. Cribbwr VtOi

North crop - - 6 6

antlcllnak) - - 10 2 South of antioUnal - 13 7

DoubtAil, and under theaea - - - 10 2 Plan Na 2 . - —

Grasachafrein.

Owendxaeth

Tdn. Triquart velzL

Four Feet rein. Balance Pit vein. Tusker vein. CUyyein. Biff vein (in Warn

Three Feet vein.

Six Feet vein.

Rider.

Smoke vein.

Rider.

Rider.

Nine Feet vein.

Danllydvein.

North crop - - 20 5 South crop (north of

anticlinal) - . 12 6 South of anticlinal - SO 7

Doubtfid, and under theaea - - . 12 6 PlanNo. 8. - -

This Table is copied from Mr. Vivian's Report, drawn np for the Ooai-Gommission, vol. i. t The plans are those referred to in the Beport.

Thb Obeat Coal-Fibld Of South Wales. 96

CoairSeama of the South Wales Basin (continued).

Name in aacendixig Order of each Seun or

Vein of Coal, One Foot and upwards in

Thickness, oontamed in each Han.

Distinguishing the respective Crops of the Veins, with their Tarious

Cropa.

White Tsiii.

Goal and Mine

vain. FiT Fast rtiD.

Thrsa Pat

radar. South nwr

vein. Clajain. FtmrFaatTain. Ridar. Ridar.

tL in. North crop - 14 0 South crop (north of

Doabtfnl. and nndar thaaea . . - 8 2 PlanNo. 4- -

Black Mine vdn.

PinwyTato. Solphaiy rein. Poor Faat Tin. TniioyaixL Ridar. Cimjnin.

North ntwr

Tain. Tbxaa Faat

Tdn.

anticUnal - 22 11 South of anticlinal) . 11 4

Doubtftal, mod nndar thaaea - - - 22 11 Pian No. 5 . —

OoaL ft

Ffbtch-y-Osrvein.

Ooekahat radar. SUyerroiiL Balling Tain.

Bwdwr FMh

Bwdwr Fawr

Tain. BootjTain. CoaL

DoabtfU, and nndar Flan No. - —

KiL

Black Tain. CoaL

lAWKanxn Tarn. CoaL

Doabtftd, and nndar the aea . - - 14 10 PlanNaT- - -

Nil.

Cwmbjr yain. CwmmawT Tain.

DonbtAil, and nndar the sea - - - 8 11 Plan No. 8 - - —

96 The Coal-Fields Of Qbe At Britain.

Coal-Seama of the Smth Wales Badn (continued).

Name in aaoending Order of each Seam or

Vein of Coal, One Foot and upwards in

Thickness, contained in each Plan.

Distinguishing the

respective Crops of the

Vmns, with their various

Thicknesses.

North Crop.

Soathof AntioiliiiaL

Crops.

Tonnynydd veizL Jonah Toin. White Tdn. Rider. CUyvein.

Doable vehL

ft. in. Northorop - - 2 Bonih erop (north of

South of antidinal - 3 0

DoabtAil, and nndar Plan No. 9 - - —

Field TtthL Wemdii elii. WerndA rider. Wempiatill rider. Wempistill Tein. Benaon's veizL

vein. Bock Faoh

vein. Bock Fawr

vein.

North crop - - 14 10 Sonth crop (north of antidinal) - - IS 7

DoabtftO, and under theseT - - - 18 7 Plan Na 10 - - —

CoaL Btinklng Trin.

Wvthien Drew-

Uyd. Penrhyi vein. PwU Robin vein. CoaL

CoaL Cilddoidyveln.

anticlinal) - - 9 0 Sooth of anticlinal 7 2

Doubtfbl, and under the sea - - - 9 0 Plan No. 11 - -

CoaL William's vein.

Cistern vein. Sulphur vein. Rotten vein. Hughes vein.

BettwB Faoh

vein. Bettws Fawr

vein.

auticliiua) . 18 8 Sooth of anticlinal - 14 1

Doubtftil, and under these - - - 18 8 Plan No. 12 - -

Coal.

Shenkinvein. Six Feet vein. Three Feet vein. Two Feet vein.

Nil

antidinjU IS 1 South of antkOinal - —

Doubtftal, and under iheseir - . W 1 Plan No. IS - - —

The Gbeat Goal-Field Of South Wales. 97

Coal'Seama of the South Wales Basin {contmued).

Name in aaoending Order of each Seam or

Vein of Coal, One Foot and upwards in

Thickness, contained in each Plan.

Diatinguiahing the

respective Crops of the

Veins, with their various

Thicknesses.

North Crop.

Sonth Crop,* NorthafAntidiiua

Sonth of

Cropa.

Coal.

Nu.

North crop . .

South of anticlinal

DoubtftiT, and under the tea . Plan No. 14

Tain. PeubiTn yeixL CoaL CoaL

Carnarvon Tein. Carnarvon New

vein. Penbiyn rein. Four Feet vein. Two Feet vein.

Na

North crop, 9, 860 agree

Ditto -

Ditto - - ' - - South of anticlinal -

Doubtftd, and under theiea - . Plan No. 16

FlerTYeiji. Golden run. Baahy Toin.

Bovyvein. Ftoryvein. Golden vein. Buahjvein.

Na

Northorop - .

South of antioUnal -

DonbtAil, and under theaea Plan Na 16

CmL

If

Penaeallenyein. Little vein. Broad Oak yein. Gljmgwernan Tein.

Nil

North crop

South of anticlinal -

DoufatfU, and under theaea - Plan No. 17

Fftaith. WrthJoi

Upper Yein. 'Wjthicn Ffralth.

WjUuenDrvw. Ujd.

Na

North crop

DouhtftU, and under theaea - . - Plan Na 18

98 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Ironstones. — The Lower measures are the chief repositories of ironstone, as at Merthyr Tydvil, and at Taffe Vale, near Cardiff. They are seldom more than five inches in thickness, and frequently contain marine shells, fish, and plants. The following is an analysis of the principal bands, made at the Museum of Practical Geology:—

Analysis of Ironstones,

Cub. Inn.

Upper vein, YBtradgynlu

Another vein, do.

Cwm Phil vein

Pendaren Bed vein .

„ Jack vein.

Black-hand, Pontypool

The yield of these Coal-measure ores, even in conjunction with the haematite from the Carboniferous Limestone, is not sufficient to supply the enormous consumption, and large quantities are imported from Northamptonshire, Fawler in Oxfordshire, and other districts. In 1870 there were, in the anthracite district, 9 famaces in blast, and in the bituminous district, 46 furnaces, producing in all 600,950 tons of iron.

Faults. — The fractures which traverse the South Wales coal-field are, in the great majority of cases, referable to one system, nearly perpen-

Thb Obbat Ooalfdbld Of South Wales. 99

dionlar to the longitadinal axis of the bsfiin, and therefore ranging from N.N.W. to S.S.E. A very few range from east to west. The remarkable parallelism of these fractures, and their direction with reference to the general arrangement of the strata, leave no donbt that they have all resulted from one system of disturbing forces.

Fossils.

The ironstones and shales of the Upper and Middle portions of the Coal-meastires contain shells chiefly of the genns Anhracosia; but when we descend into the lower strata which overlie the Millstone Grit, we find a series of moUusca, closely resembling and sometimes identical with those of the Lower Coal-measures of the nortii of England. They are contained generally in the ironstone bands, and were determined by the late Mr. Salter from the collection of Dr. Bevan.*

1. Top. — Black-band ironstone. Fish: EMzodus, MegaUeh-thys

. Shells: Modiola.

2. Soap Fn.— Tracks of AnnsUds, and a new genns of

bivalve shells peenliar to the Coal-measures. — Anthrax' eomya.

For description and figures of many of these fossils, see " Iron-Ores of Great Britain," Part iii.

h2

100 The Goal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

8. Lronstone above " S-quarters Coal." — Anthracamya.*

4. Lronstone over Bydyllog Goal. — Athyris planondcata :

a shell also found in the Carboniferons Limestone.

5. Darin Pins Ironstone. — Anthracoiiat Anthracomya, Mya-

Una (same species as in the <*Pennystone" band of Coalbrook Dale). Avictda (/).

6. Ironstone over Engine CoaL" — Spirifer and Producttu.

7. "Old Coal'' black band. — Anthracoda aevia and A.

ovaUs both common species in the Coal-measnres.

8. Spotted Vein. — Tracks of lAmulus, a crustacean allied to

the King Crab — and Spirorbis earbonarius,

9. Bottom Vein. — Fish : MegaUchthys, BhyzoduSf Palaonucut,

Avibliptenu, PleurocanthuSf Helodus, PeciLodtis, Pleur rods. 10. Bottom Bosser Vein. — Fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone. Spirtfer bmdcattis, Ortkis resupinata, 0, MicheUni, Conetes Hardrensis, Streptorhynchus crenestria. Productui senU-reticulatiu, Edmondia UniontfomUs. Axinus Carbonarius. Productui Cora, ConuUma quadriculeata, Nautilus faUatus.

Entomostraca. — In certain black-band ironstone strata, lying about thirty yards above the " Eider Coal," in the Pennant series, Mr. W. Adams, of Cardiff, in 1869, discovered some very interesting forms of Entomostraca, figured and described by Professor Eupert Jones, and associated with Anthracomya (unio) PhilUpsiL Some of the species are new, and include the genera Estheria Carbonaria and Leaia.'\

EstabUshed by Mr. Salter. " Iron Ores of Great Britain," Partiii. p. 229. t Geol Mag., vol. iii., 214 1870).

The Qbeat Coal-Field Of South Wales. 101

Besources.

The estimates which I originally gave of the resources of this coal-hasin, amounting to 24,000 millions of tons within a vertical depth of 4,000 feet, of which I considered 16,000 millions available, have been considerably exceeded by the calculations of Messrs. Vivian and Clark, who drew up the returns for the Coal-Commission. As these gentlemen have brought to bear, for the determination of this question, apphances and information which no private individual could command, I have no hesitation in accepting the results at which they have arrived in preference to my own ; with, however, some slight modifications, the reasons for which I shall now lay before the reader.

The total quantity of available coal returned by the Commissioners, down to a depth of 4,000 feet, in the South Wales basiQ, is 32,466,208,913 tons; but in this is iucluded the bottom, or " Crowsfoot " coal, a seam ranging in thickness only from fourteen riches to two feet, and which, being the lowest, is the deepest in the basin. Of this seam Mr. Clark says : That it is an

Thai is, the qnantity after making dednciions for waste, or loss in workmg, faults, bad coal, etc.

102 The Coal-Fiblds Of Qbbat Bbitain.

ummportant seam, being, towards the north end only about sixteen inches thick, and in the south about two feet; and that, except under favourable circumstances, it has not been worked, nor is it worked at present.'* Now, can any one suppose for a moment that such a seam as this ever will be worked at depths of over 2,000 feet, or even at more than one-half this depth ? If they do, all I can say is, that I do not share their opinion ; and therefore, in the estimates of resources which are given below, I have deducted 656,642,000 tons, the amount placed to the credit of the Crowsfoot vein ; and which I therefore eliminate altogether from these estimates.

I have also considered it necessary to make deductions on account of thin seams in Mr. Clark's groups, Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7; iti which he states there are seams of coal from one to two feet only in thickness. I cannot believe that such seams can be available at great depths, and I have therefore deducted the quantity credited to these seams at a greater depth than 2,000 feet, amounting to 16,358,000 tons; the total deductions, therefore, will amount to

Bep. Coal-CommiflsiaD, vol. i., p. 10.

The 6Beat Coal-Field Of South Wales. 103

673,039,000 tons on the quantity of coal returned by the Commissioners within a depth of 4,000 feet.

Estimate of the Mineral Besov/rcea of the South Wales Coat-Basin,

1. Superficial area of the Basin . 906 square miles.

1 Greatest thickness of Coal-measures 10,000 to 12,000 feet.

8. Number of Coal-seams from two feet upwards, 25, giving a thickness of about . . . . 84 ft. of workable coal,

4. Total quantity of Coal, according

to the Commissioners, in round

numbers 86,566 millions of tons.

5. Quantity of available Coal under

after the necessary deductions . 81,788 millions of tons.

This, at the rate of production for 1870, of 18,664,112 tons, would be sufficient to last for more than 2,800 years.*

The statements of Coal and Iron produce are here, and throughout this work, taken from the Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom," annually collected by Mr. R. Hunt, F.R.S. (Stanfordy London.)

Chapter Ii.

Bristol And Somersetshire Coal-Field.

At an unusually short distance from the base of that range of Oolitic escarpments which stretches in an ever-varying line from Gloucestershire to Dorsetshire, lies the Bristol coal-field.* The thick series of formations which in the midland counties intervenes between the Coal-measures and the Lias, are here, either greatly reduced in depth, or altogether absent ; and hence we may pass from the one formation to the other within a distance of a hundred yards, t

The northern part of the ooaJ-field forms a trough lying north and south, narrowing towards its northern limits, and expanding in the opposite

It onght to be stated that as early as 1780, Mr. Strachey described the coal-districts of Somersetshire in a series of com> municatioDS to the Royal Society, and from his sections it is evident he understood the relative positions of the Oolite, lias, Bed Marl, to the Coal-measnres, and limestone of the Mendips.

t This district is illustrated by the Geological Survey Maps, 19, 85, and Sections, sheets 14, 15.

Tf F*tyr kH.

-

j

r

'flimnan/th-it

- iinrh' himftii'iir

Bbistol And Somersetshire Coal-Field. 106

direction, till, east of Bristol, it reaches a width of seven miles. The beds rise at high angles along a and beyond the edge of the basin. I The Millstone Grit and Carboniferons Limestone form parallel belts. Upon the upturned edges |fe"; of these more ancient formations the New Eed Marl and Lias rest % almost horizontally (see Section, Fig 8, p. 105). South of Bristol, the boimdary of the coal-field, marked by the range of limestone g hills, sweeps round to the west- f ward, and is lost under the sea i beyond Nailsea Moor, near Cleve- i don, in Somersetshire. South of ei this the Coal-measures underlie the Liassic formations of Dundry HiQ, and encircle the large mass of I Carboniferous Limestone near Con- I gresbury. Over the greater part of I this area the coal-formation is 1 buried at moderate depths imder newer horizontal strata.

Along the southern boundary of

106 The Coal-Fields Of Qbeat Bettain.

the coal-field the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendip Hills rises to the surface, trending from west to east, till lost beneath the Lias and Oolite, W. of Frome* I am assured, however, by Mr. Etheridge, that the basin-shaped structure of the Carboniferous Eocks under the Lias and Oolite has been thoroughly established by actual sinkings and borings through these newer formations, so that the lowermost coal-shales, or Holcombe Series, do not pass eastward of a line joining Bath and Frome. On reaching Mells, the lowest beds bend round to the North, and take a course through Buckland, Norton St. Philip, Midford, Twiverton (where coal is worked), and North Stoke. It will be observed that this outcrop is in the line of the great N. — S. dislocation, which passes by Chipping Sodbury and Cleeve Bridge, near Doniton.*

The extreme length of this coal-field, from its northern apexatCromhallto the flanks of the Mendip HUls, is twenty-six miles ; the general strike

I was formerly of opinion, with many others, that the coalfield stretched eastwards from the Mendip Hills under the Oolites, hy Bath, Bradford, and Frome, until informed to the contrary hy Mr. Etheridge, who is well acquainted with the trials which have been made to prove coal in this direction. It is very probable, however, that the Coal-measures roll in again under the Cretaceous rocks of tha Yale of Wardour.

Bbi8T0L And Somebsetshibb Coal-Fibld. 107

of the beds north of the vaUey of the Avon being north and south, and over the area south of this line from west to east. About one-half of the northern portion is overlaid by horizontal strata of the Triassio and Oolitic periods, and of the southern part nine-tenths are covered over in this manner; yet the existence of the underlying coal-field is abundantly proved, not only from* theoretical considerations, but by actual sinkings for coal. Shafts penetrating the Lias and Red Marl into the coal have been sunk at Faulton and Timsbury; and another near Eadstock, conmiencing in the upper beds of the Lias, reaches coal at 200 fathoms.*

The succession of strata in the neighbourhood of Bristol has been determined by Mr. D. Williams,! and is as follows : —

Svjocesswn of Strata near Bristol,

Imu Lower, Middlei and Upper Lias. ( Red Marl. Dolomitio conglomerate.

Upper series, with 22 coal-seams, of which 9 average two feet and upwards in thickness . 8,000 ft

" Leetnres on Geology," by Mr. R. Etheridge, 1869. A little book containing much valuable information aboat the Bristol coal-field ; and to its author I am indebted for many detaiLs concerning this district.

t Mem. GeoL Survey, vol. i., p. 207.

108 The Ooal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

/ Central, or Pennant Qrit, 5 coal-

CoaJrMeaiures seams 1,72511.

Lower shales, 86 coal-seams 2,000 ,,

Millstons Grit Hard siliceoas grits, etc. . . 950

Carboniferous Limestone . . . . 2,838

There is thus a total thickaess of strata with coal of 6,726 feet, separated into two divisions by a series of hard, massive, sandstones (Pennant grit), which will prove a serious obstacle to sinking in search of the lower coals. Of the 63 coalseams above mentioned only 20 are 2 feet and upwards in thickness, producing 71 feet of coal.*

The Coal-measures have been arranged by

Mr. Etheridge under the following subdivisions: J

( Radstock series, pper . . Farrington series. Middle . . The Pennant series, f Bedminster series. ( Aston, or Holcombe series.

The Kadstock series (see section below) occupies a small area in the southern part of the coalfield between Kilmersdon and Farmborough.

Mr. Prestwich, F.R.S., who, as one of the Commissioners, has drawn up an able Report on this coal-field, gives the number of seams as 46 with 98 feet of coal. The numbers and thicknesses of the seams depend of course very much on the part of the district where the section is taken. I have adopted Mr. Prestwich's estimates of thickness of the upper and lower coal-series.

t Lectures on Geology."

BRISTOL AND 80MEBSETSHIBE COAIi-FIELD. 109

The Farringfcon series forms a much larger area — from Holcombe on the south, to near Brislington on the north, and from Combe Hay on the east, to Chew Magna on the west.

The Bedminster series encircles the last in a band about one mile and a half broad along the east, and on the west occupies the greater part of the flat ground around the limestone inlier of Congresbury and Backwell, stretching to. the sea-coast under Nailsea Moor, Kenn Moor, Nempnet, and Fuxton. It also forms a greater part of the Northern district.

The lowest series of Holcombe forms a narrow belt lying immediately over Millstone Grit or " Farewell Eock." Along the edge of the Mendips, and at Twiverton, the strata are highly disturbed and dislocated. The seams of the lower series decrease in number and importance, both southward at Nailsea, where they are reduced to twelve, and northward to Yate and CromhaU, where only seven seams exist. They attain their fullest development in the central area.*

The following is the general succession of the Coal-series, for which I am indebted to Mr. Etheridge, and which is very similar to that published by the Geological Survey : — Mr. Prestwioh, " Report," p. 89.

110 The Coal-Fields Of Gbbat Bbttain.

(hneral CoaJr-write of the Somersetshire Coat-field,

KoBTH Side.

Booth Sidb.

Nhm of Goal-Mun, to. Ft

Nam* of Ooal-Mun, vto.

Ft In.

Red Sandstone and Marl at Coal Fit Heath . .

Haddock Seriei,

(Not represented in the Northeni district)

Ooal

Shale and rock, with thinaeama . . .

Shale with coal, 1 ft.

Shalee and Sandatone

Strata, etc . . .

Coal

Strata

Hard sandstone, with a few beds of shale — and three coalseams, each about two feet in thick-

New Red Sandstone

andMari Dolomitic conglomerate

Sandstone and shalee

Oreat seam of Clair

Down Strata, with two thin

MiddU Strata .

/Suiphwroui eoal Strata . . . Oathtadoetm . Strata . . . Tkrte-§eam coal

( Shales, eta, with AfUkraeotia . Peaeodtcoal Shales . . .

Shales

Principally bard sandstones, with 5 of coaL

Mr. Fnitwicb BtatM that thaPamant rook hM bean traTornd to a dpth <if and hat probaUy a mean thicksMi of not laas than 9,000 ftet Tho foOowing an tha eaama which it oontainii in the Nattlebiidm 'district, tha ffloba Mam,** 8 ftet thiek,

of good quaUtj. In tha Brlatol diitrict, tha asam,** 10 ' "

aeam,"8fttto6feot,aniiithandateam coal; tho "lag aean " d0Til*a asam." 2 fcot to 4 ftet, of nnocrtain qnaU.RsFoaT,

Millgxit ftom 1 to4 ftat; tha

BBI8T0L AND 80MEBSETSHIBE COAL-FIELDS. Ill General CodL-eeriea of iJie Somereetekvre CoaZ-fieid,

North Side.

South Sidb.

KaoM of Ooftl-seun, eta

Sandstone . HtnMam . Strata . . Coal . . . Strata . . BritknCtteam Strata . Ootd . . . Strata . . SkOly Vein Coal Strata

Sandstone and Coal . . Strata . Cfr&UrKam Sandstone Coal Shale Coal Shale iSZoe-MOM . Shale Coal . Strata Coal . Sandstone . Strata Coal . V Millstone Orit

shale.

Pt

Soo

Name of Coal-seam, eto.

/Small Coal . . .

Dead Cowrte, or shell-

Oaai€en Courte .

Strap-ieam . .

Oreat Couth .

Ihmgy Drift . . Hard Coal Drift . Perkin'i Course . Foot-coal Brcmch-coal . . . Golden CandUatick North SheeU . . Cat (red ash) . . South SheeU . . JUband-coal . . . Staging-coal . . Pern Rag , . . Stone Rag . . . CaUowiseam . . Penriekf or Blad itone-cocd . . . WhiU-axen {Bsh) . Fireetone-eeam . . Millstone Grit . .

Pt.

In.

Note. — The temu used at the sides of the columns are intended to show that the seams, in the North and South area of the Coal-field, are most likdy the same under different names, and are here attempted to be correlated.

Flexures and Faults. — The Coal-field is divided

112 The Coal-Fields Of 6Beat Beitaik.

into two great parts by a great anticlinal axis, which runs east and west through Kingswood, where it brings the coals of the lower series to the surface, and throws off the Pennant rocks on its flanks. The axis itself is traversed by a number of faults, mostly of uncertain value, by which the workings of the coal-seams are interrupted.

Another great disturbance is one which places the Coal-measures in a vertical position along the northern base of the Mendip Hills, the axis of which is parallel to the former, and ranges east and west. Along this line the Coalmeasures are tilted vertically, and have in some cases a reversed dip, so that the coals can often be worked to a depth of 200 or 300 feet perpendicularly, the shaft following the course of the seam. The coal, especially when the dip is reversed, is generally much broken, and often so mixed with shale and stone as to be useless. In connexion with this latter disturbance is the remarkable " shde fault," by which the upper portion of the Eadstock series has been thrust almost horizontally for a distance of 130 to 220 feet northward over the lower portion.*

Mr. Prestwich, Beport, vol. i, p. 60.

Bristol And Somebsetshibb C0Al-7Ield. 113

Besources.

In attempting to estimate the future resources of this coal-field, great deductions are unques* tionably necessary from the calculated quantity of coal, owing to some general, and some special, circumstances. Excluding all seams below 4,000 feet in depth, we must, I think, omit many of those within this depth, owing to thinness and liability to deterioration in quality. The Pennant rock, which overspreads so large a portion of the lower series of coals, will also undoubtedly prove a serious obstacle, owing to the expense of sinking through it ; while the contorted and crushed state of the coal along the southern borders of the field is likely to discourage the working of it at great depths in that district.

Mr. Prestwich, who, with the assistance of Mr. Anstie, has made an elaborate series of estimates for each parish, giving a grand total of nearly 7,000 millions of tons, has rightly appreciated the force of those special difficulties likely to attend future mining operations, and has made considerable deductions in consequence.* Still, I cannot but regard the quan-

Eqnal to one-fifth on the quantity in the lower serieSi after neeessary deductions of the usual kind.

114 tHE COAii-FIELBd OF GBBAT BRITAIN.

tity remaining as in excess of that which may reasonably be calculated upon, owing to the thinness, for the most part, of tiie seams of coal themselves ; as those which are now worked at moderate depths may be quite unworkable when the depth reaches, and exceeds, 1,000 yards. Haying premised so much, I shall put the reader in possession of Mr. Prestwich's and my own estimates

The Author's Estvmxxte of Besoy/rces,

are not concealed by newer for*

2. Greatest thickness of measures with

coal 5,125 feet. 8. Number of coal-seams from 2 feet and upwards, 20, giving a thick-

4. Total original quantity of coal (cor-

5. Deduct for quantity inaccessible,

spoiled, etc., one-third, leaving . 2,766 „

6. Deduct for quantity already worked

out, one-tenth, leaving . 2,489

7. Deduct for quantity below the depth

of 4,000 feet, one-fifth ; leaving

for future supply about 4 . 2,000

Bbibtol And Somebsetshibe Coal-Field. 115

Mr, PresbwicKe Estimate*

Toire.

1. Qnantiiy of coal at a less depth than 1,500 ft. 1,718,791,280

2. „ „ between 1,500 and 8,000 ,, 1,510,997,981 8. ,, „ between 8,000 and 6,000 „ 2,227,581,577 4. „ ,, between 6,000 and 8,000 „ 687,990,144

Or, excluding the quantity below 4,000 feet, there remain 4,218,310,000 tons for fature use.

The annual output of coal from this coal-field is about 1,000,000 tons, from thirty-four col- Keiies.f

Concealed Goal-basin under the Estuary of the Severn. — Mr. Prestwich indicates the existence erf Coal-measures under the upper part of the estuary of the Severn, east of Chepstow. These strata have been proved by boring, but to what extent they are coal-bearing is uncertain.]: The position is shown on the map, (Plate II.)

Beport vol. i., p. 60. t Mr. B. Hnnt,<' Mineral Statistics" (1869). X Map of the Bristol coal-field to accompany evidence of Mr. Prestwich's Beport, vol. ii

Chapter Iii.

Fobest Of Deak Goal-Field, Glouoestebshibe.

The structure and resources of this coal-field are now thoroughly understood. It forma a more perfect "basin" than any other coalfield in England ; as the strata everywhere dip from the margin towards the centre, except at one part of the western sidCj where the oval outline is interrupted for a short distance.*

The Coal-measures are surrounded by belts of MiUstonfe Grit and Carboniferous Limestone, which generally rise considerably above the tract of the Coal-measures they enclose, just as the banks of a lake are higher than the lake itself ; and the Carboniferous Limestone in turn rests upon a bed of Old Bed Sandstone.! The general

The Boyal Forest covers a space of 28,000 acres of which 11,000 are in timber. Deer' formerly abounded, but are now ahnost extinct.

t See Maps of the Geological Survey, 48, S.E. and S.W., and Mr. Sopwith's large Map in the Museum of Practical Geology.

Forest Of Dean Goal-Field. 117

structTire resembles that of the South Wales coalfield in miniatiire, and the transverse section (Pig. 6) illustrates the structure of the coal-basin of the Forest of Dean, as well as that to which it more especially refers.

Scenery. — The scenery around the skirts of this coal-basin is rich and varied. The eastern ridge of the Carboniferous Limestone overlooks the Vale of the Severn, and commands the escarpment of the Cotteswold Hills of Gloucester and Somerset. At the opposite side of the coal-field the eye rests upon the Vans of Brecon, 2,700 feet in height, and the ranges which mark the northern bounds of the great South Wales coal-field. The limestone ridge on which you stand is cut into lofty cliffs lining the gorge of the Wye, and in its extension southwards towards Chepstow produces those remarkably terraced cliffs which render the scenery of that part of the river as beautiful as it is peculiar.

The area of the coal-field is about 34 square miles. It contains 16 seams of coal, of which only 8 are of a thickness of 2 feet and upwards ; and the total series, as stated by Sir H. de la Beche, is as follows —

Mem. Qeol. Survey, vol. i., p. 208.

118 The Goalfields Of Obbat Bbitain.

Coal-measures, vdih 16 coal-seams

2,766 feet.

Millstone Grit ,

Oarboniferons Limestone

Lower Limestone Shale

Old Bed Sandstone

In the CarboniferouB group there is a decrease by two-thirds in the thickness of the strata as compared with the Bristol district. Over the centre of the basin the strata lie nearly horizontally. On approaching the eastern borders they rise very rapidly, "but along the opposite, or western edge, the lower beds spread out considerably, and in consequence have a much larger horizontal range than those higher up in the series. The coals are being gradually worked from the margin of the basin, where they crop out, towards the centre, where they are deep ; on which account it is probable that progressive mining operations will be much hindered by the accumulation of water in the old workings..

Mr. Eichard Gibbs assures me of an interesting fact in relation to the strata of this district. He states that, along a portion of the south-west side of the coal-field, the Millstone Grit and Limestone are overlapped unconformably by the Coalmeasures,

FOREflT OF DSAK COAL-FIELD. 119 Succession of the Coaleams.

Ft. In.

Sandfliones and shales with thin coals 880 0

Strata 91 10

Dog Del/ 12

Smith Coal . r , . 2 6

Strata , 84 6

Strata '48 8

Park End High Del/ 8 7

Strata 66 0

Strata 50 0

Strata 77 6

Strata ' f 84 0

Strata 150 0

BraizUy Deil/ 19

Strata 480 0

Nag' a Head, or YorkUy Del/ ... 2 9

Strata 158 0

WhiUvngton Del/ 2 6

Strata 187 0

Strata 124 0

Upper Trencliard Del/ ,...20

Strata 72 0

Lower Trenchard, or Bottom Coal . . 14

Many of the coal-seaiins axe exceedingly variable in thickness and quality, as I know by painful personal experience. Th Coleford

120 The Coal-Fields Op Gbeat Bbitain.

High DeK is subject to rapid fluctuations in thickness, and is so soft that only about 2 feet can be extracted as large coal, the rest being slack or small.

The Forest of Dean in 1870 contained 10 iron furnaces, of which 7 were in blast, producing upwards of 60,000 tons of pig-iron. The ore used is derived from the clay-ironstone of the Coalmeasures, from brown haematite extracted from the Carboniferous Limestone, and from other extraneous sources.*

The Horse, — In one of the coal-seams, called Coleford High Delf," there occurs one of those interruptions in the regular course of the strata, which tend to throw much Kght on the original conditions under which. coal was formed, "but are an occasion of serious loss and disappointment to the proprietor. Eiver channels fiUed with sand or clay, traversing coal-seams, occxir in almost every coal-field, and are known as "rock-faults" and "horse-backs;" but the case to which I have aUuded is so remarkable, and has been so folly investigated, that it will serve as a general

The brown hematite accompanies the Carboniferons Limestone which nearly encircles the coal-field, and was worked by the Bomans during their occupation of Britain. In 1869 there were extracted 172,028 tons.— -Mr. Hunt, Min. Stat., p. 64.

Fobest Of Beah Coal-Field. 121

illustration of these phenomena in other districts.* The description is by Sir H. de la Beche,t who says : — The horse with its branches resembles a channel cnt amongst a mass of vegetable matter in a soft condition. It ranges S. 31 E. for a length of two miles, and a breadth of 170 to 340 yards. A number of minor channels communicating with each other and the main channel are named "Lows." Mr. Buddie compares the horse to the bed of a river, and the lords to smaller streams cutting only a lesser depth. The channels are filled principally -with sandstone, which extends over the coal-seam, and forms its roof.

Resources.

1. Area of coal-field 84 square miles.

2. Greatest tluckness of Coal-measures 2,760 feet. 8. Number of coal-seams from 2 feet

and upwards, 8, giving a total thickness of . . . . 24 „

4. Total original quantity of coal (cor-

5. Deduct for loss and quantity worked

out, etc., leaving for future use . 265 „

6. This, at the present rate of production of ,600,000 tons, %

would last for about 600 years.

Mr. Jukes has very fully described these horses or rockfaults in the " Thick Coal " near Dudley, in his Memoir on the South Staffordshire Coal-field," p. 45.

t Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i., p. 166.

X Estimate of Mr. Dickinson, one of the Commissioners. — Beporty p. 18.

Chapter Iv.

Coal-Field Of The Forest Of Wyre, Worcester-

Shire.

A COAL-FIELD of about as large a superficial extent as that of the Forest of Dean stretches from the northern end of the Abberley Hills, and spreading out under the Forest of Wyre, ultimately becomes contracted northwards to a narrow band lining the banks of the Severn south of Bridgenorth.

The Coal-measures repose on a bed of Old Eed Sandstone, consisting of red marls, sandstones, and comstones (concretionary earthy limestone), and are overlaid by a thick mass of Lower Permian strata, composed of red sandstones and marls with calcareous conglomerates, and marly breccia,* very ftdly developed at Enville. This Permian breccia has excited much interest

B;reccia " is a word nsed to designate strata formed of angular pebbles, "conglomerate" being confined to strata in which the pebbles are rounded or water-worn.

Coal-Field Of The Fobbst Of Wybe. 12S

regarding its origin; for Professor Eamsay has shown that it bears a strong resemblance to accnmnlations originating in glaciers, and spread over the sea-bottom by floating ice ; such as that of the Boulder clay of the Glacial epoch. If this theory be correct, a vast change must have come over the climate of these countries between the coal-period and that which immediately succeeds it.

This coal-field has not been fully explored; but, as far as is known, the coal-seams which it contains are both thin, and of inferior quality. The following series occurs near the western margin, as exhibited in Mr. Aveline's section drawn across this district.*

Section of Coal StrcUa, Forest of Wyre,

Ft

In

Sandstone and shale - .

Coal

Sandstone and shale ,

Coal

Sandstone and shale

Coal

Sandstone, shale, etc.

SectionB of the Geol. Survey, Sheet 50 ; also Geol. Map, 65, NJS.

124 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

Sectioii at Earcott Colliery, Clee HiU Common, Forest of

Wyre*

Ft. In.

12. Ironstone and Bock . . - . . 8 0

16. Black Clod and large balls of Ironstone . 6 0

The strata of which this coal-field is composed* represent merely the upper Coal-measTires, which seldom contain beds of coal of much value or thickness. One bed, however, varying from 4 to

Extracted from a valuable paper by Mr. Daniel Jones, F.G.S., On the co-relation of certain Carboniferous Deposits of Shropshire/' in \diich he endeavours, not unsuccessfully, to explain the changes which have taken place in the beds from Coal* brook Dale, Harcott, Brown Clee, and Combrook. — Geol. Mag., vol. viii., p. 868 (1871).

Goal-Field 07 Ths F0Be8T Of Wtbe. 125

6 feet, has been traced by the late Mr. G. E. Boberts over a considerable extent of the central part of the coal-field, and is represented in the section below. The absence of the central and lower portions of the formation may be accounted for on the supposition, that this part of England was dry land till near the close of the Carboniferous epoch.

Mr. Roberts has brought to Kght several very interesting particulars regarding the fossils, both animal and vegetable. In a band of limestone, apparently synchronous with that in the upper Coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale, Warwickshire, and elsewhere, he has found fish-teeth and scales, Cythere (Gypris) inflataj Spirorbu carhonariusy and fine specimens of Posydonia, determined by Mr. Bupert Jones. But perhaps the most interesting .palffiontological objects obtained by Mr. Boberts, are specimens of Pecopteris and other ferns, retaining their fructification.*

At Arley Collieiy, near Bewdley, the strata have been penetrated to a depth of 454 yards, ultimately reaching a mass of basaltic rock. Only one workable coal, at a depth of 176 yards, appears to have been found.

For fiouriher details see Mr. Roberts' Bocks of Woroesterthire.''

Chapter V.

SHBEWSBURY COAL-FIELD i

Tms coal-field forms a narrow baad extending from the base of Haughmond HiU, east of Shrewsbury, to the banks of the Severn near Alberbury, a distance of about 18 miles. Like the coal-field of the Forest of Wyre, the coalstrata repose on the older rocks without the intervention of the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone; but in this instance the fundamental rocks belong to the Cambrian and Lower Silurian periods. Notwithstanding its length, it is seldom more than a mile in breadth ; and in its lower part contains two or three coal- :seams which have been worked to a small extent, but are not of sufficient value to induce mining operations far from the outcrop.

The Coal-measures are overlaid by Lower Permian strata, consisting of red and purple marls and sandstones, surmounted at Alberbury and

Shbewsbubt Coal-Ftbld* 127

Cardeston by a remarkable stratified breccia,* composed of angular fragments of white quartz, and Carboniferous Limestone, cemented by calcareo - ferruginous paste. The "Alberbury breccia" may be regarded as the renmant of an old shingle beach formed roimd a coast-line, composed of Carboniferous and Silurian rocks.

In the upper part of this coal-field a band of limestone t occurs with estuarine and marine organisms, some of which were at first supposed to be of freshwater origin. It contains a small crustacean, Cythere a bivalve shell, Anthracosiay and an anneKde, Spirorhis carbonarius. Now, it is a remarkable instance of the persistency of some calcareous strata over large areas, that this band of limestone, seldom ijore than a foot in thickness, can be traced in the Coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale and the Forest of Wyre southward, of Lancashire northward, and of Warwickshire eastward, representing an area of about ten thousand square miles; and throughout this expanse it is always found associated with those uppermost coal-strata, which preceded the introduction of the Permian rocks.

Sir R. I. MurchiBon, " Silnrian System," p. 68. t This limestone is described by Sir B. I. Mnrchison Silnria," p. 821).

128 The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Britain.

The coal-fields of the Forest of Wyre, the Glee Hills, and Shrewsbury, together with a fourth district extending from the base of Caer Caradoc to within a few miles south of Shrewsbury, are of so valueless a nature in regard to their coal deposits, that I do not consider it necessary to attempt an estimate of their resources. They have all been formed in the vicinity of old landsurfaces, and around lines of coast composed of more ancient rocks. The strata themselves belong generally to the higher part of the coalseries, which throughout England is but sparingly enriched with beds of coal. Their relations to the Coal-measures of Coalbrook Dale have been carefully worked out by Mr. Daniel Jones.*

The Goal-fields of the Glee Hills, Salop.

Two small outlying coal-tracts, remnants of a formation which once spread continuously from South Wales and Gloucestershire, are perched on the summits of the Titterstone and Brown Glee TTills in Shropshire, at a height in the latter case of 1,780 feet above the sea, and if

" On the co-relation of the Carboniferoas Deposits of Gembrook, Brown Glee, Harcott, and Coalbrook Dale." — Geol.Mag., vol. viii., p. 868 (Aug., 1871).

Bhhewsbuby Goal-Field 129

lighted up with the combustible materials with which they are stored, would serve as beaconfires for many a mile round.

These coal-fields are rather more than a mile each in diameter, and are capped by a bed of hard basalt, to which, owing to its power of resistance to agents of denudation, the hills probably owe their preservation. On these flattopped hills are planted several small collieries, whose shafts pierce the basalt before entering the coal. The vent from which this igneous rock has been erupted is situated in the Titterstone Clee Hill ; and from this orifice the basalt has apparently been poured forth in the form of Uquid submarine lava, at some period after the Coal-measures were formed. The thickness of the coal formation is but small, containing only two or three thin coal-seams, and the strata rest generally directly on Old Eed Sandstone; but representatives both of the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit are interposed at the eastern side of the Titterstone Hill.

I have referred to these districts more on account of their geological interest than for any economical value they may be supposed to possess.

See horizontal section of the Geological Survey, Sheet 36.

K

Chaptee Vi.

COAIr-nELD OF COALBBOOK DALB, 8HBOP8HIBE.

Tms coal-field has a tiiangnlar fonn, -with its base in the vaUey of the Severn, near Ooalbrook Dale, and its northern apex at Newport. Along its western side it is bounded partly by a great fault, which brings in the New Bed Sandstone, and partly by the Silnrian rocks of the Wrekin, which rises with its smooth and arched back to the height of 1,320 feet above the sea, and half that amount above the general level of the country around. Along its eastern side the coalfield is bounded by Permian strata, under which the Carboniferous beds appear to pass, but diminished both in thickness and in productiveness of coal.

The general dip of the strata is eastward ; and in makmg a traverse to the foot of the Wrekin we cross in succession the base of the Coalmeasures, the Millstone Grit, Carboniferous Limestone, a bed of basalt, and at length reach

o fiof pa0 iiO.

Loadoo: Edward Stanford 6 & 7 Charing Cros.

Coal-Field Of Coalbbook Dale. 131

Sflnrian rocks, which form the general foundation to the Carboniferous formations in this district. This succession of strata is illustrated by the section (Fig. 8), in which, however, the denudation of the lower measures, and their overlap by the upper, are onodtted; the drawing being too smaU for the insertion of these phenomena.

Surveys and Descriptions.-Tim coal-field is alluded to by the late Sir E. Murchison,* who notices some of its peculiarities ; and is the subject of an elaborate memoir by Mr. Frestwich, F.B.S.,f accompanied by a naap and numerous sections. It was affcerwards surveyed by the officers of the Geological Survey. J More recently additional light has been thrown on its structure by Mr. Marcus W. T. Scott,§ Mr. Eandall, and Mr. D. Jones.lT The researches of these gentlemen have thrown much light on the nature of the Symon feuilt/' and the relations of the Upper to the Lower C&al-measures, and of the Permian rocks to both.

" Silnmn System/' p. 86, 1889. t Geol. TranB. 2 ser., vol. v., 1840.

X Geol. Sorvey Maps, 61 N.E.y and Horizontal Section> Sheets 54 and 58 with explanatory noticeB.

§ Jonm. Geol. Soe. Lond., vd. zvii., 457 (1861). II Letters published in the Mining Journal, 1871. 1 GeoL Hag., yoL im., p. 200 (1871).

132 Thb Coal-Fields Of Gbbat Britain.

Pits In The Coalbrook Dale District.

{Tkoewhiek arenumbered are Aotw ow tfte Map, PLATE lU.

Seduced fnm thai qf Mr, D, Jotum.)

Qological Surrey, Vertical Sections, No. 23.

8. Domungton Wood. 4i NewHadly. 6. Wombridge.

6. Nelflon Pit> Prior's Lee (from Stone Coal). .

7. Ketiey. Preetwich, p. 446, I am not aware of its existing farther to

south than New Hadley and part of Ketiey." Wombridge, Townson's Tracts. Vide Pwetwich*

8. SnedshiU. Preetwich, p. 478.

Edwards Piece, Hadley. Prestwich, p. 480.

New Hadley. Prestwich, p. 481.

Tub Engine Pit, Donnington Wood. Prestwich, p. 488.

The foUowing range from the Top Coal, Double abd tard Goals, downwards : — 9v Lawley and Steeraway. HoTsehays.

Rickyard Pit, PrioiB Lee.

11. PudleyHilL Portley Pity Bawley.

Lightmoor Whinney Pit. Prestwich, p. 4?5.

17. litUe Wenlock. Prestwich, p. 477.

New Works, New Lawley. Prestwich, p. 477.

19. Old Works at Dawley. Prestwich, p. 480. Wombridge Pit, near the engine. Prestwich, p. 480. HolyweU Pits, Mftlinslee. Prestwich, p. 482. Dawley Pit. PpMtwich, p. 483.

Old Park Pits. ftjtwich, p. 488.

*rhe following pits range from the Lower Pennystotie or , Big Flint Coal t—

20. Broseley. Vertical Section, Sheet 23.

21. Trial Ht, Castle Green. Prestwich, p. 475.

Digitized byCjOOQlC*

Coal-Field Of Coalbbook Dale. 133

22. Lodge Pit Madeley. Prestwich, p. 477.

Trial Pit, near LiUeehaU Old Hall Prestwicfa, p. 479. Hemans Pitfield, near Broeeley. Prestwich, p. 481. Yenr Tree Pit Calcut Field, Broaeley. Preetwich, p. 481,

23. Meadow Pits, Madeley. Prestwich, p. 485. Hills-Lane (with the local terms). Prestwich, p. 486.

The following range from the best coftl and below : —

Gaughley. Vertical Section, Sheet 23. Limestone Pits, Lincoln's HilL Prestwich, p. 480.

24. Amies Field, near Broeeley. Prestwich, p. 478.

Succession of Coal-seams, Coalbrook Dale.

Ft. In. Ft In.

2. Fungus coal. ' futrth end of 8. Gnr coal. J Copl-fald,)

6. Doable coal . . . , . „ 5 0 „ 6 0

9. Stinking coal ,, 8 0 „ 4 0

12. Handle and Clod coal . „ 4 0 ,, 5 0 18. Little Flint coal . . „ 1 6 ,, 2 8

The whole of the above seams of coal are contained in a series of strata about lOOO feet in vertical thickness.

The Symon fault; denudation of the Middle and Lower Measures. — At the time when Mr. Prestwich was engaged in his investigations,

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

it was known that several of the seams of coal and ironstone

Ihad a very limited range, and appeared to die out in certain s% directions. Thus it appears that the three uppermost ll seams in the above list of coals are only found in the I northern part of the coal-field ; 8 Wli* , I that the Top Coal and Yard § § Coal are limited to the cen- 1 1 tral portions ; and finally, that the upper measures with the " Spirorbis limestone " are found at the southern end of the field, within 170 feet i I (vertically) of the base of I I the Coal-measures. I The observations of Messrs. Ill Scott and Jones appear very 5aol satisfactorily to account for these peculiar conditions. According to their views, founded on actual knowledge of pit-sections and underground works, there has been a considerable amount of denudation of the coal-

Ooal-Fibld 07 Coalbroox Dale. 135

serieB at a certain stage of the coal-period, and after all the strata up to, and inclnding, thef " Chance Pennystone" had been formed. In the hollow portions of the coal-field thus formed, the upper coal-measures appear to have been deposited ; their junction with the older strata being a sloping bank, or cliff, and the line of separation being marked by the presence of a bed of gravel and a mottled clay locally known as Calaminker." The relations of these different portions of the same formation will be better understood by reference to the section below (Fig. 10), taken bom Mr. Jones's paper, and by the Sketch Map. Upper Coal-meaMores. — These strata are found extending from the northern portion of the. coalfield along the eastern side to the banks of the Severn, and consist of mottled clays, greenish grits, and calcareous gravel or breccia, resembling volcanic ashes. In these beds the remarkably persistent band of compact limestone, with Spirorbis Carbonareousy first described by Sir B. Murchison, is found, and has been traced southwards along the valley of the Severn into the coal-field of the Forest of Wyre. The boundary with the Permian rocks along the east appears, in some places at least, to ave the character of an inclined bank, due to denudation.

136 The Coal-Fiel&amp; Of Great Britain.

Fig. 10. -SECTION SHOWING RELATIONS OF THE MIDDLE AND UPPSB COAL-MEASURES, COALBROOK DALE

o.c. O.C. Older Cotl-maarares. T.C. Yonsgar Ooal-measures.

The strata of this coal-field are much broken by faults. The largest of these is the western boundary fault ; another, the Lightmoor faulty traversing the centre of the coal-field from north to south, has a "throw" of about 100 yards : west of this fault the coal-beds are almost exhausted. There are also many transverse fractures.

Orqanic Bemains, — These are extremely varied, and have been enumerated in detail by Mr. Prestwich. They occur principally in the ironstones, of which the principal depositories are the Pennystone and Crowshaw bands. Fish : HyboduSy Gyracanthus formosus GochlioduSy Megalichthys Hibberti, Pleur acanthus. Crustacea : LimuluSy a genus allied to the king-crab ; Glyphea, GyjpriSy or Gythere inflata. MoUusca : Nautilus OrthoceraSy BellerophoUj Gonularia Spirifer bisulcatus, Prodtccttcs scabriculuSy Aviculo-pectefij Anthracosia (Unio), Gtenodonta (or LingulUy Bhynchonella. Insects: one

Coal-Field Of Coalbrook Dale. 137

or more species of scorpion ; two beetles of the family CurculionidcB, and a neuropterous insect, resembling the genus GorydaliSj and another related to the PhasmidcB*

There are several courses of ironstone measures, which iQ 1870 yielded 337,443 tons of pig-iron, from 29 blast furnaces ; t the Coalbrook Dale and LiQeshall companies beiQg the largest producers.

The coal under a very large portion of this field has been nearly exhausted, as will be apparent to any one who crosses it by the Wolverhampton and Shrewsbury railway, when, over a large area, nothing but dismantled enginehouses and enormous piles of refuse from abandoned coal and iron mines meets the eye. The collieries have gradually migrated from the western outcrop towards the east. Under these circumstances, it is probably within the mark to deduct from the original mass of coal twothirds for the quantity already worked out. Nearly twenty years back, when Mr. Prestwich was engaged in his survey, the district west of the Lightmoor fault was almost destitute of coal.

Lyell, " Elem. Geol.,'* p. 888. t Mineral Statistics/* 1870.

138 THB COAL-FIBIiBS OF GBEAT BSITAIN.

Reaourcea.*

1. Area of the eoal-field ... 28 square mileB.

2. Greatest thickness of coal-measures 1,200 feet. 8. Namher of coal-seams of upwards of

2 feet in thickness, 6, giving a

total thickness of ... 27 feet of coal. 4. Original quantity of coal (corrected

for denudation) 48 millions of tons. 6. Total quantity worked oat and lost,

about 25 millions, leaving for

future use 18 „ „

Which, at the present rate of consumption of 1,848,800 tons

(1870), would be exhausted in about 18 years.

This estimate only appKes to the actual coalfield. As ahready stated, the Coal-measures pass under Permian and New Eed Sandstone along the eastern margin, and ahready have these rocks been invaded by at least three coUieries, namely, the Granville Pits, the Staflfbrd Pits, and the Kemberton Pits.

I have made very little alteration in my original estimate of the resources of this coal-field, now rapidly approaching exhaustion. 0¥dng to the estimates of the quantity of coal being combined with those of Staffordshire and East Worcestershire, in Mr. Hartley's Returns, published in the Report of the Coal- Commission, I am unable to substitute them for my own. The estimates of the quantity of coal under the district lying between this coal-field and those of South Staffordshire and North Staffordshire, drawn up by Professor Ramsay, amount to 10,S80,000,000 tons. This area embraces an extent of 895 square miles. — Report, p. xi.

Whittf/ufton

London: Ecbrard Stanford. 6 & 7 Chaiiug Cross.

CHAPTEE Vn.

Tbe Goal-Fields Of* Nobth Wales.

General Structure.

An intemipted tract of Coal-measures extends from the northern slopes of the valley of the Severn, sonth of Oswestry, to the mouth of the estuary of the river Dee, in Flintshire, crossing the river at the entrance to the Vale of Llangollen. The Coal-measnres are overlaid by Permian strata on the south, and New Bed Sandstone on the north, and repose on beds of Millstone Grit,Yoredale Shale, and Carboniferous Ldmestone, each about 1,000 feet in thickness. These form a range of loffcy hills with terraced

The observations of Mr. Green of the Geological Survey (Geol. Mag., vol. iv., p. 11), and of Capt. Aitken (Ibid, vol. vii., p. 268), tend to prove that a portion, at least, of the beds intervening between the lower Coal-Measnres of North Wales are referable to the Yoredale Series," as understood by the officers of the Geological Survey. Mr. D. C. Davies and Mr. W. Prosser have obtained numerous fossil shells, etc. from these beds.

140 The Coal-Fields Op Gbeat Bbitain.

escarpments looking westward, and exhibit a very noble and striking feature when viewed from behind Llangollen, when they assume the form of a long line of ramparts, the strata beiQg piled like lines of masonry, tier above tier. This rampart forms the physical line of demarcation between Wales and England, though the conventional boundary extends into the plain along the eastern slopes.

These calcareous hills are frequently traversed by faults, and are fall of lodes rich in argentiferous galena ; the most remarkable of which is the " Great Minera veiQ," coiQciding with a line of fault traversing the Denbighshire coal-field from south-east to north-west, and which in 1869 yielded 5,447 tons of ore.

The coal-fields here described form part of the counties of Denbigh and Flint ; and north of the valley of the Aljrn become separated iato two portions, by the upheaval along the line of a great fault of the Lower Carboniferous Bocks.* The tract south of this fault is called the Denbighshire coal-field ; that to the north, the

This is one of the largest faults in Britain, and has been traced from the sea on the coast of Merionethshire, through Bala Lake, into Cheshire. See Maps of Geological Survey, Sheet 74,N.E. andS.W.

Dekbiqhshibe Goal-Field.

Flintshire coal-field — each of which will now be described separately.

This coal-field commences about three nules sonth of Oswestry, where the New Eed Sandstone begins to rest directly on the MiQstone Grit, and extends northward by Oswestry, Bnabon, and Wrexham, to the north of the valley of the Alyn, which winds through a deep defile, and exposes ia its banks an almost complete section of the coal-formation. The length of the coalfield is about eighteen miles ; and it is about four miles ia breadth at Wrexham, where crossed by the section. (Fig. 11, p. 144.)

The general succession of the strata is as follows : —

1. Trias, or New Bed Sandstone lluckneas.

1. Upper series, 1,000 feet.

4. Millstone Grit and Yoredale Beds . 800 „ 1,000 „

5. Carboniferous Limestone . . . 1,000 „ 1,500 „

The Lower Permian strata consist of red

142 The Ooal-Fiblds Of Obbat Bbitain.

and pniple malls and sandstones, sometimes calcareouSy and may be seen along the banks of the Dee west of Overton, and in the brook which flows eastward of Wrexham.

The Coal-measnres may be classed under three divisions. The upper, consisting of red and grey sandstones and reddish clays, and containing only a few very thin and worthless coals: of these beds there are good sections along the banks of the Alyn, west of Gresford. The middle series constitutes the coal-bearing strata, and contains the following coal-seams of good quality, besides several others not worth mentioning : this series corresponds, with slight variation, to that in Flintshire : —

Sticcession of CoaUaeama, Denbighshire CoaJrfidd*

Yds. Ft IiL

Strata 70

Strata 10

Strata 12

Strata 9

Strata 9

This section was famished to me by Mr. Napier, Manager of Westminster Colliery, 1859.

a

Tdi. Ft. IiL

Strata 11 0 0

Strata, with Brassy ironstone . 10 2 6

Strata, with black-band ironstone,

9. Jfom Coaly with a parting of clay,

Total . . . 178 0 8

The lower measures contain several coal-seams, varying from 2 to 3 feet, which have been but little sought after in the presence of the thick seams from the middle series.

There are several valuable beds of ironstone, the principal being "the brassy" and "blackband," from which, in the year 1869, 33,431 tons were raised for the Biymbo and Frwd fdmaces.

The remains of fish are abundant in this coalfield, and have been classed by Sir P. Egerton under the following genera : BhizodtiSy Ccelacanthusj PlatysomtLSf and Palceoniscus. The blackband ironstone is very fall of fish-scales, teeth, etc., and also contains a bivalve shell of the genus Anthracoda. In the Lower Coal-measures the black shales contain Goniatites and AviculO" pecterij as is the case in Lancashire and Yorkshire.

Denbighshibe Coal-Field.

m

Though the Coal-seams are of good quality and thickness, and advantageously placed for working on a large scale, it is only within the last few years that these great resources have become recognised. In 1867 there were no very deep collieries; one of the deepest, Westminster Colliery, from which the section of the strata has been taken, being only 173 yards. Since that time several very deep shafts have been sunk, one of these at Hafod, near Euabon, belonging to the Euabon Coal Company, descending to a depth of over 500 yards.*

The production of this coal-field has also greatly increased within the last few years, especially since the opening of the Great Western Eailway, which carries the coal direct to the London market. Probably half a milhon of tons are

This colliery I had an opportunity of visiting soon after the first shaft had successfully won the Main coal in 1868 or 1869.

Denbighshibb Coal-Fibld. 145

transported by this railway alone. In 1858, the quantity of coal raised in the Denbighshire coalfield amounted to only 627,000 tons; it now reaches about one and a half million, from 23 collieries.

Resources.

1. Area of the coal-field . 47 square miles.

2. Greatest thickness of coal-measures 8,000 feet. 8. Nomher of workable coal-seams

from 2 feet and upwards, 7; giving a thickness of . . 80 feet of coal.

4. Quantity of coal nnwronght, and likely to be clear for working to a depth of 4,000 feet . . 1,287 millions of tons. f

In 1869 the quantity was 1,427,701 tons. Mineral Statistics," 1869, p. 129.) In the returns for 1870, the output from all the North Wales collieries is given in one sum, amounting to 2,829,080 tons.

t Estimate of Mr. Dickinson. (Bep. Goal-Commission, vol. i., 18.) My own estimate, as given in the 2nd edit, of this work, was 490 millions of tons to a depth of 2,000 feet, and half as much more to a depth of 4000 feet.

CHAPTER Vin.

Flintshibb Coal-Fibi&#x27;D.

This coal-field is disconnected from that of Denbighshire by the upthrow of Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit over a smaU tract between Gresford and Hope. From this it extends along the western side of the estuaY of the Dee to Point of Aire, a distance of 16 miles ; but throughout a considerable part of its range the productive portion is very narrow, and greatly broken by faults.

The general dip of the beds is towards the' north-east, and there is no doubt but that they underlie the New Red Sandstone of the Cheshire plain ; for they actually reappear on the Cheshire coast at Parkgate, where they are upheaved along a line of fault.

Map of the Geol. Survey, 79, N.E. Also Section Sheet 48, with deBcription. For mnch information regarding this coalfield I am indebted to Mr. Beckett, of Wolyerhampton, and to jar. p. Higson, Jan., of Manchester.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

FLINTSHntE COAL-FIBLD.

The following is the general section of this coal-field : —

Ft In. Coal

Cannel

Strata 41 0

Strata, with ironstone . . 62 0

I Cannel 16

Strata, with ironstone . . 29 0

4. Brcusy coal 8 0 Strata 82 0

5. Main coal . . . 7 0 Strata . . . . 180 to 800 0

It will be observed that the Main and Brassy coals of Flintshire and Denbighshire correspond; that the "Hollin*' coal of the former is the "Two-yard" coal of the latter, while the " Powell " coal represents the "Bind" coal. The intermediate ironstonemeasures also correspond with those of Denbighshire.

The lower four-foot coal is considered to be the same as the cannel seam of Leeswood, near Mold. It is exceedingly valuable, owing to the large quantity of oil which it yields on distillation ; and it is said to yield a larger quantity of gas than the

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

celebrated Wigan cannel. Its position is about 100 yards underneath the Main coal, and its character as cannel (or gas coal) is considered to be limited to a comparatiTely small area. The following is the section of the strata accompanying this seam : —

Ft,

Ins.

Black shale

Light shale

Black bass

Top cannel

Curlty eannel ,

1 ft. 6 in. to 0

Bad cannel

Black shale

The following is a condensed section of the formation taken at Mold, Flintshire : t—

Strata from surface Hoilin co€U Brassy coat Boufjh coal , Main coal . Coal . Coal . , Strata, with several Belma of ironstone

Yds. Ft. In.

Yds. Ft. In.

;i

72. Of course fw' Leeswood smooth cannel,

Which I am mdebted to Mr. H. Beckett, F.G.S.

Funtshibe Coal-Field.

Teh.

Ft

In*.

Tda.

Ft

Im,

Oml

Coal .

Shale

Coal J Bass 0 10

Coal

Cazmel coal ,

,

Oil shale, 15 ins. ; black-l

ironstone, 6 ins.

fi

Wall and Bench coal

Goal 0 1 Shale 0 0 Goal 0 1

In the Lower Coal-measures, below all the strata above-named, Mr. Binney informs me that there are several thin seams with roofs of black shale, containing Goniatites and Aviculo-pecten corresponding to the Gannister coals of Lancashire and Yorkshire. These coals are visible in a brook section south of Hope, which in another part displays very beautiftdly the unconformable superposition of the New Eed Sandstone on the Lower Coal-measures.

The strata of the Flintshire coal-field rarely attain a great depth. If we cross the centre of the district -from west to east, we find the beds repeatedly upheaved along dislocations ranging north and south. The result is, that the greater portion of the coal being placed so near the

160 Thb Ooal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

sniface has already been exhausted, and probably not more than one-half remains for future use. The valley of the Dee seems to offer favourable positions for deep shafts ; and already the coal is being won under high-water mark on Mostyn Bank.

There can scarcely remain a reasonable doubt of the continuation of the coal-formation from Fhntshire to Lancashire and Cheshire under the intervening tract of the New Eed Sandstone, The Promontory of Wirral, lying between the estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey, may be regarded with little hesitation as a coal-field concealed by New Eed Sandstone, in which the depth will be found to depend on the thickness of that formation, the structure of which has been worked out with much care by the Geological Surveyors.* Coal has actually been proved on the east side of the river Dee north .of Chester, as well as at Neston ; and Mr. Woodhouse has successfully carried down a shaft into the coal-seams at some distance from the shore opposite Bagillt, near Flint.

This is also the view of the Cool-Commissioners, as expressed by Professor Bamsay. — Report, vol. i., 127.

Flint8Hibe Ooal-Field. 161

JReaources.

1. Area of coal-field . . . S5 square miles

2. Number of coal-seams at least 6,

giving a thickness of . . 85 feet of coal. 8. Unwrooght and available quantity of coal (inclnding the tract along the estuary of the Dee, and the coal-field of Neston, in Ghediire)* 718 millions of tons.

The quantity of coal raised in 1869 was 725,288 tons, from 32 collieries, a slight increase on that raised in 1869. t The quantity of coal in the actual and visible coal-field can scarcely last more than half a century ; but there are doubtleffB large supplies lying below the New Eed Sandstone in the direction of the dip of the strata, and the borders of Cheshire.

According to the estimate of Mr. Dickinson, Beport, Coal' Commission/' vol. i., p. 18. My own estimate of the available coal in the actual coal-field, excluding, of coarse, the tract along the estuary, made in 1857, was 54 millions of tons.

t In 1870 the number of collieries had increased to 28. — " Mineral Statistics," 1870.

Chapter Ix.

Anolebea Coal-Field.

it

0

a

o4

Cbossing a momitainoTis region of 46 miles in breadth from the FUntshire coal-field to the centre of Anglesea we find a series of Carboniferons strata, on the whole, similar to those just described.

The Anglesea coal-field forms a band of country stretching from Hirdre-faig to Malldraeth Bay, a distance of nine miles . Its breadth at Malldraeth Marsh is a mile and a half. The Coal-measures are overlaid uncomformably by red sandstone, conglomerate, and marl, of Permian age ; and from beneath the coal-strata the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone rise in succession, their base resting on highly-contorted and meta-

Akglesea Coal-Field. 153

moiphic Bohists of Cambrian or Lower Silurian age. The existence of this coal-tract is entirely due to an enormous fault, haying at one point a down -throw on the north-west of 2,300 feet. On approaching this fault the coal-seams rise towards the south-east at a high angle ; and through its agency the Carboniferous strata have been relatively lowered, and are protected on all sides by the ancient Silurian rocks. (See Section 10, page 105.)

The following is the general succession of the strata as determined by Professor Eamsay : —

Succession of Strata, Anglesea Coal-Field.

Ft. In. Permian Rocks — Bed sandstone, marl, and conglomerate . . . . 195 0 Coal-measures — Coal ("Glopux") lying in lumps . 9 0

Coal 8 0

Shale 68 0

Coal 4 0

Strata 75 0

Strata 48 0

Coal 6 0

Strata 90 0

Descriptive explanation of Section of the Geological Survey, Sheet 40 ; also Geol. Map, Sheet 78.

164 Thb Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Ft. In.

Strata (about) . . . . dOO 0 Coal (supposed Berw Uchaf coal, in

Strata 650 0

Millstone Grit— Coa (perhaps in Millstone Grit) . 2 to 8 0

Yellow sandstone and conglomerate 200 0 Carboniferous Gray and black limestone and sand- Limestone, stone, with FroductvLS Spirifer,

Corals, etc 450 0

Some of these coal-seams crop up against the base of the Permian strata, praying the great discordance between the formations. A greenstone dyke rises in a line of fault near Berw colliery, bnt appears not to enter the Permian strata.

Mr. Dickinson estimates that there are 5,000,000 tons of available coal remaining in this little field, which are at present (1869) worked by two colliejdes, producing about 2,191 tons yearly.*

From returns by Mr. P. ffigson, Hunt's " Mineral Statistics,"

To iacf pagit 156

Map Of The

South Staffordshire Coal Field

Redujced fnm the Miips

of thf

Geological Survey

Scale of statute IfilM

.ixK

SewReyl S,md*t<'nc

JWinitUi JiiH-k-

Y.-ilh Coal i

laneifus Rch'k.g

Siha-uui Rot'Jot

IHps

ilorr JteoAiA

v/ .

,ii'

m-,

r

urf'i'rrt*

itized by London: Edward Staiifotd., 6 & 7 Charing CVtms.

p

Chaptee X.

South Staffobdshibe Coal-Field.

This coal-field extends from the Clent HiIIr on the south to Brereton, near Kiigeley, on the north, a distance of 21 miles, and is of an average breadth of seven miles* It appears to have been upheaved bodily along two great lines of fracture, which range in approximately parallel directions from north to south. Beyond these lines, Permian and Triassic rocks set in.

Aspect of the Coal-field. — This district has been one of extreme productiveness in coal and iron; and its proximity to the towns of Wolverhampton, Dudley, and Birmingham has imparted an extraordinary impetus to these centres of industrial pursuits. But, indeed, it

The earliest description of this coal-field appears to have been that of Mr. Kier, the friend of Whitehnrst, who produced an able memoir on the coal, limestone, and trap-rocks of South Staffordflhire, published in Shaw's History of that county, towards the end of the last century.

156 The Coal-Piblds Op Gbbat Britain.

S

is

may be said that the whole hne of country connecting these towns, a distance of 12 miles, forms one great workshop ; and on a fine night, the spectacle from the walls of Dudley Castle, which rises from the centre of the coalfield, is one which has scarcely a parallel. The whole country within a radius of five or six miles is seen to be overspread by collieries, ironfoundries, blast-furnaces, factories, and the dwellings of a dense population; and, from amidst the thick smoky atmosphere, the tongues of fire from the furnaces shoot up an intermittent Kght which illuminates the whole heavens. But the spectacle before our eyes does not represent the whole simi of himian labour ; for whilst ten thousand hands

Note. — The Section at the side of this page is reduced from one by Mr. Jukes.

South Staffobdshibe Goal-Field. 167

are at work above ground, one-half as many, perhaps, are beneath the surface, hewing out the coal which is to be the prime mover of the whole machinery in motion above ground.

Physical Geology. — It has been shown by the late Mr. Jukes,* that while the Lower Carboniferous rocks were being deposited over other parts of England, a band of country stretching from Shropshire across South Staffordshire and Warwickshire was dry land. Consequently there is no Carboniferous Limestone or Millstone Grit ; and the Coal-measures repose directly on an eroded surface of Upper Silurian rocks, which, at Sedgley, Dudley, and Walsall, rise from beneath the coal-formation in a series of isolated hills. These bosses of Silurian rocks indicate the proximity of that ridge of land which formed the original limit towards the south of the coal-formation of this part of England, and which is now known to stretch beneath the Permian formation under the Clent Hills in an east and west direction. This ridge was reached in shafts sunk, by the Messrs. Dawes at Wassel Grove and Manor Farm, in search of

" South Staffordshire Coal-field," Mem. Geol. Survey, 2nd Edition (Preface). See Geol. Maps, 62 g.W., 62 N.W., and corresponding Sections.

158 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

the thick coal ; it having been assmned that the coal-beds to the north of Hales Owen would be found to extend southwards beneath the Permian Bocks. No seams, however, of any importance were found in the shafts ; but, at some distance down, beds of gravel and debris of Silurian rocks were encountered, mingled with fragments of Carboniferous plants. Below these the Upper Silurian rocks were pierced for some depth.* These phenomena, so discouraging to the enterprising proprietors, yet so full of interest to the physical geologist, are capable of explanation on the supposition that the shelving shore, or margin of the Carboniferous area formed of Silurian rocks, was here reached. Another ridge of Silurian rocks has been found beneath the Permian strata along the eastern margin of the coal-field, and was first described by Sir B. Murchison. t

Professor Ramsay, Coal-Commission Eeport vol. i., p. 120. An account of these trials was given by Mr. Henry Johnson, at a meeting of the Mine Agents' Association/' held in Dadley, in 1868. The cost of the two experiments was about £25,000.

t " Silurian System." Mr. H. Beckett, F.G.S., informs me, however, that at their new colliery, at Hales Owen Abbey, the Messrs. Dawes have proved the " Thick coal,*' though not of its full thickness.

South Staffordshirb Goal-Field.

Succession of Formations and Goal-series.

The general suooession of the strata, as given by Mr. Jnkes, is as follows : —

Ft

8. Lower mottled sandstone 200

1. Breccia of felstone, '

porphyry, and Silurian rocks. I 1,000 to

stone, and caleareons conglomerate. )

CoaUmeasures — SouOiem District.

Ft Upper Coal-measures — Bed and mottled clays, red and

1,800 grey sandstone and gravel beds 800

Middle Coal-mea- 1. Brooch coal .

a

,

,

,

Strata, with Gubbin ironstone "

Strata, with ironstone

strata, with ironstone

Strata

Strata, with several courses

of

ironstone .

,

160 The Coal-Fields Of Oreat Britain.

Upper Silurian Rocks

1. Ladlowrocks, with Aymesixy Limestone.

2. Wenlock and Dudley Limestone and

Coal-Seams. — From the above list it will be seen, that in the Dudley district there are six workable seams of coal, giving a total thickness of 65 feet. The most remarkable of these is the " Ten-yard," or " Thick coal," of a general thickness of 30 feet, and a source of enormous wealth to the district. It imderlies a large area, at a moderate depth ; and has either been worked out, drowned, or destroyed to such an extent, that probably little more than one-tenth remains to be won. It is rather subject to " rock-faults," or "horse-backs," instances of which are given by Mr. Jukes ; t one of which the author had an opportunity of examining at Baremoor colliery, where the whole mass of coal has been replaced by sandstone — the junction being formed of a series of interlacings of sandstone and coal.

It is to be hoped that, as the value of the coal increases, the colliery proprietors may induced to combine together to unwater the Iwge tracts now flooded near Dudley ; as it is only by such united action that this desirable end can be accomplished.

t Supra eit,, p. 45.

South Staffobdshibb Goal-Field. 161

Thinning of the Strata southwards. — In the northern part of the coal-field at Essington and Pelsall, the Main or thick coal of Dudley becomes split np into nine distinct seams, with a combined thickness of exactly 30 feet of coal ; but separated by 420 feet of sandstones and shales, all of which are absent to the south of the " Great Bentley fault." This remarkable thinning out of the strata takes place in a distance of five miles from north to south, and is an additional instance of the vastly higher amoimt of persistency in the coal-seams than in the sedimentary strata with which they are associated.

Dip of the Beds. — North of the Great Bentley fault, the general dip is from east to west ; and there is an extensive tract of about ten miles in length extending to Beaudesert, and three in breadth, over which the lower coal-seams lie nearly undisturbed, as those which are worked at Essington and Wyrley occupy a higher position. At Brereton there are several shafts sunk through conglomerate of the New Bed Sandstone formation under which coal is extensively worked.

Cannock Chase. — Extensive mining operations have recently been commenced over the northern portion of Cannock Chase, which is

!rHts coal-helds of gbeat bbitain.

partly formed of New Bed Conglomerate, and undoubtedly conceal an extensive coal-field. A pair of shafts have recently been sunk in the Huntington Valley to the "Deep coal," which was reached at 299 yards from the surface, all the shallower coals having been found in their Usual positions** One of the proprietors, Mr. MGhie, has favoured me with the following section of these pits, for insertion here : —

Nomt aeam, nf any 2!Udbieti.

Ft

In.

Ydi.

Ft.

In.

Coal . . .

Gaimock Broobh Coal

t6

Coal

Old Park Coal .

Ooal . ,

Coal

Coal

Bass Coal .

Cinder Coal

Shallow Ooal

Ooal . .

Deep Coal .

Coals One

Ier2j

ft. in thickness omitted

From a private oommniiication from Mr. H. Beckett, F.G.S., dated 29th April, 1871. The new colliery belongs to the Cannock and Bugeley Colliery Company.

South 8Taffobd8Hibe Goal-Fibld* 163

laHEOUS BOOKS, OONTSHPORAKBOUS AND SBUPTIVB.

Basalt — In several localities over the south* em portion of the coal-field, varieties of igneous rocks are found, frequently burrowing through and altering the Coal-measures, and sometimes resting upon them. The finest exhibition is the basaltic mass of Rowley Regis, or Rowley rag,'* forming a hiU about two miles in length, and 820 feet in height. This basalt assumes the columnar structure, affording examples of prisms as perfect as those from the Giant's Causeway in Ireland. Mr. Jukes considers that this rock has been poured out in the form of a lava-flow, during the coal-period ; for the beds of coal dip under the basalt, and have been followed till found black* ened," or charred, and utterly worthless.*

At Fouk Hill, near Walsall, is another mass of columnar basalt, in which there are vertical, horizontal, bent, and radiating columns, f

South SiaffordBhire God-field*' 6te., pi 120.

t The researches of Mr. Allport on the microscopic strac*- tore of the various trap rocks of South Staffordshire, Worcester*- shire, and Coalville in Leicestershire, which penetrate the Coalmeasures, tend to show that these have nearly the same composition ; viz., iriclinic felspar (probably Labradorite), angitci titano-ferrite, or magnetite, and olivine, as essentials, with ocoa-

It 2

164 The Goal-Fields Of Gbeat Bsitain.

Oreenstone (melaphyre), — In the Lower Coalmeasnres, a sheet of greenstone spreads ahnost without interruption from the base of Rowley Regis, through the centre of the district, to Wolverhampton, Bilston, and Bentley, This would appear to have been a lava-flow of earher date than the basalt, but ejected from the same vent, which w? may suppose to be situated near the centre of the hiU. There are also beds of volcanic ashes and gravel associated with the Upper Coal-measures at Hales Owen, probably nearly contemporaneous in their formation with the Rowley basalt.

Ironstones. — The ironstones occur in beds, associated with shale, and are the principal repositories of the fossils. The principal bands are, —

1. The Pms and Pennyearih ironstone-measures.

2. The Grains ironstone, ) , , xi.rnu-i.ni 8. The Crnbbin ironstone, J

5. The Pennystone do., with marine fossils, Produchu,

Avictdo-pectenf Lmgula, etc., a PalechintUf and fishteeth and bones.

sionally apatite and chlorite, cale spar and zeolites, the latter being of secondary formation ; hence these rocks wonld fail under the name of ''Melaphyres." See Mr. Allport's paper On the Basaltic Rocks of the Midland Goal-fields," Geol. Mag. toI. vii., p. 169 (1870).

SOUTH STAFFOBDSHIRE GOAL-FIEIiD. 165

6. Poor Robin, and White ironstone— only local.

7. Gnbbin and Balk ironstone.

8. Blue Flats, Silver Threads, and Diamond ironstone.

Fossils. — Fish : Oyracanthusformosics (iohthyodorulites), BhizoduSj PleurodtiSj Gtenoptychius MegaMchthys Hibberti, Cochliodiis, Pcscilodus. Molluscs : ProducttcSj Conulariay Lirigula, MyaliTUiy Anthrdcosia acuta (in coal), Aviculo-pecten scalaris; Annelides ; and the usual Coal-measure plants.

Besources.

In order to arrive at an estimate of the resources of this coal-field, it is necessary to consider the northern and southern halves separately; as the former contains about threefourths of the original quantity of coal, the latter only one-tenth.

1. Area of coal-field ... 98 square miles

2. Average thickness of workable coal

above two feet ... 50 feet. 8. Total original quantity of coal (corrected for denudation) . . 8,072 millions, of tons. 4. Of this, the Northern part contained 1,024 „ „ Deduct l-4th, leaving for future use 768 „ „

These fossils were determined by the late Mr. Salter, of the Museum of Practical Geology. They are similar to those of the Penneystone " band of Coalbrook Dale.

166 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Bentley fault) contained . . 2,048 millions of tons. Dednet 9-10th8, leaving about . 205 „

Mr. Hartleys Estimates.

Mr. Hartley's estimates, drawn up for the Coal-Commission, give larger returns than those above ; one reason being that seams of coal down to one foot in thickness are included, whereas I have excluded those of a less thickness than two feet. Mr. Hartley's returns include in one sum the available quantity of coal from the South Staflfordshire and Shropshire coal-fields, giving a total of 1,906,119,768 tons.f Deducting 20 millions as the proportion due to the Shropshire coal-fields (Coalbrook Dale, Forest of Wyre, etc.) we have remaiuiug (in round numbers) 1,880 millions of tons; which is nearly double the amount estimated by myself. Knowing that the Bouthem limits of the coal-field are now definitely contracted, as proved by the sinkings at Wassel Grove and Manor Farm, I cannot think that

Another sonree of discrepancy in the results probably arises from Mr. Hartley haying included to a small extent " areas outside the boundaries of the exposed coal-fields. — Report, Goal- Commission, vol. i., p. 28.

t Ibid, p. 29.

South Staff0B9Shibe Coal-Field. 167

my estimate falls much below what will be fotmd ultimately to be the resources of the actual and Tisible coal-field. That there are tracts of coal beyond its margin, under the newer formations, is unquestionable, and if these be included (as in the case of Mr. Hartley's estimate) the available quantity will be proportionately increased.*

In the year 1870, there were raised in this coal-field 9,356,500 tons of coal, from 326 collieries ; the out-put having been doubled in the previous ten years, while the number of collieries was less by nearly one hundred I In the same year 688,662 tons of pig-iron were smelted in 114 furnaces, t

Mr. W. Matthews has estimated that the duration of the thick coal " on either side of Dudley, at the present rate of consomption, will be only about 40 years. — Proc. Dudley Geol. Soc., pp. 84—87.

t Mineral Statistics," 1870.

Chapter Xi.

NOBTH STAFFOBDSmBE COAL-FXELD.

m

s

The North StaflFordshire coalfield, though of smaller area than that of South Staffordshire, has vastly greater resources 4 The strata are about four times as thick, with twice the thickness of workable coal; and instead of being bounded on each side by an enormous fault, which at one step places the coal at xmusual depths, the Coal-measures of North Staffordshire dip xmder the Permian and Triassic rocks along a line of many miles at the south-western border of the coal-field, and under these formations coal may be obtained at a future day. More-

Map Of The

Orth Shffordshire

Coal-Field

Rfdttped. from, th£ Maps

cff the -:

Geolocal Survey

Permian.

ZllZZll Coal measures wWtCoal crops

A..

\jao6tm: Edward Stanford. 6 ft 7 Charing Crou.

over y there are none of those protrusions of igneous rocks which have produced so much injury to the coal-beds near Wolverhampton, Dudley, and Hales Owen. This coal-field has the shape of a triangle, with its apex to the north at the base of Congleton Edge ; the eastern side is formed of Millstone Grit, and the western of New Red Sandstone or Permian strata. Along the south the Coal-measures are overlaid by Permian marls and sandstones, and these strata run far up into the heart of the coal-field by Newcastle, along the line of a great fault, which ranges northnorth-west towards Talk-on-the-Hill.

Structure of the Coal-field. — On referring to the map, it will be observed that, along the northern and central portions of the coal-field, the strata have been thrown into a double fold along synclinal and anticlinal axes which appear to converge towards the apex of Congleton Edge; and in the opposite direction to diverge, till at the southern margins of the coal-field they are several miles apart. The synclinal axis is a prolongation of the Biddulph Trough, and ranges due south towards Newcastle-under-Lyne, in which direction it gradually dies out. The anticlinal (or saddle) stretches towards the south- Map of the Geological Survey, Sheets 72, N.W. and 78, N.E.

170 The Coal-Fields Op Geeat Beitain.

south-west from Mowoop, causing a rather sharp reversal of the dip through Silverdale, and disappearing amongst the Permian and Triassic strata between Madeley and Keel. Along either side of this axis the upper coal-seams rise and crop out for two or three miles in parallel lines; these ultimately disappear under higher strata in the valley west of KeeL

Faults. — With a few exceptional tracts, this coal-field is remarkably clear from faults ; there are, however, several large lines of fracture, which have an important influence on the structure of the district. To the west of Mowcop, where the MUlstone Grit emerges from beneath the Coal-measures, the coal-field is bounded by the prolongation of the "Red-rock fault" of Cheshire, which produces a down-throw to the north-west of the New Red Sandstone. This fault extends along the western base of Congleton Edge, and opposite the town of Congleton brings the Carboniferous Limestone and Red Marl nearly into contact. Another fault of importance passes in a north-westerly direction by Newcastle and east of Hanchurch, and throws down the beds on the east to the extent of about 350 yards ; a third and parallel line passing by Hanford has a down-throw of 200 yards on the same side.

Kobth Staffobdshibe Goal-Field. 171

East of Longton, the coal-field is bonnded by a large felt, which was visible at the entrance to the railway tunnel when in course of construction ; on the east side of it the New Bed Sandstone is introduced.

Permian Beds. — These beds consist of purple and brownish-red sandstones, sometimes calcareous and mottled, interstratified with thick beds of red marl. They occupy a position intermediate between the Coal-measures and the New Red Sandstone, and are unconformable to both. Theirunconformity to the Coal-measures is proved by the fact, that they rest indiscriminately on different portions of the formation in different localities. Thus we find them north of Madeley resting on strata of the Coal-measures about the position of the "Eed Shag" ironstone; while east of Newcastle, and near Stoke-on-Trent, they rest upon beds several hundred feet above this well-known band. The Permian beds attain their greatest development of 600 to 700 feet south of Newcastle-under-Lyne.

The unconformity of the New Red Sandstone to both the Permian and Carboniferous rocks is proved by even more striking cases of overlap than that above described: thus, while near Trentham we find several hundred feet of

172 THE GOAL-FIELDS OF GfiEAT BEITAIK.

Permian beds intervemng between the New Bed Conglomerate and the Goal-measures, south of Longton the former formation rests directly on the Coal-measures themselves.

Spirorbis Limestone. — The researches of Mr. Binney, F.B.S., and Mr. J. Ward have brought to light the existence at Eenton of a band of Limestone with Spirorbis Carbonaritcs. This band is characteristic of the Upper Coal-measures over a large portion of the centre of England, being foimd in these strata in South Lancashire, Shropshire, and Warwickshire.

Succession of Strata, North Staffordshire CoaUJield*

Greatest ThicknesB. Feet Permian Bocks — Bed and pniple eandstones, marls,

andcomstones (with plants), strata slightly unconformable to the Coal-measures 600 Coal-measures — 1. Upper — Brown sandstones, greenish 5,000 feet. conglomerate (like the volcanic

ashes of 8. Staffordshire) with thick beds of red and purple mottled clays ; thin coals, and a bed of limestone at Fenton . . 1,000

See Horizontal Sections of the Geological Survey, Sheets 42 and 55, with Explanations. This coal-field was surveyed by Mr. W. W. Smyth, and the Author, in 1856-7. Mr. Smyth has published a full description of the coal-seams and iron-stones, with their analysis, in The Iron-ores of Great Britain," part iv. Mem. Geol. Survey.

Kobth Staffobdshibe Coal-Field. 173

FWt.

2. Middle — Sandstones, shales, with

ironstone, and about 40 coal-seams 4,000 8. Lower — Black shales and flags, with Wetley Moor thin eoals, and the red ironstone of the Ghnmet Valley. {Qomatites, Peeten.) 1,000 Milletone Orit — Coarse grits, sluiles, and flags . . 1,000 YoreddU Bocke — Black shales, etc., with marine fossils . 8,100 Carhonifenms Limestone 4,000 to 5,000

If we compare the above section with that of South Staffordshire, we cannot but be struck by the vast accession of sedimentary materials exhibited by this coal-field as compared with the latter — an accession which, it should be observed, takes place in a northerly direction.

. SucceasiUm of Coal-aeama and Ironstones.

Ft In. Black-band ironeUme (good quality) ,.16 Marl and bass (black shale) , . 86 0 Eed-ehag ironstone (variable) . . 2 to 4 0

Coal 19

Marl and bass 71 6

Coal 2 0

Marl and bass 86 9

Coal 18

Binds, coal, and bass . . . 62 6

A valoable communication on the qualities of the coalearns in this coal-field will be found in the Trans. Geol. Soc, Manchester, by Mr. 0. Bradbury, 1861-2.

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Ft. IlL

Coal

Bock, bindfl, and bass

Coal ... .

Marl, warreni, and rook

Coal

lAttle Bow Coal

Peacock Coal .

Spencroft Coal

Chrubbin Ironstone in shale

Binds

Great Row Coal

Binds, rock, and bass

Cannel Roto Coal

Yarions strata

Wood Mine Coal

Pennystone Ironstone

Deep Mine ditto

Coal

Chalky Mine Ironstone

Brotm Mine Ironstone Coal Strata, "with beds of ironstone Bungilow Coal Marl, binds, and rock Strata Little Coal

Winghay, or Knowles Coal Metal and bass Winghay Ironstone . Strata

Nobth Stafp0Bd8Hibb Coal-Pebld. 175

Ft In. . Billy Mine Irarutone 0 6

Bind and bass 85 4

Bock, metal, and bind . . , . 84 6

Four-foot Coal 2 9

Clay, bass, and metal . . . 50 0

Marl, metal, etc 81 8

Bumwood Iromtone 10

Strata . . . . . . . 54 0

Twist Coal and Cannel 8 6

Coal .16

Dark metal 97 0

Strata ! 65 6

MossfiOd, or EasUng Coal ... 4 0

Dark metal 84 6

Coal 2 8

Strata ! 61 6

Stiate 129 0

Yard Coal 3 0

Boffman Coal 4 6 Strata 79 Q

{Bough 7-/oot Coal ... 4 8 Strata . . . 124 8

Stony B*/6ot Coal ..40

Strata 120 0

Strata 181 0

BowUng-dUey Coal 4 6

176 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

Ft In.

Strala 81 0

HoUy Lane Coal 6 10

Strata 84 0

Sparrow Butts Coal 4 9

Strata 222 0

Flats Coal 8 0

Strata 108 0

Frog's Bow Coal 4 6

Strata 80 0

Strata 420 0

BidUiurst Coal 4 0

Strata 60 0

Winpenny Coal 8 0

Lower Coal-measures. — These beds, occupying a band of country on the dip of the Millstone Grit, contain two seams worked at Wetley Moor, of 4 feet and 3 feet respectively. Amongst these strata, which are often deeply stained with red iron-oxide, is the valuable band of iron-ore, worked in the Chumet Valley.

Ironstones. — Several of the coal-seams are roofed by beds of valuable ironstone, so that both can be worked together ; of these the " red shag," the "red mine," the **bassy mine," and the " deep mine," and " chalky mine " ironstones are amongst the most worthy of note. The occurrence of thick beds of excellent ironstone, forming the roof of the coal-seams, is one of the

North Staffordshire Coal-Field. 177

special features of this coal-field which greatly enhances its economic importance.

Fossil Bemains. — Some of the beds in this coal-field are very rich in remains of fish which have been collected with much perseverance by Messrs. Gamer and Molyneux, and more recently by Mr. J. Ward of Longton. Of these, a fine series was exhibited at the Meeting of the British Association at Manchester. The following list, from the collection of Mr. Ward, has been kindly famished by him, having had the benefit of revision by Sir P. Egerton, one of our highest authorities in ichthiology : —

Fish. — Megalicthys Hibbertif Ehizodua (three or four species), HolaptychitUf Rhizodus incurvus, Oyrolepis (five or six species), PaltBonUcuSy Calacanthus (two species), Platysomus parvulus, PL (new species), Acanthodus (new species).

Fish-Teeth. — Dijtlodm gibbosusy D. {Pleur acanthus) minutusy Horpacodus {Ctenoptychius) apicaUs, H.pectani, U. denticulatus, Helodus smpleXf Acrodus, Diphpteris affirm j CladoduSy Petalodus ; also seven or eight of new, or indeterminate, species.

IcHTHYODORUUTKS. — Specios of Rhizodus Hibbertif Orthacanihiu cyUiidrieus (18 inches long), Oyracanthus formosiLS, G, tuberculalWj Pleuracanthvs IcmswnmSy Ctenacanthus Hybodoides (Sgerton), Leptacanihusj Ct&nodus (palate).

Molluscs. — From a bed called the Bay-coal bass," lying rather high np amongst the Coal-series, the following have been obtained by Mr. Ward: Nautilus, Goniatites, AviculO' pecten, Melania, Productus, LinguLa, Diseina, and a few other

178 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BItlTAIN.

forms. These are all marine genera. In the Ten-foot " seam of Lord Granville's colliery at Hanley, there is a band of shale filled with the genera Anthracoptera, Anihracomya and Antkracosiay together with Qoniatites Listen, Aviculo-pecten papyraceusy Posidonia Gibsoni, and Spirorbis, The association of the former-named genera with others of known marine habits has also been observed in Lancashire, and seems to show that all are alike marine, or at least estnarine. Aviadopecten and Goniatites have also been observed, by Mr. Binney, in the Lower Coal-measnres of le Chnmet Valley.

Besources.

There are few coal-fields in the United Kingdom which, in proportion to their extent, are so richly stored with minerals, and which, owing to the arrangement of the strata towards the south and west, give promise of snch high productiveness in the fature. That the resources of this district — till within the last twenty years not properly recognised, — are now coming into fall play, is evinced by the rapid increase in the production of coal, as well as iron. In the two years extending through 1867-69 the production nearly doubled itself; and since that time it has increased by about three-fourths, while the number of collieries has actually diminished ; showing the larger scale upon which the mines are now being worked. I give the estimate of the actual resources, as determined, with the assistance of Mr. W. T.

Nobth Staffordshire Coal-Field. 179

Craig and the late Mr. W. Cope, by Mr. Elliot, the member of the Eoyal Coal-Commission appointed to report upon this district.

2. Total thickness of measures with

coal 6,000 feet.

8. Number of workable coal-seams

about thirty, with a thickness

of available coal amounting to . 150 „ 4. Available quantity of coal, to a

In 1870 this coal-field yielded 3,873,612 tons of coal, raised by 108 collieries ; of which 1,720,500 tons were used in the manufacture of iron. In the same year, 910,134 tons of iron-ore were raised ; from which 303,378 tons of pig-iron were smelted in 37 blast furnaces, t

Obtained after deducting the portion due to Cheadle and Goldsiteh basins from the total amount down to 4,000 feet of depth. Like all the estimates of the Commissioners, it is considerably in excess of my own, owing to thin seams being included.

t " Mineral Statistics," 1870.

n2

Chapter Xii.

Cheadle Coal-Field, Staffobbshire.

Tffls small, and slightly productive, coal-field stretches from the vaUey of the Chumet, on the north-east, to the hiUs of New Red Sandstone, which stretch in a picturesque semicircle along its southern borders. Towards this range the strata dip (S.S.W.), and on the north side of the Chumet the high moorlands of the Millstone Grit rise from beneath the Coal-formation. In the centre of the coal-field, an outlier of New Red Conglomerate reposes unconformably on the Coal-measures, and forms the site of the pretty town of Cheadle.

The following is the succession of the coalseams : —

Cheadle Coal-Field, Staffordshibe. 181

6. Woodhead 3-feet coal. According to Mr. Elliot, this little coal-field

contains about 104,624,000 tons of coal available for future use.

Goldsitch Trough. — This is a narrow valley lying to the east of Wetley Bocks, composed of the red strata of the Lower Coal-measures, disposed in the form of a trough, with a north and south axis. It has a surface of area of 90 acres, and contains about 117,000 tons of coal.

Hcematite Bed of Ghurnet Valley.

The Lower Coal-measures of the Chumet Valley contain two thin coals, one of which has a roof of black shale with Goniatites and Aviculopecten.'f Below these there occurs a valuable bed of iron ore, which is now being extensively worked along the valley from the outcrop, and at Froghall. This iron bed varies from 6 to 20 inches in thickness, is of a deep red colour, and contains about 35 to 40 per cent, of iron. It is imbedded in shale highly impregnated with

Report, CoaJ-Commission, vol. i., p. 27. t Mr. Binney, Trans. Geol. Soc. Manchester, vol. ii. p. 81, and Mem. Lit. and Philos. Soc, vol. xii.

182 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bmtain.

hydrated peroxide of iron. The analysis of this ore by Dr. Angus Smith is as follows, from a good sample obtaiaed by Mr. Binney : —

Peroxide of Iron

Silica

isi-ro

Carbonate of Magnesia

Manganese, Alnmina, and moisture

On that division of the coal-field extending eastward of the Permian rocks of Newcastle are situated the Potteries, a group of populous towns, the seat of that branch of industry originated by Wedgewood. From this all parts of the world are suppHed with china-ware rivalling that of Dresden, with vases and various kinds of vessels modelled after Etruscan patterns, but adorned with paintings from natural models, executed with a perfection of colouring and outline to which the Etruscans never attained; here also are produced those tesselated pavements which adorn so many of our churches and public buildings. For the production of these works of art chalk-flints are brought from the south of England, decomposing granite from Cornwall, gypsum from Chellaston, siliceous chert from Derbyshire. The coarser kinds of earthenware,

Gheshibe Goal-Field. 183

as also tiles, bricks, and pipes, are made in large quantities from the clays of the Upper Coalmeasures, while the coal is at hand for heating the baking ovens, and calcining the wares.

Gheshibe Coal-Field.

This is a small tract of Middle and Lower Coal-measures, lying to the south of the Mersey, above Stockport. It is bounded along the west by Triassic and Permian rocks, which are brought in along the line of the "Eed-rock fault of Cheshire. ' ' Including the tract formed of Lower Coal-measures, the southern termination of the coal-field is opposite Macclesfield; while the central portion hes east of Poynton, where there are extensive collieries. There are several valuable seams of coal, including the " Mill mine," feet thick; the " Sheepwash mine," the " Great mine," the "Four-feet mine," the Silver mine," the " New mine," and the " Eedacre mine," which represents the Arley or Kowley mine.* Mr. Dickinson estimates the available quantity of coal at 200 millions of tons, t

Geology of Stockport, &c. Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 29. t Report, Coal-Commission, vol. i.

O

Oq

Q

a i

&#x27;I

Chaptee Xiii.

South Lancashire Coal-Fielb.

a This great coal-bearing tract s I is very irregular in outline, and consequently diflScult to , describe. It may, however, be said to occupy a band of country lying east and west, sending oflfshoots at intervals into the Trias and Permian formations on the south, and into Lower Carboniferous strata which form its mountainous limits on the north. These offshoots are occasioned generally by enormous faults.

The extreme western boundary is a great fault, which, throwing down the New Bed Sandstone on the west side,

South Lancashire Coal-Field. 185

ranges through Eccleston, Lathom Park, Bickerstaflfe, Knowsley Park, and Huyton. To the northward the high moorlands, formed of Millstone Grit and Lower Coal-measures, traversed by deep valleys with scarped flanks, reach elevations of 2,000 feet, and stretch with a semicircular outline from Chorley to Staleybridge, by Bolton, Bury, Eochdale, and Oldham. From this elevated tract the country gradually descends towards the Valley of the Mersey, and the Coalmeasures dip under the Triassic and Permian strata, which form the low-lying districts, by Rainford, Newton, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Leigh, Astley, Eccles, Mancheer, and Stockport, near which point the coal-field crosses the Mersey and enters Cheshire. The extreme length from Bickerstafife to Staleybridge is 32 miles, and the average breadth 6 miles. Smaller isolated coalfields occur at Croxteth Park, Bradford near Manchester, and Burnley.

To what distance the southerly dip of the Coal-measures continues beyond the valley of the Mersey is unknown ; but from a consideration of the relations of the Carboniferous, to the newer, formations, I regard it as probable that the beds begin to rise towards the south, and possibly terminate along a concealed axis ranging

The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

from Chester towards Congleton, in a direction from west to east.

Oenend Succession of Fotmations.

Trias, 4,750 ft.

Thickness. Feet.

1. Red Marls, Cheshire . 8,000

( 1. Upper Mottled Sandstone . . . 500 2. Conglomerate beds . 650 8. Lower Mottled Sandstone (often absent) . 100

Permian

Series,

feet.

tricroft, Manchester, with SchizoduSf Bakevelliat Turbo, Rissoa, Natica minima,Trago8

2 . Lower Sandstone of CoUyhurst, J

to 400

or more.

Note, — Several valuable memoirs on this coal-field have appeared by Mr. Binney, Trans. Geol. Soc, Manchester, vols, i. and ii., part 7 ; also by Mr. Bowman {Ibid). See also Mr. Dickinson's Vertical Section, in Report of the Lispectors of Mines for 1858. The Geological Survey of Lancashire, on a scale of six inches, and one inch to a mile, is now completed, and illustrated by explanatory memoirs and sheets of sections.

South Lancashibe Coal-Field.

Coalmeastiros

,

to

Thickness. Feet

- Shales, sandstoneB, and limestones of Ardwick, with SpirorbiSf Cythere, and fish of the genera CtenoptjfchiuSf MegaUchthySf Palaaniseus, etc. ; and a bed of black-band ironstone, with Anthraeosia PkUlipm. Below these beds are sandstones, shales, and thin coal-seams.

2. Middle — From the Worsley Four-feet (H 2.) Coal to the **Arley Mine,"

with Anthracosiaf Modiola, fish, etc.

8. Lower, v Flags, shales, and thin coals,

or with Gannister floors and

Chinnister - roofs of shale, with Spir-

Beds. orbiSf GoniatUes Nautilus

(H 8.) ' Aviculo'pecten Lingula,

Antkracosiay fish, Cythere,

or Cypris,

to 2,000

to 4,000

to 2,000

Millstone /From the Bough Bock" to the lowest ) 8,500 Qrit. ( Millstone Grit (with thin coals) . . j to 5,000

Limestone Shale or Yoredale Bocks, with mol luscs

The coal-series varies considerably in different parts of the districts, and there is a general thickening of the sedimentary materials, as sandstones and shales, towards the N.N.W. Thus

188 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

the same coal-seams are farther apart at St. Helens than at Prescot ; and at Wigan than at St. Helens.

Several coals can be traced over the entire district under different names. The ''Little Delf" of St. Helens is the "Arley Mine" at Wigan, the "EUey Mine" of Bolton, and the ''Dogshaw Mine" of Bury. It is the lowest coal-bed of the middle coal-series, and one of great economic value. Its roof frequently contains fish remains, and some yards above it there occurs a very constant bed of ironstone filled with Antliracosia (JJnio) robusta. Above this is the ''Eushy Park" coal, which is very constant ; but unfortunately the most valuable of all the coal-seams, the Gannel Mine of Wigan, thins away in every direction from Wigan as a centre. The Trencher Bone of Bolton is the Wigan 9-feet, and the Eoger 9-feet of St. Helens.

General Section of the Coal-Series at St. Helens.

(The numbers show the Coals which correspond to each other.)

Strata of Upper Coal-meaBures without coal Lyons Del/ Coal (inferior quality)

Strata

Strata

da.

Ft.

In.

South Lancashire Coal-Field. 189

Yda. Pi. In.

Earthy Del/ (unworkable, fall of partings) . 0 4 8

St. Helens Main Coal 090

Four-feet Coal 0 8 6

Cannel 0 16

Bavenkead Main Coal 0 7 0

Bastions Mine 0 4 8

S 4 10

Higher Eager Coal (inferior, with parting) . 0 4 0

Stra** 61 2 0

Flaggy Del/ 0 4

Strata, with Lower Roger Coal . . 152 2

1. Arley Main or LiUle Del/ 0 8 0

General Section of the Coalseriea at Wigan,

16. Four'/oot Coal of Bed Bock Bridge . .040

about 200 0 0

Strata, with ironstone . 51 0 0

Strata 27 0 0

Strata 28 1 0

Stwta 84 0 10

190 The Coal-Fields Of Gbbat Britain.

Yds. Ft In.

11. Pemberton Five-feet Mine . . . 0 5 2

Strata (with a coal-seam 2 feet thick) . 25 1 0

10. Pemberton Four-feet Mine 0 4 6

Strata 149 0 0

Strata 21 0 0

7. Strata, with a worthless coal called ''Nine-feet

Mine'* 125 0 0

Strata 79 0 0

Strata 50 0 0

Strata 8 0 0

Strata 60 0 0

General Section between Manchester and Bolton.

(Curtailed from that of Mr. Diddnaon.) Upper Coal-measures, with seventeen beds

of Coal, too thin for working . . 420 0 0

Strata, with twenty-five seams of coal under

two feet 294 0 0

Strata 26 0 0

Albert Mine 0 8 8

Strata 14 0 0

Strata 48 0 5

South Lancashire Coal-Field. 191

Yds. Ft In.

Strata, with two coal-seams under 2 feet . 84 2 7

Strata about 15 0 0

9. Old Doe Coal (three beds, with two partings) 0 8 0

Strata 10 1 0

Strata (with three coals under 2 feet) . 88 2 0 7. Trencher Bone Coal (3-6 to 6 feet) ..050

Strata 84 0 0

6. Cannel Mine (cannel only 6 inches) . . 0 4 6

Strata 19 1 0

Strata 35 6 0

Plodder Coal (coal and shale, variable) . 0 3 0

Strata 38 0 0

Strata 68 2 0

The strata here enumerated are characterized by several bands with Anthracosia. From the Cannelj the late Mr. Peace collected splendid specimens of fish-remains, belonging to the genera MegalichthySy HoUyptychius and Ctenoptychius.

The Lower Coal-measures. — These commence with the flagstones of Up-Holland, which lie a short distance below the Arley Mine, and extend downwards to the Millstone Grit through a series

192 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

of beds of shale, flagstone, and coal, about 1,800 feet in thickness. They are well laid open in the sections of the Wigan and Liverpool Railway. The coal-seams, three or four in number, are thin; and amongst the strata overlying the "Upper-foot," or "BuUion-coal," marine fossils of the genera Qoniatites Nautilus Aviculo-pecten, etc. occur, as originally described by Mr. Binney.

General Section near OldJiam and Middleton. Bardaley Colliery*

Ft. In.

Shale 81 7

Fairbottom Mine 2 0

Shale (with three seams of coal) . 76 6

Shale 29 0

Foxhole Rock 79 8

Foxhole Mine 2 4

Soft shale 82 6

Cannel 16

Strata, principally shale, with a thin coal-seam 187 8

Hathershaw Mine 2 2

Shale, with two thin coal-seam . . . 51 0

Sandstone, with water, called Chamber rock " 88 6

Geology of Oldham and Manchester," Mem, Geol. Survey, p. 24.

South Lancashike Coal-Field. 193

Ft. In.

Shale and sandstone 88 8

Nield, or Upper Chamber Mine ... 2 0

Shale and sandstone 64 6

The most valuable seam in the district of Oldham, Middleton, and Ashton-under-Lyne, is the " Black-mine," which is generally upwards of four feet of solid coal of good quality ; and in the Astley colliery at Dukinfield* lies at a depth of 687 yards from the surface. In the direction of the Mersey, where the coal-field passes into Cheshire, the seams are generally thin, or spHt up by partings of shale, which render them less profitable to work at great depths. From the neighbourhood of Oldham, where the measures begin to bend round towards the south, the dip is very persistent, and at a high angle id a westerly direction; the beds here coming under the influence of the Great Pennine axis of upheaval which ranges in a north and south direction along Saddleworth Valley.

TJie Mountain Mines. — The coal-seams known by this name id the northern and eastern portions of the district He id the Lower Coal-Measures. Two of them are extensively mined, the "upper

"Geology of Oldham and Manchester," Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 27.

194 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

mountam mine," from 14 to 16 inches in thickness ; and the " Gannister coal, or lower momitain mine," lying from 60 to 76 yards nndemeath, varying in thickness from 18 to 30 inches, and in the direction of Burnley to even more than this. Its quality is good, and it is usefril for coking : it has been worked at Heywood, Rochdale, the Lancashire moors west of Todmorden, and Portsmouth, TunshiU, Crompton, Broad Car, Staleybridge, and Newton; and at New Mills and Whaley in Cheshire,

The Cheshire Coal-field. — This small coaltract has already been referred to. It is formed of the middle and lower coal-measures of Lancashire in their southern extension beyond the Mersey east of Stockport. It is bounded on the west by a large fault, the " red rock fault," along which the Permian and Triassic sandstones are introduced on the west. The coals are mined at Denton, Haughton, Hyde, Norbury, and Poynton, and there are several seams of good quality and thickness.*

Marine Fossils in the Middle Coal-measures. — In some large concretions shown in the banks of

"Geology of Stockport, Macclesfield, Ac," Mem. Geol. Survey, by Messrs. E. Hull and A. H. Green, to which the reader is referred for full details. See ante, p. 188.

South Lancashibb Coal-Field. 195

the River Tame, west of Dunkirk colliery, Ashtonunder-Lyne, Mr. A. H. Green, of the Geological Survey, discovered a remarkable series of marine fossils, figured and described by the late Mr. Salter, in the Geology of Oldham.'** The position of this stratum appears to be above all the workable coals of Dukinfield. The following are the names of the species from this remarkable band: SerpuUteSy Aviculo-pecten fibrilosus (Salter), A. papyraceu Sow. Ctenodonta (allied to C, tumida) Nautilus prcBcox (Salter), Discites rotifer (Salter), Discites (2 other species), Goniatites, OrthoceraSy Megalichtkys Hihherti. This is altogether a unique series from this division of the Lancashire Coal-formation in which fossil molluscs of genera allied to Anthracosia alone are found.

Faults of the Lancashire Goal-field.

The Lancashire coal-field is traversed by dislocations which, although of great magnitude, produce scarcely any perceptible features at the surface — so complete have been the effects of denudation in levelling down inequaKties arising fi-om the displacement of the rocks. Over the

Mem. Geol. Survey, pp. 32 and 64 (with plate of fossils, &c.)

o 2

196 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain,

southern portion of the district many of the faults slope or hade considerably ; the general inclination being from the vertical, but often more.*

The western boundary fault of the coal-field is a very large downthrow on the west near Ormskirk, where the Lower Keuper Sandstone and Lower Coal-measures are brought into contact.

The Great Up-HoUand fault, which brings up the Lower Coal-measures so as to form an elevated band of country between the coal-fields of Rainford and Wigan, has a throw of 660 yards east of Lord Crawford's collieries.

The Coal-measures at Wigan are divided into belts, bounded by parallel faults which range N.N.W., having throws varying from 160 to 600 yards ; of these the principal are the " Shevington fault," the " Cannel fault of Ince," and the " Great Haigh fault." Towards Manchester there is the Great Pendleton or Lrwell Valley fault," ranging along the valley of the Lrwell (N.N.W.), bringing in the New Red Sandstone, with a downthrow on the N.N.E. of upwards of 1,000 yards. Lastly, the great fault along which the

The fault at Red Rock Bridge N. of Wigan, and that which bounds the little coal-field near Rainhill, are remarkable instances of very flat slopes ; the angle being about 25° from the horizontal in each case.

South Lancashire Coal-Field. 197

Manchester coal-field has been upheaved on the west against the New Ked Sandstone has a throw of at least 400 yards . All these dislocations appear to have been produced after the period of the Trias or New Red Sandstone.

Fossils.

Those who are interested in the palaeontology of the Coal-formation would do weU to consult the carefuUy-prepared hsts of fossils, both of vegetable and animal origin, drawn up by the late Mr. Salter, and pubUshed in the " Geology of Bolton-le-Moors," and in the Geology of Oldham." f Having referred to these valuable details, I shaU content myself with enumerating a few species of general occurrence, and most of which were first identified by Mr. Binney, I to whose indefatigable exertions as a collector geologists of the North of England are so much indebted.

Upper Coal-measures. — Fish of the genera, Ctenopty chilis MegalichthySy DiplopteriSy PalceoniscuSy PlatysomuSj BhizoduSy Diplodus, and large bony rays resembling those from the limestone of

I Trans. Geol. Soc, Manchester, vol. i.

198 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Burdie House in Scotland. Crustacea : Cythere

(Cypris) inflata. Annelids : Spirorbis carbonaritis

. Plants of the usual Coal-measure species.

Middle CoaUmeasures. — Fish : Palceoniscus

Egertoni, Megalichthys Hibhertij Bhizodus granulatus

, HoloptychiuSy Dvplopterus Pleuraca7thus

gibbosiiSy Ccelacanthus lepturus. Molluscs : An-

thracomya modiolariSy A. dolabratay Anihrdcosia

ovaliSf A. acutUy A. robusta A. aquilinaj Anthracoptera

Brovmiana Aviculo-pecten papyraceus

Browniana. Crustacea : Beyrichia Binneyana,

B. arcuata Estheria striata. Annelids: Serpula,

Spirorbis carbonarvus. Plants: Aster ophyllites

CalamiteSj Flabellaria, Halonia Knorriay Leptdodendrorij

LepidophyUurriy Megaphytoriy Nceggerathia

, Poacites, Primularia, Sigillaria and I

Ulodendron. Aletlwpteris, Cyclopteris, Nevrapteris

, Pecopteris, Bphenopteris ; and Fruits— ipzdostrobus

and Trigonocarpum.

Lower Coal'measures.—Fish : Megalichthys Hibberti, Ccelacanthus, Palceoniscus Manensis, P. Egertoni, Bhizodus granulatus, Pleur acanthus. MoUuscs: QoniatUes Listeri, G. reticulatus, G. Gibsoni (Phill.), G.paucUobus, DiscUes (sp. inc.), Orthoceras (sp. inc.), Posidonia Gibsoni, P. gata, Monotis lvis, Aviculopecten papyraceus,

South Lancashibe Coal-Field. 199

Anthracosia ovaliSy A. acuta, A. aquilinay Anthracoptera, Avihracomya, Lingula mytiloides. Crustacea : Estheria striata, Beyrichia arcuata. Plants: Alethopteris lonchiticTiSy Calamites Suckowiij G. wndvlatuB; DaxodyloUy Lepidodendron Stembergii, L. ohovatum, L. dilatatu/m, Sigil- . laria hexagona, 8. marn/milata, 8. reniformis, Ulodendron majuB, Pecopteris arborescenSj Alethopteris lonchiticuSy Neuropteris flexuosa. Neegerathia.

Resources of the Lancashire Goal-field.

In my original estimate of the resources of this coal-field, I thought it proper to discard from consideration the thin seams of coal belonging to the Lower Coal-measures, and known as "mountain mines." I was not then fully aware of the importance of these coals in the direction of Burnley and Todmorden, where one or two of them are of sufficient thickness to be worked at great depths, and on this ground my estimate may have been too low. I also omitted all seams under two feet in thickness, which I hold to be a proper limit for depths over 600 or 600 yards; and the result arrived at for the whole district, including the Manchester and Burnley coal-fields,

200 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

was, that there remained an available supply of 3,990 millions of tons.* Mr. Dickinson, the Commissioner who has reported on the resources of this coal-field, gives a result considerably in excess of mine, due partly to his having included seams (according to the rule laid down for the guidance of the Commissioners) as thin as one foot in thickness, and also the mountain mines. While adopting Mr. Dickinson's estimate, I must, at the same time, express my dissent to the largeness of the return on the ground of including the thin seams, and leave the public to draw their own conclusions. The limit of depth adopted is 4,000 feet.

1. Area of the Coal-field, incladlBg the

Manchester and Bnmley districts . 217 square miles.

2. Total thickness of strata with coal . 6,000 feet. 8. Number of workable coals above 2 feet :

St. Helens, 18; Wigan, 17; Man-* Chester, 18; giving an average thickness of . . . . 62 „

4. Available quantity of coal to a depth of

The Manghesteb Coal-Field.

The north-eastern side and suburbs of Manchester stand upon a small coal-field, entirely

"Coal-fields," 2nd edit., p. 186.

t Mr. Dickinson's estimate after deducting 200,000,000 tons due to the Cheshire coal-field. — Beport, vol. i., pp. iz. and 18.

The Manchesteb Coal-Field. 201

enclosed by New Eed Sandstone, except at CoEyhurst, where it is in contact with Permian strata. The shape of this coal-field is oblong, with its longest diameter lying N.N.W., ajid it is about four and a half miles in length ; in its broadest part it is about a mile and a half across.

South of the fault which crosses it north of Miles Platting, and throws it on the north side the Permian beds of Collyhurst, the dip of the strata is south-west. The highest beds consist of red clays, shales, sandstones, and six beds of limestone, containing Spirorbis and fish ; two thin coal-seams, and a bed of black-band ironstone containing in great abundance Anthracosia Phillipsiiy and scales of fish. Mr. Binney considers this to be identical in position with the black-band ironstone of the Upper Coal-measures of Stoke, Staffordshire. These strata can be traced along the banks of the river Medlock, at Ardwick. The fossils which they contain have already been described (p. 197). Beyond question this is the finest representative series of Upper Coal-measures in the whole of Britain. Below these calcareous beds there occurs a thick series of shales, sandstones, etc., with seven beds of coal, the thickest of which is only four feet. One of

202 The Coal*Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

these coal-seams is probably on a parallel with the Worsley four-feet " mine and-its associated strata ; but the thick coals, which lie about 1,000 feet below this coal at Pendleton, have not yet been reached in the Manchester coal-field, the intervening strata having apparently thickened out to a great, but unknown, extent.*

Iron Ore. — Mr. Binney, who has described this district with a fulness that leaves little to be required, has discovered in the bed of the Medlock a calcareous haematite, occurring in large blocks, which he considers identical with a band of the same mineral formerly worked at Patricroffc CoUiery.t

Prom a calculation I made some years since, I came to the conclusion that no important coal-seams wonid he found at a less depth than 616 yards below the Bradford Four-foot coal. See " Geology of Oldham and Manchester/* Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 86 (1864).

t On the Geology of Manchester," Trans. Geol. Soc. Manchester, vol. i.

Chapter Xiv.

The Bubnley Coal-Basin.*

Lying several miles to the northward of the main coal-field, but united to it by a ridge of high land formed of Lower Coal-measures, stretching from Rochdale by Bacup in a northerly direction, is the small but rich coal-basin of Burnley. This coal-field sets in along the northern side of a low anticlinal arch, which hes along Rossendale Valley, and which, bringing to the surface the Millstone Grit, separates the Burnley basin from the northern margin of the

A valuable paper on the Burnley Goal-basin was read before the Geological Section of the Bristol Association at Manchester, by Messrs. T. T. Wilkinson, F.B.A.S., and the late Mr. Whitaker, both of whom had devoted much attention to its structure, and the organic remains which its strata present. In my survey of this coal-field in 1867-8, 1 received much assistance from these gentlemen, and also from Sir J. Eay-Shuttleworth, of Gawthorpe Hall.

204 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

main coal-field. To the north, the basin is bounded by the Pendle Eidge, which ranges in a E.N.E. direction through Blackburn to Colne, along which the MUlstone Grit and Yoredale beds rise and crop out towards the N. W. at high angles ; which, however, rapidly lessen on receding from the base of the ridge. Along the east, the boundary of the basin is generally a fault, beyond which the moorlands of Yorkshire, formed of different members of the Millstone and Yoredale beds, rise to considerable elevations. One of these faults ranges along the Portsmouth Valley, along which the Millstone Grit is brought up on the south side for a long distance, forming a noble and precipitous escarpment. Another fault, parallel with this, ranges through Townley Park, and between them there is a trough, in which the highest coal-seams of the basin are found. In the centre of the basin is situated the town of Burnley itself, under which the strata are nearly horizontal.

A transverse section taken across the ridges of Padiham Heights and Pendle Hill, in the " direction of Clitheroe, gives in unbroken succession a complete series of beds from the Fulledge main coaly or Arley mine, to the Carboniferous Limestone; and I beheve it is the only spot

The Burnley Coal-Field. 206

in Lancashire where none of the links of this chain of rocks are absent, or unbroken.

This section includes : — 1. The outcrop of the " Arley mine," under Padiham reservoir ; 2. The Lower Coal-measures, or Gannister beds, with thin coal-seams ; 3. The " Kough Kock " and the beds of Millstone Grit ; and 4. The Yoredale series, forming the western portions of the Pendle Range, passing downwards into massive encrinital limestone. The whole of this series reaches a thickness probably little short of 10,000 feet.

ThicJcness of the Garhoniferous-series. — Nowhere in the north of England has the Carboniferous formation from the mountain Limestone upwards attained such noble proportions as in this part of North Lancashire. The upper portion of the coalformation has been denuded and lost ; but restoring it to its original dimensions as it occurs in South Lancashire, there appears to have been a total thickness of over 18,000 feet of Upper Carboniferous Rocks, as determined by several measurements across the Pendle Ridge, which are as follows —

E. Hall On the Thickness of the Carboniferous Rocks of the Pendle Range of Hills/' &c., Joum. Geol. Soc. Lond., Tol. xxiv., p. 819. In the measurement of some of these rocks I was assisted by my coUeagne, Mr. Tiddeman of the Geological Survey.

206 The Coal-Fields Of Qbe At Bbitain.

Feet.

Upper Coal-measures (restored, as at Ardwick) . 2,018

Middle „ (partly restored) . . 4,247 Lower „ (from the Arley mine to

the first Millstone or Bough Rock ") 2,200

Millstone Grit Series of Pendle 5,500

Yoredale Series of Pendle 4,675

Total 18,685

Succession of Coal-seams at Bttrnley,

Thickuees. Feet.

Strata 80

Strata 21

2. Kershaw Coal 3 Strata 81

Strata 18

Strata 38

Strata, with 8 thin ecul-seams (Anthracosia rugosa) . . . .162

6. Lower Yardy or Five-feet Coal (with

Strata 21

7. Lower Bottom. Coal, or Four-feet Coal . 8J Strata 78

Strata 21

9. Thin Coal and " fish-bed " . . Strata 66

I Coal, 28 inches

Coal, 19 „ j

The Bubnley Coal-Pibld. 207

ThicknefiB. Feet.

Strata 201

Strata 99

Strata 141

18. FuUedge Main Coal, or Arley Mine . 4

Lower Coal-measures y with Gannister coal, and two or three other seams, with roofs containing Goniatites, Avicnlo-pecten, etc. Millstone Grit series, with several thin coals.

From this section it will be seen that, near the centre of the basin, there are 1,017 feet of strata, down to the lowest thick coal, representing the Arley mine of Wigan, or the Boyley mine of Oldham.

At Gawthorpe we find the following section : —

Ft. In.

Yarions strata 48 2

Coal . 18

Various strata 67 1

Four-feet Coal 4 8

Various strata, with hard sandstone 24 feet

thick 180 0

Yard Coal 8 0

210 0 Below these are the Arley and Gannister coab.

The Lower Coal-measures which encircle the basin contain the " mountain mines," which are

208 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

here of more than usual importance. The Upper Mountain Mine is about two feet or more in thickness, and the Lower, or "Gannister Coal," has generally a thickness of four feet. The presence of such seams below the Arley mine adds largely to the resources of this basin.

Ironstone. — Clayband ironstone has been worked at no distant period from*beds in the same position as those of Low Moor, in Yorkshire, justly celebrated for the excellence of the iron they produce.*

Besources. — The estimates of the resources of the Burnley basin are included with those of South Lancashire, t

The quantity of coal raised in Lancashire in 1869 was 13,996,600 tons from 392 collieries ; an increase of 3,336,000 tons on the output of 1869. Lancashire contains the deepest coalmines in the British Isles, that of Rose Bridge, near Wigan, 806 yards in depth, and that of Dukinfield, in Cheshire, on the confines of Lancashire, 717 yards; while there are several

Mr. E. W. Biimey, Mem. lit. and Phil. Soc, Manchester vol. xii.

t I am informed by Sir J. Eay-Shnttlew orth that coal is known to have been worked at Burnley in the reign of Henry Vin.

The Burnley Coal-Field. 209

shafts varying from 400 to 600 yards in depth in the western part of the coal-field. Several large firms also raise from their own pits nearly one million of tons of coal yearly. In this district mining operations are conducted on a large scale, and with the most perfect mechanical appliances. The quantity of coal raised ia 1870 was 13,810,600 tons from 386 collieries in Lancashire, and 929,150 tons from 29 collieries in Cheshire.*

Mineral StatisticB, p. 114, 1870.

Chapter Xv.

Pabk Gate Coal-Field, Cheshire.

A NABRow band of dark colour on our geological maps, stretching for upwards of a mile along the eastern shore of the estuary of the Dee, marks the position of the Park Gate Coal-field. From its position with reference to the coal-field on the opposite shore, we can scarcely doubt but that it is connected with the Flintshire coal-field under the sea ; and the coals have actually been worked seawards for some distance. The general dip of the coal-strata is southwards and westwards; and inland they are separated from the New Eed Sandstone by a large fault which enters the sea at the north side of Burton Point, where a very interesting section of this latter formation is exhibited in the cliffs. The following is a section of the coal-series, for which I am indebted to my friend Mr. P. Higson, jun., of Manchester : —

Pabk Gate Coal-Field, Cheshibe. 211

Section of the Coal-series, Park Gate.

Yds. Ft. In.

strata 28 0 5

Coal 0 2 0

Strata 8 0 7

Strata 14 0 o

Coal 1 1 Q

It has been suggested that these seams correspond with the " Brassy,"* " Main," and " Lower Four-foot " coals of Flintshire.

p 2

Chapter Xvi.

Ingleton And Burton Coal-Field, North Lancashire.

This is a small coal-field, lying a short distance to the south of Kirkby Lonsdale, and to the E.N.E. of Lancaster.* Its relations to the surrounding rocks and its own structure are obscure, owing to the deposit of Drift clay and gravel by which it is overspread.

Along the north-east it is bounded by the " Great Craven Fault," which brings up the Lower Carboniferous Eocks ; in the other directions it reposes on beds of Millstone Grit and Yoredale Eocks, and is partially overlaid by red sandstones and breccias, which are laid open in

It has been described by Professor Phillips, F.R.S., in his Geology of Yorkshire," and more recently by Mr. Tiddenum, of the Geological Survey, in a commnnication to Professor Ramsay, which is inserted in his Report " On the possibility of finding Coal under the newer Formations," etc. — Rep. Coal-Oommissiony vol. i., p. 127.

Inoleton And Bubton Coal-Field.

the Valley of the Lune, and referred by the Geological Surveyors to the Permian formation.* The beds of coal have hitherto only been worked on a small scale.

The following is a section of the Coal-series as given by Professor Phillips, from the notes of

&#x27;--O 7

Ft

In.

Measures

Coal

Measures

Coal

Measnres

Main, or Four-foot Coal .

Measures

Coal

Measures

Crow Coal

Measures

Detp Coal

6 ft. to 9

Measures

Coal

Measures

Coal

Potter's Clay .

Geol. Survey Map, Sheet 98, S.E.

Chapter Xvii.

Cumberland Coal-Field.

The zone of Carboniferous rocks which wraps round the northern flanks of the Cumberland mountains is surmounted by the rich coal-field of Whitehaven, Workington, and Maryport. Between this last town on the north and St. Bees' Head on the south, it stretches along the coast of the Irish Sea, and extends inwards for a distance of five miles, in which direction the beds rise and crop out. From Maryport the coal-field extends eastward to Bolton. Its total length is about 20 miles, and greatest width, at Workington, about 6 miles.

From the Memoir of Professor Sedgwick, who has recorded the distinctive features of this coalfield, I gather the following descending series.!

Bathven's Geological Map of the English Lakes.

t Trans. Geol. Soc. of London, vol. iv. Brit. Assoc. Report, vol. vi., p. 75 (1887). I have also been kindly assisted by Mr. Dickson, of Whitehaven, who has famished several colliery sections and mnch general information.

Cumbebiand Ooal-Field. 216

Succeseion of Strata.

Pennian strata. — 1. Sandstone of St. Bees' Head, decomposing ' into grotesque and castellated forms. 2. Gypseous marls, surmounted by sandy

marls and micaceous sandstone. 8. Conglomerate of magnesian limestone, etc., resting on an eroded snrfiace of the Whitehaven sandstone. Coal-measures) 1. (?) Massive reddish sandstone of White- 2,000 feet. / haven. Professor Sedgwick appears

doubtful of the affinities of this rock — 100 to 160 feet.* 2. Middle, most fully developed at Cleat Moor,

containing 7 workable coal-seams. 8. The Lower, with 4 or 6 thin and inferior coal-seams. 1. Grits and limestone shales, with thin bands of coal atHesket New Market. The limestone at Cleator and Wath, very rich in hsematite iron-ore.

Succession of the Coal-seams Whitehaven,

Tbickness.

Feet

Strata 482

Strata, with a thin coal-seam 78

8. Bannock Band . . . . 8 to 9

Strata 60

Strata 240

After a personal inspection of this sandstone, I feel no doubt of its belonging to the Coal-measures.

216 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Workington.

Thicknea. Feet.

Strata 182

Strata 96

Strata 72

8. Cannel, or Metal Band . . . 4 to 6

Strata 60

4. Bannock Band Strata 80

5. LitOe Main Band . . 8 to 4 Strata 180

Strata 210

Strata 102

Strata 150

At Maryport, beneath the Lower Red Sandstone, there occurs the "Ten-quarter coal," 7 feet thick, supposed to represent the " Bannock Band" of Workington, and the Metal " and " Cannel bands," separated by 36 feet of strata, are considered to Represent the '' Main band."

The thick coals of Workington are thrown out south of that town by a large fault, upheaving the Lower Coal-measures, which occupy an extensive plateau, stretching from Harrington to the hills north of Moresby. Another great fault,

Cumbeeland Coal-Field. 217

with a downthrow on the south-west, again brings in the productive measures of Whitehaven. Unfortunately, however, between this fault and the village of Parton, the beds dip to the east, so that all the coal-seams below high-water mark crop out under the sea, and the coal cannot be extracted on account of the quantity of sea-water which finds its way along the planes of bedding. In one of the collieries at Whitehaven, however, the coal has been followed 3,200 yards under the sea.*

From Workington to Fhmby, a large unwrought coal-field is supposed to exist, and from Workington to Maryport the general dip of the strata is north-west, and the coals crop out inland, where they have been worked to some extent in very early times.

From Maryport to Bolton, by Crosby and Aspatria, the coal-seams are overlaid by the newer strata of Permian age, under which they probably extend for some undefined distance, which Professor Eamsay considers may reach as far eastward as Carlisle t — and northward, so as to join the Httle coal-field of Canobie, which, according to the report of Professor Geikie,

Ab I am informed by Mr. W. W. Smyth, F.R.S. t Report of Coal-Commission vol. i., p. 140.

218 The Goal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

contains eight seams of coal, having an aggregate thickness of 42 feet."

Besources.

The estimates of the quantity of available coal made by Mr. T. E. Forster largely exceed those made by myself, partly arising from seams of coal under two feet in thickness having been excluded from my estimate, as being too thin for working at great depths. Mr. Forster also includes the seams of coal extending for a distance of two miles out to sea, which adds one-third to the quantity under the land. I here substitute Mr. Forster's estimate for my own, after deducting eight millions of tons for tiie quantity under 18 inches in thickness :t —

1. Area of Middle Coal-measures . . 25 square miles.

2. Average thickness of workable coal . 85 feet. 8. Available quantity of Coal, after necessary

deductions for loss, etc., on land, 815 millions of tons . 4. Available quantity under the sea, 101 millions of tons . . . ''

In the year 1869 there were 26 coUieries, from which were raised 1,410,808 tons of coal,

Report of Coal-Commission, vol. i, p. 168. t Ibid, 21.

Gumbeblamd Coal-Field. 219

of which 563,477 tons were shipped to ports of the United Kingdom, Dublin being the principal. In 1870 the quantity was slightly less, 1,408,235 tons.* The output has increased during the previous ten years, it having amounted to only 1,041,890 in 1859.+

''Minend Statistics," 1870. t Ilnd, 1859.

Chapter Xviii.

Wabwickshibe Coal-Field.*

This is the nearest to the metropolis of all the coal-fields. It extends towards the south-southeast of Tamworth, in a constantly narrowing band, by Atherston and Nuneaton, to near Wyken — a distance of 16 miles. At the northern end the strata form a trough four miles in breadth, bounded on the west, north, and east by faults which bring in the New Red Sandstone. The Coal-measures dip under a large district occupied by Lower Permian rocks, extending under Coventry and Warwick. This tract, with an area of 90 square miles, is underlaid by coal at a depth probably not greater than 2,600 feet in any part, often much less. At the

For detailB of this coal-field see Mr. Howell's Memoir On the Geology of the Warwickshire Coal-field, &c," and the Maps and Sections of the Geological Survey. The section of the coal-field is rednced from No. Sheet 51, hy Mr. Howell.

Allmntitn

Jfift of Strain -f HorivcmtaJ

Trap Rock*

Loudcni: Edward Slaniord, 6 & 7 Charinp (!ns.

Wabwickshire Coal-Field.

sontti end of the coal-field the whole of the Coal-measures are overlapped by the New Red Sandstone, which passes across the edges of the beds and rests upon the Permian rocks. The prolongation of the coal-seams under the Trias has been proved as far south as Wyken CoUiery, about two miles E.N.E. of Coventry. How much farther south they may extend it is impossible to say; but the probabilities are, that at some distance in the same direction the coal-seams will be found to terminate against the same bank of Silurian rocks, which forms the southern limit to the coal-seams of South Staffordshire.

%J

f

H

o as

► n ie

en

o

w as

H

so n

a 2

H

n

n

This is the view expressed by Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., in his Report on the "Probability of finding Coal under the Permian and N. R. Sandstone."— Rep. Coal-Commission, vol. i., p. 129.

The Coal-Fields Of Qbeat Bbtfain.

Trias

Oeneral Succession of the FormxUwns,

Maxim. thickneaL Ft

( 2. Lower Kenper Sandstone . . 180

8. Banter Sandstone, only sparingly represented towards the north.

Lower Permian Bocks.

Coalmeasures.

1. Brown and purple sandstones and marl, with caleareous breccia and conglomerate, with Strophalosia f

Labyrinihodon, and plants

/I

Millstone Grit.

Sandstones and shales, at the base of which a band of limestone, with Spirorbis oarbanaruu ... 50

2. Coal-measures, with five workable coals lying near the centre of the series 1,400

8. Lower Coal-measures unproductive of coal, and trayersed by dykes of greenstone 1,500

1. Hard siliceous rock, with bands of shale, altered by intrusive greenstone (about) 500

Coal'Seams. — The five workable coals lie about 600 feet below the Spirorbis limestone. At the northern end of the district they are separated by about 120 feet of shales and sandstones, which all decrease in thickness southwards, while the coals remain nearly the same ; and at Wyken, near Coventry, the five seams combine to

Wabwiokbhuie Coal-Field. 223

form one bed 26 feet in thickness. This is a change parallel to that which occurs ia South Staffordshire in the case of the thick coaly which becomes split up northwards from Wolverhampton. Both cases exemplify ia a remarkable degree the greater persistency of coal-beds over the sedimentary strata with which they are associated.

Under the Permian rocks there is about an equal quantity of coal at a depth of less than 2,600 feet, and about four times as much under 4,000 feet. Mr. Howell's sections show the probability that the coal-seams lie very regularly, and nearly horizontally under this formation. I cannot, therefore, but regard as of peculiar value this vast reservoir of fuel lying at the borders of the south-eastern counties, and actually closer than any other coal-bearing district to the metropolis of Britaia.

The Lower Coal-measures are traversed by several intrusive sheets of greenstone, which nearly correspond with the planes of bedding. These dykes have been injected subsequently to the deposition of the Coal-measures, as they have baked and blanched the shales with which they are in contact. At the base of these strata we find the Millstone Grit changed into a kind

224 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

of quartzite through the influence of a mass of greenstone upon which it rests. Beyond this the whole of the strata are broken off by a great fault, which introduces the Trias to the eastward.

Besources.

The investigation into the resources of the Warwickshire coal-field was entrusted to Mr. J. T. Woodhouse, F.G.S., one of the Commissioners, whose estimate I here substitute for my own, which it somewhat exceeds ; the difference, however, not beiag very material : —

of the Permian formation and the

outcrop of the 7-foot " coal) . 80 square miles.

2. Thickness of Goal . . from 26 to 80 feet. 8. Tonnage remaining unworked (Woodhouse) 809,780,118 tons.

4. Net available tozmage for future use (W.) 455,478,182 ,,

The quantity of coal raised in 1869 was 585,630 tons from 16 collieries. It seems strange that the quantity should be so small considering the advantageous position which the collieries occupy with reference to the London and central markets. In 1870 the quantity was 647,640 tons.

The depth is under 8,000 feet for the whole quantity. — Report, Ooal-GommiBsion, vol. i., p. 81.

Tic fampagr_225

Map Of The Coal-Field

Sral*" 4 juilrs tn 1 inch

Cbn'f'

','w Rrd Sanil.fi.'iif

AftlLtonr Cmt .if

''fuflomerate Ftmuiui litxij

"Et.V.T'L- 'fu' Kt1.ti''j.-nJ."

IxiUfirin: Edwiuvl Stajir<>rd, G i- 7 Chruij> ( ixws

Chaptee Xix.

The Leicestebshiee Coal-Field.*

This small but valuable coal-field occupies an irregularly-shaped district south of the Valley of the Trent. Along its western, northern, and southern sides, it is bounded by strata of the age of the New Eed Sandstone ; and along the north-east, by the ancient slates and porphyries of Chamwood Forest, which form a miniature mountain range, rising in rugged knolls and serried ridges above the general level of the country. The Coal-measures underlie the New Red Sandstone to a large and unknown distance towards the south and west ; and in the Coleorton district, several collieries are situated upon

This coal-field has been very ably illustrated by Mr. Mammatt, in his '' Geological Facts," and more recently by the works of the Geological Survey, consisting of Maps 63, N.W., 71, S.W. ; Horizontal and Vertical Sections ; and a Memoir "On the Geology of the Leicestershire Goal-field," by the Author, 1860. The Bev. W. H. Coleman has also largely contributed to the knowledge of a district of peculiar geological interest.

THE COAIt-FIELDS OF GREAT BBITAIM.

S

the Kenper Bed Marl, and pierce this formation downjl wards to the coal beneath; 1 1 the deepest of these shafts is at Bagworth colliery. The coal-field is physically

divisible into three districts — that of Moira, on the west; Ashby-de-la-Zonch, in the centre ; and Coleorton, on the east. The central district is H; I?'* formed of Lower Coal-measures, without workable coals, and is bounded on both sides by down-cast faults, which introduce the workable coalbeds of Moira and Coleorton. The coal-series of these latter districts cannot be identified with each other, though they are probably synchronous. The main-coal " of Moira is from twelve to fourteen feet thick ; that of Coleorton, from six to eight feet.

n

Oenerdl Succeaaiim of FormoiAon — Leicestershire.

Trias

f Kenper series 700 feet i Btinter (sometiiues absent) . . 200

Permian Rooks; Breecia sparingly represented.

[ 1. Middle Goal-measnres with about 20 coal-seams, of which 10 are workable Carboniferous 2. Lower Coal-measures, unpro- Series. duetive

8. MilktoneOiit 4. Toredale series and Carboniferous Limestone.

The following is a list of the coal-seams in both the Moira and Coleorton districts : —

Coal-seams of the Leicestershire Coal-fields.

Pt. In.

Pt. In.

Dicky Gobbler W

Coal

Coal

Middle Lount

Nether Lount

Heath End Coal and Cannel 10 0

Lower Coal-measures.

Strata below thin unproTecL

In the above list, I have omitted several of the least important coals. The letters a, h, c, indicate the degrees of quality.

I shall conclude this account of the Leicestershire coal-field by stating a few geological facts of interest.

Igneous Bocks. — At Whitwick, a remarkable sheet of dolerite or melaphyre, locally called

Q 2

228 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

whinstone," intervenes between the Coal-measures and the New Bed Sandstone.* In one of the shafts of Whitwick colliery it is 60 feet thick, and has turned to cinders a seam of coal with which it comes in contact. It has evidently been poured out as a sheet of lava over the denuded surface of the Coal-measures at some period prior to that of the Trias, t and from a vent, probably situated at the junction of the Coal-measures vdth the old rocks of Chamwood Forest. The mutual relations of these rocks I have endeavoured to illustrate in the Geological Survey Memoir of this district. J

This rock has been microscopically examined by Mr. S. Allport, F.G.S., who finds it to be composed of triclinic felspar (probably Labradorite), angite, titano-ferrite, and olivine. — GeoL Mag.t vol. vii., p. 160 (1870). It is therefore an old dolerite or melaphyre, of later date than the Coal-measiires on which it rests onconformably, and older than the New Bed Sandstone (or at least than the Eenper), and therefore referable, in all probability, to some part of the Permian period.

t George Stephenson, the inventor of the locomotive engine, inder whose direction the Whitwick shafts were sunk, had the sagacity to perceive that neither this layer of whinstone, nor yet the Triassic sandstones and marls which overlie it, interfered with the existence of coal beneath ; so that, to all the doubts that were suggested during the progress of the works, he only returned the answer, persevere." At length the shaft passed through the whinstone, and the Coal-measures were reached beneath, greatly to the astonishment of all beholders. J Geology of the Leicestershire Coal-field, Fig. 8, p. 46.

The Leicestershiee Coal-Field. 229

BocJc'faults. — In the same district, the maincoal has been extensively invaded by channels filled up with fine sand, which completely replace the coal over several hundred yards. One of these banks of sandstone, at Pegs-green colliery, was found to be 80 yards in width. It is composed of the same sandstone that forms the roof of the coal itself. In another of these, south of Whitwick colliery, a tunnel was driven to a distance of 110 yards without passing through it. These phenomena are similar to those already described in the case of the coal-field of the Forest of Dean.

Salt-water. — In the main-coal of Moira, especially in the Bath colliery, at a depth of 693 feet, salt-water, beautifully clear and of nearly the same composition as sea-water, trickles down from the fissures where the coal is being extracted. The brine is carried to Ashby-de-la-Zouch in tanks, and is considered highly beneficial in scorbutic and rheumatic affections.

Besources.

The estimate of the resources of this coal-field, famished by the Eoyal Coal-Commission, were entrusted to the able hands of Mr. J. T. Woodhouse, and are here substituted for those originally

230 The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Bbttain.

made by myself, of which they are largely in excess. This is partly owing to seams of "12 inches and upwards " being included, as also the quantities of coal proved to exist by working imder the Permian and, I presume, Triassic formations.*

1. Area of prodactiye coal-field . 15 square miles.

2. Number of workable coals, from 2 feet

upwards in thickness, 10 with a total

thickness of coal, from 40 to . .45 feet. 8. Moira district, available quantity for

future use, all necessary deductions

having been made, 17,857,518 . 4. Coleorton district, do., 821,717,828. .

According to the returns prepared by Mr. T. Evans, there were raised from ten collieries 660,700 tons of coal in 1869, which is a decrease as compared with the quantity in 1859. In 1870, the quantity was 699,460 tons.

Fossils. — The plant remaius are abundant, and have been figured in Mammatt's " Geological Facts." The only shells are of the genus Anthracosia; and of Crustacea — Cyiherey or Gypris of an undescribed species, discovered by Mr. A. H. Green, of the Geological Survey.

Beport, Coal-Commission, vol. i., p. 80.

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Chaptee Xx.

NOTTSy DEBBTSHIBE, AND TOBESHIBE COAL-FIELD.

Pms great field, though forming parts of the

lires of Derby, Nottingham, and York, is phyically

(me ; and in treating of its structure and

Bsources we must ignore political and social

idmarks. It is the largest coal-field in England;

Ibut about 150 square miles smaller in area than

fthat of South Wales.

Its eastern margin is defined by the escarpment of the Magnesian Limestone, with its subordinate Lower Permian Sandstone, which, commencing near Nottingham, extends northwards beyond the limits of the coal-field itself.

On ftpproaehing the valley of the Trent the Permian beds become attenuated and debased; the Magnesian Limestone passes into a yellow calcareous sandstone, and the Lower BandstoniB is bnt feebly represented. All this is in consequence of the near approach of the formation to its original margin, formed by the uprising of the Lower Oarboniferous, and still older rocks of Chamwood Forest, aboTe the sea level of the period.

H

232 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

2 Upon reaohing the crest of

J the escarpment, you find yonrself

on the edge of a table-land,

3 A resembling that of the OoUte

5 gj Limestone of Gloucestershire,

S this ridge is crowned by the turrets of Bolsover Castle.

The southern boundary is

ff. I New Red Sandstone, and the

S I ffl i strata rise and crop out west-

S g I w / ward as far north as Bradford

gl| B and Leeds, where they bend

mil I o rf round to the east, and finally

1 1 1 disappear under the Magnesian

1 1 Limestone, which passes over

i I stone Grit. The greatest

Sh t length of the coal-field from

south to north is 66 miles;

t i I and its breadth varies from

9 five to twenty miles. Though

ij I the general dip of the strata

ui is eastward, there generally

field a gentle undulation (shown in the section, Fig. 18), which for a certain distance produces a

Notts, Debbyshibe, And Yorkshire Coal-Field. 233

westerly dip ; but the strata always roll over when approaching the base of the Permian Bocks. The coal-seams are only occasionally broken by faults.

To the westward, the Lower Carboniferous series rises into the lofty ranges of the Pennine chain, forming a natural division between the counties of Stafford and Lancaster on the west, and Nottingham and Yorkshire on the east, as well as their respective coal-fields. Li fact, the upheaval of the Lower Carboniferous rocks, and the supervening denudation, has rent asunder a coal-field which originally embraced the whole of that portion of the North of England extending fi-om the coast of Lancashire and Cheshire across to an undefined margin, which probably corresponded pretty nearly with the line of the river Trent, or even stretched farther eastward.

The loftiest escarpment of this central chain is Mickle Fell, formed of Millstone Grit, which reaches an elevation of 2,600 feet ; the table-land of Kinder Scout, in the district of the High Peak, lying in the centre of the great arch of Millstone Grrit, between the Cheshire and Derbyshire coal districts, is about 2,000 feet ; and in one place the

See " Geology of Stockport,*' &c., Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 12.

234 THE COAL-FIEIiBS OF OBEAT BBITAIN.

Carboniferous Limestone of Derbyshire rises 2,633 feet above the sea.

Hisiorical Notices. — Tina great coal-field and its bordering formations have been the subject of several important notices bearing on their mineral structure. As far back as 1684, Lister, whose name has been immortalized by Phillips in the well-known fossil Goniatites Listeria proposed to the Royal Society the construction of geological maps, and illustrated his views by reference to the formations of Yorkshire, and the divisions he would have pourtrayed.* After him (1778) Whitehurst published some good sections of Derbyshire, f A few years later the Board of Agriculture, with the assistance chiefly of Mr. W. Smith, published a series of geological maps embracing parts of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Notts. ; and shortly after the commencement of the present century, Mr. Farey produced his wellknown report on the mineralogy of Derbyshire. With the publication of WiUiam Smith's Geological Map of England, in 1815, we enter upon the modem epoch of our science, which has been enriched, as far as regards the region we are now

Philosophical Transactions, 1684.

t In the work entitled Inquiry into the original state and formation of the Earth," by John Whitehurst.

Notts, Dehbtshibe, And Yobeshibe Goal-Field. 235

investigating, by the labours of Phillips, Sedgwick, f and Binney. J The Government geological surveyors have also just completed the detailed survey of this coal-field.

Succession of Strata. SoutherrirExtremity — Derbyshire and Notts. The succession of strata along a line drawn from Kirkby Woodhouse through Alfreton Common and Wingfield Manor to Crich, may be very clearly ascertained, both from the details of the collieries, and the natural sections which present themselves. The following is the series in descending order :§ —

Permian Rocks.

Middle

Coal-measTires,

Feet

8. Marls and sandstone . Strata to Top Hard Coal, about Waterloo Coal EU ." .

Lower Hard Fnmace Black Shale ior Clod Kilbnm Shales, with ironstones .

♦ " Geology of Yorkshire."

t Papers published in the Transactions of the Geological Society of London (1826).

X Papers published in the Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester, etc. Another work requiring notice is Mr. Denny's Fossils of the Yorkshire Coal-field," Proc. Geol. Soc, York., vol. ii.

§ Horizontal Sections of the Geological Survey, Sheet 60.

236 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Feet

Lower

Coal-measures,

or Gannister

series.

Flagstones of Wingfield Manor.

Shales and flaggy sandstones, with two coals underlaid hy Gannister floors i . . . . 1,000

The above are underlaid by Millstone Grit and Yoredale beds. These strata, in their extension southwards towards the valley of the Trent from Ambergate, gradually bend round* towards the south-east, having a north-easterly dip, with which they pass beneath the New Eed Sandstone, under which formation their presence has been recently proved by the opening of a coUiery near the bank of the Trent opposite Cliffcon HaU.

In comparing the above series with that on the Lancashire and Cheshire side of the Pennine anticlinal, it is to be remarked, that while there is a general diminution in the total thickness of the strata, they can unquestionably be correlated from the Millstone Grit up into the lower beds of the middle Coal-measures. Thus, the uppermost MiUstoneGrit is identical with the "EoughEock" of Lancashire. The coal-seams of the Lower Coalmeasures, and the flagstones of Wingfield Manor, have their representatives in Lancashire ; and the Blackshale coal is, with much reason, supposed to be the representative of the Eoyley, or Arley mine, of the same county.

Notts, Debbtshxre, And T0Bk8Hibe Goal-Field. 237

For the purpose of affording a comparison of the formations towards the north and south of the field, I select sections from Nottinghamshire, and Bamsley in Yorkshire.

Gemebal Section of Strata.

Ft.

Pennian RockB.

Upper Permian marls and aand-

Btone

Maeneeian limestone Lower Permian sands and shale Strata, with beds of hsematite

and ironstone

The Manor Coal

Strata, with several thin coals 706 Shirtoak or MtUoUj or Bae/bro*

Strata, with an inferior coal,

Furnace Coal

strata

Strata ...

DufUmCoal, Strata

WaUrlooCoal Strata, with 2 ooals, two feet

each in thickness

Soft Coal

Strata

Lower Hard Coal Strata

Bamslej, Torkshire.t

Magneeian Limestone Lower Permian Sandstone

Ft.

Strata

Strata, principally sa

indstone

Strata

Strata with half -yard

Doal ... 45

Winter Coal ...

Strata

Strata, with Kent Coa

and Mapple Coal

4i feet

Strata

Bamdey Coal

Strata

SvfoUow Wood Coal .

Strata

Joan Coal

Strata

FloeUm Top Coal

Strata

Park CfaU Coal

Strata

ThomcUfgk tMn Coal .

Partly taken from section of Shireoak Colliery by Messrs. Lancaster and Wright, Joum. Gteol. Soc., voL xvi., p. 138. t Rev. W. Thozpe, Section of Strata.— /&k2.

238 THE GOAL-PIELDS OF GBEAT BBTFAIN. Qenebal Section of Btbza — {Continued.)

Bamdey, Torkahire.

Strata, with Yard Coal

Clod or Black Shale Coal

Strata

KUburn Coal

Ft

3i— 6

Strata

Strata

Si0e8ion€ Coal

Strata

Wkinmoor or Lowmoor Coal ... Strata ... (about)..

Flagstone overlying the Lower Coal-measure consifiting of

flagstoneB, shales, and the coaJB with Ganniiter floor, thickness rather uncertain (about)

Millstone Orit.

Coo

Ft

Le ... (about)... 86 Strata, principally shales ... 495 ffaltfax Coal (with Peeten papyraeeui in the roof), and a floor of Gannister ... li

Halifax ioft Coal U

Strata ... 150

Millstone Grit.

The following is a section of the strata at Cinderhill Colliery, showing their character near the southern extremity of the coal-field : —

Yebtigal Section of the Nottingham and Debbtshibe c0al-fieij>.

The first part (to the Top Hard Coal) from a pit at Cinderhill.

No.

Description of Strata.

Thickness.

Depth.

Light-blue and brown stone in beds

Blue43tone

Dark-pink bind

Ft. In.

Ft In.

ir?

Mr. W. T. Aveline " Geology of Nottmgham/' Mem. Geol. Survey, 1861.

NOTTS, DEBBTSHlBEy AKD TOBESHIBE OOAL-FIBLD. 2S9

Yebtigai. Sbction of the Nottinoham and Debbyshibe GoAL-nsLD, ETC. — (ConHnuccL)

Ko.

Description of Strata.

Thickness.

Depth.

Ft.

Izl

Ft. In.

Dark-grey stone

Bed stone with pebbles

S

Bind

Ironstone

Softdunch

Black shale or bind

Bind, with bands of ironstone

Light and dark dunch

Bind

Ironstone

Bind r

Softooal

Shale bind and dnnch

Sofieoal

Qunch and bind, with bat and shale

Softooal

Qnncfa and bind

Soft coal

Clonch and stone

Bind, clunch, stone, and bat, with a little coaI

and ironstone

Coal

Dark dunch, with bat and ironstone

Coal

Soft coal

Shale and bind

Softooal

Dark dunch, with impressionB

Soft coal

Clunch and bind

Coal

Blade shale and bind

Jftooal

Shak dunch, eto

Coal

Shale and bind anda few small beds of ironstone

Olundi, bind, and shale

The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Bbitain.

The depths and thicknesses of the seams below the Top Hard coal in the same district as given by Mr. Aveline are as follows : —

below Top,

Top Habd, or Rifler Coal.

Bind with ironstone

Ounch and bind

Coal

Bat, dunch, and bind

Bind and rock

Main w Dwp Soft coal

Bat

Dark dunch and fire-day

Bind and rock ...

The Deep Hard coal

Ft. In.

Pt In. 424 5 436 3 447 0 504 0

The following section gives the chief coals below the Deep Hard coal : —

Ft

In.

Ft

In.

Cltinch, bind, etc

—

Pipereoal

Bind, dunch, and other strata

—

Furnace Coal

Cltinch, bind, etc.

Yard coal

Qunch, bind, etc

Black Shale coal

Clunch, bind, etc

Depth of Kilbum coal below Top Hard coal

—

S

In Derbyshire the principal coals are the "Top hard " and " Lower hard " seams, producing the valuable spent-coal, the " Upper soft " and

Notts, Derby8Hibe, And Torkshiee Coal-Field. 241

" Lower soft " coals ; and in Yorkshire the most remarkable are the " Silkstone" and "Bamsley thick coals J' The former is midoubtedly identical with the " Arley mine'' of Lancashire ; and thus this fine bed of coal, which seldom exceeds five feet in thickness, has originally spread over a tract embracing not less than 10,000 square miles !

The Upper and Lower hard coals, and the Silkstone seam, produce that remarkably deep glossy coal with long fracture, known as splint." Different seams have different qualities, and are suited either for housefire, steam, or gas purposes.

Li the Lower Coal-measures, or Gannister beds, described originally by Professor Phillips,* one or more of the coals, with their roofs of black shale filled with Aviculo-pecten papyraceuSy GoniatiteSy Posidonomyay etc., can be identified with those which range over North Lancashire : all of which facts go to prove the original continuity of these great coal-fields.f

The following section, including a portion of the Middle, and the whole of the Lower Coal-

Article Geology," in Encyclopedia Metropolitana, t See Mr. Binney, Trans. Geol. Soc. Manchester, vol. ii., part?.

242 THE OOAL-FIBIiDS OF GBEAT BBITAIN.

measures from the neighbourhood of Dewsbtuy and Halifax, will give a general view of the series as it occurs in the north-western portion of the coal-field —

Coal-aeries near Dewsbury and Halifax.

lODDLB COAL-MSASITBES.

Ft In. Ft In.

Haigh Moor Coal . . . . 2 11 to 4 0 Measures, with Thomhill and Dewsbury

Bocks 840 0

JooHt or Panon*s Coal . . 1 8 ,, 2 8

Measures 58 0

Flockton Thick Coal, with partings

Measures 42 0

Flockton Thin Coal . . . 1 6 „ 8 0 Measures with Old Hards, or Dawgrem

Coal 100 0

Coal 11

Measures 68 0

Oreen Lane, or Middleton LUtle Coal . 0 6 „ 8 6

Measures 6 4

New Hards, or Middleton Main Coal . 2 0 ,, 4 6

Measures 60 0

Wheatley Lime Coal . . 1 0 „ 8 0

Measures 94 0

Blocking, or Toftshaw Coal , . . 1 8 „ 2 4

Curtailed from " The Geology of Dewsbury," Expl. of

Sheet 88, N.E. Mem. Geol. Survey, by Messrs. Green, Dakyns, Wood, and Russell.

Notts, Derbyshirb, And Yobkshibe Coal-Field. 243

Loweb Coal-Mea8X7Bes, Ob Gannisteb Beds.

Ft. In.

Ft In.

at

Measures

Lmuey Coalj of Whitley and Hopton

Measnres

Strata, with Whinmoor Coal Sandstone, with 'Oakenshaw Qnarry

Stone" Yardsy or Croic Coal . Measnres, with IronsUnie (worked

Measnres

Fireclay . . ; . .

Measnres, with EUand Flagstone .

Measnres

Middle Band Coal

Measnres

Halifax Soft Coal

Measnres .

Thin Goal and Fireclay

MiLLSTONB Gbtt in several beds, with intervening shales.

6 to

ff

it

fi

Fossil Bemains. — These have been sninined up by Mr. Denny as consisting of 17 species of fish (placoid and ganoid). Of molluscs, 5 cephalopods, 17 conchifers and brachiopods. Crustacea, Gythere (Cypris), In the roofing shale of several of the coal-beds fish remains occur, and so plentifally in the case of one of these, at Middleton,

b2

244 The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

that the miners call it the fish-coal." In the roof of the " Hahfax coal," of the Lower Coalmeasures, Goniatites Listeri is found throughout its entire course, sometimes beautifully preserved in iron pyrites, and with this is associated Avicnlo'pecten papyraceus.

In the Catherine Slack coal" near Halifax, Nautilus Bawsoni and Orthoceras Steinhaueri are frequent.

In the Middle Coal-measures there are bands of iron-stone, filled, over a great extent of country, with Anthracosia (Unio) and Cy there (Cypris).

Extension of the Coal-field under the Permian and Triassic formations. — Keserving to another chapter the full discussion of the question regarding the extent and form of the coal-field under the newer formations, I may here state that I share the opinion of those who consider it most probable that this great coal-field is really a basin, partially exposed, partially concealed ; and that east of a line which may be drawn through Wakefield and Worksop in a direction N.N.W. and S.S.E., the strata may be expected to rise towards the east, and ultimately to terminate somewhere beneath the Lias of Lincohishire. This axis will probably be found to pass a little east of Shireoak CoUiery, where the dip of the

Notts, Derbyshire, And Yorkshire Coal-Field. 246

coaJs is slightly eastward, and which is consequently situated to the west of the axis.* Under this View of the subject it will be observed, on referring to the General Map, that there is a larger extent of Coal-measures concealed than exposed at the surface.

All along the edge of the escarpment of the Magnesian Limestone, and for a short distance beyond, in Notts, and Derbyshire, as far north as Hotherham, the coal-seams are found to dip eastward, at a greater angle than the Limestone itseK, which, with the Lower Eed Sandstone, rests unconformably on the Coal-measures. At Shireoak Colliery, the full thickness of 327 feet of the Permian beds was passed through in the shafts, which commence at the base of the New Eed Sandstone. North of Wakefield, the beds generally tend to rise towards the north-east, near to, and under, the Magnesian Limestone ; and in the centre of the coal-field, the Ackworth Bock (a red sandstone), which is an outHer, and is the highest known Carboniferous bed,

/ Messrs. Lancaster and Wright state, in their description of the strata of Shireoak Colliery, that the dip decreases considerably eastward, the strata coming more into the form of a basin ; the colliery is doubtless near the position of the axis. — Joom. Geol. Soc. Lond.y vol. xyi.

246 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

represents the central position of the whole basin**

The views of Professor Kamsay, the Commissioner who has reported on this subject, are so important that I take the liberty of quoting the general summary of them in his own words : —

" It has been shown in the evidence that the Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire coalfields probably lie in the form of a basin, the norfehem, southern, and eastern edges of which lie imdemeath the New Bed, Permian, and other overlying Secondary strata. The centre of this basin is the Ackworth rock, forming the topmost beds of the Coal-measures, about ten miles north of Eotherham, and about three miles west of the edge of the Magnesian Limestone. When the diflferent subdivisions of the Coal-measure strata are extended underneath the Permian and New Red beds, and carried round concentrically from south to north, the area of available Coalmeasures beneath the Permian and other overlying beds inay be roughly estimated at about 900 square miles; this concealed portion of the

See Professor Ramsay's views on this subject in the Report of the Coal-Commission, vol. i., pp. 186-8, in which the whole evidence is handled with great ability, and leads the Commissioner to adopt the view of the basin-like form of the coal-field.

Notts, Dsbby8Hibe, Amd Tobebhibb Ooal-Field. 247

coal-basm being approximately equal to the coal-field exposed at the surface. It is estimated that, exclusive of part of the Gannister beds, the whole of the important coals of the coal-field lie tmdemeath the New Bed Marl, etc., and even a smaU part of the Lower Lias, at depths of 4,000 feet and under ; for the gradual increase of thickness due to the coming on of successive formations of Magnesian Limestone, New Bed Sandstone, Bed Marl, and Lias, is probably compensated for by the gradual rise of the eastem edge of the basin towards the base of the lowest formation overlying the Coal-measures. If this assumption be correct, then deducting the amount given by Mr. Woodhouse as proved xmder the Permian formation, namely, 8,306,140,050 tons, there remains about 23,083,000,000 tons still farther available, a great part of which will lie at depths under 3,000 feet.

" Area east of the Permian escarpment : —

Tons. 672 square miles, 40 feet coal . 26,768,179,200

81,888,876,800 Deduct proved under Permian beds 8,806,140,050

This is the gross estimate, not the available " net quantity after deductions.— See Report, p. 81.

248 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

Depth of the Top Hard Goal along eastern border. — As the Magnesian Limestone is everywhere unconformable to the underlying Coalmeasures, we find it resting indifferently on all the beds from the Millstone Grit, N.E. of Leeds, to the highest beds of the Coal-measures opposite Bamsley. The depth of the Top Hard Coal will, therefore, everywhere vary, and the following are its proved or estimated depths at various points from north to south,* along the margin of the Limestone : —

1. East of Bamsley and the Ackworth Bock, to Top Hard

Coal, 1,850 to 1,900 feet; and to Bilkstone Coal, 2,850 to 2,900 feet.

2. Under Bolsover, to Top Hard Coal, 900 to 950 feet; to

Lower Hard Coal, 1,500 to 1,550 feet. 8. Opposite Torkard, to Top Hard Coal, 1,286 feet.

4. Opposite Eirkby Woodhonse, to Top Hard Coal, 700 to 750

feet.

5. Under Newstead Abbey, to Top Hard Coal, from 1,500 to

6. Under Felley Abbey, to Top Hard Coal, 800 feet.

Thickness of the Magnesian Limestone. — This formation increases in thickness northward, partly by the swelling out of the strata, and partly by the appearance of new beds. The following estimates of thickness at several points

Coal-Commission Beport, vol. i., p. 187.

Notts, Debbtseibe, And Tobkshibe Coal-Field. 249

have been prepared by Mr. Eussell, of the Geological Survey : —

In the neighbonrhood of Longhills, near

Hncknall Torkard . . . about

Near Annesley .

Near Kirby Forest

Near Warsop

Near Shireoaks .

Near Doncasier .

of Pontefra

Besources. — The estimates of the resources of this coal-field, as far as it extends westward of the Magnesian Limestone, and a certain tract under this formation, where the coal has been proved by actual mining, were entrusted to Mr. J. T. Woodhouse, one of the members of the Coal-Commission. These estimates considerably exceed those made by myself, partly as including seams under two feet in thickness, and partly because Mr. Woodhouse from the gross sum has made a smaller proportionate deduction for waste, and the quantity extracted, than that by myself. In this latter point I now feel satisfied he has formed a truer estimate, and I, therefore, willingly substitute his figures for my own ; but if I also adopt the larger figure he gives for the amoimt available it is under protest against

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

including very thin seams for great depths. In adopting this course, however, Mr. Woodhouse was only following the rule laid down by the whole of the Commissioners for their own guidance.

1. Area of Coal-field, beyond the margin

of the Magnesian limestone and Permian

2. Greatest thickness of productive

Ooal-measnres, including the Lower series 8. Average number of workable coalseams above 2 feet, 15; giving a vertical thickness of coal .

4. Average number from 1 foot np-wards

, 20, with

5. Quantity of coal remaining un-

6. Quantity available for consumption

down to a depth of 4,500, 18,747,000,000; deduct for quantity beyond limit of 4,000 feet, l-9th,* leaving net available quantity down to 4,000 feet

7. Area overspread by Permian, Trias,

and lias, as estimated by Professor Ramsayt

8. Total quantity of coal under this

area, at a depth not exceeding 4,000 feet . . . .

I have been obliged to make the reduction from Mr. Woodhouse's estimate, in order to ke within the limit of 4,000 feet, t See ante, p. 246.

Notts, Debbtshibe, And Tobeshibe Coal-Field. 251

9. Deduct* for quantity not available from various causes, l-8rd (7,694 mil. tons), leaving for future use . 15,888 millions of tons.

Summary.

1. Net available quantity of coal of exposed

coal-field 12,220,000,000

2. ,, ,, „ concealed coal-field 15,888,000,000

Total available supply . 27,608,000,000

The produce of this coal-field has taken a great boimd forward during the last ten years, having increased from 12,497,100 tons in 1859, to 17,865,367 tons in 1869, or nearly 50 per cent. ; the number of collieries has also increased from 659 to 579 in the same period, and of these several are situated on the Magnesian Limestone. The produce for 1870 was 17,824,241 tons.*

" Mineral Statistics," 1870.

Chaptek Xxi.

Great Nobthern Coal-Field Of Durham And Northumberland.

The general' succession of the strata and their relative position over the area of this coal-field is similar to that of Yorkshire, so that one section will serve to illustrate the structure of both. I must therefore beg the reader to refer to the transverse section at the commencement of the last chapter (Fig. 18, p. 232).

The Great Northern coal-field extends from Staindrop near the north bank of the Tees, on the south, to the mouth of the Coquet, where it enters Alnmouth Bay, on the north, the distance, being nearly 60 miles. Its greatest diameter is near the centre, along the course of the Tyne, which forms the great highway for the export of coal to the London market.*

From the Coquet to the Tyne the North Sea

I have calculated the area of this coal-field from Mr. W. Oliver's map in the Mining Record office. There are some interesting details in Our Coal and onr Coal-pits,'* published by Messrs. Longman.

Gbeat Northern Field Of Durham, Etc. 253

forms the limits of the coal-field. South of this the escarpment of the Lower Permian Sandstone and Magnesian Limestone forms the boimdary at the surface; but the Coal-measures underlie these newer rocks; and since Dr. WiUiam Smith,* first on theoretical groimds, and afterwards by actual experiment, demonstrated the existence of the coal-field at HasweU near Durham, both the Triassic and Permian formations have been perforated over a large area, especially at Seaham and Kyhope in Durham.

Form and structure of the Coal-field. — Eecent observations have tended to confirm the opinion, that the structure of this coal-field is that of a trough, or irregular basin, of which the longer axis lies in a north and south direction, stretching from the apex near the mouth of the Coquet, through North Seaton and Jarrow Collieries on the north of the Tyne, and through Monkwearmouth Colliery, + below the Magnesian Limestone to the south of that river. J The examination of the coast section north of the Tyne, the results of which are laid down on the Geological

About half a century ago.

t At this colliery the coal-seams descend to a depth of 2,268 feet below the surface.

X This view is supported by Professor Ramsay, and by Mr. H. H. Howell, of the Geological Survey, in his evidence before the Coal-Commission. — See Report, vol. i., p. 188.

254 The Ooal-Fields Of Great Britain.

Survey maps by Mr. Howell, places it beyond question that tHe beds rise towards the northeast, or in the seaward direction. Nor is there any reason to suppose this to be a mere local uprising of the strata ; on the contrary, it must be considered as the commencement of a normal arrangement ultimately resulting in an easterly outcrop under the sea-bed itself.

The southern limits of the basin are also capable of being defined with tolerable accuracy. The Magnesian Limestone which (with the Lower Permian Sandstone has been pierced, by several coal-shafts), rests imconformably on the coal-formation, and near Hartlepool some of the seams have been proved to rise towards the south, and terminate against the bottom of these newer rocks. The lowest workable coal-seam, called the "BrockweU" coal, passes at its outcrop under the Magnesian Limestone immediately east of Shildon, dipping to the north-west at an angle of 15° to 18"*.* This then gives us the line of the southern margin, which Professor Ramsay considers may be drawn from Seaton Carew, north of the entrance to the Tees, westward to Middridge Grange, four miles south-east of Bishop Auckland. To the south of this line,

Mr. Howell, Evidence, supra cU.

Gbeat Nobthebn Field Of Dubham, Etc. 255

the Permian and TriassiG strata would be found to overlie only Millstone Grit and Yoredale rocks.*

The regularity of the basin-like form towards its southern margin is somewhat interrupted by the presence of a fault, known as the " Butter Knowle Dyke," which ranges in a W.S.W. and E.N.E. direction, depressing the strata on the south to the extent of 700 feet, and bringing in the upper measures with all the coal-seams from the "Five-quarter" downward under the Permian rocks at Leasingthome, Black Boy, and Eldon Collieries, t To the south of this fault the strata dip rapidly toward the N.N.W., thereby bringing the lowest seams in contact with the overlying Permian formation, and ultimately the Millstone Grit itself, from its visible outcrop near Heighington, eight miles north-west of Darlington. J

Professor Bamsay, Ibid. Sir B. Mnrchison, in bis Address, delivered at Nottingham, has expressed a donbt of the extension of the coal-measnres south of the Tees, where they were bored for at Middlesborongh by Mr. Yaughan, to a depth of 1,800 feet. A.t the bottom of the bore-hole, rock-salt was encountered, bnt even the Permian Magnesian limestone had never been reached. See Sir B. Marchison " On parts of England where Coal may, or may not be looked for." — Trans. Brit. Assoc. Nottingham, 1866.

t See map, section, and description of the Northern Coal-field, by Mr. Dann, Trans. North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, vol. xii.

X Mr. George Elliot, Bep. Coal-Commission, vol. i., p. 26.

The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

From below the coal-field of Durhain and Northmnberland the Lower Carboniferous Eocks rise towards the west and north into swelling moorlands, and ultimately into the mountainous tract of the Pennine, chain, attaining at Hedge Thorpe a height of 2,347 feet, and at Yevering Bell, 2,000 feet.

Oerieral Series of Formations* New Red Sandstone. — Red sandstone and conglomerat*.

1. Upper Permian marls, with gypsnm 100 ft.

2. Crystalline limestone, with Schizodvs Schlotheimi, and MiftHus septifer,

4. Fossiliferons limestone, with Productus, Strophidoday Athyris, Avicula, etc., and numerous bryozoa.

5. Cglpact limestone, with similar fossils.

6. Marl slate, calcareous shales, and thin-bedded limestone, with fishes of the genera PdUBoniscuStAcroUpia, Platy- Bomus,

7. Lower Permian sandstone, with gypseous marl, Pinnites Brandlingi. Trigonocarpunif SigiUariarentformis, Catamites approxiniatm . 200 ,,

From the works of Professors Sedgwick and King.

Permian Bocks. Magnesian Lime

stone, 600 to 700 feet.

Gbbat Northbbn Field Of Dubham, Etc. 267

( 1. Upper series, with thin coals, and a band of ironstone, with Anthracogia, Lingula Credneri, Cypris or Cytkere inflataHoloptychius Hibherti 900 ft.

( 2. Middle series. From the High Main Coal'* to the Brockwell Coal " . . 2,000 „ 8. Lower Coal-measures, with 2 beds of coal, between 2 and 8 feet thick . . 150,,

Coal-measures, 2,080 feet.

Millstone Grit — Coarse grits and iales . . 414 „ Yoredale Bocks — Shale, with bands of limestone

and thin coals . . . 540 „ Scaur Limestone* — Ten beds of limestone, parted by as many beds of shale, containing coal-seams in Northumberland, upwards of 1,120 „t

Coal-seams. I — The most important coal in the Newcastle district is the " High main V or " WaUsend " seam. It is the highest workable coal, and varies from 6 to 6 feet in thickness. It is traversed by the "90-fathom" dyke, and is persistent in its general character to its northern and western outcrop, but southward towards the vaUey of the Wear is spht up into

Professor Phillips' Manual of Geology,*' p. 168.

t For a list of the fossils of the Permian and Upper Coalmeasures, see Mr. J. W. Kirkby, Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi, p. 412.

I For the details of the coal-seams, I am indebted to Mr. Dunn, late Inspector of Collieries.

258 The Ooal-Fielps Of Gbeat Britain.

two seams by the intercalation of sandstone and shale.

The " Bensham " seam, 20 fathoms below the High Main," is very variable in its qualities, and is often unworkable. It acquires its chief value towards the east, and is worked extensively under the Magnesian Limestone at Simderland. Its general thickness is 6 feet.

The " Low Main " seam is known to range from Widdington on the north to Ferry Hill on the south, a distance of about 40 miles. This coal, south and west of Newcastle, is moderately soft, and excellent for household use and coking. But passing northwards its character changes ; it becomes very hard and less gaseous, and constitutes the* most important bed of steam-coal. Below these lie several other seams, which wiU become more extensively worked as the supply from the valuable beds above described becomes curtailed.

The following is a list of the general series of ccd-seams, for which I am indebted to Mr. Dunn:

CoaUseriea of Northumberland and Durhxim.

Upper Coal-measures . 1. High Main Coal .

Strata

Pl

In.

Gbeat Nobthern Field Of Durham, Etc. 259

Ft. In.

Strata 83 0

Strata 63 0

Strata 63 0

Strata 78 0

6. Five-quarter Coal ... 3 0 Strata 48 0

7. Low Main, or Hulton Coal .,60 Strata 60 0

Strata 24 0

9. Five-quarter Coal ... 3 8 Strata 30 0

Strata 96 0

11. Townley, or Harvey Coal ..31 Strata 42 0

Strata . . . . , 42 0

Strata 18 0

14. Five-quarter Coal ... 3 4 Strata 30 0

16. Three-quarter Coal ... 2 6

Strata 64 0

The series below the Low Main coal is taken at Blaydon and Wylam, as the coals have never yet been worked at Newcastle.

Basaltic Dykes. — The coal-field is traversed by

s 2

260 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

several narrow basaltic dykes, generally ranging a little south of east, and running for several miles in nearly straight lines.* The beds of coal on approaching these dykes become anthracitic, and ultimately worthless. One of the dykes crosses the Tyne a short distance below Newcastle ; others reach the coast at Hartley and Blyth. The Cock-field FeU Dyke, in South Durham, ranges from W.N.W. to E.S.E. There is also a system of natural fissures, called cleats," ranging N.N.W.

Faults. — One of the largest of these is the Ninety-fathom Dyke " of Denton CoUiery. Along its course the strata are depressed on the north side to the extent of 200 fathoms between Gosforth and Killingworth. + Most of the East and West faults do not traverse the Magnesian Limestone, being anterior to its formation.

Coal under the Sea. — To what distance from

These dykes cat across the fanlts, and all the newer strata of the North of England, and are consequently of very recent origin, geologically speaking. As they point westward in the direction of the great Tertiary oathnrsts of basaltic rocks, and on other grounds, Mr. Geikie considers them to belong to the age of the Miocene basalts and dolerites of the West of Scotland and North of Ireland. — Trans. Brit. Assoc, 1867, Presidential Address, Geol. Section, p. 51.

t As I am informed by Mr. H. H. Howell, of the Geological Survey.

Great Northern Field Of Durham, Etc. 261

the shore coal will be available, is a question which cannot be directly answered, as every seam presents the problem tmder a different aspect. Questions regarding depth, thickness, regularity, and absence of faults, as weU as the nature of associated strata, are here presented in relation to the coal-seams themselves ; and depth of seabottom in relation to the sea. In every case a considerable breadth of coal where it approaches the outcrop must necessarily be left as a barrier; and it is unquestionable, that faults traversing the strata under the sea, at a considerable depth and pressure of water, and especially if there are beds of porous sandstone overlying the coalseams, would give facilities for the influx of seawater into the mines so as to prevent or impede the working of the coal.

With reference to this special coal-field, Mr. EUiot considers that, in that portion of the district south of the Tyne, a minimum distance of miles may be included as available ; and that it is possible that a much wider extent wiQ ultimately be worked by means of shafts sunk below the sea itself at a distance from the shore ; on the other hand, Mr. Forster assumes a distance of only two miles in breadth along the

Beport, Coal-Commission, vol. I, p. 26.

262 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

coast for that part of the coal-field north of the Tyne. This difference of opinion, on the part of gentlemen of such experience in mining undertakings, is a suflSicient proof that the question is at present involved in much uncertainty,

In the following estimates of resources, I have adopted those of the Commissioners, after rejecting all seams from 18 inches in thickness downwards, amounting to about 176 millions of tons ; at the same time that I adopt their estimates of the quantity available below the sea to a distance of 2 and miles from the shore respectively.

Besources. In estimating the extent of this coal-field, we must include not only the area of the visible tract of Coal-measures beyond the limits of the Permian formation, but that also which is concealed beneath this formation, though now very nearly proved over its whole area. Along with this is included, by Mr. Forster, 40 square miles of sea-covered coal, of an aggregate thickness of 14 feet, distributed into four seams ; and by Mr. EUiot 71 square miles, with an aggregate thickness of 30 feet distributed in six seams.*

If I imderstand Mr. Elliot rightly, he takes a hreadth of 7 miles oat to sea, giving 1,500 millions of ions for the area

Obeat Northern Field Of Durham, Etc. 263

1. Area of visible coal-field, beyond

the limits of the Pennian and

New Red Sandstone . 460 square miles.

2. Area of concealed coal-field . . 225 ,, 8. Area under the sea supposed to be

available Ill „

4. Number of workable seams from

18 inches upwards, 16 ; giving

a thickness of available coal . 46 feet.

5. Net available quantity of coal on

land, after necessary deductions

6. Net available quantity under the sea 408,000,000 „

7. Net available quantity on land

(Durham), including seams down to 12 inches in thickness, 8,988,000,000 tons ; deduct l-16th for seams from 18 inches downwards, as determined in Mr. Forster*s district ; leaving . 8,788,760,000 „

Coast), including a breadth of miles, with an area of 71 square miles 784,500,000 „

Total . . . 7,452,260,000 „

Mountain Limestone District of Northumberland.

Far down in the Carboniferous Limestone series of the North of England occur beds with

beyond the minimum limit of miles. How does he intend to guard against storms in the cases of his submarine shafts? Unless situated on an island, a N.E. gale would sweep away any colliery that could be planted.

264 THE COAL-FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. j

workable coal, which in Scotland increase in j

number and economic value. They form coalfields bordering the Tweed and its tributaries in i Northumberland, and the Esk in Dumfriesshire. Though marked on the map as coal-fields, it is to be recollected that they are of much earlier date than the great coal-tracts of Durham and Yorkshire. The coal-seams underlie, for the most part, several thick beds of Carboniferous Limestone ; and in turn repose on red sandstones of the Tweed. Mr. N. Wood has rightly referred these red sandstones, not to the Devonian, but to the Carboniferous period ; for, as I am informed by Prof. GeiMe, a thick series of Lower Carboniferous strata intervenes between them and the true Old Eed Sandstone of Scotland.

Mr. Wood,* who has given a foil account of these Lower Carboniferous coals of Northumberland, states that they are worked at Talkin, Tindal Fell, Fourstones, Acomb, and Fallowfield. A very interesting section of the series is tabulated by Mr. Hutton, from the MiQstone Grit down to the " 4-feet seam " of Tindal Fell, for which I must refer the reader to the memoir itself, t

Trans. Nat. Hist. Soo. Northumberland, vol. i. t Ibid, vol. ii., p. 24.

Great Northern Field Of Durham, Etc. 266

The available quantity of coal in this district has been estimated by Mr. Forster at 666,180,000 tons, or, rejecting all seams under 18 inches, at 680 milHons of tons, which, added to the former, gives a total available quantity from the Carboniferous rocks of this part of England, —

1. Upper Carboniferous coal 7,452,000,000

2. Lower Carboniferous coal . . 580,000,000

Total 8,082,000,000 tons.

Notwithstanding that the Great Northern coal-field has been drawn upon more heavily than any other of the British coal-fields, and for a larger period, the produce has rapidly increased during the last quarter of a century. This is partly due to the creation, and prodigious expansion, of iron-manufacture along the estuary of the Tees, which has its centre in Middlesborough; and partly to the enormous demands from the metropohs of England.

In 1869, the produce of this coal-field was 16,001,126 tons from 183 collieries ; in 1869, or ten years later, the produce reached 25,766,430 tons from 297 collieries ; and of this 4,969,647 tons were converted into coke, chiefly for ironsmelting. In 1870 the produce was 27,613,639 tons.*

''Mineral Statistics,'* for 1869, 1869, and 1870.

CHAPTEK XXn.

Coal-Fields Of Scotland.

It will be observed, on looking at a geological map of Scotland, that the series of formations of which that country is composed, are arranged in bands crossing the island from south-west to north-east, and, on the whole, parallel to the central range of the Grampian mountains.

The Carboniferous series of Scotland forms one of these bands, stretching from sea to sea, and occupying a trough between the southern slopes of the Grampians on the one side, and the indented flanks of the Southern Uplands," composed of Old Eed Sandstone and Silurian rocks, stretching from Kirkcudbrightshire to Berwick, of which the Lammermuir, Moorfoot, and Lead Hills form a part. The height of many of these hills is considerable. Merrick Hill reaches an elevation of 2,751 feet. Cairns-

Coal-Fields Of Scotland. 267

Muir-of-Deugh 2,597, Black Larg 2,890,* and Black Hope Scar 2,136 feet.

The western margin of the Carboniferous area is washed by the Firth of Clyde, and the river itself drains a large tract of the great central coal-basin. The eastern limit is the North Sea on both shores of the Firth of Forth. The northern boundary hne leaves the river Clyde east of Dumbarton, passing along the southern slopes of the Kilpatrick, Campsie, and Stirhng Hills, and continuing by Kinross and Cupar enters the sea at St. Andrew's Bay.

The southern boundary is much indented in some places, but ranges in a north-easterly direction from Girvan, on the Ayrshire coast, to Dunbar. Throughout the greater part of its course the line of junction between the Carboniferous and Older Palaeozoic formations is a fault, with a downthrow to the north, which has been traced on the maps of the Geological Survey. The extreme length from the coast of Ayr to Fifeness is 94 miles, the average breadth 25 miles

This great range of Carboniferous rocks is not all productive of coal ; hence the coal-bearing series forms several distinct fields or " basins,"

According to the Geological Map of Scotland, by Professor Nicol.

268 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

separated either by physical barriers, as firths and rivers; or by the uprising of the Lower unproductive Carboniferous, or Devonian, rocks from which the coal-series has been swept away. These separate fields may be thus denominated : 1. The coal-field of the Clyde Basin. 2. Mid- Lothian and Haddington coal-field. 3. The Fifeshire coal-field. 4. The Clackmannan coal-field. 5. The Ayrshire coal-field. 6. The Lesmahago coal-field.

Geological Age of the Scottish Coal-fields. — large number of the workable coal-beds of Scotland is included in the Carboniferous Limestone series ; while, at the same time, there are coalseams referable to the Millstone Grit, and true Coal-formation of central England. Owing to denudation, this upper series has a comparatively limited range, forming the flat coal-group " of the centre of the basins.

If we observe the gradual change which the Lower Carboniferous rocks of England imdergo in their extension from the midland coimties into Northumberland and South Berwickshire, we shall be prepared for their remarkable mineralogical character as developed in Scotland. lii Derbyshire, the Carboniferous Limestone consists of a mass of calcareous rocks at least 4,000 feet

COAL-FIEIiDS OF SCOTLAND. 269

in thickness once formed in a sea teeming with animal life, almost destitute of sedimentary materials, and entirely so of coal. Farther north, in Lancashire and Yorkshire, workable coal-seams are found at a stage earher than the true Coalmeasures — namely, in the Millstone Grit, associated with fossil shells allied to those of the Carboniferous Limestone. Still farther north, the bold coasts of Northumberland exhibit the great Limestone formation opening out into different courses, and including thick beds of shale, and several coal-seams ; one of the calcareous bands, near the centre of the group, being characterised by Posidonomya Becherij a fossil belonging to the " Calp " of Lreland, and the Culm limestone in Devonshire.* These coals of Northumberland have been shown by Mr. N. Wood to be situated near the base of the Carboniferous Limestone, and are worked over a considerable tract of country, f They occupy exactly the position of the Lower Coal-series of Scotland; but in this latter country, the sedimentary strata receive a great augmentation of volume, while the calcareous beds are proportionally diminished. Listead of the sold beds of limestone of Derby-

Murchison, " Siluria," 8rd edit., p. 811.

t Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northnmberland, vol. i., see p. 264.

J

The Coal-Fields Op Great Bbitain.

shire, we find in the Lothians, and the Clyde Basin, a thick series of sandstones, shales, blackband ironstones, and coal-seams, with occasional beds of marine limestone, containing fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone period.

General Succession of the Carboniferous-series of the Centre of Scotland.

The whole of the Carboniferous rocks are divisible into four groups, which in Fifeshire, Haddingtonshire, and Berwickshire repose conformably upon the Old Eed Sandstone, which seems to graduate into the lowest Carboniferous strata.*

TCngliali

2. Carboniferous LimestoneserieSm

Middle and

Lower Goal-measures

.

Divisions.

Bed sandstones (Hamilton), white and grey sandstones, shales, fire-clays, coalseams, and ironstone.

Moorstone-rock, or Roslinx Millstone sandstone, and conglo-tGrit & Yoremerate. ) dale-series.

Sandstones, sometimes coarse, shales, coals, black-band j

Carboniferand

clay-band ironstones, ' . oil-shales, and fossiliferoas

limestones.

Limestone.

Jukes* Man. of Geology," edit, by Geikie, 8rd edit., p. 683 ; " Geology of Edinburgh," Mem. Geol. Survey. The Carboniferous Formation of Scotland," by James Geikie, 1871 (Glasgow).

Coal-Fields Op Scotland. 271

1. Calciferous Sandstone

b. White and grey Band8tones,> shales, cement - stones, Cyprid - limestones, and

English fequivalenta.

Lower Limestone

I occasional coal - seams. . , , la. Red and purple sandstones I and conglomerates.

With the exception of, prohably, the Tipper division, and occasional beds of estuariae or freshwater strata, the whole of the above series maj" be regarded as of marine origin, attaining a combined thickness of 8,000 or 9,000 feet. The strata-beds are largely intermixed with rocks of plutonic and volcanic origin, and iq Ayrshire are overlaid unconformably by representatives of the Permian system, which occupy a smaU tract near the centre of the coal-field.* With this general introduction, I now proceed to give some details regarding the individual coal-fields.

Messrs. A. and J. Geikie — Explanation of Sheet 14*' (Ayrshire), Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 22.

Chaptek Xxiii.

1. Coal-Field Of The Clyde-Basin.

This Basin includes portions of Eenfrewshire, Dumbartonshire, Stirltngsliire, and nearly the whole of Lanarkshire ; and is traversed throughout its whole length by the Eiver Clyde, along whose banks, above Glasgow, fine sections of the strata are laid open. At the base of the whole series are the Lower Calciferous Sandstones, which are overlaid by the higher beds of this division, and with which are associated great sheets of contemporaneous traps, ashes, and agglomerates, which form the general base of the coal-bearing strata of the district.

These volcanic rocks of the Lower Carboniferous period rise into terraced hills, both to the north and south of the Clyde Valley, stretching from Dumbarton to Stirling, by Kilpatrick and Campsie, and from Greenock, by Neilston, to the neighbourhood of Stonehouse, where, how-

Coal-Field Of The Clyde Basin. 273

ever, along the valley of the Avon, they are unconformably overlapped by the Carboniferous Limestone-series, which rests directly on the Old Eed Sandstone.* Towards the east, the Lanarkshire coal-field is separated from those of the Lothians by the uprising of the Calciferous Sandstone-series, which in the district of Linhthgow attains a thickness of nearly 4,000 feet.

Trap BocJcs. — Besides the great sheets of f elstones, porphyrites, and melaphyres, which were poured out at the earher stage of the Carboniferous period, the strata are invaded by other igneous rocks, referable to at least two periods These occur as irrupted sheets of melaphyre and dolerite, which have been intruded amongst the coal-strata in a fluid state, and are frequently the cause of much loss or difficulty in mining operations.! These rocks are probably referable to the age of the Upper Carboniferous-series themselves, or possibly of the Permian. In addition to these intrusive sheets, there are also vertical dykes of basalt and dolerite, which range in nearly esist and west hnes fol: miles through the

Mr. James Geikie, supra cit., p. 5.

t One of these sheets forms the prominent ridge on which the Glasgow Necropolis ia situated, from which a noble view of the Clyde Valley and of the city of Glasgow, with the venerable Cathedral, is to be obtained.

THE COAL-FIEIiDS OF GREAT BBITAIN.

strata, and have been referred, with much probability, by Professor Geikie, to the Miocene Tertiary period.* There are thus to be found amongst the Carboniferous rocks of the West of Scotland plutonic or volcanic rocks, referable to at least three periods, the last of which was separated by a long lapse of geological time from the two which preceded it.

Coal'Series. — The general succession of the coal-series in Lanarkshire is illustrated by a vertical section by Mr. Ealph Moore, of which the following is a synopsis : —

' 6. Bed Sandstones of Hamilton and Blantyre, slightly nnconfonnable to the underlying strata (a), 200 feet.

a. From the Upper Four-feet Coal downwards, with ten coal-seams from two feet and upwards in thickness ; also with the Palace Craig," the " Airdrie " and " Slaty " blackband ironstones.

From the ''Moorstone Bock," or Millstone Grit, not well represented in this district, down to the Chunkirk limestone.

/Six courses of marine limestone from the Gamkirk bed downwards 'to that which overlies the Hurlet coal. Three courses of black-band ironstone, and several beds of valuable coal.

Upper Series, 840 feet.

Middle Series, 960 feet.

Lower Series, 2,200 feet.t

Address to the.Geol. Section of the British Association, Dundee, 1867.

i Along the southern margin of the coal-field, and beneath

Coal-Field Of The Clyde Basin.

Mr, William Moore, in a valuable communication to the PMosopliical Society of Glasgow, presents us with the following succession of the coal and iron beds of that part of the coal-field lying along the valley of the Clyde : —

Coal and Ironstone Series in the Valley of the Clyde,

Thicknefla.

Depth. Fathoma.

42. Palace Craig Ironstone (impnre) 48. Upper Coal (good) 63. £U Coal (good) .

68. Main Coal (good, soft quality) 76. Humph Coal

81. Splint Coal (for iron smelting) 84. Sour Milk Coal (variable) .

108. Musket Black-band Ironstone 106. Soft-band Ironstone 120. Curly Band Ironstone 127. Virtue Well Coal 132., BeUside Ironstone 184. Calderbrae Ironstone . 136. Eiltongue Coal (variable) . 148. Drumgray or Coxrod Coal . 208. Slaty Black-band Ironstone . 203. Boghead Gas Coal (1 to 20 inches) 447. Possil Ironstone . 467. Lesmahago Gas Coal . 502.' Govan Band Ironstone

Ft In.

to

H

the great sheets of contemporaneous trap, there occurs a remarkable series of shales and earthy limestones, described by Mr. John Young under the name of the Ballagan beds. " They are almost unfossiliferous, and may probably be regarded as a lake deposit. — See J. Young, Geology of the Campsie District,'* Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. i., p. 22.

t2

276 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

BlacJc'band Ironstones. — These valuable minerals occur in the Cajboniferous Limestone-series, the uppermost being the Airdrie band, discovered by David Musket about the beginning of the present century. It is about sixteen inches in thickness, but is nearly all wrought-out.* The black-band ironstones, west of Glasgow, not unfrequently pass into coal-seams, the carbonaceous matter gradually replacing the argillaceous carbonate of iron ; while less frequently they pass into clay bands.

Gas Coals. — A valuable, but thin, bed of cannel occurs to the west and south of Glasgow, amongst the upper beds of the Limestone-series, and is supposed with good reason to be identical with the Lesmahago cannel, so valuable for the production of gas. Associated with the same series are occasional beds of oil-shale.

The Boghead Gas Coal is the most remarkable of all the " Parrot coals " of Scotland for the quantity of oil and solid paraffine which it is capable of producing. It is from eighteen to twenty inches in thickness, resting on a floor of fireclay with Stigmaria ficoideSj and overlaid by oil-shales, and occasionally black-band ironstone,

Mr. W. Grossart On the Upper Coal-MeaBures of Lanarkshire," Trans. Geol. Soc, Glasgow, vol. iii.

Coal-Field Op The Clyde Basin. 277

in which marine shells of the genera Discina, Lingula, Conularia AximiSy with Anthracoptera have been discovered.*

Fossil Bemains.

The organic contents of the Carboniferous rocks of the Clyde Basin have. been very ably determined by several geologists of the district, and the results published in the Transactions of the Glasgow Geological and Philosophical Societies. A brief summary is all that can be inserted here.

Upper Series. — This series, lying above the horizon of the Garnkirk Limestone, is characterised by molluscs of the genera Anthracosia Anthracomyay and Anthracoptera ; with fish of the genera Platysomus GcelacanthuSj PalceoniS' cusj BhizodicSy and MegalichthySj all of which may be either fresh-water, brackish, or marine. But a fossiliferous band, full of undoubtedly marine genera, has recently been detected high up in this series, by Mr. Whyte Skipsey, in a position about sixty fathoms above the Coal" (see section above), taken from a colliery at Drumpeller, east of Glasgow. The following

Mr. Grossart, Ibid, 107.

278 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

were identified : Productus scabriculttSy Discina nitiday Gonularia quadrisulcatUy Bellerophan Uriiy and fragments of pentagonal stems of a crinoid. The occurrence of this marine band reminds us of a similar instance which I have already described in the case of the Lancashire Coal-field, t

Lower SerieS. — The Carboniferous Limestoneseries is abundantly loaded with marine forms, of which a very full Kst is given by Mr. J. Young,! for the Campsie district, of which the following is a selection : —

Eehinoderms. — Archaeocidaris Urii, Actiuocrinus.

Annelids. — Spirorbis carbonarius, Serpulites carbonarius.

Cmstacea. — Bairdia Hisingeri, Beyrichia arcuata, Cythere ventricomis.

Polyzoa. — Ceriopora interporosa, Fenestella plebeia.

Brachiopoda. — Athyris ambigua, Chonetes Hardrensis, Crania quadrata, Discina nitida, Lingula mytUoides, L. squamiformis, Orthis Miche- Uni, Productus aculeatus, P. cora, P. costatus,

Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ii., part 1, p. 62.

t See p. 196.

X Ibidf vol. i., part 1, p. 68.

Coal-Field Of The Clyde-Basin. 279

P. Martini, P. reticulatus, P. Youngianus, Ehynchonella pleurodon, Spirifera bisulcata, S. glabra, Strop'homena var. analoga, Terebratula hastata.

Lamellibranchs. — AYiculo-pecten arenosus, A. fimbriatus, A. granosus, Peoten Sowerbii, Pteronites fluctuosus. Area reticulata, Cardiomorpha oblonga, Cypricardia cylindrica, Leda attemiata, Modiola elongata, Myalina crassa, Nuctda lineata.

Oaterapods.-lentBiimn priscum, Euomphalus acutus, E. pentangolatus, MacrocheiluB acutuB, Murchisonia striatnlae, Pleurotomaria monilifera, P. conica.

Pteropods. — Bellerophon decussatus, B. Oldhamii.

Cephalopods. — Cyrtooeras unguis, Goniatites excavatus, G. Gilbertsoni, G. striatus. Nautilus biangulatus, N. subsulcatus, Orthoceras attenuatum, 0. cinctum, 0. undatum.

Fishes. — Amblypterus punctatus, Cladodus mirabilis, Cochliodus magnus, Helodus Isevissimus, Megalichthys Hibberti,Pal8BOiiisous Robsojii, Petalodus HastingsisB, Psecilodus obliquus, Rhizodus Hibberti, Bhizodopsis minor.

Chapter Xxiv.

Coal-Fields Of Mid-Lothian And Haddington.

These coal-fields consist of a double trough, the deeper of which lies in Edinburghshire on the west, and the shallower in Haddington on the east.

The western boundary is the Pentland HiUs, along the base of which the Carboniferous strata plunge rapidly towards the centre of the trough. The axis of the trough Hes nearly north and south, passing through Dalkeith. On approaching the Carberry ridge, the beds again rise and crop out, and the Roman Camp limestone forms a ridge dividing the two troughs. On the east of he Carberry ridge the lower coal-seams again roll in, and form the wide trough of Haddington, where the beds he in a position not much removed from the horizontal.

To the north of these troughs, the coal-seams strike out to sea, are overspread by the Frith of

COAL-FIELDS OP IflD-LOTHIAN, ETC. 281

Forth, and reappear on the opposite coast of Fifeshire.

The thickness of the Coal-series in the Lothians is, according to Mr. Mihie, upwards of 1,000 fathoms, consisting of sandstone 286 fathoms, of shales 188, of limestone 27, of clay 12, and of coal 21 fathoms. There are from 60 to 60 coalseams of greater thickness than one foot, the thickest being 13 feet.

My colleague, Mr. Howell, arranges the Coalseries into three groups corresponding to that given above of the Coal-formation of Scotland generally. The total thickness is 3,160 feet, not including the Calciferous Sandstone series, which contains very little workable coal,* but is characterised by the presence of great beds and sheets of contemporaneous and intrusive traprocks, which are ably described by Messrs. HoweU and Geikie in "The Geology of Edinburgh." (Mem. Geol. Surv.) The Coal-measures (No. 1) are confined exclusively to the western trough, and do not occur in Haddington. The faults generally range from east to west, transversely to the axis of the troughs.

The workable coal-area as measured from the

The HoTiston coal — about two feet thick— of Linlithgowshire, is one of the few workable seams.

The Coal-Fields Of Obbat Bbitain.

maps of the Geological Stirvey is 64 square miles.

Coal-seams of Mid-Lothian.

(Taken from the centre of the trough near Dalkeith.) Coal'Meagurea, 1,W0 feet.

Ft In.

Sandstone and Shale . . . . 846 . 0

day Enowes Coal .

Splint Coal .

Beefie Coal

Jewell Coal .

Goal . . .

Gowpits Little Bplint

Cowpite Five-feet .

Glass Coal

Bans Coal

Cowpits Three-feet .

8 a

„ Six-feet

MUlstoM Grit

Carboniferous Limestone Coal-seams, 1,690 feet.

Cowden Deception Coal 2 2

, Cryne

, Mavis

2 S

, Great Seam

, Diamond .

, Blackbird Seam

, Coronation

, Hard Splint

Smithy Coal

, Bryant's Splint

Aleck's Coal

Coal

Little Splint

Coal-Fields Of Mid-Lothian, Etc. 283

Ft. In. Oowden Coal 2 1

„ Parrot Seam 8 0

„ Ohalkieside Lime Coal . . 8 Q

The above include only coals of 2 feet and upward. There are altogether no less than 46 seams with an aggregat.e thickness of 122 feet of coal. There are also 9 seams of ironstone of 2 inches and upward.

The principal coals are "the Great Seam," which has been traced from its outcrop at Gilmerton, under the valley of the Esk, over the Carberry ridge, to the valley of the Tyne, a distance of 12 miles. It extends from the flanks of the Lammermuir range northward to the sea. Below this, at a depth of 260 fathoms, is the " North Greens** coal, which yields the " Parrotcoal," valuable for its gas.

The East Lothian Coal-field. — The area of this coal-field is about 30 square miles, and the strata of which it is composed belong exclusively to the Carboniferous Limestone-series, the seams of coal and ironstone which are wrought in it being the equivalents of the edge coals" of Mid- Lothian, some of which can be individually identified. The following is the series as given by Mr. Howell —

Geology of the East Lothian Coal-field, hy Messrs. Howell, Geilde, and Yonng, Mem. Geol. Survey, 1866.

284 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

CoaUseriea of East Lothian,

Ft In.

goal '' Great Seam'' 7 0

Strata 60 0

SpUnt Coal 4 0

Strata from 7-ft. to 18 0

Parrot Coal 18

Strata from 7-ft. to 84 0

Three-foot Coal 2 6

Strata ' 9 0

Four-foot Coal . from 8-ft. S-in. to 4 11

Strata 118 0

Fivefoot Coal 4 0

Strata, with black-band Ironstone — about 180 0

Panwood Coal 16

Strata 72 0

Strata 100 0

Strata 85 0

Lower Limestone Group. — The basis of the above series is the Lower Limestone group, consisting of three principal beds of limestone, separated by intervening strata of sandstone and shale, with one seam of coal of about one foot in thickness. These three limestones form a broad zone encircling the East Lothian coal-field on the east and south-east, and dividiQg it from the Mid-Lothian coal-trough on the west.

Underneath these occur the Calciferous Sandstones, with beds of volcanic ashes and contem-

Coal-Fields Of Mid-Lothian, Etc. 285

poraneous igneous rocks, and also including the celebrated Burdie House, or Queensferry Limestone, remarkable for the varied character of its fauna, which includes numerous genera of fish, small Crustacea, and plants.*

For a list of fossils of the Bnrdie Honse Limestone, see Geology of Edinburgh," Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 87.

Chaptee Xxv.

Fifeshtre Coal-Field.

Tms coal-field is of considerable extent and of great mineral productiveness, but is over a large part of its eastern area much dislocated by faults, and destroyed by the intrusion of igneous rocks. Nearly the whole of the coal-seams enter the sea between Kirkcaldy and East Wemyss, and present the following section as given by Mr. Landale in his valuable memoir : —

Coalrseams of Fifeshvre,

9. Bush Coal 10. Parrot „ IL Wood „

12. Earl'B Parrot Coal 18. Bowhoiue „

14. Brankfiton „ 16. Coal More ,,

Ft

In.

Boreland Coal

Sand Well „

Dysart Main Seam Dysart Lower Seam Dunnikier Five - feet

Coal

Four-feet Coal

Three-feet ,,

Black and Parrot Coal ... Upper Smithy „

Lower „ „

Parrot Seam Coal

Coal Seam

Livertiel Coal

Ft In.

Total thickneaa of Coal 120 6

Transactioiis of the Highland Society, voL zii.

Fifbshirb Coal-Field. 287

The Invertiel coal overlies a thick and very constant bed 6i limestone which forms the physical base of the coal-producing strata. Underneath this limestone is a thick series of Lower Carboniferous rocks, the coal-seams of which are not of economical value, but which give evidence of volcanic activity throughout a period ranging from the Calciferous Sandstone up through the Carboniferous Limestone. The necks of many of the old submarine volcanoes which poured forth molten lava over the sea-bed, or vomited forth showers of ashes, stones, and blocks, can even now be identified, and appear as isolated bosses .of basalt, tuflf, and agglomerate ; as some of these invade the Coal-measures of Fifeshire, it is not improbable they are referable to the Permian period.*

This coal-field contains excellent gas-coal, steam, and iron-smelting coal, smithy coal, and some anthracite.

Clackmannan Coal-field.

This coal-field is separated from that of Fife by the uprising of the Lower Carboniferous rocks near Dunfermline. It stretches along the

Mr. A. Geikie, Address Brit. Assoc. Dnndee, 1867.

288 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

northem and eastern banks of the river Forth, by which it is separated from the great central coal-field of the Clyjie Basin.

According to Mr. Geddes, the southern portion of this coal-field is much exhausted; the middle area is extensively worked, the northern portion is comparatively entire north of the river Devon; these three divisions are separated by considerable faults. The following is the series of the coals in descending order at Old Sauchie :

Ft. In.

2. Three-feet Coal . 8 0 8. Upper five-feet . 6 0

6. M'Nish Coal . 2 9 Thickness of Coal 40 6

Mr. Geddes, Coal-Commission Report, vol. i., p. 76.

Ft. Id.

9. Splint Coal . .29 10. Coalsnanghton .4

Chapter Xxvl

Ayeshibe Coal-Field.

The Ayrshire coal-field stretches along the coast from Ardrossan to the mouth of the river Doon, and extends inwards to the base of the hills of trappean and Devonian rocks, by which it is separated from the coal-field of the Clyde Basin. It is a rich and productive district, large quantities of coal being shipped from Ayr, Troon, Irvine, and Ardrossan.

The Carboniferous rocks rest unconformably on the older formations, while they are in turn overlaid unconformably by rocks of Permian age ; in consequence of this, the true base and upper limit of the series can nowhere be seen.* The following is the general succession of the beds in descending order : —

"Ayrshire (Southern DiBtrict)," Mem. Geol. Survey of Scotland (I860), p. 15.

U

The Of Gbeat Bbitain.

Gboufs op Steata.

L0Calitib8.

Coal-measures, — (b) Red sandstones, fireclays, and marls, with Carboniferous plants, and a seam of limestone, with Spirorbis, No workable coals. (a) A thick series of white and grey sandstones, dark shales, fireclays, ironstones, and coal-seams.

Carboniferous Lifnestone-series, — Sandstones, shales, and limestones, with seams of coal and ironstone.*

CalciferoTis Sandstone-series, — Upper beds of white sandstones, cement stones and marls, below which are red sandstones, marls, and comstones.

Monkton, Aonbank, Coylton Water below Coylton, Ravines of the Ayr at Catrine, Coal-fields of Ayr, Coylton, Dalmellington, Cumnock, Auchenleek, Lugar, and 80m.

Girvan Coal-field, Craigs of Kyle, Eiers, Som, etc.

Dailly, the coast from the mouth of the Doon to Brackenbrae.

The followiiig is the order of succession and average thickness of the principal coals in the Ayr district : —

In the south of Ayrshire this series is but poorly represented, but northward it thickens out, and produces several seams of workable coal. The Dairy black-band ironstone belongs to this part of the series. — Mr. J. Geikie, Carboniferous Formation of Scotland,'' p. 12.

Ayrshire Coal-Feelb. 291

Red Sandatone-series,

Ft In. Light sandstones, shales, fireclays, and thin

coal 60.ft. to 70 0

EUCoal 8 4

Strata 78 0

Crawfordstan Coal 8 0

Strata 80-ft. to 60 0

Ayr Soft, or Five-feet Coal . 6-ft. to 7 0

Strata . . . . . 150 0

Ayr Hard, or Splint Coal ... 4 0

Strata 800 0

Black-band Iranstone 1 0

Strata 120 0

Uppermost Limestone.

In the Dalmellington coal-field we find the following series : —

Craigmack Black-hand Ironstone . . 0 10

Strata 282 0

Lillyhole Coal 5 6

Strata 850 0

Chalmerston Coal 4 0

Strata 60 0

Minnevey Coal 8 6

Strata* 654 0

Burnfoot Black-band 2 8

Igneous Bocks. — Besides the great beds of contemporaneous felstones, porphyrites, and melaphyres with volcanic ashes of the Lower Carbonifer-

In these beds, Mr. Geddes mentions the Sloanston," Camlarg,*' and New " Coals, all of which are three feet and upwards in thickness.

U2

292 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

0U8 period, which rise into the Dunlop Hills, and separate the Ayrshire coal-field from that of the Clyde-Basin, there are frequent intrusive sheets and vertical dykes of dolerite and basalt, which have destroyed much of the valuable minerals, and greatly interfere with the successful prosecution of mining operations. The Permian rocks which overlie the Coal-measures near the centre of the coal-field, are also underlaid by beds of porphyrite, melaphyre, and tuflPs, which are referable, according to the views of the Government Surveyors, to the Permian period itself.

Chaptee Xxvii.

Other Coal-Fields Of Scotland.

Lesmahago Coal-Basin.

To the south of the general tract of the Lanarkshire coal-field lies the detached basin of Lesmahago and Douglas, consisting of Carboniferous rocks, resting unconformably upon, and nearly surrounded by beds of the Lower Old Eed Sandstone. The strata themselves belong to the Carboniferous Limestone-series, as shown by the geological map of Sir E. Murchison and Prof. Geikie, and are distributed along the valleys of the Nethan and the Ayre. The celebrated gas coal is considered to be on the same geological horizon as that of the vicinity of Glasgow, and which is known to lie well down in the Limestone-series. The following are sections of the coal-series curtailed from those of Mr. Slimon:* —

From Appendix to Sir B. Mnrchison's paper on the " Lesmahago Silurians in Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xii., p. 25.

The Coal-Fields Of Obeat Bbitain.

Section at Coal Bum

Ft.

In.

Ft In

Shales and Sandstones.

Limestone

OasandlhoM Coal

Shale

Sandstones and Shales . . .

Strata, with four beds of

Droit Coal

Limestone

Fire-clay

Dross Coal, with 6 inches of

Horn Coal

S 11

Coal

Strata

Strata

Coal

Fire-clay

Blade-band IronsUme

Coal f..

Shales with Ironstone balls

Strata

Coal

Black band Ironttone

Fire-clay

Shales with Ironstone

Dross Coal

Smithy Coal

Fire-clay

Coal

Coal

Shale

Stone

Oat Coal

Coal

Ironstone

Shales, with seams of Iron-

Fire-clay

stone

Coal

Coal, with 6 inches of stone

Sandstone resting upon Lime-

Strata, with Ironstone

stone.

Sandstones and Shales . . .

These beds are supposed

to rest

Limestone

upon Old Red Sandstone.

Grey Shale

Ironstone

Shale and Limestone with

Productut

Sandstone and Limestone

resting on upper Old Red

Sandstone.

This coal-tract is about miles from E. to W. and from N. to S. Mr. J. Ferguson states that three-fourths of its area is stored with coal of second class quality. There is at Ponfrich an aggregate thickness of 63 feet within a vertical depth of 200 fathoms.

The geological features of this district are also described by Mr. Geikie, On the Old Bed Sandstone of the South of Scotand," ibid vol. xvi., p. 814.

Other Coal-Fields Of Scotland. 296

Argyleshire. — The parish of Campbelton contains a little coal-field, situated amongst metamorphic schists. For nearly a century coal has been worked on a limited scale, and, according to Mr. Geddes, three seams are known at Drumlemble viz. : 3, cannel or gas coal, from 18 to 30 inches in thickness; 2, the main coal, 4 to 6 feet; 1, underfoot coal, from 2 to 3 feet. Other seams may possibly exist in that district.*

Canobie Coal-Field, Dumfries Shibe.

Two small, but valuable, tracts of Carboniferous rocks rise to the surface along the southern borders of Dumfriesshire north of Gretna, those of Canobie and Sanquhar. The beds repose on Carboniferous Limestone strata, and are overlaid by others of Permian age, and along the northwest and south-east the Canobie tract is bounded by faults, t The general dip of the strata is southwards, and it seems not improbable that these coal-strata are but the northern outcroppings of a more extensive tract, which lies concealed

Coal-Commission Report, voL i., p. 77. t Mr. A. Geikie, noted by Professor Bamsay, Bep. Coal- Commission, vol. i., p. 140.

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

beneath newer formations towards the head of the Solway Firth.*

The following are the coal-seams of the Canobie and Sanqnhar districts if —

Canobie.

Sanquhar.

Ft.

In.

Ft In.

Three-feat Coal

Upper or

Creepy

Six-feet „

Coal .

Nine-feet „

Main Coal

Steam Coal

Wee „

Five-feet „

Dauch „

Blast-top „

4

Dnunbowie Coal

Seven-feet „

New

Mr. Geddes states that the 3-feet and 6-feet seams of Canobie are aheady exhausted; but considers that the Byrebum coals may be expected to underlie those of Canobie, in which case 14 millions of tons would be added to the known supply. J

BROBA COAL-FIELD, SUTHEBLANDSmRE.

A small coal-field occurs at Brora, near the shores of Dornoch Firth. It has been shown by Sir E. Murchison to be of the age of the Lower

On this subject, see Prof. Ramsay*s observations, Bep. Coal-Commission, vol. i.

t As stated by Mr. Geddes, Md, p. 75. X Ibid, p. 75.

Othbb Coal-Fields Of Scotland. 297

Oolite, and in all probability contemporaneons with the carbonaceous strata of Whitby in Yorkshire.* The following is part of the section of one of the pits from which the coal was extracted : —

Ft. In. 18. Dark argillaceons scbistas with soft

partings and a few shells . . 86 6

14. Very large-grained sandstone, with

15. Fine cubical coal, homing to white ash

16. Bitnminons shale, containing natural oil,

bums, but does not consume .

18. Fire-day and argillaceous schistus

The coal-bed appears to be at or near the base of the Great Oolite, as in Yorkshire, but the Inferior Oolite would appear to be absent, if the thick bed of shale belongs (as is probable) to the Upper Lias. The shells enumerated by Sir R. Murchison from the beds above the coal, are typical of the formations from the Great Oohte to the Calcareous Grit.

The first pit was opened in 1698 by the Countess of Sutherland. That formerly in use was sunk in 1814, and up to the year 1827 seventy millions of tons of coal had been raised. The works were discontinued in 1832.

Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. ii., 2nd Series, p. 898.

298 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

STiye. — In the Isle . Skye is a small coal-field, probably of Lower Oolitic age, which contains a bed of coal nearly 6 feet in thickness.

Besources of the Coal-fields of Scotland.

The estimates of the available quantity of coal in the coal-fields of Scotland have been drawn up for the Eoyal Coal-Commission, by Mr. John Geddes, one of the commissioners ; and to no one could the task have been more worthily entrusted, as Mr. Geddes's long experience as a mineral engineer had given him opportunities of becoming acquainted with the details of the Scottish coalfields, which were of the highest value to this inquiry. The estimate produced by Mr. Geddes of the coal-resources is, I find, much below that arrived at by myself in 1858; but I have no hesitation in substituting it for my own, which had little pretensions to accuracy, as the means at my disposal for obtaining the details necessary for such a calculation were very imperfect.

Distributing the coal-fields into counties, Mr. Geddes gives the following quantities of available coal for each, the whole of which is included within a vertical limit of 3,000 feet : —

Other Coal-Fields Of Scotland.

County.

2. Lanark 8. Fife

12. Dumbarton 18. Renfrew

Total

Available coal in tons.

The produce of the Scottish coal-fields is rapidly increasing. In 1859 it was 10,300,000 tons ; but in 1870 it had risen to 21,273,868 tons from 411 coUieries.* In the same year 1,160,000 tons of pig iron were smelted in 132 blast furnaces from clay-band and black-band ironstones.

Returns made by the Inspectors of Collieries, Messrs. W. Alexander and Ralph Moore, and published in the Mineral Statistics,'' 1870.

CHAPTER XXVni.

Cabbonifebous Rooks Op Ibeland.

A LABGE portion of the centre and sonth-west of Ireland is occupied by Carboniferous Limestone, upon which at intervals repose higher strata productive of coal, and forming isolated coal-fields. The existence of these outliers, as well as analogy with British geology, leads to the conclusion that, at the close of the Carboniferous Period, large tracts of coal-bearing strata existed over Ireland which have since, to a great extent, been removed by denudation.

Anthraxiferous and Bituminous Districts. — If we group the coal-fields south of a central line drawn from Galway Bay to Dublin Bay, into one series, and those north of this line into another, we have the following specialities in reference to each.

1. The Southern Group. — All the coal in the district of this group is anthracite, and this state-

CABBONIFEBOnS BOOKS OF IBELAND. 301

ment is true with reference to the coal of Clare, Limerick, Cork, Tipperary, Queen's County, Kilkenny, and Carlow.

2. The Northern Qroup. — On the other hand, the coal in this district is bituminous ; and this statement holds good with respect to the Arigna (Connaught), Tyrone, and Ballycastle coal-fields, while the general succession of the strata above the Carboniferous Limestone bears a closer analogy to that of England than in the case of the southern coal-districts.

Southern Distbict.

General Succession of the Beds.

The general succession of the strata is similar over this whole region, which has been surveyed and described by the Government Surveyors. Upon a general basis of Carboniferous Limestone, there reposes a series of dark fossiliferous shales, which are overlaid by flagstones, upon which rest shales and sandstones with beds of coal. The shales and flagstones which rest upon the Lime-

In several Explanations " to accompany the Geological Survey Maps by the late Messrs. Jokes, Foote, and Messrs. Kinahan and O'Eelly ; with Palseontological Notes by Mr. W. H. Baily.

The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

stone, I regard as the representatives of the Yoredale beds and Millstone Grit of England; and the overlying Coal-measnres as the equivalents of the Lower, and a part of the Middle, Coalmeasures of the same country.* This series is illustrated by the section (Fig. 19) of the Castlecomer coal-field ; and is more folly described in the following table of strata taken in the S.W. and S.E. of Ireland, in descending order : —

Naue of

Fobmaiion.

Coal-measures with representatives of the Oannister Beds" of England at the base.

Nature op Strata.

Co. Kilkenny, etc.

Sandstones, shales, clays, with five workable beds of coal with BeUinvr nis Begina (Baily, B, GoniatiteSf Anthracosia (Unio or Myacites), Myaima, and plants, Sigillariay Lepidodendron, CalamiteSf Pecopteris, ete.

Co. Claie, etc.

Grits, flags (Money Point), shales, and thin coal-seams, 3 in number, with similar fossils to those of Kilkenny.

That this view is in accordance with that of the lat Professor Jokes, may be inferred from a note at the foot of p. 11 of " Explanation to Sheet 187, where he says, " Doubtless the whole of the Coal-measure series of Central Ireland is contemporaneous with the lower part only of that of Central England, including the Millstone Grit in that lower part.**

Cabbonifebous Books Op Ibeland.

Name or

Fobmation.

Millstone Grit

Yoredale Beds

Carboniferous Limestone

Natube of Stbata.

Co. Kilkenny, etc.

b. Flagstone series. Grits and excellent flagstones with shales, about 650 feet, passmg downwards into sandy shales, and annelid tracts.

a. Black Shale series, Sandy shales passing downwards into dark laminated shales, full of marine fossils, Ooniatitest Bellerophon, EuompheluSf Aviculo-pecten, etc.

Upper Limestone, forming the basis of the series.

Co. Clare, etc

b. Flagstones chiefly, worked at Ballynacally ; Annelid tracts not common.

a. Shale series, — Black, grey, and olive shales, sometimes arenaceous, spheroidal — with numerous fossils — Goniatites crenistria, OrthoceraSy Posidonomya vettuta AvievlO'

pecten papyraceus, Loxonema Galvani (Baily), etc.

Upper Limestons,

Munster.

Clarej LimericJcy and Cork. — This district is very extensive, stretching from over a considerable tract both to the north and south of the estuary of the Shannon, but is only locally

304 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitain.

productive of coal. Mr. Weaver, who described this district many years since, truly states that the seams are few in nimiber and importance ; that they are frequently thrown into high inclinations, and while in some places compressed to a few inches, in others they are swoUen out to several feet.* The most important district is situated between the Eiver Blackwater and Kanturk, where coal has been extensively worked.

Queen's County Kilkenny and Tipperary.

This coal-field is the most important economically in the South of Ireland, and may be designated " The Leinster Coal-field," though a considerable spur strikes southward into Tipperary. The northern portion has a generally basin-like structure, and occupies a table-land overlooking the plain of Carboniferous Limestone by which it is encircled, and upon which it rests. This will be apparent from the following section, reduced from that of the Geological Survey : + —

Trans. Geol. Soo. Lond., vol. v. See also Explanation " to Sheet 142, by Messrs. Einahan and Foote, Mem. Geol. Survey.

t ''Explanation*' to Sheet 187, by Messrs. Jukes and Kinahan.

Carboniferous Rocks Of Ireland. 306

Fig. 19.-8ECTI0N ACROSS THE EASTERN PORTION OF THE LBINSTKR COAL-FIELD BY BILBOA COLLIERY.

Ride 1,102 feet

1. Carboniferoas limestone. 2. Black Shale Serial.

8. FUgBtone Series. 4. Goal Heamirea.

The following is the general series of coals in the Castlecomer coal-basin, by Messrs. Jukes and Kinahan: —

Ft. In.

Uppermost beds, about . . . 12 0

Strata 46 0

Strata 21 0

Strata and shales with Myacites (Anthra-

8. Three-feet or Old Colliery Coal . . 8 0

Strata 180 0

Strata 800 0

Flag Series, about . . . . 650 0

Black Shale Series . . . . 500 0 Upper Carboniferous Limestone.

Another seam of good quality, about twenty inches in average thickness, and known as the Skehana coal, is now considered to lie between

306 THE COAL-FIEIiBS OF GREAT BBITAIN.

the "Foot " coal and " Gale Hill" coal of the above series.

ThroTighont the whole of these measnres shells have been found ; and the black shales at the base are stored iith crushed specimens of the genera EuomphaluSj Bellerophon OoniatiteSj and the remarkable Crustaceans similar to those from Coalbrook Dale in Shropshire, and described by Mr. Badly under the names of Bellinurus Begina and J5. arctcata*

Fossil-plants of the usual Coal-measure genera are abundant, such as CalandteSy LeptdodendroUj Sigillaria -with its rhizome, Stigmaria ficoides. The coal-beds also invariably repose on floors of underclay.

Figures of these fossils are given in the above memoir to Sheet 187.

Chapter Xxix.

Nqbthebn Qboup Of Coal-Fields.

Leitrim Coal-fields (Gonnaught). — These coalfields form several detached table-lands, or eroinenoes, on both sides of Lough Allen, rising into elevations from 1,000 to 1,377 feet above the surrounding districts, formed for the most part of Carboniferous Limestone. Those to the west of the Lough are the most important, and form two small isolated basins to the north and south of the River Arigna ; owing to which they are sometimes called the "Arigna Coal-fields." Of this district excellent descriptions have been drawn up by Sir R. Griffith,* Sir R. Kane,t and the late Mr. Du Noyer,! which, in the absence of

Bepoit on the Gonnaught Goal-fields (Arigna District), presented to the Royal Dublin Society, 1818.

t " Industrial Besources of Ireland/' 2nd edit.

J " On the Bituminous Coal of the Arigna District," by G. V. Du Noyer {Geologist Magazine, March, 1868), with Map and Sections.

308 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

a detailed survey by the Government Surveyors (only recently commenced), enables us to form a sufficiently accurate judgment of its structure and resources. The following section reduced from one by Mr. Du Noyer, gives a good idea of the relations of these coal-tracts, and their disseverance by denudation : —

Fig. S0.-8ECTION ACROSS THE LEITRIM COAL-FIELDS.

KUronan River Loo

Coal HennirM, HiUstone Grit, and LLmeatone Shale, restiiig on a baae of Carboniferotu Limeetone.

General Succession of the Beds. — In this district the Millstone Grit and Yoredale-beds are well developed, and interposed between the Carboniferous Limestone and Coal-measures. The former rises into j&ne escarpments, which, at the mountain called Cuilceagh on the borders of Fermanagh, reaches an elevation of 2,188 feet, and exhibits a line mural cliff similar to those of the Millstone Grit of Kinder Scout, in Derbyshire.*

This district was examined by the Anther daring a visit to the Earl of Enniskillen, in 1870. In that district a thick series of sandstones intervenes between the limestone and overlying shales.

Northern Group Of Coal-Fields.

The Yoredale shales, which underlie the grit, are rich in clay-ironstones, and cement-stones, containing Ooniatites and other marine shells.

Upper Carhonifer cms-series at Kilronan.

Ft.

In.

' Sandstones and flags

Shale, with nnmerons bands of day-ironstone

. . . 100 to

Coal Mea-

Coal. Third seam

sures, , 286 to 458

White sandstone . . 24 to

Grey soft clay — Coal-roof 10 to

feet.

Coal. Second seam . . 2 6 to

Sandstone and shale . . 22 to

Coal. First seam, mixed with shale 1 to

Sandstones and shales . 17 to

MUhtofu

Grit,

Yoredale Beds, 600ft. Carboniferous Lime- Hone,

Massive coarse sandstone, — &om 60 to 250 0

Black shales and grey flags; nodnlar layers of ironstone (fossiliferons) 800 to 600 0

Upper, middle, and lower limestone.

Details. — The coal of this district is bituminous. In the Aghabehy coal-basin, there is but one seam of much value, called the " top seam " (the second in the above list). It has a shale roof and sandstone floor, and averages 18 inches in thickness. The middle coal of the Altagowlan basin has a similar roof and floor, and the same

310 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

thickness, and the upper seam is of equal thickness mth the lower. The following analysis of the Aghahehy coal has heen published by Sir E. Kane : —

Volatile matter 28-10

Pure Coke 66-16

Ashes 10-75

Ironstones. — The clay-ironstones which occur both amongst the shales of the Coal-measures, and especially amongst those of the Yoredale-beds below, are intrinsically valuable from their quantity and richness in iron. They were formerly smelted at the Arigna ironworks on the shores of Lough Allen, and it is to be hoped will again be turned to account. The following analysis by Sir E. Kane wiU show their average composition : —

Protoxide of iron 61-36

Lime 1-69

Magnesia 1-92

Alumina 0-98

Lisolable clay 12-82

Carbonic acid 81*88

Proportion of metallic iron, 40 per cent.

"Industrial Besources," 2nd edit., p. 28.

Nobthebn Gboup Of Coal-Fields. 311

This coal-jSeld is unqueBtionably one of great economic importance, containing as it does large quantities of bituminous coal, placed within easy reach of the manufacturing districts of the North of Ireland. It lies to the north of the town of Dimgannon, and in its centre is the village of Coal-Island, where the Ulster Canal places the district in connection with Lough Neagh.

In structure the Coal-island district is a basin, along the western portion of which the coalseams crop out and have been worked, but which is overlaid and concealed beneath New Red Sandstone and Marl over probably two-thirds of its entire area to the eastward; hitherto the coals have scarcely been . disturbed under this large district;* but I have come to the conclusion that it stretches to within a short distance of the shores of Lough Neagh under the newer formations.

From the survey of Sir R. Griffith, it would appear that the Tyrone coal-field is rich in mine-

Except in two or three cases, coal-mining has been carried on in a very rude and nnsystematic manner in this district, which oaght to be the great coal-store for the North of Ireland. The G-eological Surveyors have recently completed a detailed survey.

312 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

rals, though of limited extent. Along the banks of the river Torrent seven workable beds of coal appear, having a combined thickness of 30 feet, and included within 280 yards of strata, which are ultimately covered over by Triassic strata.*

The general succession of the Carboniferousseries is as follows : —

1. Trias? — Red sandstones and marls, resting nnconformably

upon the eoal-formation.

2. Goal-measnres. — Alternating beds of black shale, sandstone,

argillaceous ironstone, fire-clay, and coal. 8. Millstone Grit, etc. — Consisting of sandstone, limestone, and shale with thin beds of coal.

4. Carboniferous Limestone. — Massive limestone, passing upwards

into a series of alternating beds of sandstone, shale, slaty limestone with coal.

5. Old Red Sandstone. — Bed sandstone, etc.

The Annahone District is much smaller. It is one mile long, and half a mile broad. It may, therefore, contain 320 acres. Sir K. Griffith states, however, that it is probable the district may extend a considerable distance farther to the south and east, and that coal may be wrought from beneath the New Red Sandstone. The coalfield is, moreover, covered to a considerable depth with drift deposits, which render the strata difficult of access.

Geological and Mining Surveys of Tyrone and Antrim. Publin, 1829.

Nobthern Gboup Of Coal-Fields. 313

The following is some aocount of the coalseams at Coal Island in descending order : —

Yds. Ft In.

Strata 12 1 0

Strata 18 1 0

Bone Coal 0 8 0

Strata 18 0 0

Shining Seam 0 2 10

Strata 26 0 0

Strata 28 0 0

Strata . . . . . 24 0 0

Strata . . . (about) . 75 0 0 Derry Coal (good quality) . .046

Below these there are two or three other seams. Some of the coals are of good quality, and have not, as yet, been worked to any great depth, a fact which is scarcely creditable to the enterprising character of the North of Ireland.

Antrim Goal-field. The Antrim coal-field, in point of geological interest, is unsurpassed by any other district in Ireland. It extends along the coasts of BaUycastle Bay on the north, and Murloch Bay on the south, separated from each other by the magnificent mural cliffs of Benmore or Fair

314 The Coal-Fields Op Gbeat Bbitain.

Head, formed of colunmax dolerite, which rise boldly from the sea to a height of 636 feet. The length of the coal-field is four miles, and the average breadth one mile and a half ; coal has been wrought here from an ancient period (see p. 34).

The geological structure of this district has been investigated by several observers, including Dr. Berger,* Dr. Bryce,t and Sir E. Griffith, who, in 1829, drew up an able report, illustrated by drawings, for the Royal Dublin Society. J The most recent treatise is one by myself, m which the question of the geological age of the coal-bearing rocks is discussed ;§ a question to which I shall presently return.

Ballycastle Garhoniferous-series. — This series

may be arranged into the following divisions : —

(8) / Beddish and grey sandstoneB, sometiines coarse-

Upper Beds, grained and conglomeratic ; shales with seams of

About 240 coal, day-band, and black-band ironstone; fossils,

feet in Lingula squamormis ; Sagenaria {Knorria) im-thickness

. bricata, SigiUaria, Lepidodendron, Stigmaria, etc.

On the Geological Features of the Northern Counties of Ireland," Trans. GeoL Soc. Lond., 1st Series, voL iii.

t On the Geological Structure of the N.E. part of the CJounty Antrim,'* Ihid 2nd Series, vol. v.

X Geol. and Mining Survey of the Coal-districts of Tyrone and Antrim.*' Dublin, 1829.

§ On the Geological Age of the Ballycastle Coal-field," etc., with Palaeontological Notes by Mr. W. H. Baily, P.G.S., Joum. Geol. Soc. of Ireland, vol. ii., part 8, New Series, 1871.

Northebn Gboup Of Goal-Fields.

Middle

Beds.

Lower Beds.

Thickness

eonsiderable

but

unknown.

/ Two beds of compact argillaceous limestone, 9 feet in thickness, fossiliferous, and imbedded in calcareous shales with numerous fossils. Fish,

( Orthoeeras SteinhauerUy Bellerophon Urii, Murchisonia angulataj Leda atteniuUa, Axinns deltoides, RhyncaneUa pleurodauy Productus ffiganteas

FenesteUa arUiqiuif Archaocidaris Urii, etc.

Bed and yellow sandstones, sometimes coarse, with beds of shale, and a bed of black-band ironstone ; the base of the series being the conglomerate of Murlooh Bay.

The entire thickness of the series is unknown, bnt probably exceeds 1,200 feet. The base is a qnartzose conglomerate resting upon contorted mica-schist, with veins of quartz, as seen at the south end of Murloch Bay.*

Coal-series. — The coal-series of Ballycastle Bay, as ascertained at the mines now at work, is as follows : —

Top, or First Coal (splint seam) Sandstones and shales Second Coed (Hawksnest seam) Strata, with black-band ironstone Tkird Coal (main seam) . Strata, with black-band ironstone below the main coal, in some places

Ft.

In.

Furnished to the Author by Mr. Ghray, the mine manager, Ballycastle Bay.

Ft.

In.

316 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Britain.

Total

In Murloch Bay the section is diflFerent, but the beds of coal are considered to represent those in Ballycastle Bay. Here they are capped by columnar basalt, and a dyke of this rock intrudes itself amongst the strata, changing some of the coals into anthracite. Other basalt or dolerite dykes occur traversing the strata in Colliery and Ballycastle Bays ; and an enormous mass of this rock forms the limit in a northerly direction of mining operations. The strata are also traversed by several faults which displace the beds of coal.

The following is the section visible on the northern side of Murlough Bay from the top of the cliff downwards, as given by Sir R. Griffith : —

Section in Murlough Bay.

Ft In.

Brownish-red Sandstone . . . 20 0

Bituminous Coal 10

Bed Sandstone 80 0

Black Shale 6 0

Brownish-red Sandstone . . . 40 0

Bituminous Coed 0 6

Nobthern Oboup Of Coal-Fields. 317

Ft In.

Red Sandstone 20 0

Black Shale 10 0

Black Shale 60 0

Uninflammable Carbonaceous Coal ..26 Black Shale passing into flinty Shale . 2 0

Black Shale 2 0

Non-flaming Coal, with thin beds of black)

Shale I 8 6

Geological Age of the Antrim CoaUseries. — In comparing the succession of strata at Ballycastle with those of the Ayrshire and Lanarkshire coal-fields, we cannot but be struck by the several points of analogy they present. Amongst these are (1), the thick beds of red sandstones and conglomerates, whifth form the lower part of the series ; (2), the occurrence of beds of black-band ironstone ; (3), also of earthy limestone with Carboniferous Limestone fossils, and of a marine bivalve (Lingula squamiformis) over one of the coal-seams of the upper division. These, and other considerations, have led me to the conclusion, that the Antrim coal-series belongs to the same geological horizon as that of the lower Coalmeasures of Scotland, namely, the Carboniferous

318 The Coal-Fields Of Gbeat Bbitaik.

Limestone ; and that the massive red sandstones and conglomerates at the base are the representatives of the calciferons sandstone series of that country.

This view is also borne out by the conflideration, that the Carboniferous Limestone of Central Lreland in its northerly extension undergoes changes similar to those which affect the Bame formation in its extension into Scotland, and that there is a strict analogy in the geological relations of the Carboniferous system of both countries.*

Black-band ironstone is largely mined, and calcined on the spot, from whence it is exported to the furnaces of Messrs. Merry and Cunninghame on ihe opposite coast of Ayrshire.

BESOUBCES OF THE miSH

The estimates of the resources of the Ldsh coal-fields were entrusted to the Author, upon the decease of Professor Jukes, one of the Boyal Commissioners ; and the following are the results of the available quantities of coal, as published in the Eeport, and in arriving at which I had the

The evidence for this proposition I have given at some length in ihe paper already aUaded to in the Trans. Qeoh Soc. of Lreland.

Nobthebn Oboup Of Coal-Fiblds. 319

assistance of my colleagues of the Geological Survey, Messrs. G. H. Kinahan and J. O'Kelly :

Tonnage Net tonnage unworked. available for use

1. Ballyeastle, Comity Antriiki . 18,000,000 16,000,000

2. Tyrone (visible and concealed) . 86,950,000 82,900,000 8. Queen's County, Kilkenny, and

4. Tipperary 29,500,000 25,000,000

The quantity of coal raised in Ireland is comparatively small, and much below what it ought to be, if all the coal-fields were properly developed. It will be seen from the above estimates that the districts of Tyrone and Antrim have considerable resources in mineral fuel, which are at the present time made use of to a very hmited extent. I cannot, however, but look forward to an improvement in this respect, when the facts of the case become more generally known, through the publications of the Government Geological Survey now in progress.

In 1869, the quantity of coal returned asxaised in Ireland was 127,923 tons from 33 collieries.*

Mineral Statistics." This is probably an under-estimate.

Chaptee Xxx.

ON THE QUANTITY OF COAL IN THE CONCEALED COAL- FIELDS OF CENTRAL ENGLAND.

Goal-resources of the British Isles.

Besides the coal stored in the known or visible coal-fields, it is unquestionable that very large Quantities lie concealed beneath Permian, Triassicj and even Liassic strata beyond the margins of these coal-fields themselves. The extent and subterranean limits of these concealed reservoirs have been the subjects of investigation on the part of physical geologists for some years past ; but it has been only very recently that our knowledge of the physical geology of the British Isles has been sufficiently advanced to enable us to arrive at anything like definite results on this question.

The solution of this interesting problem depends on the proper determination of two distinct branches of investigation. The first of these is

Concealed Coal-Fields. 321

the restoration of the original limits, or margins, of the Carboniferous rocks; and secondly, the extent and direction of the axes of upheaval and depression along which the subsequent terrestrial movements have taken place, and the amount of denudation by which they have been accompanied or followed.

As the determination with any degree of precision of these severally simple problems, merging into the complex one, depended on a multitude of minute observations made over the whole area, properly laid down on maps, the question itself was not ripe for solution until the country had been surveyed by the Government Geologists ; so that, had the attempt been made at an earlier period than the present, it must necessarily have failed, simply from the want of the necessary details. It was, therefore, fortunate that the appointment of a Eoyal Commission (part of whose duty was to report upon this question) was reserved for the present time, when the Government Surveyors had extended their investigations over nearly the whole of the districts of England occupied both by the coal-j&elds and the more recent formations, and were in a position to supply all the necessary details for the proper consideration of this complex problem ;

Y

322 The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

in addition to the voluntary assistance readily tendered by many private observers.

One of the earliest attempts to define the limits of the concealed coal-fields was that made by the late distinguished Director-General of the Geological Surveys, Sir Koderick Murchison, who, upon the occasion of the meeting of the British Association at Nottingham, in. 1866, read an essay on the subject,* before the Geological Section. In this paper the writer combats the view of the existence of workable coal, either under the Cretaceous rocks of the south of England, or of the Triassic rocks east of the Malvern Hills ; while he points out that these hills themselves on the west, and the Cambrian Kocks of Chamwood Forest on the north-east, then full in view from Nottingham Castle, formed the " salient promontories " of the southern coast line, or margin, of the original coal-fields.

Having for several years, while engaged on the survey of the midland and western counties of England, kept this question steadily before me, as one of the very highest economic importance, I had the gratification of laying my views before the Eoyal Coal-Commission, in which I entered

On the Parts of England and Wales in wliich Coal may or may not be looked for." — Trans. Brit. Assoc., 1866.

Concealed Coal-Fields. 323

into the whole question, as far as it related to the midland and northern counties ; and at the request of the Committee, to whom this branch of inquiry was delegated, prepared a small map, showing what I considered to be the probable subterranean limits of the coal-formation.* These views were shortly afterwards repeated, or expanded, ia a memoir, which I drew up for the Geological Survey, ''on the Triassic and Permian Kocks of the Central Counties of Englaad " id 1869.t

In his memoir on the Geology of the South Staffordshire Coal-field, the late Professor Jukes had thrown considerable light on the question of the limits of the Coal-measures of the central counties towards the south, and had also recognised in the* rocks of Chamwood Forest the original land-marks of the old Carboniferous coast — a question on the determination of which the whole internal structure of the central counties hinges. I

With reference to the south of England, Mr. Godwin -Austen, in 1865, read an able paper before the Geological Society of London, in

The evidence and map are to be published with the Report of the Commission, vol. ii.

t Distribution of the Coal-measures beneath the Triassic and Permian Bocks," chap, zi., p. 109.

J Geol. Sonth Staffordshire Coal-field," Preface to 2nd edit., 1859.

y2

324 The Coal-Fields Of Great Britain.

which he discusses the question of the probable extension of the Coal-formation beneath the Cretaceous rocks lying between the coast opposite Calais and the Somersetshire coal-field; and endeavours to show that the Coal-measures which tail out under the Chalk near Therouanne probably set in again near Calais, thence are prolonged in the line of the Thames Valley parallel with the North Downs, and continue under the Valley of the Kennet into the Bath and Bristol coal-area. These views were repeated and amplified by, Mr. Godwin-Austen in his evidence before the Koyal Commission.

For the purpose of drawing up a report on the subject, the Commissioners wisely determined upon a division of labour, and entrusted the investigation of that portion relating to the central and northern counties to Professor Kamsay, and of that relating to the southern counties to Mr. Prestwich ; and it must be admitted that it would have been impossible to select two persons more competent to discharge the important task committed to them, or in whose judgment the public will be disposed to repose greater confidence.*

The Gommissioners were assisted by several Geologists of eminence, who gave evidence on special points, viz., Professors

Concealed Coal-Fields. 325

It would be foreign to the purpose of this work to discuss the views of the Commissioners in this place, for which the reader must refer to the Keport itself, further than to observe, that between the views of Professor Kamsay and my own there is a very general accord; and that "with regard to those of Mr. Prestwich, who generally coincides with Mr, Godwin- Austen in considering the existence of a coal-trough broken into several detached portions as highly probable, I readily admit the great ability with which the Commissioner has handled his subject, and the possible correctness of his views. (See General Map of the Coal-fields with this volume.)

As the existence of coal imder the Cretaceous and other formations of the south of England is at present a subject of a highly speculative character, the Commissioners have refrained from offering any estimate of the quantity of coal which may be concealed under this tract ; but it is otherwise with reference to the centre and north of England; and Professor Eamsay has drawn up estimates of the available quantity after deductions to the extent of 40 per cent, for loss

Phillips, Harkness, Geikie, Messrs. H. Howell, H. W. Bristow,

A. H. Green, J. Clifton Ward, and Daniel Jones, B. Ethendge,

B. Godwin-Ansten, etc.

The Coal-Fields Of Great Bbitain.

of various kinds. These estimates are drawn up for depths down to 4,000 feet below the surface, and even beyond this limit ; but with this latter quantity it is scarcely necessary that we should concern ourselves.

The following Tables contain the calculated quantities of available coal down to a depth of 4,000 feet, both of the visible and concealed coal-fields of Great Britain and Ireland, and for all workable seams of 12 inches and upwards. I regret that seams of a less thickness than 2 feet should have been included in estimates for great depths ; and on this account suggest the deduction of the quantity by 5 per cent., or one-twentieth; the remainder will then give, in my opinion, a truer result than that recorded by the Commissioners themselves : —

Quantities op available Coal in the Visible Coal-fields

OF THE BbITISH IsLES,

As detennined by the Boyal Commissioners, (Report, vol. i.) 1871.

Commiffiioiier, and Number on his Report

8. Mr. Diddnton 10. Mr. Prestwich

No.

Name of Coal-field.

South Wales

Forest of Dean Bristol

Amount of Coal in

Statute Tons to

depths not exceeding

necesBaiy deductions.

Concealed Coal-Pields.

Amount of Coal in

CommiBsioner, and Number on his Report.

No.

Name of Coal-field

Statute Tons to . depths not exceeding

neoesaary deductions.

Warwickahire

South Staffordahin

B

Do.

Forert of Wyre

Do.

Leioeaterahire

North Wales

Do.

Anglesea ...

North Staffordahin

H

Lancaahire and Cheshire...

Midland ...

Do.

Black Burton

juj

Northumberland as Durham ...

Cumberland

'.'. 405,203,792

Edinburgh ...

Do.

Lanarkshire

Do.

Fifeahire ...

Do.

Ayrahire

Do.

Eaat Lothian

Do.

Firth of Forth

Do.

Dumfriesshire

Do.

Weat Lothian

Do.

Do.

Stirlingshire

Do.

Do.

Dumbartonahire

Do.

Renfrewahire

Do. Do.

Axgyleahire... Sutherlandahire

Do.

Rozburghahire Irelaitd.

commisaioner

Profeaaor HuU.

Do.

Tyrone

Do.

Cc

Do.

Tipperaiy ...

Do.

Do.

The Coal-Fields Op Great Britain.

Coal m the Concealed

StTMMABT of probable Amount of Coal under Pebmian and other overlying Formations at Depths of less than 4,000 feet ; 40 per cent, deducted for loss and other contingencies, by Professor Ramsay, F.B.S., Commissioner.

Districts.

Under.

Sq. miles.

Tons.

Warwickshire

Permian

Warwickshire, south of Kingsbury

New Red

Warwickshire, north of Atherstone

New Red

Leicestershire, Moira district

Permian

Leicestershire, Coleorton district

New Red

District between the Warwickshire

& South Staffordshire Coal-fields

New Red

District between South Staffordshire

and Shropshire Coal-fields

n

Between the South Staffordshire

and Coalbrookdale Coal-fields to

the Cheadle and North Staffordshire

Coal-fields

East of the Denbighshire Coal-field

ff

West and S.W. border of the

North Staffordshire Coal-field.

Cheshire, west of the Kerridge . . .

Permian and

New Red

Cheshire, between Woodford fault

and Denton

Lancashire, east and west of Man-chester

It

Lancashire, west of Kocles and

Stretford to Prescott, Runcorn,

and Hale-on-the-Mersey

a

The Wirrell, the Mersey, and

country to the North

New Red

Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Not-

Permian and

tinghamshire

New Red

Vale of Eden

Permian

Ingleton and Burton

Severn Valley

New Red Mari New Red

Marl and

acres

Sandstone

Total ...

Concealed Coal-Fields. 329

General Summary.

Tons. Quantity of available Coal in visible Coal-fields 90,207,000,000 „ „ concealed Coal-measnres 56,278,000,000

146,480,000,000 Deduct for coal-seams under 2 feet in thickness

one-twentieth 7,824,000,000

Leaving the net available quantity (1871) . 189,156,000,000

It therefore appears that there is a total quantity of ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-NINE THOUSAND

MILLIONS OF TONS available within a depth of 4,000 feet, which, at the rate of consumption of about one hundred and ten millions of tons, the quantity raised in 1870, would be sufficient to last for upwards of twelve hundred and sixty years. But it is impossible to regard the subject from this point of view : first, because the produce of the coal-fields is a variable and increasing quantity; and secondly, because the coal can never be exhausted otherwise than by a gradual and slow process.

To this question we shall return : meanwhile, the result of the calculations of the Commissioners must be satisfactory to the pubUc at large, as demonstrating that for a long period to come British commerce is not likely to languish, or British household fires to smoulder, for want of that prime necessary of British life — Coal.

Paet Iii.

Chaptee I.

Coal-Fields Op Europe.

France and Belgium. — The Coal-formation of these countries extends in a long and narrow trough from Aix-la-Chapelle westward, by Liege, Namur, Mons, Valenciennes, and Arras, near which place it is concealed beneath nearly horizontal beds of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. West of this town, however, the coal has been proved to a distance of 80 miles, valuable beds having been found at Therouanne ; and again they reach the surface a few miles north-east of Boulogne. Between the coal-field of Valenciennes and Boulogne, there is a large upcast fault bringing up the Devonian rocks, so that the Boulogne coal-district is a distinct basin.* Here

As I have been informed by M. Louis Aguillon, mining engineer.

Coal-Fields Of Eubope. 331

the dip is north, and the Carboniferous Limestone rises from below the Coal-measures. Before entering the sea at Calais, the Carboniferous strata are concealed by Lower Oolite, and nowhere reappear across the south of England till we reach Somersetshire.

The Franco-Belgian coal-trough is not everywhere continuous, being dissevered into elongated basins east of Mons,by the elevation of the Lower Carboniferous rocks. These latter themselves, as in the north of England, sometimes contain coal which has been mistaken for that of the true Coal-formation ; and at Liege and Mons the strata are repeatedly crumpled, and thrown into a vertically zig-zag position, so that the same shaft passes several times through the same seam of coal. (See Fig. 21.) We have analogous cases along the northern flanks of the Mendip Hills in

Fig. 21.-SECTI0N ACROSS THE GOAL-FIELD OF LIGE. 18 Mil8.-

a, Tertiaiy Beds. 6, Cretaoeoui. e, DeronUuL ir, Carboniftroas.

This and Fig. 22 are taken from a drawing by Mr. Prestwich, F.B.S., in Report of the Boyal Coal-Commission.

332 Coal-Piblds Of Otheb Parts Of The World.

Somersetshire, but not so generally known. The whole length of the trough, measured from Aixla-Chapelle to Calais, and considered as continuous, is about 210 miles; but the breadth is variable, and never great.

The united extent of these coal-fields is probably nearly 1,200 square miles ; but there is a considerable tract between Valenciennes and Calais, overspread by Chalk and Tertiary formations, under which the Coal-measures have not yet been proved, and where they lie at considerable depths.* The general arrangement of the strata in this part of their course is shown in the following sections (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22.-SECTION ACROSS THE COAL-FIBLD AT VALBNCIENNBS. 13 WIm.

a, Tertiftiy Beds. &, Cretaoeoos. n axul x, Lower and Upper Carbonifezoos.

I shall now state the names of the towns and villages situated along this trough, from west to east, taking as a guide the map of M. A. Dumont.f

MM. Dnfrenoy et Elie de Beaumont, Carte Geologiqne de la France.

t Carte Geologiqne de la Belgiqne. See, also, the elaborate maps and sections in the '' Atlas zur Geologic der Steinkohlen Dentschlands," etc., von Dr. Geinitz, Munich, 1865.

Coal-Fields Of Eubope. 333

Commenomg at Lillers in Artois, it ranges by Bethune, Douai, Valenciennes, Conde, Mons, Namur, Huy, Liege, Aix-la-ChapeUe — where the strata are folded into several distinct troughs ; and about ten miles east of this town the Coalmeasures become entirely concealed beneath the alluvial plain of the Ehine. Their course beneath this plain would appear to be north-east, by Juliers and Kaiserwerth, to the Valley of the Khur, at the margin of the coal-field of WestphaHa.

The depth of the Liege coal-basin at Mont St. Giles, according to Herr Von Oeynhausen, reaches to 3,809 feet below the surface, and the coal-basiQ of Mons is fully 1,866 feet deeper stiU. But this is small iq comparison with the depth attained by the strata in the Saarbriick coalfield.

There are several other small coal-fields surroimding the central granitic plateau of France, of which the following are the principal : —

St. Etienne, about 16 miles long by 6 broad, yieldiQg about 6 millions of tons of coal annually; the basiQ of the Saone et Loire ; the basin of Alais, in the department of Gard and Arddche ; there are also the coal-districts of Konchamp in the department of Haute Saone; and the

334* Coal-Piblds Of Other Parts Op The World.

anthracite district in the department of Isere, or the Basin des Drac*

Rhenish Provinces of Prussia : the SaarbriicJc Coal-field. — This is the largest and most important coal-field in western Europe, having an area of about 900 square miles. Along its western borders it is traversed by the river Saar, between the towns of Saarlouis and Saarbriicken, and extends in an easterly direction to WeUesweiller, where the beds pass below the Bunter Sandstone, which stretches along the southern borders of the coal-field, and along the valley of the Saar forms also the western boundary. The coal-seams, however, have been worked below this newer formation at intervals aU along the margin.!

Towards the north, the coal-formation rests upon the Devonian schists of the Hundsriick (the "Koblenzer oder Spirifer-Schichten,") the general dip being southward, in which direction the Coal-measures pass below the New Eed Sandstone of the Vosges, and Permian beds. There are extensive intrusions of igneous rocks, especially along the northern outcrop, which

" Die Steinkohlen Deutschlands," etc. 1 band, cap. xii., 851.

t See the admirable chart and description of this coal-field by H. von. Bonne, Royal Inspector of Mines, in Die Steinkohlen Dentschlands,'' vols. i. and ii.

Coal-Fields Of Eubope. 335

detract from the mineral value of the district affected by them.

According to the observations of Herr von Dechen,* the thickness and depth of the Coalmeasures in the Saarbriick basin is very great. From several measurements it was found that the lowest coal-strata known in the district of Duttweiler, near Bettingen, descend to a depth of 20,682 English feet, or 3*6 geographical miles below the level of the sea. This is a depth below the sea equal to the height of Chimborazo above it ; and at this depth the temperature may be inferred to range as high as Fahr.

This coal-field is remarkable for having yielded the remains of several species of reptiles, discovered by Mr. Leonard Homer, and named by Professor Goldfass Archegosaurtcs, having characters intermediate between the Batrachians and Saurians. t There are also fish of the genera Amblt/pteruSy PalcsoniscuSjAcantJiodes; Crustacea, as UronecteSy Estheria tenellay Leaia Bantschiana; and Molluscs, Unio carhonarius (Bronn), XJ. Eirnensis (Ldwg.) The plant remains are abund-

Geognostische Umrisse der Rheinlander zwischen Basel tmd Mainzy etc., v. H. v. Oeynbaxisen, H. v. Dechen, und H. v. La Roche (1825).

t Geinitz, " Steinkohlen," vol. i., 150.

336 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

ant, and amongst others include the more common Carboniferous genera, such as Lepidodendron Sigillaria, TJlodendron, Stigmaria ficoides, etc.*

The Coal-fields of the Kingdom of Saxony. — The coal-formation of Saxony is distributed into a series of beds which, collectively, may be regarded as a representative series of the formation in Germany. Dr. Geinitz distinguishes in it five successive zones of vegetation, which have appeared at intervals during a long lapse of time.

The Coal-basin of ZtoicJcau-Chemnitz. — This coal-field hes to the north of the Erz Gebirge, the range of mountains which forms the southern border of Saxony, and extends from the village of Marienthal, west of Zwickau, on the southwest to Liegmar, near Chemnitz, on the northeast, a distance of 4 geographical miles. Along the south the Carboniferous beds repose on Silurian and Devonian rock&.t Towards the north they are overlaid unoonformably by a massive conglomerate formed of quartz, schist, and granite ; and this by other beds of sandstone, shale, and porphyry, referable to the Permian series (Kothhegendes).

The coal-field contains about 12 seams of work-

A complete list is given by Dr. Geinitz, in the work quoted, t Geognostische Earte von Sachsen, Section xv.

Coal-Fields Of Europe. 337

able coal, one of which, the " Eusskohlflotz," is 12 ells in thickness.*

Plant-remains. — The lowest beds are characterised by Sigillaria alternanSj 8. oculata, 8. Gorteiy etc., 8agenaria dichotomy Neuropteris auriculatay Asterophyllites foliosusy etc. Above this is the " Annnlarian Zone," with -4. longifoliaj 8phenophyllum emarginatum ; next the " Zone der Farren," with 8phenopteris irregularis 8ph. Macilenta, Odontopteris Beichiaruij Neuropteris auriculataj etc., Lycopodites Ghitbierij Nosggerathia palmceformis.

Coal-basin of the Plauenschen Grundes near Dresden, — This coal-field is traversed by the Weisseritz, a short distance above Dresden, and has its longest diameter of geographical mile, in a N.W. and S.E. direction, at right angles to the course of that stream.

The Coal-measures rest upon an irregular basis of syenite, porphyry, and (at the " Augustus " colliery) of clay slate, against a shelving bank of which the coal-seams terminate in a S.W. direction. The formation is overlaid by the conglomerate base of the Kothliegende, which is succeeded by higher divisions of the Permian series.

Die Bteinkohlen Dentschlands, vol. i., 56.

Z

338 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The World.

The coal is condensed almost into one principal and very thick seam, which is much broken byfaults, and subjected to irregularities of dip and horizontal extension. The plant remains are similar to those already described for the Zwickau-basin.*

Saxony contains, besides the above, culmmeasures at Ebersdorf ; anthracite in the Upper Erzgebirge, and a smaU coal-field at Floha and Guckelsberg.

Westphalia. — This coal-field extends from the right bank of the Ehine at Duisburg and Euhrort, at its junction with the Euhr, and extends along both banks of that river as far as Herdecke, and Wetter, in an easterly direction, a distance of about forty-six miles. The strata belong to the Carboniferous system, reposing on beds of Millstone Grit (Flotzleerer sandstein), which in turn overlie Carboniferous Limestone and Cuhnmeasures; the limestone, however, thins away eastward.! Towards the north, the Coal-measures pass below Cretaceous strata (Kreidemergel) which rest unconformably on the convoluted edges of the Carboniferous rocks.

Map and section of this coal-field, by Dr. Geinitz. — Die Steink. Deutsch./* plates iii. and iy.

t The Culm-shales contain Posidonia Becheri, — "Siluria," 3rd edit., p. 427.

Goal-Fields Op Eubope. 389

The Coal-measures have been bent into a great number of remarkably regular folds, not very sharp, and with their axes ranging in an average direction of E. 26'' N. The consequence of this structure is, that the coal-seams are arranged in a series of narrow troughs, from thirteen to fifteen in number, when counted across the centre of the field. These flexures, on the whole, dip very gradually towards the E.N.E., and rise in the direction of the Khine Valley, where they terminate ; so that at Euhrort, the coal-field is contracted to a narrow band. That it crosses under the river, and underlies the town of Meurs, there can be little doubt. The flexures I have described are clearly referable to the same system as those which have bent and folded the coal-seams of Belgium and the North of France.*

Coal -field of Ibbenburerij N.W. Germany examined by Herren Heine and Dortmond,t belongs to the Carboniferous formation with CalamiteSy Sigillariay SphenopteriSy NeuropteriSy etc. The Coal-measures, with five workable

For map, sections, and description of this coal-field, the reader is referred to '' Die Steinkohlen Dentschlands," etc., vols. i. and ii.

t Zeitschrift der Dentschen Geolog. Ges. Berlin, 1861.

z2

340 Coal-Fields Of Othbb Pabts Of The World.

coal-seams, are overlaid by Zechstein (Permian Limestone) and Triassic strata, along their southern borders.

Coal-field of Piesherg near OsnabriicJc, in Hanover. — This coal-field, though now separated from that of Ibbenbiiren, seems once to have been continuous with it ; some of the seams of coal having been identified by Herr v. Velsen. The strata consist largely of sandstone and conglomerate with nine coal-seams, amongst which Komer has identified a large number of plants of the Carboniferous species, including Stigmaria fioideSj Sigillaria striata Lepidodendron dichotomumj L. elegancy Alethopteris pteroides, Sphenopteris gracilis 8. nrvosa Calamites SticJcoviiy etc.*

Bohemia. — According to the accounts of M. Michel Chevalier, nature has left to Bohemia a rich dowry of mineral fuel. Besides the older coal-bearing strata, there are very extensive areas underlaid by lignite of excellent quality, now worked in the north-western districts.

M. Chevalier considers that the coal-formation belongs to two different ages, that of Eastern Bohemia to the Lower Permian or Bothe-todte-

Die Steinkohlen Dentseh., Band i., 201.

Coal-Fields Of Europe. 341

liegende ; that of Western to the true Carboniferous system. The former extends in a band along the base of the Chaine des Geants (Eiesen Gebirge). This band is probably connected with the coal-formation of Silesia.

The western formation is distributed into three basins. 1st, that of Kakonitz; 2nd, that of Badnitz ; 3rd, that of Pilsen. Of these, the basin of Bakonitz is the most extensive.

The flora of Bakonitz and Badnitz, described by M. Stnr and Count C. Sternberg respectively, consist of about 21 genera of Carboniferous plants.

The Weald Coal 'formation of North-west Germany. — In Hanover and N.W. Germany there occurs a great series of beds attaming a thickness of about 2,000 feet, which, according to the researches of Herr Credner, are referable to five stages, —

1. Wdlderthow (with Melaniajf representing the Weald clay

of England.

2. W&ldenandstein (or Deister sandstein), representing the

Hastings sand of England.

8. Serptdit, limestones and shales 4. Milndermergel, marl and dolomite 6. Plattenkalk, with Corbula inflexa

Representing the

Pnrbeck beds of

England.

These beds are underlaid by the Jurassic formation (Weisser und Brauner Jura) and dip beneath

342 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The Wobld.

Neocomian and Chalk strata, and are traversed by the rivers Vechte, Ems, Haase, and Weser, near Minden, and from thence extend in an interrupted band nearly to the bank of the Leine, south of Hanover.

The greater number of coal-seams occur in the upper member of the group (Weald Clay), the section at Deister showing about fifteen seams of coal, of which the greater number, however, are impure.

Silesia. — This coal-field is very extensive. It stretches from the eastern base of the Eiesengebirge, at Bober and Schatzlar, in a semicircle by Landschut, Gottesberg, Waldenberg, and Tannhausen, to Eckersdorf, near the banks of the river Neisse. The Coal-measures have, in general, a base of Carboniferous Limestone, except towards the eastern portion, where they repose directly upon gneissose strata. They in turn are overlaid by Lower Permian (KotMiegende) and Cretaceous formations, and are often invaded by masses of porphyry and other igneous rocks.*

The coal-formation contains several valuable seams of coal, worked at several locahties, as at

See map and description of this coal-field in vols, i and ii. of Die Steink. f. Dentsch.; also Murchison's Silnria/' p. 891-2.

Coal-Feblds Op Europe. 343

the collieries of Louise, Gustav, Emilie, Morgen und Abendstem, Finstem, Frans-Joseph, and Segen-Gottes, Friedrich Wilhelm, and manyothers.

On the organic remains of this coal-field the writings of Dr. H. E. Goppert have thrown much light. This observer arranges the formation into zones characterised by special plants, such as Stigmariay Sagenariay and Lycopodacea; which Dr. Geinitz endeavours to identify with certain stages in the Coal-measures of Saxony. The usual Carboniferous genera of Stigmaria (root), Sigillariaj Nceggerathiaj etc., are here well represented.

Bohemia also contains extensive areas underlaid by lignite of excellent quality.

Prussian and Austrian Silesia. — This coalfield hes on the borders of Poland, being traversed by the river Weichsel. The strata are referable to the Carboniferous system, and coal is extensively worked between Beuthen and Kostow.

Moravia. — The coal-field of Eastern Moravia lies along the banks of the Oder, and its tributary the Ostrawitza, for some distance upwards from their confluence; and mining operations are extensively carried on at Koblan Hruschau,

344 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The World.

Petrzkowitz, Ostran, Muglinan, Michalkowitz, and Hranecznik. In this district Baron Rothschild has hoth coal-mines and iron-works.

Tike coal-seams, one of which (Adolph-Flotz) is 72" m. or about 26 feet in thickness, are included in the Upper Carboniferous series, and repose upon Flotzleerer Sandstein (Millstone Grit), Posidonomya shale, and Carboniferous Limestone.

Another coal-district is that of Rossitz and Oslawan, extending for several miles in a nearly N. and S. direction, and bounded on the west by gneiss, and on the east by syenite. The base of the formation is here a red conglomerate resting on the gneiss, and the Carboniferous rocks are overlaid towards the east by strata referable to the Permian formation (Unteres Eothliegendes.)*

Anthracite of Szoitzerlandj Savoy y and Italy. — Dr. Oswald Heer has described the anthraxiferous deposits, which are worked to a considerable extent as fuel for locomotives of the Italian and Swiss Railways, etc. They occur amongst the Western Alps, including towards the west and south the valleys stretching through Savoy into

Die Steinkohlen Deatschlands, etc., vol. i., chap. viii.

Ic

Coal-Fields Op Europe. 346

Dauphine ; and in an easterly direction into the Canton of Glarus.*

The anthracite is associated with schists and sandstones containing plant remains of #ae Carboniferous genera; and an examination of these has convinced Professor Geinitz that the anthracite beds are an altered Carboniferous product, contrary to the opinion of some observers, who have referred them to the Lias formation, on the ground of their being immediately overlaid (or underlaid by inversion) by shales with beleinnites. The presence, however, of such examples as Galamites cannceformisj G. 8tccJcovn% Asterophyllites equisetiformisj etc., seems to place their Carboniferous affinities beyond question.!

Spain. — The coal-field of Asturias, along the southern shores of the Bay of Biscay, is, as I am assured by Mr. K. Hunt, of considerable extent and productiveness, though at present but little opened up. The coal belongs to the Lower Carboniferous series.

M. Shultz, Director-General of Mines, states that the coal-basin of the centre of the Asturias forms a most extensive district, having more than sixty seams of coal, generally of the best quality,

" Urwelt der Schweiz," Zurich, 1866. t Die Steink. Deutsch., vol. i., 840.

346 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The Wobld.

approaching to a vertical position, and extending several leagues from west to east. The eastern Umit of the coal-tract appears to be Santahder ; anJl westward, probably Cape Ortegal. The strike of the rocks is parallel to the axis of the Pyrenees ; and near the eastern extremity of the range, on the southern flanks north of Kipoll, coal is extracted from beds which would appear to be an extension of those which yield that mineral in Asturias.

In Eastern Spain, there are also important coal-fields in the provinces of Teruel and CasteUon de la Plana, and smaller tracts in the valley of the Guadaloupe and in Catalonia. In the province of Teruel they form three productive coal-fields, the strata attaining a thickness of more than 1,600 feet, as shown by M. Coquand.* There are ten beds of workable coal, lignite and jet, which are all being worked to some extent, and the whole of the series has been shown to belong to the Lower Cretaceous system, at the base of the Neocomian; and identified by Mr. J. W. Judd with certain strata occurring at Punfield Cove, in the Isle

Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, 2 ser. t. xxiv. p. 144 (1868). See also Carte Geol. d. TEspagne et dn Portugal, par MM. De Vemeuil et Collomb. 1864.

Coal-Fields Of Eubope. 347

of Purbeck, and by him termed the Punfield formation."*

Busda. — The coal-fields of Kussia are considered by Sir K. I. Mnrchison to belong to the Lower Carboniferous period, t They are included in a set of strata which has a very extensive range, but is only at intervals productive of valuable coal-beds. These Carboniferous rocks form a narrow band along the western base of the Ural Mountains, from the Arctic Sea to lat. 5V S., plunging generally at high angles towards the west, and containing coal, here associated with sandstones, representing probably the Millstone Grit " of England. On reaching the river Ural, they are concealed beneath the Permian formation, which laps over their edges ; but they reappear again in Central Bussia, occupying large areas in the governments of Biazan and Moscow, and stretching northwards to the White Sea, a distance of nearly 900 miles. Throughout this region they are only locally productive.

I am indebted to M. Louis Aguillon for the following account of the distribution of the Eussian coal-tracts : —

Qnart. Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xxvii. 207 (1871). t Bnssia and the Ural MonntaiBB," vol. i,, p. 69.

348 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The Wobld.

1. Central Bussia, — Gbvemments of Tould, Kaluga, Bjasan,

and Moscow. Oarbonife- White limestone with Spirifer Mosquerms, roas Lime- Yellow limestone with Prodiictus gigas, P. costattis, stone forma- ' and fish remains.

tion. Sandstones and shales with coal-seams.

2. Southern Rwda. — Basin of the Donetz, and the territory of

the Don Cosaks. Coal-seams in sandstones and shales subordinate to the Mountain Limestone Calcaire de Montagne "); but there may also be beds of true Coal-measures in the district. 8. Siberia, — Great basin of Eousnetsk in the Altai Coalmeasures with beds of coal.

4. Caucasus (Txwibul). — Coal in strata subordinate to the

5. Qural. — Districts of Swewolosky and Lasareff. c, Limestone

with spirifer ; 6, sandstone and shale with coal ; a, sandstone with Productus.

The coal-seams of the Moscow-basin are generally impure, pyritons, and fragile, and seldom equal in quaUty to the best lignites of the Tertiary age in the Alps. Some of the seams are from 3 to 6 feet in thickness, and, as they outcrop in natural ravines, are easily accessible. The coalfield between the Dnieper and the Don, north of the Sea of Azof, is considered by Sir R. Murchison to be by far the most valuable in Russia. This tract has a length from W.N.W. to E.S.E. of 230 miles, and its transverse diameter is 100 miles. Its total area is about 11,000 square miles. It contains many valuable beds of coal,

Coal-Fields Of Europe. 349

which dip tinder, and are overspread to the northeast by, Cretaceous rocks, and to the sonth-west by Permian limestone (Zechstein), under both of which formations the coal may at some day be mined, as is the case in Belgium and England. The most valuable seams occur at Lugan and Lissitchia-Balka.

It is a most remarkable circumstance in connection with the Donetz formation, that the same beds of coal, from being highly bituminous in the western parts of this coal-field, pass by imperceptible gradations into anthracite in the eastern parts, in a manner analogous to that of the South Wales coal-field in our own country. In the western, or bituminous districts, the coals are associated with limestones containing Spirifer Mosquensis. Towards the centre these calcareous beds tail out, and are replaced by beds of sandstone and shale, which become hardened and altered as the coal-seams become anthracitic.

On the whole, it would appear from the copious details and sections contained in the elaborate work of Murchison and his compajiions, that the coal-fields of the Eussian empire, certainly of enormous area, are in some piaxts highly productive, and, if vigorously opened up, are likely to become of great economic value. The whole

360 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

coal-prodncing series, also, appears to be of an earlier date than the true Coal-measures of England; the greater part of the beds of coal being contained in the Carboniferous Limestone-series, as in the case of Scotland.

Poland. — At the south-western extremity of Poland, and within a short distance of the confines of the Eussian, Austrian, and Prussian States, is situated a small but extremely productive coal-field. It contains three known coalseams, the middle one of which is no less than 16 yards in thickness, and is probably the thickest bed of mineral fuel in Europe. It is worked firom the outcrop in mines near the village of Dombrowa, and has the following composition : —

Carbon 50-88

Volatile matter 47-28 Ashes 2-89

This coal-seam dips from the outcrop at an angle of from 12' to 32

The two remaining seams vary from 3 to 9 feet in thickness, and differ from the main seam in having a smaller per centage of volatile matter.

The area of the coal-field is supposed to be

Coal-Fields Of Europe. 361

about 16 square miles. The formation belongs to the true Carboniferous period, reposing on Silurian rooks, and dipping under Tertiary strata.*

For this acoonnt of the coal-field of Poland, I am indebted to Captain A. Antipoff, of the Russian Engineers.

CHAPTEE n.

India.

The approach towards completion of the surveys of the coal-fields of India by the Government Geological Surveyors, under Dr. Oldham, and the publication of an able series of reports to accompany the maps on which the details arepourtrayed, puts us in possession of accurate information regarding each coal-field individually.

The general result of these surveys is to show that there are very large tracts stored with coal in northern India, chiefly in the valley of the river Damuda ; which, as the Messrs. Blanford* have suggested, were once connected in one continuous area, but are now dissevered, owing to large displacements of the strata and denudation. Of these the following are the names and approximate areas : —

Beport on the Talcheer Coal-field. — " Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India,*' vol. i., part 1.

Indu.

Coal-fields of the Damuda Valley,

Name.

2. Earanpnra 8. Bokaro

Area.

There are also the coal-fields of (7) Kurhurbari, (8) Deoghur, (9) Nerbndda, and (10) of Assam, which he out of the Damuda district.

Geological Age. — With the exception of the coal-bearing strata of Assam, which, according to the views of Mr. Medlicott, are referable to the Lower Tertiary period, the coal-fields of Northern India are formed of the " Damuda series," lying unconformably on the Talcheer beds, and surmounted in some places by massive sandstones of the " Mahadeva series." The Damuda series consists of three divisions, a lower, middle, and upper, and resemble in appearance the Coalmeasures of England, being composed of sandstones and shales, with beds of coal and ironstone ; probably of fresh-water origin. Their actual geological age is, however, still a matter of imcertainty, owing to the absence of any organic remains except plants, and a few reptiles of indeterminate age. Amongst the plants, however,

A A

354 Coal-Fields Op Other Pabts Op The World.

the Cycadacece are the predominant forms ; along with which are some genera such as Equisetum, CyclopteriSj and SphenopteriSy which are found both in PalsBOzoic and Mesozoic deposits, and others as Voltziay which is Triassic, ojiiBrachyphillumy which is Jurassic.

The evidence is, therefore, conflicting; the abundance of cycads giving a Jurassic aspect to the flora, while the other forms belong to a more ancient period. All, therefore, that can be stated is, that the Coal-formation of India is more recent than the Carboniferous period of Europe, and is referable to some portion of the Mesozoic epoch.*

The Baniganj Coal-field. — This is the most important coal-field iq India, and seems destined to be of great economical value at no distant period. It lies at a distance of 120 to 160 miles N.W. of Calcutta, along the valleys of the Damuda and Adjai rivers. From the report of Mr. W. T. Blanford,t we gather that the strata containing coal attain a vertical thickness of about 12,000 feet, rising and outcroppiQg towards the north, and in the opposite direction abruptly

See the discussion of this question by Dr. Oldham, in Mem. Geol. Snrv. India, vol. ii. t IWJ, vol. ii.

Inbu. 355

ending against the older crystalline rocks, along one of the largest faults on record, which ranges in a direction from west to east. There are numerous beds of coal, which were estimated by Mr. D. H. Wilhams (1847) to attain a combined thickness of 354 feet. This coal, though inferior to that of England or Wales, has been proved to be perfectly adapted for locomotive or stationary engines, or for the smelting of iron ; yet with such prodigious supplies, not more than half a million tons were raised in the year 1868 out of a total production for India of 547,971 tons.*

Karanpv/ra Goal-field. — This coal-field is situated in the Damuda valley, between 84'' 51' and 85° 30' E. long., and 23" 37' and 23" 57' N. lat., and covers an area of 472 square miles. From the report of Mr. T. H. Hughes,t of the Indian Survey, it appears that there are numerous seams of coal, giving a total vertical thickness of 35 feet; calculated to yield about 8,750 millions of tons. A specimen from the larger of the Gondalpura seams gave, on being assayed, the following results : —

Carbon 64*5, Yolaiile matter 27*0, and Ash 6*5.

Mineral Statistics of India, collected by Dr. Oldham. Mem. Geol. Sorv. India, vol. vii., part 1. t Ihidf vol. vii., part 8, with map.

aa2

356 Coal-Fields Op Other Parts Op The World.

Iron ores, both clay-ironstone and haematites, are abundant.

BoJcaro Coal-field. — This is the third in importance amongst the coal-tracts of the Damuda valley. From Mr. T. W. Hughes' report we find that it contains several seams of valuable coal from the "Barakar beds," capable of yielding about 1,600 millions of tons. The most valuable portion of this field lies between the river Koonar and the eastern boundary. Beds of ironstone are also present.*

Jherria Coal-fisld. — This tract lies about 170 miles from Calcutta, along the Damuda valley, and extends from east to west for a distance of 18 miles ; its greatest breadth is IQ miles. Mr. Hughes in his report states, t that in a series of beds of about 6,000 feet in thickness there are beds of coal having a combined thickness of about 80 or 100 feet, the thicker seams being in the lower part of the Damuda series. Some of the coal is of good quality, especially that of the " Barakar beds." Dr. Oldham estimates the possible yield of this coal-field at 466 millions of tons, and adds, "whatever the margin of error may be, the facts are sufficient to prove the existence

Mem. Geol. Survey, Lidia, vol. vi., part 2. t Ibid, vol. v., p. 280.

India. 367

of a very large amount of good fuel in this Jherria coal-field, which at some future period will he foimd ipost valuable.

South Karanpura Coal-field. — This little tract of Coal-measures is separated from the larger field above described by a strip of metamorphic rocks, t In proportion to its extent, it appears to be even more productive than the larger field, containing as it does about 70 feet vertical of coal, and capable of yieldiDg, accordiug to the estimates of Mr. Hughes, 76 millions of tons of coal. Iron ores are also abundant.

Bamgurh Coal-field. — This coal-field also lies iQ the Damuda valley between the meridian of 86' 30' and 86' 46' E. long. From the report of Mr. V. Ball, it appears to have an area of about 40 square miles. The coal in the eastern part of the district occurs generally in thick seams ; but the quality is so variable, and there are such firequent alternations with bands of stony shale, that Mr. Ball forms a low estimate of the economic value of this portion. In the western extension of the field, where the seams are of better quality, they are much broken and crushed,

Mem. Geol. Survey, India, vol v., p. 836. Map accompanying the Beport of Mr. Hughes. — Ibid, vol. vii,, part 8.

308 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

owing to numerous faults and flexures of the strata.*

Eurhurbari Coal-field'. — This coal-field is one of those which lie beyond the limits of the valley of the Damuda. The coal-beds are, however, referable to the " Damuda series," and from the superiority of their quality, and owing to their position with reference to the East Indian Eailway, and the large towns west of Dinapore, are hkely to become of great economic value. The area of the field is only 8 square miles, and its general structure that of a basin ; t while some of the coal-seams reach a thickness of 14 to 16 feet, but vary rapidly in this respect. Mr. Hughes estimates the yield of this tract at 80 millions of tons of available coal.

The Deoghur Goal-fields. — There are three Httle tracts grouped by Mr. Hughes, who has surveyed them, imder this name, lying between long. 86° 37' and 87° & E. to the north of the Barakar river. They do not require special notice, as they are economically unimportant.

Nerbudda Coal-field. — This coal-field includes a considerable tract in Western India, lying in part along the valley of the Nerbudda Biver, and

Mem. Geol. Survey, Lddia, vol. vi., part 2. t Mr. T. W. Hughes.— 2Wd, vol. vii., part 2.

India. 369

containiiig both ooal and iron-ores. The district has been explored by several observers, the latest of whom, Mr. Medlicott, has drawn np a report on behalf of the Geological Survey.* The actual extent of country over which these mineral deposits may be supposed to range has not been precisely determined, owing to the want of actual mining operations, but coal-seams of good quaUty and thickness have been observed along the banks of the Sitariva, the Tawa near Salyia, the Mahanuddi and Johilla rivers; and Mr. Med- Ucott states that unquestionably from some of these locaUties large supphes of good coal might be obtained. The strata in which the coals occur belong to the Damuda series.

Assam Goal-fields. — Large quantities of good coal are known to exist in Upper Assam, which are as yet almost wholly imdeveloped. According to the determination of Mr. Medlicott, of the Geological Survey of India, they are referable to a geological age more recent than those of the Damuda Valley, the Lower Tertiary. The seam? of coal are often remarkably free from ash, as wiQ be seen by the following assays of specimens taken from three localities —

Mem. Geol. Survey, iDdia, vol. ii. t Ihid vol. iv.

Fixed Carbon. Volatile matter.

Ash.

360 Coal-Fields Op Otheb Pabts Op The World.

Terap Namchik . Jaipoor

As a large amottnt of traflSc is carried on by steamers on the Brahmapootra river, it is strange that up to the period of Mr. Medlicott's report no attempt had been made to utilise the stores of coal in Upper Assam for steam navigation. For this and similar purposes they are well adapted ; and, now that rehable information has been obtained concerning their nature and extent, it may be hoped that some attempt will be made to turn to account these valuable stores of mineral fuel.

Summary. — From the above brief description of the coal-fields of British India, taken from the careful and elaborate reports of the Government Surveyors, which are accessible to all, it may be gathered that Northern India has all the materials for the development of commercial and industrial pursuits. The great vaUey of the Ganges, navigable for such great distances inland from the ocean, and now traversed by lines of railway, has also enormous stores of coal and iron — those materials which have been the source of the wealth of Great Britain itself. It is also a cotton-growing country, and there is therefore

Indu. 361

no apparent reason why cotton miglit not be manufactured on the spot where it is grown. With such advantages, Northern India may become a great manufacturing country. Whether it will become so is a question which will be determined on moral and social groimds ; depending on the enterprise, perseverance, and intelligent. of the people themselves.

CHAPTEE ni.

Coal-Fields Of China, Australia, And New Zealand.

China. — The recent researches of Baron von Eichthofen, the enterprising traveller, together with the accounts received from time to time through other sources, leave no doubt that there are large deposits of coal in this great empire. The provinces of Hoonan and Shansi, lying to the south of the Yang-tse-Kiang, are richly stored both with coal and iron. In the latter province the Baron came upon a region which he describes as one of the most remarkable coal and iron districts in the world."* He considers it to be in extent considerably greater than that of Pennsylvania. These vast resources are not utilized by the natives, owing to unskilfulness in mining, and chiefly to the absence of roads. Another of these districts lies near the city of

From Report forwarded to the Foreign Office, and quoted by 6ir R. Murchison in the Anniversary Address to the Roy. . Soc, London, 1871.

China- 363

E-u, in the prefecture of King Hua (lat. 16' N., long, 119*' 46' E.) The coal is here worked in pits from 300 to 600 feet in depth, and the mines are opened out into galleries branching off into the seams at successive stages in the descent.* The mineral is also worked in the cliffs of the Pe-Kiang river at Tingtih, by means of adits driven into the side of the hill at the outcrop of the coal-seams. And lastly, at a place five miles from the city of Whang-shih-Kang on the river Yang-tse-Kiang, an account of which is recorded by Mr. Ohphant.f

The working of coal in China dates probably from a very ancient period. Our earliest notice is by the celebrated traveller, Marco Polo, towards the close of the 13th century.

As regards the geological age of the coal-formations of China, the evidence which we possess leads to the conclusion that they are more recent than the Carboniferous, and probably of Jurassic age. Eemains of cycads are abundant, and have been collected by Mr. E. Pumpelly ; J on the other hand, the characteristic Carboniferous genera and species are apparently wanting. It

Rev. R. H. Cobbold, Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. xii.

t " Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan/' vol. ii., p. 889.

t American Journal of Science, Sept., 1866.

364 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The World.

seems, therefore, not improbable that the Indian and Chinese carbonaceous deposits are of the same, or nearly the same, geological age.

Malaysia and Japan.—ThsA, magnificent group of islands lying between the Indian and North Pacific Oceans, seems to be as rich in the mineral treasures of the past as it is in the vegetable productions of the present. Besides gems, and metallic ores in abundance, including iron, which yields the unrivalled Japanese steel, several of these islands contain strata stored with coal. And when we regard the geographical position of these islands, lying on the confines of the Eastern hemisphere, and in the track of vessels trading between America and Asia, the economic value of these sources of fuel can scarcely be over-estimated. It was on this account that the American expedition to Japan kept steadily in view the establishment of depots for coal on several points on the coast of that island for the supply of American steam-vessels.* With a similar object, the Indian Government have given attention to the supplies of coal known to exist in Borneo, and have been successful in inducing the chiefs to form depots of coal on the coasts. It is also satisfactory to American Expedition to Japan."

Japan, Bobneo. 365

learn that the trials made both in New York, Calcutta, and in the steam-vessels themselves, of samples of coal from these islands, are very favourably reported.

In Japan, coal-mines are worked in the districts of Kiusin and Niphon ; and the testimony of KaBmpfer regarding its abundance is corroborated by that of the officers of the American expedition. The Islands of Formosa and Karapty, the latter of which is now appended to the Russian Empire, also contains this mineral in considerable quantity.*

In Borneo, the province of Labuan on the north-west coast abounds in coal, and there is at least one important colliery now in work. Several beds outcrop near the river Gooty, at the north-east of the island. Mr. Bellot states that the mineral resembles the best cannel, and burns readily, t It also occurs in Pulo Cheremin, an island at the mouth of the Borneo river, where it is stated to form a naked surface stretching out to sea, and laid bare at ebb tides. The glistening aspect of the mineral washed by the saline waters, and glancing back the rays of a tropical sun, is said to have suggested its name of " Mirror Island."

Atkinson's Travels in the Amoor.*' t Mr. T. BeDot, Joum. Geol. Soc, vol. iv.

366 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The World.

It is highly probable that deposits of coal are by no means confined to the above island, but that they are also distributed more or less extensively throughout most of the islands lying between the Continent and Australia.*

Austbalu.

The great Anglo-Saxon Empire which is springing up at the antipodes, seems to have aU those mineral resources so necessary to the commercial prosperity of a nation. Amongst these, coal is not the least important; and that it occurs in vast quantities will be apparent from the following brief statements of each of the provinces into which Austraha has been parcelled.

Victoria. — The state of Victoria contains carbonaceous deposits, from which coal has already been extracted. The late Government geologist, Mr. Selwyn, was engaged for several years in investigating the mineral resources of this highlyfavoured colony. Mr. Selwyn states that if the mass of the coal-bearing strata of Victoria be Oolitic (Jurassic), there are certainly others in the eastern districts of the colony which contain

Great Britain has coal-depots for her Navy at the following Asiatic ports: — Aden, Trincomalie, Singapore, and Hongkong.

Austbalia. 367

plants of the true Garhoniferois type, while the beds themselves rest and pass downwards into calcareous rocks with fossils, which are nearly all Carboniferous or Devonian forms.* How remarkable, that both here and at our Antipodes, in Britain in the Northern, and AustraUa in the Southern hemisphere — countries now standing in the relation of parent and child — Nature should have been elaborating mineral fuel during the same eventful period of the Earth's bygone history!

New South Wales. — Our knowledge of the coal-resources of New South Wales are chiefly due to the labours of the Eev. W. B. Clarke, F.G.S., M. de Strzelecki, Professor Dana, and Mr. Keene, Inspector of the coal-fields of New South Wales. I have been favoured by the Eev. Mr. Clarke with a general summary of the results arrived at with reference to the extension of the coal-formation, + and have selected portions which will serve to present the reader with a fair view of the subject, and also may be of use to those who may be residents in the colony itself.

" Geology of Victoria," Joum. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xvi., p. 146.

368 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

Mr. Clarke arranges the carbonaceous rocks of the Colony in three diyisions, viz. : — 1. The Wianamatta ; 2. The Hawkesbury ; and 3. The Lower Carboniferous beds. Between the second and third, and extending into the latter of these, come in the workable coal-seams, which are in association with shales and sandstones bearing impressions of plants, which some geologists refer to the Great OoUte. But, as these plantbeds have been found with no less than five seams of coal of a very productive character, in the heart of the beds charged with Palaeozoic fossils, it is clear that whatever be the age of the coal, the series in which it occurs extends downwards into the Mountain Limestone, which is also, in some places, in connection with plants of a Palaeozoic type, such as Knorria, LepidodendroUj etc. The particulars have long ago been pubHshed, and most recently by the author in the work cited below.*

" Whilst, therefore, since 1854 a great progress has been made in filling up the gaps that were supposed to exist, and in developing the actual phenomena of the coal-beds, some uncertainty

Researches in the Soathem Gold Fields of New South Wales, by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. etc., 1860, chap, xiv., p. 245.

Austbalu. 369

yet remains as to the positive age to which they must be referred. These considerations, nevertheless, do not affect the extent of these deposits and the probable abundance of fossil fuel. This is a subject of vast and increasing importance to the rapid development of the Colonies, and to the progress of communication by railways, which have sprung into existence since the Exhibition of 1855, and by steam navigation, now rapidly advancing, as well as to manufacturing establishments rising around."

In the year 1847, the author of this notice stated (in evidence before a Committee of the Legislative Council,) that he had then obtained acquaintance with the existence of Carboniferous formations over from 17,000 to 18,000 square miles on the eastern side of the Colony, between 32 degrees and 35 degrees South. Since then, his own experience has been much enlarged during his explorations of Australia ; and, coupling his present actual knowledge with the information derived from other explorers, he is now enabled to state that, compared with its Goldfields, the Carboniferous portion of this territory is of infinitely greater importance than was at that time supposed."

" On the East coast of New South Wales, the

B B

370 Coal-Fields Of Othee Pabts Of The Wobld.

Carboniferous formation presents itself with Kttle interruption, except from extensive dykes of trap (of which the basaltic dykes strike N.E., and the greenstone dykes, which are well exemplified on the coast at Newcastle, strike N.W.), from between 31 deg. 30 min. South to at least 36 deg. South ; hud in two principal parts of this coast line, valuable coal-seams occupy the cliffs washed by the ocean, about Newcastle and the North of Ulawarra. The position of the former is very advantageous for all the purposes of commerce ; the latter has some disadvantages, owing to the difficulty, of approach to the cliffs from seaward."

As in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, so also at Australian Newcastle, vessels can receive coal immediately from the mines at the mouth of the Hunter river, which by structures erected on a grand scale has been turned into an accessible and safe harbour. The coal-fields lie close by the sea-shore, some beds cropping out even upon the steep coast-bluffs, so that they can be distinctly seen from the sea, on a voyage from Sydney to Newcastle. There are, also, iu the vicinity of this town already eleven known seams extending over an area of about 6 miles along the coast, and 20 miles into the interior, having a thickness of

Austbalu, 371

from 3 to 30 feet.* The analysis of this coal gives: carbon 74*13 to 78*0, hydrogen and oxygen 26*87, ash 6*0, water 1*6.+

At Ballambi Point, north of Wollongong, operations for the shipment of coal, brought by a tramway from the seams situated in the Illawarra escarpment, have been some time carried on by Mr. Hale, the spirited proprietor of these seams, who has within the last few years ented on this important undertaking. Steps are also in progress for the commencement of a breakwater harbour at that Point, where the mineral treasures of vast extent, from no less than twelve seams, will be available for transport ; and at Wollongong a new basin is being excavated.

As some of these seams are traceable for many miles both northward and southward, the Ulawarra will ere long supply abundance of fuel well calculated for the purposes of navigation.

" Passing to the coast north of the Hawkesbury, we find another series of seams extending from the Tuggerah Beach Lake to the left bank of the Hunter ; the cKffs about Newcastle presenting an escarpment, varying up to 300 feet, in which seams of coal, that are worked inland, present themselves. Other seams occur in the

Hochstetter's New Zealand,'' Eng. trans., p. 76. t Ibid, 91.

B 8 2

372 Coal-Fields Of Other Paets Op The World.

Western Flats, and have been worked to various depths down to 400 feet below the sea. Within the last two or three years numerous fresh openings have been made, and some rich seams, folly equal in thickness to the nine feet Upper Ulawarra seam, have been discovered.

"Passing to the westward, the whole valleys of the Hunter and the Goulbum offer occasional occurrences of valuable Carboniferous deposits ; and as at Stony Creek, near Maitland, and Anvil Creek, and other localities, five seams occur at an enormous depth below the Newcastle beds. The following localities indicate some of the places where coal has long been known ; viz. — Four Mile Creek, Hexham, base of the Myall Eange, WoUombi, Morpeth, Maitland, WaUis Creek, Anvil Creek, Purrendurra, Glendon Brook, Tolga Creek on the Paterson, Leamington, Wollon, Jerry's Plains, Sadleir's Creek, Foy Brook, Falbrook, Kavensworth, Maid- Water Creek, Muswell Creek, Edenglassie, Piercefield, north of Bengala, at Gill's cuff and Coyeo on the Page, near Murrurundi and Harbenvale, Kingdon Ponds, Mount Wingan, near Scone, and at the junction of the Hunter and Goulbum, as well as above on the latter river, near Gummum. Coal-beds also occur on the Talbragar and Cudgegong rivers.

Australia. 373

" South-east of these localities, coal appears at the foot of Mount York, and at Bowenfells, near Hassan's Walls ; on the rivers Coxe and Wollondniy, on the Nattai, at Barragorang, on Black Bob's Creek, to the west of the Southern Hanging rock, at Balangola Creek, west of Arthursleigh, in the deep gullies about Bundanoon, . Meryla, and the Kangaroo Ground ; below the plateaux, on which the seams crop out on the face of the Hlawarra escarpment, above Jamberoo and Mullet Creek; and below Mounts Kembla and Keera, seams to the amount of twelve, occupying patches of cliff along the coast from near Waniora Point to a great fault ten or twelve miles northward; northwards of which, at Gara, the beds of shale connected with the coal rise at an angle of from two to four degrees from beneath the Hawkesbury rocks, which thence to the north of Brisbane Water occupy the coast. This dip seems general in the lUawarra, and also occurs on the Hunter. But it varies up to 16° on that river, and north of the Karuah to 60°, and in places to 90\

Passing on thus to the country about Port Stephens, between the Karuah and the Manning, we find a region of coal full twenty-five miles in extent, iu which are no less than eighteen seams ;

374 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

of which one, measured by the writer, was thirty feet thick.

This region has since been surveyed by M. Odemheimer of Nassau, for the Australian Agricultural Company, in whose estate this field occurs.

" Coal occurs in patches in other parts of New South Wales, and has been occasionally worked to the north of the Mittagong Eange in the steep face of cliffs above the Nattai Creeks, near the Fitzroy Iron Works.

Respecting the position of the coal in some of the localities, it may be observed, that the strike and joints of the rocks lead to the conclusion that the coast line merely intersects obHquely the general area or basin, which has thus its minor axis along the Hawkesbury ; the Newcastle seams finding their prolongation about the Werriberri Creek on the Warragamba Eiver, and the BuUai seams having had their northern prolongation many miles in advance of Newcastle, in a tract destroyed or below the sea : aU the evidence collected by observation leading to the inference that this Eastern coal-field is only a portion of a once much larger area, distinctive portions of which are occasionally thrown up by the sea on the beach rocks and sands. This is

Australu. 375

true, especially, of the Ulawarra, where at Towrudgi Point, north of Wollongong, fossil wood and trees exist near low-water mark, imbedded in natural position in the rocks ; and at Ballambi, where similar trees are entangled, two seams of coal making their appearance also just behind the beach, and at and below the sea-level ; and after gales, the beach at Wollongong is strewn with fragments of these and other Carboniferous spoils. Similar fossilized vood occurs at Newcastle, and in the Palaeozoic beds of Black Head, south of Kiama, and of Stony Creek near Maitland.

" Judging from the enormous development of the Hawkesbury rocks on the Western slopes of the Cordillera, where they occur in patches at very great elevations on the summits of the older formations, or on the plains from the Western end of the Liverpool Range to the parallel of 26 degrees south, it may be fairly concluded that there is no present possibility of calculating the actual amount of available coal on that side of the Colony. Seams of coal are known, however, to occur in this area, on the Castlereagh ; near the Nudawar Eanges, and on Reedy Creek, near Warialda, whence the writer procured cannel coal.

376 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The Wobld.

A considerable portion of the comities of Clarence, Kichmond, and Ecus is occupied by a similar formation, and workable coal exists therein both on the Eichmond and Clarence Eivers."

Queensland. — Although the districts of Darling Downs and Moreton Bay are now parts of the new Colony of Queensland, and coal-seams exist on the Bremer and Brisbane Eivers, and along the shores of the Bay, as on the coast, and on Mount Keera, so here the coal-seams are accessible by adits, and on the Brisbane the steamers can load by lying literally at the mouth of the mines, as is the case at Lake M,cquarie. This phenomenon is characteristic of the coal of New South Wales. It is due to three principal conditions : — 1. The generally nearly horizontal planes of some of the seams ; 2. The elevation of the coal-country above the sea-level ; and, 3. The persistent nature of the joints which traverse these elevated beds, at right angles to the bed planes, thus occasioning continual escarpments, in which the out-cropping seams appear on the faces of cliffs, or in more or less accessible ravines."

" To the northward of the Condamine, the Carboniferous formation extends over vast regions.

Austbalia. 377

in which coal undoubtedly exists. The writer has reported (Eeport X., Oct. 1853,) the formation on the Condamine as occupying probably 20,000 square miles . He calculates also, from such data as are available, that on the M'Kenzie it occupies an extent of 40,000 square miles ; and on the Eobinson, 20,000 square miles. The country between the Condamine and the parallel of 32 degrees, occupied by similar beds, cannot be less than 16,000 square miles. And if we take into account the facts stated by Sir T. L. Mitchell, in his history of the explorations of the far interior, and the existence of the same Carboniferous formations, not only in various parts of the littoral districts of Victoria, but as far as the Grampian Mountains, westward of the 143rd meridian, it becomes manifest that there is no country on the globe, America excepted, occupied to so large an extent by these formations as AustraUa; and, with trifling exceptions, nearly all the enormous areas occupied by these Carboniferous beds belong to New South Wales and Queensland."

Tdsmania. — " This district abounds, also, in coal-beds, some considered the equivalents in age and position of the Ulawarra and Newcastle seams of New South Wales ; others, the equiva-

378 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The Wobld.

lents of the lower coal-seams of Stony Creek near Maitland, occurring in the midst of a Palaeozoic Fauna. The author's opinion of these Tasmanian coal-fields, as formed from personal inspection, has been confirmed by Mr. Gould, the Geological Surveyor of that Island, in his recent Reports to the Tasmanian Government."

" That gentleman has also discovered evidence to prove that the combustible schists ' or Dysodile ' of the Mersey Eiver, on the North Coast of Tasmania, contain zoological fossils of Palaeozoic age. In New South Wales, beds of a similar kind exist, of which specimens are exhibited from the higher northern slopes of the Liverpool Range, and from the base of Mount York in the County of Westmoreland. Examination shows that they are charged with rmn (probably not unlike that so abundant in the New Zealand coal) ; and, therefore, they may perhaps be valuable as a source for the manufacture of mineral oil. The specific gravity of some of this substance, the author has found to be 1-204. In appearance it is like lignite passing to cannel. It ignites readily, and bums with a prevailing odour. It is highly conchoidal in fracture ; and lies in masses from 6 to 12 ins. thick. A somewhat similar substance occurs in the Island of

Australu. 379

Cuba, and is there called GJtapapote. But the New South Wales mineral is not so bituminous, and the specific gravity is less."

Coal-fields of New Zealand,

This wondrously rich and varied Group of Islands seems to abound in all the mineral products of nature, not excepting coal. It is true that, for the present, gold almost absorbs the interest of its inhabitants, but this is only for a time ; and as the grains and nuggets of this precious metal are washed out of the alluvial gravels, and gradually diminish in abundance, so the beds of coal will crop up, and assert their paramount importance as a source of prosperity and wealth to the inhabitants.

For a series of years, the Carbonaceous deposits of New Zealand have attracted the attention of naturalists who have visited this country.*

Mr. C. Forbes, surgeon on board H. M. ship Acheron sent a very interesting account of the coal-seams of a large extent of coast, and of the

One of the first observers on the geology and palaeontology of the island was Mr. Walter Mantell, son of Dr. Mantell, author of the ''Medals of Creation/* who sent home through his father communications on the geology of parts of the country to the Geol. See; London, 1848.

380 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The World.

experiments made on their qualities and composition, which he published in the Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. xi.,

In 1859, Dr. F. vonHochstetter, accompanied by his friend and travelling companion, Dr. Julius Haast, were appointed by the Government to commence explorations in the provinces of Auckland and Nelson ; and this latter geologist, after having finished, in 1860, some important observations in the western districts of Nelson, was appointed Geologist by the Provincial Government of Caterbury. The labours of these enterprising naturalists have thrown much light on the coal-resources of large portions of the Island. Finally, in 1861, Dr. James Hector was appointed Geologist to Otago, and he has since (in 1866) published an able Keport on the coaldeposits of the country, in which he divides the Carbonaceous deposits into two classes, the hydrous and anhydrous; the former being similar to the brown-coals of Europe, the latter being referable to the Mesozoic epoch, and more closely resembling stone-coal."

The results of Dr. Hochstetter's explorations, and those of his companion during their joint survey, are given tothe world in a noble work

Austbalu. 381

in which the physical history and structure of the Islands are graphically pourtrayed, together with their natural history.*

Character and Geological Age of the CoaU deposits. — The coal-seams of New Zealand are distributed over portions of both the North and South Islands ; and they occur in the form of lignitey a mineral fuel of inferior quality, and also of proton-coaly sometimes in thick beds, and of a quality not inferior to that of the best kinds of the German brown-coal, which is only inferior to English Carboniferous coal. This latter is considered to be of Mesozoic age, probably Jurassic. It is uncertain whether there is any "stonecoal " of Palaeozoic age in this country.

North Island. — Deposits of brown-coal occur in the Drury and Hunna districts, 20 miles south of the city of Auckland. The vicinity of the capital, and of the Waitemata and Manukan Harbours, with which communication has been established (1862), renders this coal-field very important. The merit of its discovery, in 1868, belongs to the Kev. Mr. Purchas. There is, at leasts one bed of brown-coal, six feet in thickness, associated with remains of dicotyledonous plants,

New Zealand, its Physical Geography/' etc. (1868), Stuttgart, translated by E. Banter (1867).

382 Coal-Fielbs Of Otheb Pabts Of The Wobld.

which leads Dr. Hochstetter to infer its Tertiary age.

Another tract with brown-coal lies on the banks of the Waikato, but is at present unopened; one seam here has a thickness of 15 feet, and lies in a horizontal position along the base of the slate mountain Taupiri,

A coal-formation of probably Mesozoic age has recently been detected in the northern districts of Auckland, in the vicinity of Wangaroa Harbour. A large portion of the isolated hills at the North Cape is composed of this formation. According to Dr. Hector, the bituminous coal of Kawa-Kawa is of a quaUty superior to that of any other coals of the province.

Besides the above, there are to be found on the shores of Manukan Harbour, in the flats of Drury, Papakura, and Waikato, etc., deposits of lignitey which must not be mistaken for browncoal.

South Island. — Of greater variety and extent appear to be the coal-deposits of South Island, which seem destined to be capable of supplying a large portion of the fuel for the steam navigation of the Pacific Ocean. At a distance of four miles Q. of the city of Nelson, a colliery has been opened in several seams of brozurircoaly from 3 to

Australia, 383

6 feet in thickness. Still farther south near Mount Arthur, and on the Wangapeka and Batten rivers, coal-seams have also been discovered.

The coal of Massacre, or Coal Bay, W. of Nelson, has been opened to a small extent. The seams lie at the level of high-water mark and below it, in a nearly horizontal position ; and the coal has been used for steam navigation purposes.

The extent of the coal-field near Motupipi is considerable ; the coal-seams having been found at various places up the Takaka river for a considerable distance. They belong to the hroivncoal series, and are imbedded in bituminous shales, sandstones, conglomerates and limestones, such as are frequently met with in Germany, f

The coal-deposits of Pakawau in Golden Bay, appear to be of a different and more ancient date than those just described. The coal is of a firmer consistency and gaseous, but has not yet been found of sufficient thickness to induce extensive mining operations. The extent and resources of this coal-field are as yet little known.

Dr. Haast has made important discoveries of coal in the provinces of Nelson and Canterbury ;

On board the NeUon in 1854-5.

t Hochstetter, New Zealand," p. Si.

384 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Op The Wobld.

especially on the Buller (or Kawatiri), and Grey (or Mawhera) rivers.* On the flanks of the Papahaua range, he discovered a fine bed of coal 8 feet thick at a height of 1,500 feet above the sea, and extending over an estimated area of 8 miles in width by 16 in length.

Of still greater importance are the discoveries on the Grey Eiver entering the sea on the west coast. Here at least four workable seams are known, of which the thickest is 16 feet ; they are interbedded with micaceous sandstones and shales, which have yielded dicotyledinous leaves, and remains of Cycads, with ZamiteSy PecopteriSy and Equisetum. The coal resembles that of Newcastle in Australia, and is little inferior to English coal. The discovery of such valuable beds of coal, so near the coast, has awakened great interest in the colony, and (in 1866) arrangements were being made for the construction of a tramway, and for the opening up of the mines ; a great obstacle to success being the attractions oflFered by the gold-fields. When these have subsided, and the large population betake themselves to

An analysis of the coal from Nelson at the month of the Grey River, by Dr. Percy, gives the following results : — Carbon 79-00, hydrogen 6-85, oxygen 7-71, ash 8'60, water 1*05 per cent., coke 64-82. It is a caking coal, and probably a good gas coal. (Metallorgy, 100.)

Austbalia. 385

other kinds of industry, the ooal-resouroes will doubtless receive due attention.*

The coal-deposits of Pakawan, the Buller, and Grey rivers are considered by Dr. Hochstetter to be of Mesozoic age, and probably the representatives in time of the Yorkshire OoUtio coal in England.

The analysis of the Pakawan coal gives the following results, — carbon 66*72, hydrogen and oxygen 23-18, ash 8*4, water l-7.t

On the eastern side of the South Island, carbonaceous deposits have also for some years past been known to occur. The Kowai coal-field, about 30 miles from Christchurch in Canterbury, contains several workable seams, in which a coalmine has been at work since 1867. Deposits of brown-coal are also known to underlie the great Canterbury plains, and crop out in the valleys of the Selwyn and several other rivers, and in the Malvern, Big Ben, Somers Hills.

The province of Otago also contains deposits of hrovm-coal on the southern coast, north from the Molyneux river, where they extend over an

See Dr. Hector's Report (1866). The grey coal is described as compact, black, dull lustre, with slaty cleavage. The coal puffs up slightly when heated, and gives 68-87 per cent, of coke.

t Herr v. Haner, quoted in Hochstetter's New Zealand,"p. 91.

386 Coal-Fields Of Othbb Pabts Of The World.

area of at least 45 square miles, and in which there are several seams of good coal varying from 6 to 20 feet in thickness. Two large mines have been opened in this field, and the coal is used chiefly for the purposes of steam navigation. The same formation occurs in the Green Island and Saddle Hill Basin, where two seams of a thickness of 7 and 9 feet have been worked.

A third tract of the brown-coal formation occurs along the eastern sea-board of Otago, extending inland to the base of the Kakanui Mountains; and other small patches occur at intervals in the interior portions of the province. The same formation is also known to occur in South Land in several places.

With resources in mineral fuel so great, together with those supplies of the useful or precious metals which she is known to possess. New Zealand seems to have all the materials for the foundation of commercial and manufacturing prosperity. And when added to this we take into account the extraordinary fertility of her soil and the sub-tropical character of her climate, her ample supplies of water, ever flowing down from groups of hills in the interior, or ranges of snowclad mountains, appropriately called " The Southern Alps," and recollect that all these have

Africa. 387

been granted by an overruling Providence to the sons of Albion, bringing with them the institutions, the traditions, and the enterprising spirit of the mother oonntry, may we not predict for the " Britain of the Sonth " a great and glorious future?

Afbica.

As compared with the other continents of the world, Africa, as far as it is at present known, appears to be remarkably destitute of fossil fuel ; nevertheless, the researches of Livingstone have brought to light coal-deposits on the banks of the Zambesi, described by the late Mr. Thornton, geologist to the exploratory expedition. Dr. Livingstone has rightly estimated the beneficial effect upon the future navigation of this great river, likely to be exerted by the existence of these " stones that bufn,'' the term by which the natives designate this mineral.*

The carbonaceous deposits which are known to exist to some extent along the Eastern districts of the Cape of Good Hope have not hitherto proved of much value.

In Livingstone's second journey, coal was discovered at Tette, on the Zambesi, one seam being 25 feet in thickness. — "Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tribntaries," p. 52, 1865.

Chaptee Iv.

Nobth Amebica.

British Possessions.

The States of America not appertaming to the British Crown have retained possession of by far the greater portion of the coal-producing region of the North American continent. In Canada proper, there exists not a vestige of the coal-formation ; and the coal-fields within the boundaries of the British Empire are confined to its outlying north-eastern districts of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, and the borders of the Eocky Mountains, These we now proceed to describe.

Newfoundland.

From the survey of Mr. Jukes, it appears that there are two small, and, as far as known, not highly productive, coal-fields in Newfoundland ; one extending along the eastern shore of St.

New Bbunswick And Nova Scotia. 389

George's Bay, some distance inland, and the other from Grand Pond to White Bay.*

The formation is similar to that of Nova Scotia, consisting of two members which pass into each other. The lower member consists of red sandstone, red and green marls, vith gypsum; the upper, of dark shales, fireclays, sandstones, conglomerate and coal. This last has been found in several places, marked on Mr. Jukes' map; the thickest bed being about three feet.

New Brunswick And Nova Scotu.

The geological structure and mineral resources of this region have been very lucidly described by Dr. Dawson, t From the excellent geological map which accompanies his work, it would appear that nearly one-half of these territories are composed of Carboniferous rocks; but of this less than a third contains productive Coal-measures.

The following is the general succession of the Carboniferous series : —

Thickness. 1. Upper Coal-series. — Grey and red sandstones and shales, conglomerates, and a few thin beds of limestone and coal of no economic value . 8,000 feet.

" Geology of Newfoundland." + Acadian Geology."

390 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Parts Of The World.

2. Middle Cocdrseries, — Grey and dark sandstones, and shiedes, etc., with valuable beds of coal and ironstone ; beds of bitmninous limestone, and nnmerons nnderclays with Stigmaria . 4,000 feet.

8. Lower Carboniferous or Oypnferous series. — Reddish and grey sandstones and shales, overlying conglomerates ; thick beds of limestone with marine shells, and of gypsum ; more than 6,000 „

Fossil Bemains.

The fossils of the upper series are composed principally of plants, as Calamites, FemSy and Coniferous wood.

In the middle series, representing the middle Coal-measures of England, remains of both the animal and vegetable kingdoms appear to be remarkably abundant, and are classed by Dr. Dawson as foUows : —

Beptiles. — Dendrerpeton Acadianum discovered by the author

and Sir C. Lyell, within the upright trunk of a Sigillaria.

Baphetes pUmiceps, a large batrachian allied to Labyrinthodon

; besides one or more species indicated by their tracks. Fishes. — PalaoniscuSf HoloptychiuSf Megalichthys, aiid several

other undetermined genera. Articulata. — Cypris or Cytherina, several species. Spirorbis,

either imbedded or attached to plants. MoUusca. — Pupa vetusta, the first example of a land shell ever

found in the Carboniferous rocks. Modiola, Anthracosia

(Unio), of two or more species. A large number of plants of European genera, and many of

European species.

Guicbebland Goal-Field. 391

The Lower Carboniferons series, representing all tlie strata of England, from the Millstone Grit downwards, contains a reptile, discovered by Sir William Logan ; fishes of the genera Holoptychius and Palceonisctis. Of Annehdes, Spirorbis and Gytherina; of Crustaceans, a Trir lobite or Limvlus ; besides a large series of Mollusca, of the genera Nautilus OrthoceraSj Gonulariay EtiomphaltiSj Natica Terebratulay Spirifer ProductuSy CardiomorphayPecteny AviculaModioluj Isocardiay Cypricardia : of Polyzoa, Fene- Stella etc.y Crinoids, etc. ; and a few plants.

Cumbebland Coal-Field.

This is by far the largest Carboniferous tract, covering an area, according to Professor Eogers, of 6,889 square miles.* It extends along the whole line of coast, and as far inland as the base of a range of mountains which trend along the northern coast of the Bay of Fundy. Its southem limits are the Cobequid Hills. Unfortunately, the surveys of this great coal-field have not tended to raise our expectations of its economic importance, as the greater portion of it appears to be composed of the Lower and

"Geol. of Pennsylvania," vol. ii.

392 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The World.

Upper Carbomferons series, both of which are destitute of valuable coal-beds.

If economically unimportant, it is far otherwise in a scientific point of view, as, along the coast of the Bay of Fundy, at South Joggins, it displays the finest natural section of the Coalformation in the world. The whole series of this district attains a thickness of 14,570 feet, with 76 seams of coal. Of these, 4,515 feet are brought to light in the coast-section. The beds rise along the face of the cUffs, clean and fresh, to a height of 150 feet, at an angle of 19 ; so that, in proceeding along the coast from north to south, for a distance of about ten miles, we arrive at constantly newer beds, which at low tide may be traced out from the base of the cliff for a distance of 200 yards. Sir C. Lyell counted 19 seams of coal, and at least 10 forests of upright stems of SigiUaria, the longest of which was 26 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet where broken off; they were found invariably based on the upper surfaces of the beds of coal.

In the Cumberland coal-field, the principal coal is the JoggiDS Main Seam," consisting of two beds, 3 J and feet thick. There are also workable seams at Springhill, besides several places in New Brunswick, especially a remark-

Coal-Field Of Pictou. 393

able pitch-like vein called the " Albert Mine," on the Petitcodiac Eiver.

Coal-Fields Of Colchester And Hants.

This district is separated from that of Cumberland by the Cobequid chain of hills, and has an area of about 200 square miles. It is principally valuable for its limestone and gypsum. The coal-seams appear to be all under 18 inches in thickness.

Coal-Field Of Pictou.

This coal-field has an area of about 350 square miles, and is remarkable for containing two very thick beds of coal, the upper 37 feet, and accompanied by three other workable beds having an aggregate thickness of nearly as much more, separated by 167 feet of strata. These seams have partings of inferior coal and ironstone at intervals. The upper bed has been largely worked at the Albion mines ; and though there of good quality, has been proved to deteriorate at a short distance both to the north and south of that locality. Eecently, however, according to the statement of Dr. Dawson, an extension of these great beds of coal has been proved over five new

394 Coal-Fiblds Op Othbb Pabts Op The World.

properties, whicli must contain a workable quantity of 150 millions of tons of good coal ; and there is reason for believing that the area is still considerably greater.*

Coal-Pdslds Op Richmond And Cape Breton.

The combined areas of these fields may be estimated at 350 square miles. Several workable seams of coal have abready been discovered, besides valuable deposits of limestone and gypsum. For our knowledge of the Sydney coalfield we are particularly indebted to Mr. B. Brown, who gives the following synopsis : — The productive measures cover an area of 250 square miles, with a thickness of about 10,000 feet of strata.! Of several very fine natural sections exposed to view along the coast, the most interesting is that to the north-west of Sydney Harbour, extending a distance of 5,000 yards, and exhibiting a vertical thickness of 1,860 feet of strata. Of these, 34 are coal-seams, combining to produce 37 feet of coal. Four only are workable. The following is the general section of these coals : —

" Geol. Mag.," February, 1867.

t Joum. Geol. Soc, London, vols. ii. and vi.

Bichhond And Cape Bbeton. 395

Feet. In.

Cranberry Head Top Seam ... 8 8

Strata 280 0

LhyiTs Cove Seam 5 0

Strata 780 0

Main Seam 6 9

Strata 450 0

Indian Cove Seam 4 8

Valuable coal-seams occur also at Lingan and Bridgport; one of which, 9 feet in thickness, yields a fine coke, and is esteemed as a gas-coal. Limestone and gypsmn also abound; and, on the whole, the mineral resources of Cape Breton county appear very promising.*

In 1870, the quantity of coal raised in the district was 333,803 tons.

Emigrants and settlers would do well to make themselves acquainted with the mineral resources of the districts in which they propose to settle ; as they may thus procure a tract of land which may prove, from its mineral wealth, of benefit to themselves and their descendants.

Mr. Brown has recently published an important treatise, entitled The Coal-fields and Coal-trade of Cape Breton," with maps and illustrations (London, 1871), giving very complete information regarding the subject on which it treats, to which the reader is referred for fuller information.

Chaptee V.

States Of North America.

The great hydrographical basin of the Mississippi and its tributaries is underlaid throughout the greater part of its area by productive Coalmeasures, with enough coal to supply the whole ,of that vast continent, were it as populous and as industrious as Britain, for a decade of centuries. This great Carboniferous formation spread originally in one continuous sheet over the whole of Central America, probably from the flanks of the Eocky Mountains to the shores of the North Atlantic, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Newfoundland ; and though we are unable strictly to define the origrual margin and limits of this great coal-generating tract, yet there is reason to believe, as has been pointed out by Sir C. Lyell, that land existed at that period where now rolls the Atlantic; and that the British Islands were connected with America by a chain

States Of Nobth Amebica. 397

of islands, or a tract of land, over which the plants of the Carboniferons period migrated and spread themselves in dense forests. Such an hypothesis seems the most satisfactory explanation of the remarkable fact, that the Carboniferous vegetation of America is identical, at least generically, with that of Europe ; which could not have been the case under any of the received theories of the distribution of plants and animals, if thee regions had been separated by wide barriers of ocean.

Moreover, in tracing the Carboniferous strata, from Texas and Missouri on the south-west to the Alleghany Mountains and Nova Scotia on the east and north, we find a progressive thickening of the sedimentary materials, such as sandstones and shales, which become both more abundant, and of coarser texture, as we approach the seaboard of the Eastern States. . This points to the position of the old land, from which these materials were derived, as having lain somewhere in the North Atlantic ; and, combined with the evidence derived from the vegetation, becomes almost demonstrative of the axiom, that what was land is now sea.

The great tract of Coal-measures, which was, without doubt, originally connected throughout.

398 Goal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The Wobld.

has now become dissevered into five coal-fields, the areas of which ore thus stated by Professor Bogers —

The Appalachian Basin. — Length, 875 miles ;

average breadth, 180 ; area . 56,600 sq. miles.

The niinois, Lidiana, and Eentncky Basins.

—Length, 870 ; breadth, 200 ; area . 51,100 „ The liissonri and Arkansas Basins. — Length,

550; breadth, 200; area . 78,918 „

The Michigan Basin. — Length, 160; breadth,

The Texas Basin.— LengUi, 160 ; area . 8,000 „

Total area 196,868 „

Over the central and western districts, the strata lie regularly, and only slightly removed from the horizontal position; bnt on proceeding eastwards, and approaching the chain of the Alleghanies, they become bent ; and ultimately folded and crumpled along lines parallel to the axis of the mountains. Corresponding with this folding of the beds, the coals lose their bituminous properties, and along the western flanks of the mountains occur only as anthracite. The close connection between the crumpling of the coal-seams, and the loss of the volatile constitu-

" Geol. of Pennsylvania.*' The reader wonld do well to refer to the small but very beantifol map of M. Jules Marcon, in Peterman's Mittheilongen,*' vol. vi., 1855.

States Of Nobth Ame9I0A. 399

ents of the coal itself, is strongly marked ; for in proportion as we recede from the axis of disturbance6) the coal-seams become more bitmninous.

The Alleghany Hills consist of a succession of parallel ridges, divided by narrow and deep valleys, corresponding to the folding of the strata. The axis is nearly parallel with the coast of the Atlantic, and reaches at Black Mountain an elevation of 6,476 feet. The geological structure of this remarkable range leads to the conclusion that it has been formed by the exertion of lateral pressure, acting along the Atlantic side, and forcing the strata towards the west, with a power to which geology affords few parallels. In consequence of the structure of the beds, and the subsequent partial denudation, these mountains contain several small troughshaped coal-fields, in which the coal has become metamorphosed, and assumes a columnar structure, the axes of the columns being perpendicular to the planes of bedding. There are also springs of pitch and petroleum," of great value; and

An aceonnt of the dificovery and opening of one of these oil-Bprings at the Tillage of Cnba, in AUeghany County, appeared in the New York Tribune of 8th January, 1861. When a pipe had heen driven down 25 feet, the oil ascended with snch force as to fill a barrel in an hour. Sometimes it was mixed with water. {See Appendix.)

400 Coal-Fielbs Of Other Parts Of The World.

others of brine, containing 10 per cent, of common salt (chloride of sodium), and small quantities of iodine and bromine. Free carburetted hydrogen also bursts forth at the fountains of the country.*

The thickness of some of the coal-seams is in keeping with the vastness of the coal-fields. In consequence of the thinning away of the sedimentary materials westward, several seams are often brought into contact, and form one mass. Thus in the Bear Mountains there has been formed a seam of 40 feet in thickness, which is described by Sir C. LyeU. It is anthracite, and is quarried from the outcrop into the hiU. Sir Charles considers that the thickness of the original mass of vegetable matter, before condensation of pressure, and the discharge of its various gases, may have been from 200 to 300 feet !

The Coal-measures, as in England, rest upon a floor of Carboniferous Limestone, with, in some places. Millstone Grit intervening; the age of the coal-fields in both countries is therefore identical. The fossils of the Carboniferous Limestone are generically the same with those of

Professor Rogers. (From a commonioation to the British Association, 1860.)

Coal-Fields Of Noeth America. 401

Europe — such as SpirifeTy OrthiSj Terebratulay ProducttcSy PentremiteSy and Betepora.

The plants from the Coal-measures are Lepidodendron eleganSy Sigillaria 8illiman% Neuropteris cordata, N. Loshiij Pecopteris lonchiticay Catamites Cistiiy etc., of which all but the second occur in Europe.'

The Jurassic Coal-field of JRichmondy Virginia.

Some miles east of Eichmond a smaU coal-field of 26 miles from north to south, and 12 in its greatest diameter, occupies a depression in the granitic rocks of that part of the country. This coal-field has been shown by Professor Bogers and Sir C. LyeU to be of an age contemporaneous with the Oolitic coal-field of Whitby in Yorkshire, and the plants Equisetum columnare and Pecopteris Whitbyensis are abundant in both places.

The Eichmond coal-field contains several beds of valuable coal, one of which is from 30 to 40 feet in thickness, highly bituminous, and equal to the best coal of Newcastle.

OtJier Coal-fields and Lignite Formations.

In Colorado and New Mexico, Dr. Hayden ad his assistants of the Government Survey

402 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of Thb World.

report the existence of enormotis quantities of coal associated with iron-ore, especially along the base of the Baton hills and Placiere mountains.*

Coal-fields of smaller extent and uncertain age occur, according to M. Marcou, at the sources of the Eio Colorado, in the Utah territory, and on the shores of the Pacific Ocean north of Cape Blanco, t

In Vancouver Island, and on the opposite coast of America, there are extensive deposits of Tertiary and Cretaceous age, bearing beds of lignite and coal, which are extensively worked for the supply of the steamers navigating between Victoria and the Frazer Eiver.J Of this coal, that obtained from Nansimo is admitted to be the best.

Mr. Isbister describes extensive hgnite deposits in the vaUey of the Mackenzie River, probably of the same geological age as those in Vancouver Island. These strata have been traced by Sir J. Richardson from the shores of the Arctic Sea, along the eastern base of the

Report U. S. Survey, 1869.

t GeologischeKarte der Vereingten Staaten," in Peterman's " MitthenuDgeii/' 1855.

t Mr. Bauermaa, " Joum. Geol. Soc," vol. xvi., p. 201. .

Coal-Fields Of North America. 403

Bocky Mountams as far south as lat. 52. The beds of lignite attain a thickness of 9 feet, and are well shown where the Bear Island Eiver flows into the Mackenzie.

Dr. J. Hector, who accompanied Captain J. Palhser's expedition in 1867-60, has determined the Geological age of the lignites of Northwestern America and Vancouver Island to be Cretaceous, though others of inferior quality and of Tertiary age also exist.

The following is a section of the Lignite group obtained by Dr. Hector on the bank of the Saskatchewan Biver, near Fort Edmonton:* —

1. Superficial sand and gravel.

' 7. Lignite, very pure, 8 feet.

9. Lignite, pure and compact, 6 feet thick, with a band of

soap-clay, 6 inches thick.

This bottom bed of lignite was analysed by Mr. Tookey at the Laboratory in the Museum of

For a very interesting account of the Coal-fields of the North Pacific Coast, see Mr. Robert Brown's communication to the Edin. Geol. Soc, 1868-9.

dd2

404 COAL-FIELDS OF OTHEK PABTS OF THE WOMiD.

Practical Geology, and was found to contain about 16 per cent, of ash. Very thick beds of lignite have also been observed on the banks of the Ked Deer Kiver, a tributary of the Saskatchewan. On the importance to British commerce of the coal deposits in British territory on both sides of the Eocky Mountains, Dr. Hector lays just stress, showing that they oflfer a certain inducement towards a route to China and the East by Canada, the Saskatchewan, and British Columbia.

California. — In this auriferous region extensive beds of coal are known to occur, of good quality, at Monte Diabolo, within five or six miles of San Francisco, which is connected with the city by rail. Coal and lignite occur also on Jameson Land, Banks' Land, and Melville Island. In Albert Land, in lat. 78, Sir E. Belcher found bituminous schists with coal, and apparently connected with these strata, limestones with Productus and Spirifer.

Coal-fields of the North Pacific Coast.* — Mr. E. Brown, F.E.G.S., who has had extensive

For a very interesting accoont of the coal-fielcU of the North Pacific Coast, the reader is referred to the communication of Mr. Robert Brown, laid before the Geological Society of Edinburgh, 1868-9.

Coal-Fields Op Nokth Amebica. 406

opportunities of investigation, states that these coal-fields, three in number, extend from the borders of Alaska to Califomia, and belong respectively to the Tertiary, Secondary, and PalsBozoic ages; the last being situated iu Queen Charlotte's Islands, off the northern coast of British Columbia, yields anthracite. The Secondary beds are confined to the Island of Vancouver, and they may be a continuation of the Cretaceous strata of Missouri ; while the Tertiary coal-fields extend from Califomia North-, ward, and through Oregon and Washington Territory, touching the Southern end of Vancouver Island and British Columbia. The following analysis of the native and imported coals ma prove interesting : —

406 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Pabts Of The World.

Co

S

iz;

*nd8Xxo

ogioedg

iS

O O r-i fH r-i O

00kAlOOkOkOC4kO

4 Si

Islands Of Nobth Amebiga. 407

In Disco Island, and the adjoining coast of Greenland, in lat. 70, beds of coal accompanied by plant -remains were brought home by Sir F. L. MClintock, and subsequently by Mr. Whymper. These plant-remains, on being submitted for examination to Professor Heer, of Zurich, were pronounced by him to be referable to the miocene stage of the Tertiary period,*

Tbdodad.

This Island has long been celebrated for its lake of mineral pitch ; but, besides this, it contains beds of coal and lignite, likely to become of considerable economic importance. The very successful survey by Messrs. Wall and SawMns, the Eeport of which has been published, t puts us in possession of all that is at present known. The strata with which the beds of coal are associated belong to the Tertiary period, and are very widely distributed. In the middle of the island there is a thickness of 6ft. lOin. of workable coal, in two beds ; and in the southern section, double that amount in three beds. The

Heer'8 " Flora Fossilis Antarctica," also the Geol. Mag.," July, 1869.

t Report on the Geology of Trinidad,*' Mem. Oeol. Survey, 1860, with maps and sections.

408 Coal-Fields Of Otheb Parts Of The World.

strata, consisting of shales, sands, and carbonaceous clays, which contain these coal-seams, reach a total thickness of about 2,000 feet. They range across the island in parallel zones, and present interesting sections along the coast, very faithful details of which are presented by Mr. Wall. The asphalt is almost invariably disseminated in the newer Parian group, which contains the beds of lignite and a large amount of vegetable matter. It is considered by Mr. Wall to be the result of chemical reaction, conducted under the ordinary temperature of the island, producing bituminous, in place of ordinary anthraxiferous, substances. The bitumen thus developed is exuded at the surface ; and where a natural hollow occurs forms a lake.

The same Tertiary formations, under the term " Newer Parian," have been traced by Mr. Wall on the neighbouring coast of the Continent, and are known to contain lignite and coal at Piaco on the Orinoco, and in the provinces of Barcelona and Coro Mineral pitch is also found in these strata.*

It is proper to observe that these Tertiary lignites are inferior in economic value to the coal

Mr. WaD, Jonm. Geol. Soc. vol. xvL

Islands Of North America. 409

of the true Carboniferous formations of Europe and North America ; and so long as these latter are shipped in suflficient quantity into the West Indian Islands, the fossil fuel of Trinidad is not likely to be largely worked.*

In 1859, DO less than 99,100 tons of coal were shipped into the British West Indies from Chreat Britain.

Chaptee Vi.

Coal-Fields Of South America.

Empire of Brazil. — The Province of Eio Grande do Sul, at the southern extremity of this great empire, is now known to be exceedingly rich in mineral fuel. According to the observations of Mr. N. Plant, there are three distinct coal-basins contained within the limits of lat. 30' and 32' S., long. 61' and 64' W., and are separated from each other by roUing hills of granite and schist, with trachytic and basaltic rocks. The largest of these basins occupies the valleys of the Jaguarao and Candiota, and the strata consisting of sandstone at the top, and shale, coal, and limestone below, dip southward at an angle of 10' to 15'.

The following section is exposed in the escarpment of the Sierra Partida, in this basin, as given

Coal-Fields Of South America.

by Mr. N. Plant, F.G.S.; the beds in descending order : —

No.

Vt.

In.

Ferraginotu sandstone

Sandy shale

Coal .

White shale with plants .

Coal

Parting of hlae clay .

Coal

Shale vith fossils

Coal

Shales with ironstone and ferns resting on sandstone.

The second basin lies in the valley of the Sao Sepe, one of the tributaries of the river Jacnahy, in about lat. 30° 20', long. 63' 30'. Two distinct beds of coal, one 7 feet, and the other 14 feet thick, appear in this locality, underlying sandstone, apparently the same as that which overlies the coal of the Candiota valley.

The third basin is near the town of Sao Jeronjnmo, on the banks of the Jacuahy, lat. 30°, long. 5T 30'. Here the coal has been for some time extensively worked by Mr. J. Johnson. The sections of the strata show deposits similar to those of Candiota. At a depth of 19 yards is a bed . of bituminous coal 6 feet thick, below which are others interstratified with shales and ironstone.

412 Coal-Fields Of Other Pabts Of The World.

Carboniferous deposits also occur in the province of Santa Catherina. About 46 miles N.W. of the seaport of Lagana, the basin is intersected by the river Tubarao and its tributaries. In this basin, five seams from 18 inches to 10 feet have been met with, underlying a sandstone formation.

Banda Orientaly or Urtuguay. — The coal-bearing formation of Southern Brazil is continued into this Eepublic, and the succession of the beds is stated by Mr. Plant to be similar to that above described. Along the head waters of the Eio Negro beds of shale and coal are overlaid by a thick deposit of sandstone.*

Geological Age of tJie South Brazilian Coalformation. — special interest attaches to these deposits, as they appear to belong to the true Carboniferous period of North America and Britain, which is thus represented south of the equator by a parity of coal-bearing rocks. The plant remains obtained by Mr. Plant from the shales associated with the coal-seams of Candiota, were submitted to Mr. W. Carruthers, F.E.S., of the British Museum, who has been able to determine three species, and to recognise more vaguely a

Coal-Fields Of South America. 413

number of other forms, all of which belong to PalaBozoio genera, while the species occur in the Coal-measures of Great Britain. The genera observed are Flemingites (Carr.), OdontopteriSj and Noeggerathia.

The existence of these deposits of mineral fuel is calculated to be a source of considerable wealth to a portion of the empire, whose enlightened ruler is ever ready to advance the interests of science, and to extend the social and commercial prosperity of his people.

Chile. — Tertiary strata, containing beds of "brown-coal," are foimd along the coast of Chile, forming several httle detached basins, and resting on a basis of metamorphic schists and intrusive rocks. + The most important district is that lyiQg between Concepcion and Valdivia, which contains the two largest collieries of the country, those .of Coronel Puchoco and Lota ; from which the best coal is derived.

According to the report of Mr. BoUaert, the Lota coal is largely used in the steam-navigation

Geol. Mag., April, 1869, 151-6 (with plate).

t We have accotints of these strata by Mr. 0. Darwin, " Geological Observations in S. America," 1864 ; by Mr. W. BoUaert, " Observ. on the Coal-formation of Chile," Journ. R. Geog. Soc, zzv., 172 ; and by Messrs. G. A. Lebonr and W. Mnndle, Geol. Mag., vol. vii., 499 (1870).

414 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

of the Chilian coast, as also in copper-smelting, iron-foundries, and for domestic purposes. The Lota coal-field is estimated to contain 40 millions of tons, and the Coronel, double that quantity.

A detailed section of the coal-series at Coronel is given by Mr. W, Mundle, throughout a depth of 587 feet, which shows a series of sandstones and shales, with 9 seams of coal, or lignite, some of which are workable. The eighth seam from the top, nearly 5 feet in thickness, is described as a very good, hard, and clean coal," which, however, it ought to be remarked, is inferior in quality to true Carboniferous coal of Britain or America. The following are the analyses of these coals : —

Talcahuano

Lota

Dr. Playfair.

Ur. AbeL

Ash

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

'

Sulphur

Nitrogen .

On the age of these beds some diflference of opinion exists ; along with representatives of Tertiary genera, such as Voluta Bullay etc., there are Cretaceons genera, such as Ammonites

Goal-Fields Of South America. 415

(fragments of one specimen), and Baculites. On this gromid, M. A. D'Orbigny has contended for the Cretaceous age of these carbonaceous depositSy while Mr. C. Darwin thinks it to be one " verging on the commencement of the Tertiaryera."

Mr. Bollaert states that coal, similar to that of Chile, has been' observed along the Straits of Magellan, and indications of it 30 miles south of Valparaiso.*

Supra cit.f p. 175.

Chaptee Vii.

Annual Production Of Coal In Tabious Countries.

Tons.

„ British Possessions ' . . . 1,500,000

Japan, China, Borneo, Australia (estimated) . 8,000,000

1 " Mineral Statistics," by Mr. R. Hunt, F.R.S. (1870). Mr. R. Hunt. ' Estimated.

Situation de I'lndustrie Huillere (Paris).

Zeitschrift f. das Berg-Hutten, 1870.

Herren Kottig und Hartig, "Die Steinkohlen Deuchlands"(1866).

" Dr. Oldham, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India vol. vii.

Annual Production Op Coal. 417

Germany also produces considerable quantities of brown-coal, returned at 6,116,521 tons in 1870. The quantities above stated being such as were accessible to the author, though not always the latest returns, will serve to show the relative proportions of mineral fuel raised in foreign countries. Since the dates to which they refer, the quantities have probably increased from 10 to 20 per cent., and in a few years hence the out-put from some countries above named will, doubtless, be doubled.

The annual increase in the production of coal since the year 1864, is nearly three millions of tons. I do not go farther back, because it is doubtful whether much reliance is to be placed on estimates advanced by several authorities earher than that year, when the " Mineral Statistics" of Great Britain, collected by Mr. E. Hunt, were pubHshed. The following are the estimates obtained through this source; and it will be observed that the increase is by no means uniform : —

Coal-produce of Great Britain, 1864 — 70.

Tons. England and Wales 67,064,661

Total 64,661,401

E £

418 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

Tons.

Total 64,458,070

Total 66,645,450

Total 66,876,706

Scotland 8,926,249

Ireland 120,750

Total 66,109,608

Scotland 10,800,000

Ireland 120,800

Total 71,979,765

J England, Wales, Ireland . . . 78,142,198

Total 84,042,698

Total 86,419,941

Total 81,688,888

Annual Production Of Coal. 419

Tons.

Total 86,292,215

Total 92,787,878

Total 98,150,587

Total 101,754,294

Total 104,500,480

Total 108,141,157

(leland ...'..' 127,923

Total 107,427,557

s B 2

420 Coal-Fields Of Other Parts Of The World.

Tona.

! England and Wales 95,355,169 Scotland 14,984,558 Ireland 141,470

Total 110,481,192

The following is a summary of the coal-produce of the British coal-fields for 1870, according to the returns collected by Mr. Hunt —

Coal-produce of the United Kingdom — 1870.

Tons. Durham and Northumberland . . 27,618,589

Cumberland 1,408,285

Yorkshire 10,606,604

Derbyshire 5,102,265

Nottinghamshire 2,115,872

Warwickshire 647,540

Leicestershire 599,450

Staffordshire and Worcestershire . . 18,280,062 Lancashire 18,810,600

Cheshire 929,150

Shropshire 1,848,300

Gloucestershire and Somersetshire . 1,955,910

Monmouthshire 4,864,842

South Wales 9,299,770

North Wales 2,829,080

Scotland 14,984,558

Ireland 141-,470

Total 110,481,192

Number of Collieries, 2,851.

The export of British coal to foreign parts is

Mineral Statistics of the United Eangdom for 1870, Mem. Geol. Survey, by Mr. R. Hunt, F.R.S.

Annual Pboduction Op Coal. 421

very large, being over ten millions of tons annually. The Commissioners consider, with reference to this item of expenditure of our coal, that it is not likely to materially increase, as the foreign drain must ultimately be met by the development of the coal-fields which are distributed over so large a portion of the earth's surface, including those of India, China, Austraha and New Zealand, and North and South America.*

Report of the Royal Coal-Commission, vol. i.

Paet Iv.

Chaptee I.

An Inquiry Into The Physical Limits Of Deep Coal- Mining.

The reader will have observed that tie limit of depth adopted in the estimates of the workable quantity of coal in the individual coal-fields and adjoining districts has been 4,000 feet, notwithstanding that there are hundreds of square miles stored with coal at greater depths than this, which have been estimated by the Eoyal Commissioners to amount to no less than 48,466 millions of tons.* Now, it so happens that this limit of 4,000 feet, which I adopted in 1860, on grounds stated in the first and second editions of this work, has also been adopted by the Eoyal Commissioners, as the greatest depth to which

The quantity obtained by adding the amount of 7,842,000,000 tons included in the known coal-fields, to 41,144,000,000 tons in districts overspread by newer formations. — Beport, vol. i., pp. ix. and xvii.

AN INQUmY INTO DEEP COAL-MINING. 423

mining operations are ever likely to extend. This conourremce of views on a subject bearing so directly upon tlie question of the exhaustion of our coal-resources is gratifying to myself, and will probably be regarded by the public at large as a ground of confidence in the conclusions arrived at by me and the Commissioners.

The two main impediments to the prosecution of mining operations at great depths are the increase of temperature in the strata themselves, and of the pressure due to the weight of the strata ; but as the latter obstacle is capable of being overcome in most cases, especially imder the " long-wall system " of mining, it may be omitted from consideration and we may concentrate our observations on the subject of the increase of temperature alone.

That the temperature of the earth's crust increases as we descend from the surface, is a question which has been determined in the affirmative by observations extending over a large portion of the land-surface itself. It is, however, to be observed, that, compared to the radius of the earth, these observations reach only a very

The Report of the Goal-Commission scarcely alludes to this subject, and it is probable that the Commissioners did not consider it necessary seriously to entertain it.

424 An Inqtjiey Into Deep Coal-Mining.

small depth; nevertheless, they are perfectly sufficient for determining the problem, as far as it is calculated to influence the question of deep mining ; and, in order to put the reader in possession of the evidence as derived from direct observation, the following cases of special interest may be here cited : —

The first of these is the experiment at the Puits de GreneUe, near Paris, the particulars of which are stated by Arago and Humboldt.* The water ascends from the Greensand formation, which outcrops at Lusigny, south-east of Paris. The depth of the weU from the surface is 1,903 Enghsh feet, and 1,676 feet below the level of the sea. The temperature of the spring is 81-96 Fahr., and the rate of increase is F. for every 68*9 EngUsh feet.

At Neu-Saltzwerk, in WestphaKa, a boring was commenced at a height of 232 feet above the level of the sea, and it reached an absolute depth of 2,286 feet. Its temperature is 91 04' Fahr., and as the mean annual temperature of the air at Neu-Saltzwerk is about 28' Fahr., we may

Cosmos,*' Sabine's Trans., vol. iv., p. 85. — See also Mr. W. Hopkins* Essay in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. cxlvii. This eminent authority considered the increase of temperature at an average of V F. for every 60 feet, as having been satisfactorily established.

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining. 426

infer an increase of temperature of 1"* for 54-72 English feet, or 1" Cent, for 92-4 Paris feet.

The boring of the well at Neu-Saltzwerk, as compared with that of Grenelle, has a greater absolute depth by 491 French, or 491 English feet, and a greater relative depth below the level of the sea of 354 French, or 377 English feet ; and the temperature of its water is 5° 1' Cent., or 9° 18' Fahr. higher. The rate of increase of temperature in the shallower well at Paris is nearly 1-14 less rapid than in the deeper well at Neu-Saltzwerk. This observation is important, as it is sometimes supposed that the rate of increase diminishes in a constant ratio as the depth increases.

Near Geneva, an artesian boring to a depth of 724 English feet, gave an increase of V Fahr. for every 55 feet. The locality is at an elevation of 1,600 feet above the level of the sea.

At Mondorflf, in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, an artesian boring, of great interest, owing to the number of formations through which it penetrated, gave a result of Fahr. for every 57 feet. The details were as follows : —

AN INQUIBY INTO DEEP COAL-MININa.

Mefcrae.

Lias

Old schistose rocks .

Total

An extensive series of experiments carried on in the mines of Cornwall, by Mr. E. Were Fox,* has induced that gentleman to arrive at the conclusion that the increase of temperature progresses in a diminishing ratio, and Mr. E. Hunt adopts a similar view, founded on observations in the same district. Difficult as it is to conceive, and far more to account for, such a result, which would appear to show that as we approach the source of the heat the heat itself decreases, yet it cannot be denied that the results obtained by these observers (if taken by themselves) seem to favour the conclusions at which they have arrived. The following is a synopsis of Mr. Fox's experiments : —

temperature of 60 at 59 fathoms below the surface. 70° at 182 „ 80° at 289

Beport, British Association, vol. ix.

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining. 427

Being an increase of —

lO"" at 59 fathoms deep, or l"" in 86*4 feet

of 10° at 78 „ deeper, or T in 48-8 „ and of 10'' at 114 „ still deeper, or V in 64*2 „

The deepest observations were taken in the Tresavean mine in 1837, at the following depths : —

262 fathoms 1,572 feet . 82-5''

Same depth in another lode . . . 86*8°

„ in a third lode . . . 92-P

Mean temperature for 1,740 feet . 87*9

Mr. Hunt has found the temperature 'as high as 100'' at a depth of 320 fathoms in this mine.

Allowing due weight to opinions coming from these observers, I cannot accept as of universal application an hypothesis of the increase of temperature in a "diminishing ratio. It does not appear to be in harmony with the results obtained on the Continent, where the increase of temperature in the deeper well of Neu- Saltzwerk is 1-14 more rapid than in the shallower well of Grenelle. Nor can it be reconciled with the observations in Dukinfield Colliery (about to be given in detail), where the increase in the uppermost strata, down to 270 yards, is 1"* for 88 feet, and in the lowest down to 685 yards, 1' for 65-6 feet.

428 An Inquirt Into Deep Coal-Mining.

Professor Phillips has made observations on the temperature at the Monkwearmouth Colliery, which have shown an increase of about l"* for every 60 feet.

Duhinfield Colliery, — The experiments lately carried out by Mr. Astley, during the progress of sinking the Dukinfield Colliery, are perhaps the most valuable of any hitherto undertaken in this country. Through the kindness of Dr. Fairbaim, of Manchester, I have been suppKed with the whole of the details, which I here insert at length. The observations were conducted with great care. The thermometer was inserted in a dry bore-hole, and removed as far as possible from the influence of the air in the shaft, and left in its bed for a length of time, varying from half an hour to two hours. The results also carry 'with them more than usual importance, from the fact that they extend downwards to a depth of 2,055 feet, with an additional observation made in the open workings, at 120 yards from the shaft, and at a depth of 2,151 feet.

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining.

THEBMOlfETBICAL ObSEBYATIONS IN THE DUKINFIELD COLLIEBY, ChEBHIBE, BETWEEN 1848 AND 1859.*

Date.

Depth in Yards.

Temperature Fahr.

Description of Stratum.

July 28th

Red rock— no variation.

l8t

Blue shale— wet

12th

ditto dry hole

16th

ditto ditto

July 14th

16th

ditto ditto

27th

ditto ditto

August 9th

ditto ditto

25th

ditto water

27th

ditto ditto

ditto ditto

November 14th

Blue shale— -dry

15th

ditto ditto

22nd

58

Bitiuninous shale— dry

January 9th

Strong warrant earth Rock bands

26th

February 11th

Coal roof

19th

Warrant earth

March 5th

Purple mottled shale

June 9th

Warrant earth

August 14th

Tender blue shale

November 7th

Coal roof

19th

Rock bands

February 6th

Black shale

May 28th

February 28th

Strong fire-clay

Sandstone— dnr hole

March 7th

Shale

April 11th

Sandstone

May 6th

Blue shale

19th

Strong shale

June 9th

Warrant earth

22nd

Blue shale

27th

Coal and earth

July 18th

Qrey sandstone

These observations are published by Dr. Fairbaim, F.R.S.| in the Report of the British Association for 1861.

An Inquiby Into Deep Coal-Mining.

THERMOSnSTBICAL OBSERVATIONS, ETC. (ConHnUSd.)

Date.

Depth in Yards.

Temperature Fahr.

August Ist

15th

ditto wet hole

September 2nd

ditto ditto

19th

ditto ditto

October 8rd

Grey rock— dry hole Coal roof —wet hole

17th

27th

Coal floor ditto

March 22iid 29th

Strong shale — dry Dark-blue shale

April 23rd

Shale— diy hole ditto ditto

May 1st

19th

ditto ditto

June 9th

Bituminous shale— dry hole

19ih

Grey rock

July 17th

Blue shale

2l8t

do. do.

March 5th*

"Black Mine" Coal roof

1. The first observation gives 51° as the invariable temperature throughout the year at a depth of 17 feet.f Between 231 yards and 270 yards, the temperature was nearly uniform at 58*0, and the increase from the surface would be at the rate of 1" F. for 88 feet.

In workings at 120 yards down engine incline from the shaft.

t This observation for the position of the invariable stratum is probably not reliable. The depth ought to be greater, but its accurate determination requires a series of observations which could not well have been made in the present instance.

Ic

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining. 431

2. Between 270 and 309 yards, the increase was at the rate of for 62*4 feet.

3. Between 309 and 419 yards, the increase was at the rate of for 60 feet.

4. Between 419 and 613 yards, the increase was at the rate of 1"* for 86-91 feet.

5. Between 613 and 685 yards, the increase was at the rate of l"* for 65-6 feet.

6. The last observation, taken in the mine itself, at 120 yards from the pit, is valuable, as showing that the temperature of the air does not greatly differ from that of the surrounding strata.

The result of the whole series of observations (making allowance for the doubt regarding the first observation) gives an increase of about V for every 80 feet, which is a less rapid increase than that exhibited by the generahty of experiments. But before discussing the cause of this abnormally slow rate of increase I wish the reader to become acquainted with the experiments of not less interest and value made at another colliery near Wigan, and extending to a still greater depth.

Bose Bridge Colliery Wigan. — The following observations in the temperature of the strata during the progress of sinking the pits of Bose Bridge Colliery, at Ince, near Wigan, now the

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining.

deepest mine in Britain, have been communicated to the author by Mr. Bryham, the manager, by whom they were carried out. They differ materially from those of Dukinfield just described.*

Thebmometbical Observations at Bose Bbidge Colliebt.

Date.

Depth, in

strata.

Tempera- Temperature ture

Yaids.

in open

pit.

m soua strata.

op

F.

July 1854

Blue shale

August 1854

Warrant earth

May 1858

Blue shale

July 1858

Warrant earth

May 18, 1868

"Raven "coal

July 24, 1868 ...

Strong shle

April 19, 1869 ...

"Yard Coal "mine...

November 18, 1868

Strong blue metal ...

February 22, 1869

Do.

m

March 12, 1869 ...

Shale

April 17, 1869 ...

Linn and wool, or

strong shale

May 8, 1869

Strong shale

May 19, 1869

Blue metal

July 8, 1869

Strong blue shale ...

July 16, 1869 ...

Assuming the surface temperatm-e to be 49°, we have on the whole depth of 815 yards, or 2,445 feet, an increase of 46"*, which is at the rate of -0184 of a degree per foot, or one degree for

These observations with a complete section of the strata to a depth of 816 yards from the smface, are given in the " Third Beport of the Committee on Underground Temperature," Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1870.

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining. 433

every 54-3 feet, as against one degree for every 80 feet at Dukinfield.

Cause of difference in rate of increase. — With strata so nearly similar, and in two neighbouring counties, we should scarcely have expected so much diflference in the mean rates of increase downwards. In this respect, Eose Bridge agrees nearly with the average results obtained elsewhere ; Dukinfield far surpasses all other deep mines or wells, so far as our present records extend, in slowness of increase.*

In a paper pubKshed in the Proceedings of the Koyal Society of London, I have endeavoured to show that the cause of the discrepancy in the results obtained at the two localities is due to the differences in the position of the strata in each case. At Eose Bridge the beds are nearly horizontal,, at Dukinfield they are inclined at an angle varying from 30"* to rising and cropping out to the eastward. Now, strata of various kinds, such as alternating sandstones, shales, clays, and coal, with different conducting powers, must oflfer more resistance to the transmission of heat in a direction across, than parallel to, their planes of bedding; for Mr. Hopkins has

IHd, p. 82.

p p

434 AN IKQUntT INTO DEEP COAL-MINING.

shown, that every sudden change of material is equivalent to an increase of resistance ; and it is obvious that highly-inclined strata, such as those at DuMnfield, famish a path by which internal heat can travel obhquely upwards and outwards, without being interrupted by these breaches of continuity. On the other hand, deep-seated horizontal strata, like those of Bose Bridge, offer a succession of resisting surfaces to the upward passage of internal heat.

As, therefore, the rate of increase of temperature is inversely proportional to the upward flow of the heat, we have here a solution of the results arrived at in the cases before us.* To this may be added, that inclined strata famish great facilities for the convection of heat by the flow of water along the planes of junction.

The general inference which may be drawn from the cases just described, as far as they bear upon the temperature of coal-mines, is this : that in those districts where the strata are highly inclined (at angles varying from 30'' — 60°), the underground temperature will be less than in the case of those where the strata are in a position approaching the horizontal.

Proc. Royal Society, 1870, vol. rviii., p. 175.

AN INQUIBY IKTO DEEP COAL-MININa. 435

Mean Result. — The illustrations already adduced wiU probably be considered sufficient to show that the increase of temperature is a reality, which becomes a sensible obstacle at a shghtly ' variable depth ; and will have to be encountered and overcome by artificial means when the depth exceeds 800 or 900 yards. On this point the Commissioners on Coal-resources have arrived at the conclusion that at a depth of 1,000 yards (3,000 feet) the temperature of the earth would amount to Under " the long-waU system " of working, a difference of about T appears tp exist between the temperature of the air and that of the working faces, and this difference represents a further depth of 420 feet ; so that the depth at which the temperature of the air would, under the present conditions, become equal to the . heat of the blood, would be about 3,420 feet. Beyond this point the considerations affecting increase of depth become so speculative, that the Commissioners leave them in uncertainty; but they consider it may be fairly assumed that a depth of at least 4,000 feet may ultimately be reached in coal-mining.*

In reviewing the evidence laid before them by

Report, vol. i., p. 88.

F p 2

436 Ak Inquibt Into Deep Coal-Uining.

several gentlemen of experience, the Commissioners have come to the conclusion that the rate of increase may, for ordinary cases, be assumed to be 1"* F. for every 60 feet. From this mean result there will be variations, as in the case of Dukinfield and Eose Bridge ; one of which gives a less rapid, the other a more rapid, rate of increase. Assuming, however, the rate as above stated, it is necessary to determine the temperature to which the addition of for 60 feet is to be made, in order to calculate the temperature at different depths ; in other words, the position of the " invariable stratum.''

Now, it has been found that at a certain depth, varying from 30 to 60 feet, the temperature remains the same all the year round; and is nearly that of the mean annual temperature of the air. The depth of this "invariable stratum," according to Humboldt, depends upon the latitude of the place (increasing from the equator towards the poles), on the conducting power of the rock, and on the amount of difference between the temperatures of the hottest and coldest seasons. At Greenwich, the mean temperature is 49"6*' ; and in the deepest of several underground thermometers, 26 feet from the surface, the extreme variations were (1868) from

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining.

48-85" to 62-27", giving a mean of 60-66"— a result, differing by only half a degree from that of Dukinfield Colliery, obtained ten years earlier.*

We may therefore adopt 60*6" as the standard of departure — or in other words the temperature of no variation at a depth of 60 feet underground.

But there is an additional element tending to raise the heat m deep mines ; namely, the increased density of the air. The effect of this will be greatest when the air is stagnant; but when there is a rapid circulation of the aircurrent it will probably be small,, and may be disregarded.!

The following Table gives the maximum temperature at the various depths according to the average rate of 1" Fahr. for 60 feet : —

Table showing theoretical

inci'ease of Temperature.

Depth in Feet.

Increase of

Temperature due

to depth.

Depth in Feet.

Increase of

Temperature due

to depth.

Greenwich Observations " for 1858. f This element has not been noticed by the Commissioners, though I drew attention to it in the second edition of this work.

438 An Inquiby Into Deep Coal-Mining.

From the above Table it will be observed, that at a depth of 3,000 feet the temperature of the strata exceeds that of blood heat, and that were it not for the eflfects of ventilation in reducing the temperature, the limits of coal-mining would be circumscribed within this depth.

Ventilation. — To effective ventilation, however, we must look for ability to win those seams which Ke within the additional thousand feet of strata, and as to what extent this is likely to be accomplished we have already some valuable evidence. In reference to the effect of the heated walls of the rock on the ventilating aircurrent, the Commissioners remark as follows — When cool air enters a heated mine it absorbs heat from the surfaces of the passages through which it flows, and the rate of this absorption somewhat exceeds the ratio of the difference between the temperature of the air and that of the surrounding surface with which it is in contact. By the absorption which thus takes place the air is heated, and this heating process is

From this I infer that the Commissioners did not consider the increased density of the air in a well-ventilated mine as calculated materially to increase the temperature.

Report, vol. i., p. 82 (Committee A, of which Sir W. C. Armstrong, C.B., was chairman).

An Inquibt Into Deep Coal-Mining. 439

most rapid at first, when the difference of temperature is greatest, and gradually diminishes as the length of the passage is extended, never ceasing until complete assimilation of the temperature is effected. The progress towards assimilation is more rapid when the air comes in contact with the working face of the coal, which, from being newly exposed, is more highly heated than the surfaces of the permanent air courses. The rapidity, however, with which the air takes up the heat from the working face depends in a great degree upon the system of working. In the cellular system, called pillar and stall," the air seems to acquire almost immediately the foil temperature of the coal; but under the " long-wall " system there are instances of the air retaining a considerable inferiority of temperature after sweeping past the working face.

Temperature of Air-current. — The experiments made by Mr. Bryham, the Manager of Kose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan, for the purpose of determining the rate of increase of temperature of the air-current while flowing through the passages of a deep mine, are of much interest. They are taken at the respective depths of 300 and 600 yards, and at different periods of the year, and axe as follows

Ak Inquiby Into Deep Coal-Mining.

Obsebyatioks on Temperatubeb of Aib Cubrsmts, etc., at Rose Bbidob Colliebt, Wioan. Temperature at Surface in Shade, 56

Date.

Sept.

zm

5 a

J

Distance

travelled by the

current.

8 yards out of current

Temperature at Surface

in Shade, 42

Mar.l8tb

Main intake, f Taken in Dimib

Drift; distance tra- , veiled 2,200 yards

„

Distance traveUed, 2,400 yards.

Distance travelled, 8,140 yards.

It

Distance travelled, 1,900 yaids. 4 yards out of main

intake air.

Barometer in Cannel Mine (600 yards) 80-6, at surface 28*8.

The above experiments bring out many points of interest. 1. We cannot but be struck with the enormous amount of caloric continually being

AN INQUntT INTO DEEP COAL-MIKINa. 441

carried off from the mine. Thus, in one of the experiments, it is shown that at a depth of 600 yards, a current of air equal to 21 cubic feet per minute, passes off from the mine warmer than it entered, after circulating through 3,140 yards. 2. It will be observed that the surface temperflture, depending upon the season of the year, materially affects the temperature of the whole mine ; and, if the extreme temperatures of summer and winter had been observed, the results would doubtless have been proportionate. Thus, with a surface temperature of 66 the return air is with 1,600 yards of circulation, while with a surface temperature of the return air is only 67-5** with 1,900 yards. 3. The increase of heat received by the air while passing down the shaft appears to be considerable. Thus in a depth of 300 yards the increase was 69-5 — 56 3-5", and in a depth of 600 yards the increase was 60*5 — 56 4*5'' in September, and 60-75 — 42 8-75 in March. Lastly: Several observations show how powerful is the aircurrent in moderating the temperature; for, whenever the thermometer was placed beyond its influence, the mercury immediately ascended. All these points bear directly upon the question of deep mining.

442 .iN IKQUIBT INTO DEEP COAL-MINING.

Effects of the Seasons. — It might have been supposed that the influence of the comparatively colder air of winter and warmer air of summer would be felt throughout the workings of a coalmine, but the Commissioners have come to a different conclusion upon the evidence offered them on this subject. All the witnesses examined agreed in stating that summer and winter make no difference in the temperature of the air in mines, except at short distances from the shaft. This is due to the fact, that great disparity of temperature is rapidly reduced when the air comes in contact with the air passages : thus, very cold air upon entering the mine rapidly absorbs the heat of the strata, and the greater the difference of temperature the more rapid is the absorption. I am, therefore, induced to abandon an opinion which I formerly held, that air at a low winter temperature might be, in some cases, rendered available for mines which in the summer months might become unworkable.

Effect of the increased circulation of Aircurrent. — On this subject the evidence offered chiefly by Mr. Lindsay Wood, of Hetton Hall ; Mr. J. J. Atkinson, of Chilton Moor; and Mr. John Knowles, of Pendlebury; has tended to show that little change of temperature is effected

An Ikquiby Into Deep Coal-Mining. 443

by increasing the circulation of the air in the passages of the mine. From the tabulated statement given in the report, it appears that in one case observed at Hetton Collieries, when the distance from the shaft was from 2,296 to 2,925 yards, the difference between temperature of the strata and of the air was only 2°, while the volume of air in circulation was 22,400 cubic feet in one case, and 11,400 in another.

Mr. Wood has shown by a table the gradual approximation of the temperature of the air to that of the strata through a distance of 3,422 yards; and he found that at that distance no perceptible difference took place in the temperature of the current when reduced from 41,800 cubic feet to 3,000 per minute.

Effect of Humidity or Dryness of the Air. — The question of the maximum temperature of air which is compatible with healthful labour is an exceedingly difficult one to determine, and the Commissioners had evidence laid before them showing that in some cases human labour had been carried on at temperatures as high as 180"* Fahr. ; but it was observed, that in these cases the thermometer indicated radiant heat, and not that of the surrounding air. Upon one question, however, the "witnesses were unanimous.

44A: An Inquiby Into Deep Coal-Mining.

that a high temperature was endurable very much in proportion to the dryness of the air ; while, on the other hand, where it was saturated with moisture, the same degree of temperature became intolerable.

Now, it is a matter of general observation, that in deep mines the ah-is comparatively dry. The water, which is generally present, often in large quantities, in shallow mines gradually lessens in quantity as we descend, and at depths of 500 or 600 yards ceases altogether. The air, therefore, which circulates through the passages of deep mines gradually parts with its moisture while it rises in temperature, and passes into a state agreeable to the human system, and conducive to health. The hygrometric condition of the air in deep mines may, therefore, be regarded as in some measure tending to counterbalance the effects of a high temperature, and to render possible healthful labour at great depths from the surface.

The following Table of observations on this subject are of much interest, and are extracted from the Keport of the Koyal Commissioners : —

An Inquibt Into Deep Coal-Minino.

ti.

iOOU3popOUdOtfdpOpOG40iOOOpOp

tJ-O

.a

g

o

J

Digitized byCjOOQlC

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining.

d

p

r

a

It

o

CO 00 r-t O 00 b" o p eo 00 CO p p

p kO p p p p

JS ci CO CO o

c4* ©foCci'of d' r-T p'p-Ti-T

J-g5

B

Si&#x27;S

as'

Ijg

An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining. 447

Effects of Pressure. — It is impossible to speak with certainty of the eflfect of the accumulative weight of 3,000 or 4,000 feet of strata on mining operations. In all probability, one effect would be to increase the density of the coal itself, and of its accompanying strata, and so to increase the difficulty of excavating. Coal-mining labours under a disadvantage not felt in mining other minerals, namely, the impossibility in general of haviDg recourse to blasting. The increased firmness of the strata will most assuredly be felt; but the question whether its resistance will prove beyond the powers of manual skill and mechanical contrivances to surmount, can only be solved by actual experience. I am informed by Mr. Bryham, that from his experience the density of coal-seams is not perceptibly greater at 600 ox 600 yards than at half that depth; at the same time, m Dukinfield Colliery, where the Black Mine is now being worked at a depth of about 2,600 feet, the pressure is so resistless as to crush in circular arches of brick four feet in thickness, and in one case, a pillar of cast iron 12 inches square, supporting a roof of only seven feet in extent was snap in twaiQ

As I was informed by Mr. Seddon, the cmderlooker.

448 An Inquiry Into Deep Coal-Mining.

In the face of these two obstacles — temperature and pressure, ever increasing with the depth — I have considered it Utopian to include in calculations having reference to coal-supply, any quantity, however considerable, which Ues at a greater depth than 4,000 feet. Beyond that depth, I do not believe it will be found practicable to penetrate. Nature rises up and presents insurmountable barriers.

Chapter Ii.

The Duration Op Our Coal-Supply.

When in 1860 I attempted to calculate the quantity of British coal, and arrived at the conclusion that there were 79,843 millions of tons, down to a depth of 4,000 feet, I was able to assure the pubKo that there was sufficient coal to last, at the rate of production for that year, for one thousand years. Ten years later the Royal Commissioners, appointed under an Act of Parliament, by a division of labour, and with facilities which no private individual could command, made another and more detailed series of estimates, and reinimed the quantity at nearly double the amount arrived at by myself within the same limit of depth, namely, 146,480 millions of tons. The discrepancy in the two results being chiefly due (1) to the Commissioners having included in their calculation coal-seafns between one and two feet in thickness, purposely omitted by

a a

460 The Dubation Op Oub Coal-Supply. .

myself ; (2) to the Commissioners having made a smaller deduction for waste and loss in the working of the coal; and (3) to the Conmiissioners having boldly estimated the quantities under certain districts overspread by formations newer than the Carboniferous, which I hesitated to deal with, not because I doubted the existence of the coal there, but from a fear of overstating the case. With the course adopted by the Commissioners, in the two last cases, I now folly concur ; but I still object to the comprehension of seams under 24 inches in thickness in estimates of the available quantities at great depths.

The propriety, or the contrary, of this course on the part of the Commissioners does not, however, very materially affect the question of the coal-resources of Britain and the duration of our coal-supply ; and it must be satisfactory to the nation at large to be assured of the existence of such vast quantities of mineral fael reserved for future use on the authority of eminent men, who gratuitously undertook the laborious task confided to them by their Queen and country.

Annual Increase of Consumption of Goal. — With reference, however, to the question of the duration of our coal-supply, the Commissioners cautiously avoid giving a definite answer, for the

The Dubation Op Oub Coal-Supply. 461

excellent reason, that it is a question to which a definite answer cannot be given. We know, indeed, the extent of ottr resources in millions of tons, but we know not the extent of the future drain upon these resources. The drain upon our coal-fields, however, is increasing year by year, and will doubtless continue to increase for a long time to come. This is due to several causes ; let us examine a few of them.

1 . The present consumption of coal for domestic use has been estimated by Mr. Eobert Hunt, at one ton per head of the whole population, and may be assumed to absorb nearly one-third of the entire quantity raised from the mines. It is thought probable by the Commissioners that this rate will continue pretty constant ; and the fature increase of consumption under this head may, therefore, be expected to coincide with the increase of population.

Now, although the population of the island is annually increasing, yet it has been ascertained that the increase is taking place at a diminishing rate ; for between the years 1811 and 1821 the increase was 16 per cent.; while during the last decade, between 1861 and 1871, the increase was only at the rate of 11*75 per cent.

But while the population is increasing in a

G o 2

462 The Dubation Of Oub Coal-Bupply.

diminishing ratio, the rate of increase of coal consumption — though irregular, on an average of the increase of the last 14 years, amounts to nearly 3 per cent, per annum. This increase is attributable chiefly to two causes : first, the town population, which represents the chief coal consuming portion, is increasing in a far more rapid ratio than the population of the kingdom generally ; and secondly, the extension of machinery and the improvements for encouraging labour, cause the consumption of coal for productive purposes to be constantly increasing in relation to the number of persons employed in manufactures.*

Professor Jevons, who has written a most important work on the duration of our coal supply,! has shown that every improvement for the economising of labour has resulted in increasing the consumption of coal ; and he contends, that coal being the source of power, and being required for every great extension of industry, the consumption of it must keep pace with the progress of population, and the extension of manufactures

Beport of the Goal-CommissioDers, vol. i., xv. In 1855, the amount of coal consumed per head of the population was only 2.tons 14 cwts., while in 1869 it amounted to 8 tons, 17 cwts., 1 qr.

t The Coal Question," by W. Stanley Jevons (1866).

The Duration Op Our Ooal-Supplt. 463

and industrial pursuits. Applying his views to the fature consumption of coal, he anticipated in 1865, that in the present year (1871) the consumption would be found to amount to 118,000,000 tons, as against 83,600,000 tons in 1861. Now, in 1870, the quantity consumed was 110,431,192 tons, and taking the yearly rate of the increase at three millions of tons, the amount for the present year (1871) will be upwards of one hundred and thirteen millions of tons, falling short of Mr. Jevons' estimate Ijy five millions of tons. The rate of increase has, therefore, proved rather less rapid tlian estimated by Mr. Jevons.

On the other hand, Mr. Price Williams, whose views are quoted by the Commissioners,* is of opinion that the present rapid increase in the annual production of coal is mainly in consequence of the equally rapid and abnormal development of our commercial activity, which has followed the introduction of steam power into this country; and that the effect of this initial increase in the annual yield of coal is stiU perceptible ; just as it is in a minor degree, in the present rate of increase of our population; and he concludes that the rate of increase of

Ibid, p. XV.

464 The Duration Of Our Coal-Supply.

coal used per head of the population foUows a diminisldiig ratio analogous to that shown by the curve of population.*

On the basis of these diminishing ratios, Mr. Price Williams has calculated that the annual consumption at the end of a hundred years would amount to 274 millions of tons, and that the total quantity of available coal would only last for 360 years.

Upon the basis of an arithmetical increase of titree millions of tons per annum (the increase of the last 14 years), the consumption at the end of a hundred years would be 416 millions of tons, and the estimated available quantity would be only sufficient to last for 276 years.

Both these views, however, labour under the defect that they do not take into account the diminishing ratio at which coal must be consumed, when it becomes scarcer and expensive. The abrupt exhaustion of our coal-fields is an impossibility ; and if it is to take place at all, it can only be by a slow and gradual process — concomitant with a complete, let us hope a higher and nobler, re-organization of society.

Waste in Combustion. — Coal of all kinds is

Bepori, vol. i., p. xv.

The Dubation Of Oub Coal-Supflt. 465

now becoming of such value, that the reprehen* sible waste in using it, which some years ago was common and notorious, is gradually becoming a thing of the past ; and the constant effort of manufacturers, and those engaged in the smelting of metallic ores, is directed towards reducing the expenditure of fuel to a minimum. All, however, which is possible in this direction has not yet been effected; but the amount of saving is not to be expected to be very considerable under this head, and the Commissioners report,* that in some branches of manufacture the limits of a beneficial economy appear to have been nearly reached, and that in other cases a gradual effort wiQ continue to be made for saving fuel.

The smelting of iron presents the most remarkable illustration of the extent to which fuel is now being economised as compared with former times. At the Clyde iron-works in 1796, according to the account of Mr. Mushet, no less than 9 tons, 10 cwts., and 24 lbs. of coal were consumed for the production of one ton of pig iron. The quantity of coal now consumed has been reduced to 1 ton, 14 cwts., 2 qrs. with the hot blast, or

Bepori, voL i., p. 98.

466 The Dubation. Of Oub Coal-Supply.

2 tons, 3 qrs. of coke. In the Cleveland district, where the expenditure of fuel has heen reduced to a minimum, the quantity of coal and coke combined amounts to 33 cwts. 1 qr. to the ton of pig iron.

Waste in WorJcing. — It is, on the other hand, much to be regretted that the report of the Commissioners on this head is not of so favourable a character as on the former. It appears that notwithstanding considerable improvement in the general system of coal-mining, and the application of small coal, or slack, to useful purposes, that stiU " coal is wasted by bad working and by carelessness, and that to a very considerable amount in proportion to the quantity actually used."*

At present, under favourable systems of working, the ordinary and unavoidable loss is about 10 per cent., whilst in a large number of instances, when the system of working practised is not suited to the peculiarities of the seams, the ordinary waste and loss amount to sometimes as much as 40 per cent., of which the chief cause is the crushing of the pillars left under the " pillarand-stall" system of mining. There are also other sources of waste pointed out by the Com- Beporty vol. i., p. 116.

The Duration Of Oub Coal-Supply. 467

missioners which come under the head of avoidable. Thus, properties in themselves too small for a separate colliery, or a small estate traversed by a large fault, and, in consequence, passed by during working of the adjoining coal, is often swamped or has its coal crushed. Coal is often left unworked through the contention amongst adjoining owners as to which of them should pump the water; of this South StaflFordshire affords an xmhappy example. Barriers are left roimd small properties, or crooked boundaries, whereas a properly laid out barrier could be more economical. Lastly, large tracts of coal of uncertain area are left as barriers against the influx of water, in the absence of reliable plans showing the extent of the coal that has been worked ; and main faults, which should serve as natural barriers, are often recklessly cut through and the coal on the other side thereby flooded.

The Commissioners are not prepared to recommend the interference of Parliament in order to deal with these sources of waste by special enactment; but few will be disposed to deny that a certain amount of moral responsibility attaches to those who thus wilfolly or negligently waste the national resources.

The Bemedy. — The cause of much of the waste

468 The Dubation Of Our Coal-Supply.

arises from the defective system of mining in consequence of the ignorance of many of the mine managers both of the theory and practice of their profession. In some districts, without doubt, coal-mining is even now carried on with a high degree of skill ; and in Lancashire, for instance, the amount of waste has been reduced to a very small proportion of the quantity extracted. But in other districts it is frequently very different, and it must be acknowledged that mine managers are, as a class, without much education, and ignorant of those theoretical principles upon which practice ought to be founded. It, therefore, becomes a matter for consideration, whether the Legislature should not establish some educational test, without which no person should be permitted to have the supervision of a colliery, as far as the actual working arrangements. The schools of mining which have been founded in various districts offer suitable opportunities for the necessary training, as also some of the educational establishments imder the Science and Art Department; but, unless the compulsory principle be introduced, experience has shown that the advantages offered by such institutions will not be folly seized by the mining population.

Paet V.

Chapter I.

Physical Geology Of The Cabbonifebous Bocks.

South-Easterly Attev/uation of the Coal- Measures of the North of England. — The original maimer of distribution of the Carboniferous Bocks is one of much interest to the physical geologist, while the investigation possesses a certain economic importance. The exact information which the extension of the Geological Surveys over the centre and north of England has afiforded, enables us to arrive at definite conclusions on this subject.

Having on former occasions gone very folly into the details/ I shall here content myself

In my paper On the Thiekness of the OarboniferonB Books of the Pendle Hilla, etc.," Joan. Oeol. Soc. Lond., yoL xxiv. p 819 (1868).

vdth showing that a comparison of a series of sections of the Coal-measures and Millstone series, taken from North Lancashire into Leicestershire and Warwickshire, show, that along this line the strata undergo a most remarkable amount of attenuation; showing that they have been deposited according to a definite plan, depending on certain physical relations, and distribution of land and sea during the Carboniferous period. The following comparative sections will render this apparent : —

Comparative Vertical Sections of Carboniferous Strata.*

Bumlev Dis- Mottram District North trict,EiuBt Lancaahire. Cheahire.

North

Stafibrdshare

.

and Warwickshire.

N.N.W.

ft.S.K

Coal-Measuraa ... 8,460 7,680

Millatone grit series 5,500 2,500 Yoredale series ... 4,670 2,000

Total in feet... 18,680 12,180

From the above comparative sections it will be observed that the beds which attain so grand a development in North Lancashire, have dwindled down to nearly one-sixth of their volume in Leicestershire, in proximity to the concealed Silurian bank, already described,

Ibidf p. 822, In the case of the Burnley section, vhete the Coal-measures have been partially denuded, the section has been restored on the basis of that of South Lancashire,

Carboniferous Physical Geology. 461

A comparison of the combined thickness of coal in the several coal-fields also shows that to a great degree it undergoes a similar loss in thickness along the same tract of country ; and as the occurrence of coal-seams in the Millstone grit proves that there was a land-surface approximating to a sea-level, the subsidence of this region during the coal-period must have amounted to several thousand feet vertical;* the vertical distance between the lowest and highest coal-seam showing approximately the actual amount of subsidence.

In the South of England, on the other hand, the Coal-measures were deposited in greatest force toward the W.S.W., and become attenuated in an E.N.E. direction, as shown by a comparison of the sections in Glamorganshire and the Forest of Dean, which lay in original proximity to the southern slopes of the Silurian bank, which stretched from Salop and Worcestershire into the eastern counties.}

See observations of Sir C. Lyell on this head. Students' Manual of Geology," edit. 1871, p. 878. t See pp. 468, et seq.

CHAPTER n.

Bbitish Physical Geology.

Origin of Goal-Basins. — The British coalfields now form a series of basins, some partially concealed by the sea, or by the overspread of newer formations ; sometimes visible all round their mains.

The visible coal-basins are: 1. South Wales;

2. Forest of Dean ; 3. Burnley ; 4. Ayrshire ; 6. the Clyde Basin ; 6. Mid Lothian ; 7. Tipperary and Kilkenny; 8. Leitrim (Connaught coalfield).

The partly concealed basins are : 1. Somersetshire ; 2. the Midland Basin, of which the Denbighshire, Shrewsbury, South Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire, and North Staffordshire coal-fields form the marginal outcrop, and of which the northern margin is concealed ;

3. the South Lancashire and Cheshire Basin, of which the coal-fields of South Lancashire, Flint-

Coal Basins. 463

shire, and Cheshire form the marginal limits, the southern margin being concealed; 4. the Yorkshire, Denbighshire, and Notts. Basin, of which the eastern margin is concealed; 5. the Northnmberland and Durham Basin, of which the eastern and southern margins are concealed; and, 6. the Cumberland Basin, of which the eastern, and western margins are concealed. In Ireland, the coal-basin of Tyrone. The limits of these several basins are indicated on the general map of the coal-fields which accompanies this volnme.

Basins not so formed originally. — It must not be supposed, however, that this basin-shaped arrangement of the upper Carboniferous strata was the original form in which the coal-fields were deposited, like so many lakes filled with sediment and surroxmded by hilly banks and barriers. Such an idea would be altogether erroneous. The basin-shaped structure is in every instance due to terrestrial movements acting along two systems of lines, accompanied and followed by denudation.

Original Distribution of Coal-measures. — In order to follow the exceedingly interesting series of changes which have resulted in forming the British coal-basins, we shall first endeavour to

ascertain to what extent, and along what limits, the Coal-measures were originally distributed. This is represenjbed on the accompanying map, which shows, that originally the coal-area of Britain was distributed in two large tracts, ono to the north, the other to the south of a band of coxmtry, stretching from North Wales, through Shropshire and Worcestershire, into the eastern counties. The Highlands of Scotland formed the limit to the northward for British Coalmeasures, while the Highlands of Donegal, Mayo, and Galway formed the limit of the Irish Coalmeasures. Through these great sheets of Carboniferous rocks the Cumberland mountains and a little of the Southern Uplands of Scotland protruded; while in Ireland the mountains of Wicklow and of Slieve Croob were also uncovered; but with these exceptions, we have the most conclusive evidence, that the Coal-measures were continuous over the large tracts occupying the Centre and South of Ireland, the Centre of Scotland, the North of England, and the South of England.*

I have stated at length the evidence upon which this view is supported in the Memoir ''On the Triassic and Permian Bocks of the Central Connties of England/' Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 109 (1869). Also in my evidence before the Bojal Coal- Commission, Beport, vol. ii. ; and at the Meeting of the British Association, Liverpool, Trans, p. 74 (1870).

2b <hoe poge

Map

of tlie

British Ihles

Lonrkm: Fxbrard Stanford 6 A- 7 ( luring Crons.

Fobication Of Coal-Basins. 465

Terrestrial Movements at the Close of the Garhoniferous Period. — At the close of the Carboniferous period, terrestrial movements took place over the wjiole of the British Islands and the neighbouring parts of the Continent of Europe. These movements seem to have produced their most powerful effects upon the strata in the South and North of England, and are less discernible in the central part. The forces, however, took the form of lateral pressure, acting in approximately north and south directions, and producing flexures in the Carboniferous strata at right angles thereto ; in other words, along axes ranging nearly east and west."

The arches (or anticlinal axes) rising into ridges and traversed by fissures, were subjected to denudation on a large scale, and large tracts of Coal-measures were swept away and destroyed. One of the great arches, which itself included several minor folds, t was formed over the tract between the Yorkshire and Lancashire coal-fields on the south, and the Durham coal-field on the

In Lancashire the axes ranged along the line of the Pendle Ridge in an E.N.E. direction. In Torkshire it was nearly E. and W. In the South of England, Belgium, and France, nearly £. and W.

t As shown by Professor Phillips, '' Geology of Yorkshire."

H H

north. The denudation which took place over this tract laid bare the Millstone grit and Yoredale rocks, and determined the boundaries of the coal-fields just named.

Another axis, or system of flexures, originated along the southern margin of the Carboniferous Limestone region of Derbyshire, extending westward along the valley of the river Dane, north of Cpngleton Edge, and, as I have shown, on a former occasion, beneath the Triassic plain of Cheshire, emerging on the western side at the southern end of the Flintshire coalfield.* This lower Carboniferous axis forms, in my opinion, the southern border of the Lancashire and Cheshire Coal-basin, as shown above, f

South of England. — Other east and west flexures were also originated at this period, the most important being those of the south-west of England, shown by the longer axis of the South Wales Coal-field, and the uprising of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendips. These flexures doubtless extend under the Cretaceous rocks of the south of England, and

See Author's pap on '' The Evidences of a Kidge of Lower Carboniferous Books beneath the Triassic formation of the Plain of Cheshire/' Jonm. Oeol. Soc. Lond., vol. xxv., p. 171.

t Page 462.

Di8Tbibuti0N Of Pebmian Beds. 467

are continued into the Franco-Belgian trough, and even across the Khine into Westphalia.* All these leading flexures ranging east and west approximately, accompanied by the denudation of a vast amount of upper Carboniferous material, took place before the Permian strata were deposited ; — in fact, during that long lapse of time which intervened between the close of the Carboniferous, and the commencement of the Permian period.

Distribution of Permian Strata. — Over the bent and denuded edges and surfaces of the Carboniferous strata the Permian rocks were distributed; those of central England, within a basin only a little more extended than that of the Coal-measures themselves ; the Permian beds of this tract being separated from those of the north of England by a ridge of lower Carboniferous land stretching from Chamwood Forest in Leicestershire, through Derbyshire, mid-Cheshire (along the concealed axis), into North Wales-t These Permian strata were thus

Ab &r as I am aware, I was the first to show the pre-Permian age of these E. and W. flexures of the S.W. of England in my paper, of which only an abstract is published in the Trans. Brit. Assoc. Liverpool, p. 75 (1870).

f See my refisons for this view in the paper already quoted,

H H 2

deposited on Lower Carboniferous rocks over some parts of Yorkshire, North Lancashire, and Cumberland; while in South Lancashire, and parts of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Notts., they repose on various portions of the Coal-formation. Terrestrial Movements at the close of the Permian Period. — At the close of the Permian period, a new series of terrestrial movements took place, but tiow along lines ranging approximately north and south, and nearly at right angles to those which preceded them. These disturbances, accompanied by denudation acting chiefly along the arches or anticlinal axes, resulted in the disseverance of the Coal-fields of Lancashire and Cheshire on one side, from those of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Notts, on the other. It was by this process that the Pennine chain, or great central ridge, of the North of England was upheaved, and stripped of its covering of upper Carboniferous beds.*

Jonm. Geol. Boc., vol. xzv., p. 171, and ohap. iii. of the Memoirs On the Triassic and Permian Rocks of tloa Central Counties/* p. 28.

That this great N. and S. npheave took place before the deposition of the New Bed Sandstone, is shown by the fact that the anticlinal fault which is the axis of the system of flexures passes beneath this formation at Leek, in Staffordshire, without in the least affecting it. See Maps of Geol* Survey.

Fobmation Of Coal Basins. 469

During the same period of disturbance the western limits of the Flintshire and Denbighshire coal-field were determined ; also, the north and south axis along which the Durham coalfield is inferred to rise and crop out beneath the sea, and which is supposed to form the eastern limits of the Derbyshire coal-basin. In the same period may also be inferred the disseverance of the South Wales fiom the Forest of Dean coal-field, and the sharp uprise of the Carboniferous strata along the east of the Somersetshire coal-basin.

Basin-shape of Coal-fields due to the intersection of these two axes. — I have thus shown, briefly here, but more fully on other occasions, that the Carboniferous rocks owe their basinshaped structure to the intersection, nearly at right angles, of these two systems of flexures, viz. —

1. The earher being pre-Permian, ranging along approximately east and west lines.

2. The latter being pre-Triassic, ranging along approximately north and south hues.

The intersection of these systems has caused numerous complications in the strata, which have been increased by disturbances of later date, while the disseverance of the basins from

each other, has been the necessary consequence of the enormous amount of denudation which took place chiefly over the arches or anti- cUnals.

On the other hand, the existing coal-basins lie in the synclinal troughs which were enclosed within the anticlinal arches.

Distribution of the Secondary or Mesozoic Strata. — It will be apparent, from what I have now stated, that the coal-basins received their form before the deposition of the New Bed Sandstone and the Secondary strata which were subsequently spread over the Carboniferous rocks, and served to protect the coal-fields from further denudation during a long lapse of geological time.

The manner in which the Triassic formations were themselves deposited deserves special observation, and bears directly on the question of the depth at which the Coal-measures may be supposed to lie hidden over considerable tracts of country. This will form the subject of the next, and concluding, chapter.

Chaptee Iii.

Distbibution Of The Uesozoic Formations.

South-easterly Attenuation of Strata. — Some years since I was led to make a comparison of the thickness of the Triassic (as also the Liassic) strata over various parts of England, taken from the accurately-measured sections of the Geological Survey, and from these it appeared that they were originally distributed in such manner as to attain their greatest development toward the north-west of England, and to become thinner towards the south-east.* This southeasterly attenuation of the Triassic strata will be apparent upon a comparison of the following sections, founded on actual admeasurements of the Government surveyors : —

See Author's paper On the SoathEasterIy Attenuation of the Lower Secondary Bocks of England," Joom. Oeol. Soc.,' vol. xvi.

Sandstone

or

Trias.

Gheshire and LancaBhire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire,

N.W. Midland. S.E.

Reaper series ... 8,450 ft. ... 1,200 ft ... 600 ft.

Bunter „ ... 2,160 ft. ... 800 ft. ... absent.

Here it will be observed that the attennation of the Trias is so rapid, as to lead ns to infer that in its prolongation southward and eastward from Warwickshire it scarcely extends below the Chalk of Cambridge or Bedfordshire.

In order to extend this comparison of development to the Lias, I shall now give the following comparative sections measured on several occasions at Bredon Cloud,* a hill at the northwest of Gloucestershire, at the Cotteswold Hills near Winchcombe, and in the valley of the Evenlode at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire :t —

Lias. Middle

V Lower

The positions of the above localities lie in a relative direction from N.N.W. to S.S.E., nearly parallel to that of the attenuation of the Trias; and altjiough the depth of the Lower Lias has not been proved in Oxfordshire, analogy leads us to infer that it thins out in that direction.

Horiz. Soetions, Geol. Survey, Sheet 60.

t Geology of Woodstock," Mem. GeoL Survey.

Bredon Cloud,

Cotteswold

Stonesfield,

W.N.W.

Hills.

Rs.R

unknown ..

unknown

Mesozoic Fobmations. 473

Upon the same principles we cannot but con-, elude that all the members of this formation originally overspread the plains of Lancashire and Cheshire in great force.*

The distribution of the Lower Permian strata is somewhat irregular, as they attain a thickness of 1,800 or 2,000 feet in Staffordshire and Warwickshire. Their development in Lancashire is variable.

Denudation of Mesozoic Strata. — It is therefore evident that the Coal-measures of the central and north-western counties of England and Wales have been at one time buried beneath an enormous accumulation, amounting to several thousand feet, of Lower Mesozoic but it is still more worthy of observation that this greatest vertical development took place over those districts which are occupied by the rich coal-fields of the shires of Derby and York, Lancaster, Flint and Denbigh, Salop and Stafford, subsequently laid bare and rendered accessible by successive denudations. On the other hand, as we have seen, the same post-Carboniferous strata become thinnest in the direction of the

Outliers of the Lower Lias occur in Cheshire and Cumberland, the remnants of a once widespread formation.

t The terms Mesozoic" and Secondary" are synonymous.

eastern counties; over those districts where we believe the Coal-measures have never been formed, and where, if penetrated, we should only reach Cambro-Silurian rocks of a date anterior to the coal-formation. Thus we see that the various denudations have been more active and effectual in removing the Secondary strata over those parts of England where they overspread the coal-formation, than in those districts where they overlie rocks older than, and therefore destitute of, the coal.

The reader will be assisted in the comprehension of this subject by the following ideal section, which (minor details being omitted) is inteifded to illustrate the past and present distribution of these strata along a band of country stretching from north-west to southeast across Central England. (Fig. 23.)

The original foundation upon which rests the Carboniferous system is shown to be the Silurian and Cambrian rocks, as we find to be the case in Staffordshire and Leicestershire. The Coalmeasures are represented' by a black band, thickest towards the north-west, becoming thinner and ultimately ending against the older rocks towards the south-east. The overlying formations are also represented, each outcrop-

Mbsozoic Fobkations.

Sb &quot;

o

la

at

u

ping in succession towards the north-west, in which direction they become most largely developed, and thinning away towards the southeast. It will be observed that the coal-formation comes to the surface where it is most productive, and that the overlyiQg formations have been most unsparingly swept away where they have originally been deposited in greatest force.

Maximum denudation towards the Northwest.— Now, this enormous denudation is a consequence of the upheaval which the formations have experienced at several periods; and as the strata on the whole dip towards the

south-east, the elevatory forces have constantly acted with greatest energy in the direction of Wales, Westmoreland, and the north-western counties, also along an axis passing along the Pennine chain, and over the areas of several of the coal-fields ; but they have all combined to produce one grand result, namely, the exposure of the Carboniferous rocks towards the north-west of England.

Let us now regard this subject from another point of view. Supposing for a moment that the elevatory forces had acted with the greatest energy and effect along the south-east of England so as to produce a general dip towards the north-west ; in other words, in a direction opposite to the actual dip of the strata, what, let us inquire, would have been the result?

The answer is obvious; and we can state positively that, to all intents, and purposes, England would have been almost as destitute of coal as she would have been had there been no Carboniferous formation. Let the reader glance at the ideal section (p. 476), and then imagine the dip reversed, and the denudation to have taken place principally towards the south-eastern side. Two results will at once present themselves. In the first place, the old

Mesozoio Pobmations. 477

pre-Carboniferous rooks — those of the Cambro- Silurian Bystem-r-would occupy the right-hand side of the section and on the left-hand side the coal-formation would nowhere reach the surface, as it would lie buried beneath an accumulative depth of Secondary rocks: upon it would' be piled strata belonging to the Permian, Triassic, Liassic, and Oolitic systems, 6,000 to 8,000 feet in depth, rendering it inaccessible. Even supposing the elevation of the highlands of England and Wales to have occurred for the most part, as was undoubtedly the case, before the Carboniferous period, these mountains would have been enveloped and probably smothered in the embrace of the post- Carboniferous strata ; and the highlands of England would have lain along the region now occupied by the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. Under these conditions, Britain would have formed but an appendage of the European Continent. She could not, in all probability, have assumed that insular position which, through the favour of an overruling Providence, has rendered her a shadow from the heat, a refuge from the storm "tothe oppressed of Christendom. I think, then, it must be evident that there

is a happy relationship between the original formation of the rocks and their present distribution; we might even go farther, and say that it is highly advantageous, if not the best possible. If the elevatory forces had exerted themselves over the south-east instead of the north-west of England, the result would have been disastrous; the former region would have become a mountainous tract, similar to that of Wales, the latter an undulating plain, fitted, indeed, for agriculture, but unproductive of mineral treasures.

The concurrence of events here referred to is the more remarkable, as there is no apparent connection between the direction of the elevatory forces and the strata which are influenced by them. Two great series of events, each necessary to give effect to the other, and fraught with the highest temporal blessings to mankind, followed in due course. In a particular portion of our island rich mineral treasures were laid up, but they would never have become available if the internal movements of the earth had taken a direction differing from the reaUty. As it is, the Carboniferous rocks have been placed within reach over those districts where they are most rich in coal and iron, while that portion

Mesozoic Formations. 479

of the country where we have reason to beKeve they were never formed, is mantled over with strata, which, if not peculiarly rich in mineral productions, is profusely stored with the medals of a past creation.

Appendix.

Rose Bridge Colliery, near Wigan.

In this colliery two, or rather three, coal-seams are worked. The shaft was originally sunk to the "Pemberton Four-feet " Coal in 1854, and for three years this seam was worked to a considerable extent. In September, 1857, another shaft was commenced at some distance from the former one, to extend from the "Pemberton Four-feet" mine to the "Cannel" and ''King" Coals, which here lie nearly close together, and which were won on June 30th, 1858. Engine, boiler, and winding machinery were then erected in a chamber hollowed out in the workings of the Pemberton Four-feet Coal, and the trucks from the workings of the Cannel and King Coal, after having been lifted by the underground engine, were wheeled along a tramway to the bottom of the upper shaft, through which they were raised to the surface.

The use of two or more lifts or stages produces a loss of time and outlay, but has the advantage of allowing of the working of very deep coal-beds without the risks and dangers always attending such undertakings. It is

probable that this means will be generally adopted for working coal-seams from 2,000 to 3,000, or even 4,000 feet in depth. The Arley mine is now worked by means of a single lift from a depth of 2,445 feet.

B.

In 169.9, Newcastle had two-thirds of the coal-trade, and 300,000 chaldrons, in aU, went annually to LondoxL The over-sea trade employed 900,000 tons of shipping. Coals about that time sold in London for 188. a chaldron, out of which 5a. were paid to the King, la. 6d, to St. Paul's, and la. metage. It was then stated to the House of Conunons that 600 ships, one with another, of the burden of eighty Newcastle chaldrons, were employing 4,500 men, requisite for carrying on the tmde.— Hist. Fosdl Fud, p. 318.

The foUowing explanation of the terms here used, as given by Sir C. LyeU,- may be of service to those unfamiliar with botanical nomenclature, especially in its application to pabeontology : —

acrogens. Acrogens. HoflBee, eqiuBetttms, feniB, lyoopodhuoB

— (Lepidodendron, ngillana ! nalamitpii, &c.) 8 Dicotyledonous

gynmosperms. GyxnnogenB. Conifen and cycads.

4 iSoot. Angioaperma. Exogena. Compoeitg, lgttminoafl9,iimba1tiferg,

cniGlfene, roeaoeed, forest treea, &c. Probably no repreaentatiTea in the Carbonif erons flora.

5 Moioootyledona. Endogena. Palma lilies, aloes, rushes, grasses.

Ic

Appendix. 483

D.

COAL-MININO IN ChINA.

Marco Polo, who travelled through China towards the close of the 13th century, mentions coal as one of the commodities in use in his time in that country. At the present day, it is worked in the cli£& of the PeEiang river at Tingtih, by means of adits driven into the side of the hill at the outcrop of the coal-seams. The works are carried on in the most primitive maimer, without the aid of machinery, and the mode of working coal through vertical shafts, which may be considered as the second stage in the art of mining, appears little known. In this respect, as in ahnost every other, the Chinese are &t behind their neighbours the Japanese. Probably, if an inhabitant of the Celestial empire were shown some of the largest collieries of Newcastle, or Wigan, he would scarcely deign to look at them, or would gravely inform you that they have similar, 'or better machinery, and deeper mines " Pekin side.'*

Mr. Oliphant states that coal is procured from a mine about five miles distant from the important city of Whang-shih-kang, or " Yellow Stone/' on the river Yangtse-kiang, situated about 400 miles from its mouth.— Narrative of Lord Elgvris Mission to China and Japam, vol. ii. p. 889.

E.

Lighting Mines before the Invention of the Davt Lamp.

There were, however, other means adopted for giving a feeble and uncertain light. The steel mill was the invention most frequently employed in the northern

counties; a description and figure of which is given in the " History of Fossil Fuel" By means of a multiplying wheel, a steel periphery was made to revolve rapidly in contact with a piece of flint, by which a succession of sparks was produced. The sparks, being formed of minute particles of steel heated to redness, are incapable of igniting the explosive gases of the mine, though sufficiently bright to light dimly the workings. In those mines where carburetted hydrogen gas existed in minute quantities, naked candles were employed .for lighting, and gunpowder for blasting.

F.

Goal-mining — Japan.

Mr. Oliphant states that coal is raised in Japan somewhat extensively — but as a Government monopoly. One mine, at a place called Wuku Moto, in the interior of the main island of Niphon, was visited by some of the Dutch Mission. They describe the mine as being well and judiciously worked, and the coal as bituminous in its nature, and made into coke for use.

That the coal is worked by means of vertical shafts appears from the that the Prince of Fizen once ordered a steam-engine from Europe for pumping the water out of his mines ; but, through the native jealousy of the presence of foreigners in the country, refused to allow the Dutch engineer to erect the machinery upon the spot. The Japanese, however, are quite independent of European aid for such an object, as they thoroughly understand the construction and management of the steam-engine. — Lord ElgvrCa Mission to ChiTia and Japan, vol. ii.

Kaempfer, in his " History of Japan," also refers to the

Appendix.

abundance of this mineral — stating that it is dug in great quantity in the province of Tsekusen, and in most of the northern province. This rich and productive empire also yields abundance of gold, silver, copper, and iron ; and the Japanese armourers excel the Europeans, and perhaps any other nation, in tempering steel.

G.

Boring at Harwich.

The following are the particulars of this interesting trial in search of water : —

Drift

Tertiary Strata

6U „

Chalk

Greeosand and Gkiult ...

Black Slaty Rock

Mr. Prestwich is evidently inclined to refer the slate to the Palseozoic period. Its cleaved character, the absence of lime, and the trace of one fossil shell — apparently a large Posidonia — seem to corroborate this view. The exact geological position is probably that of the Lower Carboniferous Series of the Mendips and Ardennea (See Mr. Prestwich's observations, Rep. Coal-Commiaaion, vol. i., pp. 150, 160.)

Index.

Africa, coal-beds in, 887.

Aghabehy coal-field, 809.

Agricola's treatise on coalmining, 82.

Agnillon, M. Lonis, on &nlt in French coal-field, 880.

on distribution of coaltracts in Bnssia, 847.

on Bnssian coal-fields,

Alais, coal-field of, 888.

Alberbory breccia* ' in Shrewsbury coal-field, 127.

Allport, Mr. S., on stractore of basalts of Sonth Stafibrdshire, 168.

on stractore of trap rock

at Whitwick colliery, 228.

America, British ; coal-fields of, 888.

United States, coal-fields

of, 896, 401.

Sonth, coal-fields of, 410.

Ancient Britons, coal-works of, 18.

Anglesea coal-field, 152.

succession of strata in,

great fault in, 158.

Anglesea coal-field, greenstone

dyke in the, 154. Anglo-Saxons, coal-mining by

the, 21. Anglo-Normans, coal-mining

under the, 24. Anthracite of Switzerland, etc.,

Savoy, 844-5.

Ireland, 800.

Italy, 844-5.

the Donetz coal-field,

Antipoff, Captain A., on coalfield of Poland, 850, 867. Antrim, coal-mining in (1770),

Appalachian coal-basin, 898t Arctic regions, coal-plants from,

Argyleshire coal-field, 295. Arigna coal-fields, 801, 807.

coal-series of, 809.

Arley mine coal, 188, 205. Assam coal-fields, India, 859. Austen, Mr.B. G., on concealed

coal-fields of the South of

England, 824. Australian coal-fields, :

Index.

Aveline, Mr. W. T., on the Derbyshire coal-field, 288.

Ayrshire coalfield, 289.

general sneeeBsion of beds

in, 290.

average thickness of coalseams, 291.

igneous rocks, 291.

section of Dalmellington

coal-field in, 291.

B.

Baily, Mr., on the fossils of

the Irish coal - measures,

Ball, Mr. Y., on the Bamghur

coal-field, 857. Ballagan beds, of Scotland,

Ballycastle coal-field, 801, 818.

succession of strata, 814.

black-band ironstone of,

dolerite of, 818, 816.

coal-series of, 816.

geological age of, 817.

Banda Oriental, coal-measures of, 412.

Basin des Drac, coal-field of,

Beckett, Mr. H., on coalmining in Cannock Chase,

BeUot, Mr., on character of the coal at Labuan, 866.

Binney, Mr. E., on lower coal - measures, Flintshire,

— on lower coal-measures of Chumet Valley, 181.

on the Lancashire coalfield, 186.

Binney, Mr. £., on lower coalmeasures of Lancashire, 191.

on the haematite bed of

the Medlock Valley, 201,

relations of Manon

Chester and North Stafibrdshire coal-measures, 201.

Blanford, Messrs., on the Indian coal-fields, 852, 854.

Boghead gas coal, 276.

Bohemia, lignite of, 848.

Bohemian coal-field, 840.

different ages of coal

formation, 840.

Bokaro coal-field, India, 856.

Boldon Book ; the, references to coal-mining, 26.

BoUaert, Mr., on the coal of Chile, 418.

Borneo, coal at Labuan in,

Brazil, coal-fields of, 410.

Brora coal-field, 296.

age of, 296.

section of pit in, 297.

Brown, Mr. B., on the Richmond coal-field, 894.

on coal in N. W.

America, 404.

Bryce, Dr. J., on the Ballycastle coal-field, 814.

Bryham, Mr., on underground temperature, 489.

on effects of pressure in

mines, 447.

Buokland, Rev. Dr., on coalresources, 1.

Burdie House limestone, 285.

Burnley, coal-basin of, 208.

thickness of Carboniferous

strata, 205.

— coal-seams of, 206.

— resources of, 208.

Index.

Calamites, affinities of, 48.

Calciferoos sandstone series of Scotland, 271.

Oatifomia, coal-strata in, 404.

Camden, on coal-mining in Scotland, 15th century, 85.

Campbell, Mr., on the coaltrade in 1774, 87.

Cannel coal, origin of name,

valuable seam of, in Flint-shire

coal-field, 147*

Canobie coal-field, coal-seams of, 217, 295.

dip of strata 296.

list of coal-seams, 296.

Geddes, Mr., on, 296.

Carboniferous plants of Bohemian coal-field, 841.

strata, thickness of, 4.

limestone series, coal in,

changes in its physical

characters, 268.

Carmthers, Mr. W., on fossil plants from Brazil, 412.

Castlecomer coal-field, 805.

Charter of Henry VUI., 27.

Cheadle, Stafibrdshire, coalfield of, 180.

Cheshire, coal-field of, 188,

Chevalier, M. Michael, on Bohemian coal-formation, 840.

Chile, coal of, 418.

China, coal-field of, 862.

great extent of, 862.

geological age of, 868.

Chnrnet Valley iron ore, 176,

Clackmannan coal-field, 287.

coal-series of, 288.

Clarke, Rev. W. B., on coalfields of New Sonth Wales, 868—870.

Cleats, in coal-seams, Durham,

Clee Hills, coal-fields of, 128.

height of, above the sea,

Clyde-basin, coal-field of, 272.

trap rocks of, 272-8.

coid-series of, 274.

gas coal of, 276.

ironstones of, 275-6.

fossils of coal-measores,

resources of, 299.

Coal, origin of name, 22.

Coal-basins of Britain, 462.

formed by intersection of

two systems of flexures and denudation, 468, 469.

Coalbrook Dale coal-field, 8,

surveys and descriptions

of, 181.

pits, in district of, 182.

succession of coal-seams

in, 188.

— Symon fault in, 188. upper coal-measures in.

organic remains, 186.

resources of, 188.

denudation of coal-strata

, 188, 185.

Coal-commission, 2, et passim.

Coal - consumption, annual, 420, 450.

Coal-formation, continuation of from Flintshire to Lancashire, 150.

Coal-measures of Britain, original distribution of,

Index.

Goal-mines, depths of, 6, 428,

482, 489. Coal-mining, impetus given by

invention of the safety-lamp

and steam-engine, 88. Coal-prodHce of Great Britain,

from 1819-40, 89.

various ooontries, 41d.

Great Britain, from

1870, 420. Coal-snpply, observations on

duration of, 449. Coal, vegetable origin of, 41.

formation of, 41.

Amer.) coal-field, 898. Coleman, Rev. W. 0., on the

origin of ooal," 28. Collieries, number of, in Great

Britain, 420. Colorado and New Mexico,

coal in, 401. Commissioners on Ooal-resonrces

, 821, 824—829. Credner, Herr, on Weald coal

Cnilceagh,millstonegritof,808. Cumberland coal-field, 214.

succession of strata, 215.

succession of coal-seams,

faults, 216.

resources of, 218.

D.

Darwin, Mr. C, on the age of the coal-formation of Chile,

Dawson, Dr., on the coal-fields of New Brunswick, &c., 889.

on the coal-field of Pic

tou, 898.

Dechen, Herr von, observa tions on Saarbriick coal basin, 885.

De la Beche, Sir H., on Bock fault in Forest of Dean coal field, 121.

Denbighshire coal-field, 141.

succession of seamsin, 142

ironstone in, 148.

resources of, 146.

section across, 144.

Denny, Mr., on fish remains of Yorkshire, &c., 248.

Deoghur eoal-field, India, 858.

Derbjrshire, ancient coal-mining in, 14.

Derbyshire and Yorkshire coalfield, 281.

originally united to that

of Lancashire, 288.

authors who have written

on the coal-field, 284.

succession of strata, 285.

lowerooal-measures, 286,

sections of strata at

Shireoak, Bainsley, Cinderhill, 287, 240.

principal coal-seams, 240.

coal-series at Dewsbuiy

and Halifax, 242.

fossils, 248.

extension of eoal-measures

beneath the Permian beds, 244, 246.

resources, 247, 249.

— out-put of coal, 261.

Dickinson, Mr. J., on mortality amongst coal-miners of Britain and Belgium, 40.

Ihdex.

DiekinBon, Mr. J., on resonroes of AnglMea eoalfield, 154.

Bisoo Island, coal in, 407.

Don, ooal-fidd of the, 849.

D'Oringny, M. A., on the age of the coal-fonnation of (Me, 414.

Dufirenoy at Elie de Beanmont, Oarte Geologiqae de la France, 882.

Dokinfleld eolliery, 198.

depth of, 7.

Ihunont, M. A., Carte Gdologique de la Belgique, 882.

Dn Noyer, Mr. , on the Arigna coal-fields, 807, 808.

Durham, coal-mining in, 29.

Durham and Northumberland coal-field, 252.

extension of coal-measures below the magnesian limestone, 258.

basin-shaped form of

coal-field, 258.

faults in the coal-measures, 255.

general series of formations, 256.

principal coal-seams, 267.

basaltic dykes, 259.

£Ekults, 280.

resources, 262, 265.

produce, 265.

E.

Elliot, Mr., on coal under the sea along the coast of Durham, 261.

on resources of the N.

Staffordshire coal-field, 179.

England, ideal section across,

Europe, coal-fields of, 880.

Faults, Red-rock" fault of Cheshire, 194.

' in Lancashire coal-field,

Ferns of the coal-period, 47.

Fifeshire coal-field, 286.

coal-seams of, 286.

Flexures, two principal systems, 465, 468.

Flintshire coal-field, 146.

dip of beds in, 146.

valuable cannel in,

general section of, 147.

section at Mold in, 148.

Forbes, Mr. C, on coal-seams of New Zealand, 879.

Forest of Dean coal-field, 116.

general structure of, 116.

— scenery of, 117.

succession of coal-seams,

iron furnaces in, 120.

rock fiiult in, 120.

resources of, 121.

Forest of Wyre coal-field, 122.

— — section of strata in, 128.

section at Harcott colliery in, 124.

Permian breccia in, 122.

Forster, Mr. T. E., on the resources of the Whitehaven coal-field, 218.

— — on coal under the sea along the coast of Northumberland, 261.

French and Belum coalfields, 880.

dip and position of

strata, 881.

section across liege coalfield, 881.

Index.

French and Belgimm eoalfieldsy length of coal trough,

section across Valenciennes coal-field, 882.

coal -strata overlaid by

other formations, 881, 888.

depth of Liege and Mons

coal-basins, 888. — smaUer French coalfields, 888.

G.

Gannister beds of Lancashire,

194, 208. Geddes, Mr. J., on Argyleshire

coal-field, 295. on Ganobie and Sanqnhar

coal-strata, 296. on resources

of Scotch coal-fields, 298.

Geikie, Professor, on the Ganobie coal-field, 217.

on age of basalt dykes of

Scotland, 274.

on Lesmahago coal-basin,

Mr. J., on volcanic rocks

of Scotland, 278.

on Ayrshire coal-field.

Geinitz, Dr., on fossil reptiles of Saarbriick coal-field,

on coal-measures of

Saxony, 886.

on Zwickau - Ghemnitz

coal-field, 887. on the age of anthracite

of Savoy, 845. Glasgow coal-field, 272. trap-rocks of Necropolis,

Glow, Loch, Scotland, 85. Goldsitch trough, 181. Goppert, Dr. H. R., on the

fossils of the coal-measures

of Silesia, 848, 848. Mr., on coal-field of

Tasmania, 878. Green, Mr. A. H., on marine

fossils in coal-measures of

Lancashire, 198. Griffith, Sir R., on the Gon-naught

coal-field, 807. on the Tyrone coal-field,

on the Ballycastle coalfield, 814, 816.

H.

Haast, Dr. Julius, onthecoal deposits of New Zealand, 888.

Haddington coal-field, 280,

Hanover, coal-field of, 840.

Hartley, Mr., on resources of the South Staffordshire coalfield, 166.

Hector, Dr. J., on the age of the coal of Vancouver, 408.

Hetton collieries, experiments on temperature at, 448.

Hochstetter, Dr. F. von, on coal-fields of New Zealand, 880, 885.

Horseley, on Roman coalmining, 18.

Howell, Mr. H. H., on the Warwickshire coal-field, 220.

on the form of the Durham coal-field, 258.

on coal-series of Mid- Lothian, 281.

on coal-series of Haddington, 284.

Index.

Hoghes, Mr. T. H., on the Earanpora coal-field, 885.

on the Bokaro coal-field,

on the Jherria coal-field,

Hull, Professor E., on thickness of Carboniferous strata in Lancashire, 205.

on coal-resonrces, 449.

on physical limit of

depth for coal-mining, 422.

on comparative thickness

of Carboniferous strata, 460.

on 8. £. attenuation of

strata, 460, 471.

views on origin of coalbasins, 462.

Humidity, effects of, in mines,

Hunt, Mr. B., on coal-field of Asturias, 845.

on annual coal-consumption, 451.

Hurlet coal, position of, 274.

Ibbenbiiren, coal-field of, 889. Igneous rocks of Carboniferous

age, Scotland, 271, 272. Illinois coal-basin, 898. India, coal-fields of, 852—861.

geological age, 858-4.

names of, 858.

importance of, 860.

Ingleton and Burton coal-field.

North Lancashire, 212. Great Craven Fault,"

in, 212.

section of coal-series in,

Inspectors of

pointed, 89.

coal-mines

ap-

Ireland, Carboniferous rocks of, 800, 802.

groups of coal-fields, 800,

succession of strata, 801.

fossOs of, 806.

resources of coal-fields,

Ironstone, black-band of Scotland, 274, 276.

Jevons, Professor, on annual

consumption of coal, 452. Jones, Mr. D., on structure of

Coalbrook Dale coal-field,

on the Symon &ult, 184.

section of strata, 186.

Judd, Mr. J. W., on coal-fields

of Teruel, 846. on the Punfield formation,

Jukes, the late Professor J. B.,

on the structure of the S.

Staffordshire coal-field, 157. on basalt of Rowley

Begis, 168.

on Irish coal-fields, 804,

on Chamwood Forest

rocks, 828.

K.

Kane, Sir B., on the Connaught coal-fields, 807, 810.

Earanpura coal-field, India, 855, 857.

Einahan, Mr. G. H., on Irish coal-fields, 804, 805.

Kurhurbari coal-field, India,

Index.

Laneaahire, S., coal-field, 184. BQccesdon of formatioiia,

Arley mine coal of, 188.

ooal-seriea of, 188, 102.

fossils of, 191, 196, 197.

lower eoal-meaanres of,

Gannister coal of, 194.

resources of, 199.

upper coal-measures of,

Landale,'Mr., on the Fifeshire

coal-field, 286. Leicestershire coal*field, 225. formations aromid the,

coal-seams of, 227.

igneous rocks of, 227.

rock-faults, 229.

salt-water in coal, 220.

resources of, 229.

fossils of strata, 280.

Leinster coal-fields, 804. Leitrim coal-fields, 807-10.

ironstones of, 810.

Leland, on the use of coal, 20. Lesmahago coal-basin, 298.

gas coal of, 298.

sections of coal-series,

size of coal-tract, 294.

liege, coal-trough of, 880, 881,

depth of, 880.

lightmoor fault," Coalbrook

Dale, 186. Lignite of Bohemia, 840. and brown coal of Silesia,

Bohemia, 848.

limits of deep mining, 422.

London, use of coal in, 27, 80.

Iell, EBr C, on andeni coalmining, 14.

on the coast-section of

South Joggins, bay of Fundy,

on age of Biehmond coalfield, 401.

Mackenzie Biver, coal-deposits of, 402.

M'OuUoch, Mr., on coal-produce in 1840, 88.

Magnesian limestone, thickness of, 249.

Malaysian and Japan coalfields, 864.

Mammat, Mr., on the Leicestershire coal-field, 225, 280.

Manchester, coal-series at, 190.

coal-field of, 200.

Mazyport, coal-seams at, 216.

Matiews, Mr. W., on the duration of the " Thick" coal of Dudley, 167.

Medlicott, Mr., on the age of the Assam coal-measures, 858, 850.

on tiie Nerbudda coalfield, 858.

Mesozoie strata, distribution of, 470, 471.

comparative thicknesses

of, 472.

denudation of 478, 476.

Michigan coal-basin, 808.

Mid-Lothian coal-field, 280.

coal-series of, 281.

coal-seams of, 282.

principal coal-seams, 288.

Millstone Grit of £nand,

Ikdex.

Millstone Orit of Ireland, 802,

oOo* MiBflonri ooal-basin, 898. Monkweannonth colliery,depth

of, 7. Mons, ooal-tron of, 881, 888. Moore, Mr. B., on coal-serieB

of SeoUand, 274. Mr. W., on coal-series of

Clyde Valley, 275. Moravia, coal-field of, 848. Mnnster, coal - measures of,

Mnrchison, the late Sir R.,

on Ooalbrook Dale coal-field,

on concealed coal-fields

of England, 822. on Spirorbis Limestone,

on the Brora coal-field,

on the position of the

coal-measnres in Dnrham

under the magnesian limestone, 225. on the coal-fields of

Russia, 847—849.

N.

Nerbndda coal-field, India, 858. New Bnmswick, coal-field of,

Newfoundland, coal-field of;

New Sonth Wales, coal-field

of, 866. New Zealand, coal-fields of,

age of coal-fields, 879. — North Island, brown coal

of, 881.

New Zealand, South Islan4

large deposit of coal in,

882—887. fossil plants in coal-strata,

economic importance of

coal-beds, 886. North Wales, coal-fields of,

" Great Minora vein " in,

Nova Scotia, coal-fields of, 889.

Oldham, coal-series at, 192,

Oldham, Dr., on the Indian

coal-fields, 858, 856.

P.

Pacific Coast (North), coalfields of, 404. Pftrk Gate coal-field, Cheshire,

dip of strata at, 210.

— section of coal-series at,

connection with Flint-share

coal-field, 210. Pendle Ridge, Lancashire,

structure of, 204. Pendleton Colliery, depth of, 6. Pennant, on early coal-mines

in North Wales, 82. Pennine chain in Derbyshire,

in Northumberland, 256.

Permian strata, 467. — -- of Derbyshire, 244. Phillips, Prof., on Burton

coal-field, 212.

Index.

Phillips, Prof., on Gannister

beds of Yorkshire, 241. Physical geology of Carboniferoas

rocks, 459. Picton, coal-field of, 898. Piesberg coal-field, Hanover,

Plants of the coal-period, 42. Brongniart's classification

of, 42. Goppert's classification

of, 42. - Lindley's experiments on.

Plant, Mr. N., on Brazilian

coal-fields, 410. Plauenschen Grondes, coalfield of, 887. Plot, Dr., on coal-mining in

Staffordshire in 1686, 84. Poland, coal-field of, 850. Pottery, manufactnre of N.

Staffordshire, 182. Pressure, effects of, in mines,

Prestwich, Mr. J., on GoalbrookDale coal-field, 181 ; on the Symon fault in do., 188.

on sections of liege and

Valenciennes coal-field8,881 , Prussia, coal-fields of, 884. Prussian and Austrian Silesia,

coal-fields of, 848. Pumpelly, Mr. R., on remains of cycads in Chinese coalfield, 868. Purchas, Bev. Mr., discoverer of brown coal in N. Island, New Zealand, 881.

Queensland, coal-field of, 876.

Bamghur coal-field, India,

Bamsay, Prof., on succession of strata in Anglesea coalfield, 158.

views on the extension

of the Coal-measures of Derbyshire, &c., eastward,

on the southern limits of

the Coal-measures of Durham, 255.

on resources of concealed

coal-fields of England,* 826.

Bandall, Mr., on structure of Coalbrook Dale coal-field,

Banigaig coal-field, India, 858.

Besources of British coalfields, 802.

of visible coal-fields, 826.

of concealed coal-fields.

of Irish coal-fields, 827,

summary of, 829.

Bhine Valley, coal-measures

under the, 888, 889. Bichmond and Cape Breton,

Bichthofen, Baron von, on

coal-field of China, 862. Boberts, Mr. G. E., on fossils

of Forest of Wyre coalfield, 125. Bogers, the late Prof., on areas of American coal-fields, 898,

Bomans, the, coal-mining by,

Didex.

Bonchamp, coal-trongh of, 888.

Rose Bridge colliery, depth of, 6, 481.

ihermometrical observations at, 482.

Bnssia, coal-fields of, 847 —

S.

Saarbriick coal-field, 884.

— — supposed depth and temperature of lowest coalseams, 885. - fossils of, 885.

Salter, Mr., on fossils of Lancashire coal-field, 195, 197.

Sanquhar coal-field, 295.

list of coal-seams in, 296.

Saone et Loire, coal-basin of,

Saskatchewan Biver, lignite beds of, 408.

Savoy, anthracite of, 844.

Saxony, coal-fields of, 886 —

Scotland, history of coalmining in, 80.

coal-fields of, 266.

geological structure of,

coal-basins of, 268.

geological age of coalfields, 268.

lower coal-series of, 269.

carboniferous series of,

plutonic rocks of, 271 —

—278. — resources of, 298. produce of, 299.

Scott, Mr. W. T., on structure of Goalbrook Dale coal-field,

Scott, Mr. W. T., on the Symon fault in ditto, 184.

Sea-coal, origin of the term,

Sedgwick, Professor, on the Cumberland coal-field, 215.

Selwyn, Mr. A., on coal-field of Victoria, 866.

Shireoak colliery, 287, 245.

Shrewsbury cofd-field, 126.

Shultz, !(&., on coal-basin of Asturias, 845.

Silesia, coal-fields of, 842, 848.

Silkstone coal of Yorkshire, identical with the Arley coal of Lancashire, 241.

Skye coal-field, 298.

Slavery of coal-miners in Scotland tiU 1799, 86.

Slimon, Mr., section of coalseries in Lesmahago, 298.

Smith, Dr. A., analysis of Chumet iron-ore, 182.

Spain, coal-fields of, 845, 846.

Spirorbis limestone in N. Staffordshire, 172.

Splint coal of Yorkshire, &c.,

St. Etienne, coal-field of, 888.

St. Helens, coal-series at, 188.

Staffordshire, North, coalfield of, 168.

geological structure of,

faults in, 170.

Permian beds overlying

coal, 171.

succession of strata in,

succession of coal-seams

in, 178.

ironstones in, 176.

fossils of, 177.

— resources of, 178.

E E

Didex.

Stafibrdshire, South, coal-field

of, 155.

physical geology of, 157.

succession of formations,

— coal-series of, 159.

— ten-yard coal of, 160. southerly thinning of

strata, 161.

coal - field of, igneous

rocks in, 168.

ironstones of, 164.

fossils of, 165.

resources of, 165.

anthracite of, 844.

Tasmania, coal-field of, 877.

Taylor, Mr. T. J., on Roman coal-mining, 19.

on history of coal-mining

at Newcastle, 29.

Mr. R. C, on coal produce in 1819, 88.

Temperature, an obstacle to deep mining, 428.

internal terrestrial, experiments on, 424 — 484.

Dukinfield colliery, 428.

Rose Bridge colliery

(Wigan), 481, 489. — causes of variation in rate of increase of, 488. mean rate of increase of.

— table showing rate of increase, of 487.

of air-current in mines.

effect of seasons on, 442.

Texas, coal-basin of, 898. Theophrastus, supposed reference to coal by, 12.

Tiddeman, Mr., on Burton

coal-field, 212. Trinidad, coal and lignite of,

Tyrone coal-field, 801, 811. succession of formations.

coal-series of, 818.

Vancouver Island, coal deposits of, 402.

Vegetation of the coal-period, uniformity of, 44.

Ventilation, effects in lowering underground temperature,

Victoria, coal-field of, 866.

different geological ages

of coal-series, 867.

Vivian, Mr. H., on resources of the South Wales coalfield, 1, 94, 826.

W.

Wall, Mr., on coal and lignite of Trinidad, 407.

Ward, Mr. J., on fossils from coal-measures of North Staffordshire, 177.

Warwickshire coal-field, 220.

succession of strata, 222.

coal-seams of, 222.

spirorbis limestone of,

intrusive greenstones of.

millstone grit altered,

Index.

Warwickshire coal-field, re-

. sources of, 224.

Waste in combustion of coal,

working of coal, 456.

Weald, coal-formation N. W. Germany, 841.

Wealden formation, Hanover, coal in, 841.

Weaver, Mr., on the coal-seams of Munster, 804.

Westminster colliery, Denbighshire, section at, 144.

Westphalia, coal-field of, 888.

Whitehaven, coal-series at, 215, 217.

coal-mining in 1789, 87.

Whittaker, on ancient coalmining in Lancashire, 15.

Whitwick colliery, sheet of trap-rock at, 228.

commenced by George

Stephenson, 228.

Wigan, cannel coal at, 88.

coal-series at, 189.

Williams, Mr. Price, on rate of increase of coal-consumption, 458.

Mr. D. H., on the

Raniganj coal-field, 885.

Wilkinson, Mr. T. T., on the Burnley coal-basin, 203.

Wood, Mr. N., on the age of the red sandstones of Northumberland, 264.

Mr. L., on ventilation

of mines, 442.

Woodhouse, Mr. J. T., on resources of Warwickshire coal-field, 224.

on the resources of the

Leicestershire coal - field,

Workington, coal-series at, 210. Wright, Mr. T., on Roman

coal-mining, 19. Wroxeter, Roman coal-mining

near, 20. Wyken colliery, 221.

Young, Mr. J., on age of Ballagan beds, 275.

Zwickau-Chemnitz, coal-field of, 886. O

WatsoB and HazeU, Printers, London and Aylesbury.

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