Manual of Mining Tools: Comprising Observations on the Materials From, and ...

William Morgans · 1871 · Historical

Manual of Mining Tools: Comprising Observations on the Materials From, and ... by William Morgans (1871). Full text and reference in the Mountain Man Mining…

Public-domain full text preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library. Original source: archive.org.

at |: .com/I

Manual

Of

MINING TOOLSt

GOMP&IBDfO

Obsebyations On The Materials From, And Processes By

Which They Are Manufactured; Their Special

Uses, Applications, Qualities, And Efficiency.

Containing 236 Wood Engravings Of Mining Tools,* Drawn

To Scale.

By

WILLIAM .HQfiQANS,

Ksit

London : Lockwood & Co., 7, Stationers* Hall Court,

Ludgate Hill.

0:3 TAd of Engravings to accompany and iUus' trate tlie Manual op Mining Tools, 'price 4s. d.

Preface.

One of the striking features of the Art of Mining, in its wide appKcation, is the variety which characterizes the tools used for prosecuting it. This variety may be to some extent the result of prejudices which establish local custom; but in the main it is the fruit of skilful design, or selection, for advantageously accomplishing the sundry details of mining operations.

The subject in general is one of interest and importance to those who aim at promoting the prosperity of mining, since, for the successful prosecution of that industry, so much depends upon the adaptability and quality of the tools xised. It is consequently requisite that the principles which regulate their efficiency should be thoroughly understood, and as several mining tools are required for work of an exceptional nature, it is desirable to have special acquaint-

Iv Fbefage.

ance witli some points, as toucliiiig botli principles and practice, in relation to those tools in particular.

It lias been endeavoured to make the following pages of some service to mine managers, viewers, or captains, and overmen, whose knowledge of the quality, durability, manufacture, and selection of tools is often appealed to, and who, consequently, require to be familiar with the practical bearings of the subject.

The a£Ebrding of information to mining students has also been aimed at. For their advantage the principles of operation of some of the tools have been noticed, with additional points, which otherwise would not have been introduced. It is hoped, however, that those of their number who intend to successfully direct mining operations, will be prompted by the perusal of these pages to seek possession of an acquaintance with the actual use of, at least, the ordinary mining tools. To such individuals the advantage of experience thereby gained cannot be overrated, and they should constantly remember that when the time arrives for them to take charge of the execution of work, they ought to be able to bring to bear the requisite practical knowledge.

Pbeface. V

and not to be entering upon the requirement of it

Another intention has been that of affording English superintendents of foreign mines such particidarSy derived from practice, as may be useful to them when engaged in the discharge of functions demanding their close acquaintance with details which, in this country, where manufacturing industry and skilled labour are always close at hand, may be regarded as insignificant and imnecessary.

With the hope that these pages will be read by working miners, and artisans concerned in the furnishing of mining tools, it has been attempted to treat the subject in a way calcidated to interest and inform them upon numerous points. The writer is proud to acknowledge that much of the information which has served him well in daily practice has been communicated to him by men of these vocations, amongst whom prevails a high degree of natural intelligence, which is often concealed by modest reserve.

Freqaenilyy disappointments in mining enterprises are tnessed at home and abroad, through those who have control of the works labouring under the drawback of a training — if any at all — in which actual practice in mining has been quite neglected.

Vi Tketace,

In eases of tlie most commoii tools, data relating to the weights, costs, and prices have, in several instances, been given, as nearly as it. has been fonnd possible to strike the average ruling in this country. Although these figures may slightly fluctuate in any particular neighbourhood, and may vary somewhat in different districts, such details as are supplied will on be acceptable as a guide in agreeing for, purchasing, and valuing tools.

The writer is persuaded that a more general diffiision of knowledge regarding the special forms of mining tools used for particular work, in different districts and countries, must be advantageous. Consequently, various tools more XX less peculiar to different localities, and also some foreign tools, have been illustrated. Instances are occasionally to be seen of miners working under tm&vourable circumstances through being uninformed regarding tools used in B remote dusrtrict.

The illustrations — drawn to scale — -may be found convenient to some for reference, when requiring an insight into the diaracter of details belonging to our subject, which, amongst mining and manufacturing circles, and in engineerix

PREFACE. Vii

publications are often alluded to in teclmical language.

The foregoing remarks summarize the purport of this little book. It has been written in the midst of busy occupation in mining and mechanical pursuits — a circumstance which almost as a natural consequence has added to its imperfections.

Simple as the subject appears, it was adopted because the need of some work devoted to it has been long and often expressed. Should this publication in a small measure tend to promote the miner's important calling, its production will be significantly honoured.

Any suggestions or additional information will be highly esteemed by the writer,

BiUBTOL School of MineSi June, 1871.

Inteoduction.

n

In noticing some points pertaining to iron and fiteel — which have become indispensable in the manufacture of most of the tools and implements now employed in the industrial arts — it will neither be necessary to enumerate the many different kinds of iron ores met with, nor to consider the various systems pursued for winning or working them. Many of our readers will be more or less acquainted with the processes by which iron is reduced from its ores and manufactured into a saleable product. Reference will be made to some of these processes, but only so far as partly to account for the differences between good and bad iron and steel; and, further, to explain briefly some chemical and other facts to such readers as may not have acquired much technical training.

The purest state in which the metal iron can be generally obtained is that known as wrought-

B

2 Mining Tooi.S.

iron. Absolutely pure iron is a chemical curiosity. The best bar-iron has traces of other elements, some chemically combined, and others mechanically alloyed with it ; but they appear to have no very positive influence upon the quality of the iron until their quantities become more appreciable.

Chemical analyses have proved that, almost invariably, red-short iron contains in some form sulphur, and that cold-short iron contains phosphorus ; hence, when iron is tender and weak at a red heat, or when cold, the cause is attributed to sulphur in the former case, and to phosphorus in the latter. Iron derived from the ores of some districts is noted for red-shortness; that from the ores of other districts for cold- shortness. Some ores give iron which is both red-short and cold-short. Naturally, those ores which are freest from sulphur, phosphorus, and other deleterious elements, yield pig-iron most suitable for the production of best bar-iron. The smelter reduces and separates metallic iron from the ores by slagging or scorifying the accompanying earths, metals, &c. ; and during this operation it is his duty to prevent, as far as possible, the combination of any injurious element with the iron obtained. This is partially, or wholly, accomplished by introducing to the smelting furnace,

simultaneously with the ores and fuel, such sub stances — either lime, clay shale, sandstone, or any mixture of some of these, according to the composition of the ores — as shall flux the earths and accompanying injurious substances in the ores, and form liquid slags or cinders, which, through being lighter, easily separate from and float upon the surface of the metallic iron. In other words, the smelter brings into intimate contact with the ores such substances as, at the high temperature produced in the fiimace, have greater chemical affinity for, and offer greater attraction to, the earths and deleterious elements than is possessed by the molten metallic iron.

Injurious elements, especially sulphur, sometimes abound in the fully and they often occur in the fluxing material itself. If they are very abundant in any of the material which the smelter has to use, it is in practice impossible for him to prevent the combination of some of them with the pig-iron. It then devolves either upon the puddler, or refiner, to eliminate, besides the carbon — to be spoken of farther on — the greater amount of the impurities from the pigiron by his process. The result is dependent not entirely upon the skill of the workman, but more generally upon the costliness, in labour and loss of material, of the process resorted to.

b2

4 Mining Tools.

A fair amount of loss in weight — according to the composition of the pig-iron — during the refining, or puddling, process, caused by forming some of the iron into cinder to attract and carry off the injurious substances will contribute to producing good bar-iron ; and severe pressure, as in rolling, or abundant percussion, as in hammering, will extrude most of the cinder suspended in the masses of iron which leave the puddling furnace, or refinery, and improve the iron to that extent. Cheaply-made iron is not submitted to severe mechanical treatment to expel the cinder (some iron being even too weak and bad to stand it), because the latter sells as bar-iron at a higher rate than as cinder, and for the cheap production of iron the puddler, or refiner, is expected to bring out from his furnace a larger proportion of wrought-iron to the quantity of pig-iron charged, than when working for better qualit}

A bar of very best hammered Yorkshire iron, one inch square, will suspend a load of 28 tons before it breaks; and a cubic inch of such bar-iron will weigh, as nearly as possible, 7f times more than a cubic inch of pure water — both iron and water being at the ordinary temperature of 60° Fah. Common qualities of iron, especially those which have not undergone sufficient mechanical treatment during manufacture to expel the in-

Introduction. D

terposed cinder and compact the Iron, and other sorts having injurious elements in combination, will break with a load of from 20 to 22 tons per square inch; and a cubic inch of such qualitywill not generally weigh more than 7J times the same volume or bulk of water. A cubic inch of forge or mill cinder does not weigh more than from 3f to 4 times the weight of the same volume of water ; and the presence of some such cinder, improperly occupying the place of iron in bars, reduces the specific gravity of the latter, besides impairing their strength. The very best bar-iron contains a little cinder, some of which may be seen to " sweat " out when at a good heat in a clear fire.

On of the most useful and valuable properties of wrought-iron is its capability of welding when at a high temperature. In a good weld the imion is so complete and perfect, that upon the application of strain there is no greater tendency to rupture at the weld than elsewhere — that is, supposing the cross section at the weld to be of exactly the same area as at other points in the bar.

It is essential for welding that the surfaces brought into contact should be free from scale. Iron, highly heated, scales very rapidly when in contact with air. Scale is formed in a smith's

6 Mining Tools.

fire, and the more rapidly when there is only a thin layer of fuel between the article being heated and the twyere, because some of the blast in an almost " raw " state touches the article ; or, in other words, the fuel does not abstract all the oxygen from the blast before the latter comes into contact with the article, and the remaining oxygen then scales it.*

Iron scale is simply iron and oxygen combined, and commonly in the proportion of 7 of the former to 3 of the latter by weight, so that lOlbs. of scale contain 71bs. of iron, but sometimes more.

Scale can be melted at a very high temperature, but it is not fusible at the welding heat of iron, and therefore it sticks to the scarfed ends prepared for a weld ; and wherever it thus occurs the welding is defective, since it prevents proper contact of the two scarfs, and consequently there is no union at that particular part. Common

Disregarding moisture and about tsIi part of carbonic acid, common atmosphere consists by Tolume of 79 parts of nitrogen to 21 parts of oxygen; by weight of 77 parts of nitrogen to 23 parts of oxygen. It is the chemical combination of the oxygen of the air with the fuel that bums the latter. Nearly all the coal consumed in a fire-grate goes up the chimney in the form of carbonic acid gas, which, when pure, is invisible. Each pound of carbon — fuel — requires 2 fibs, of oxygen for its perfect combustion, and this quantity of oxygen is contained in ll*594lbs. of air, which, at ordinary temperature and pressure, measure 143*62 cubic feet.

Introduction. 7

sand is more infusible than iron scale, but in the proportion of about 3 of sand, by weight, to 7f of scale, a compound is produced which melts at about the temperature of 1,600® of Fah. — the welding heat of wrought-iron approximating 2,700° Fah.

This singular melting property of mixed sand and scale — similarly possessed by many other compounds — is of the highest value for welding iron. The addition of a little sand to the scarfs while they are being heated not only dissolves the scale invariably formed in a smith's fire, but the resulting fluid compound — chiefly tribasic silicate of iron — forms a coating to the scarfs largely preventing their further oxidation by the blast. When the two scarfs are butted together on the anvil, the sledge blows expel any liquid slag with the greatest ease, and thus clean unsealed surfaces of iron are brought into contact at a welding heat, and united before the surrounding air has time to efiect any scaling.

"Workmen should be careful to form scarfs full in the middle, rather than dished, as is often done. If so hollowed out, the two scarfs, upon being brought together, resemble the cups of a closed bullet-mould, and, being welded at the edges first, sometimes enclose a little cinder or slag, which weakens the weld as much as the presence

8 Mining Tools.

of scale. If, after welding the edges, the hammering is sufficient to force out any enclosed slag, the iron must again open at the weld, or some other place, to admit of this. On the other hand, when both scarfs are full in the middle, there they first unite, and the welding proceeds towards the edges — all the slag being easily forced away as the welding extends.

It is proper to remark that, strictly speaking, iron scale and sand do not chemically combine. There are three well-known oxides of iron of the following percentage composition : —

Per cent. Per cent.

Eed oxide, or sesquiozide of iron,*

contains iron 70*00 and oxygen 3000

Black oxide, or magnetic oxide . - 72*41 „ 27*69

Protoxide of iron 7777 „ 2223

Protoxide of iron is difficult to obtain in a separate form, and if exposed to the atmosphere, it is instantly changed into sesquioxide by the absorption of more oxygen from the air; but almost every combination of oxidized iron with other substances occurs with the iron in the protoxide form ; and if any other higher form of oxide is presented for combination, it is first deoxidized, or reduced to protoxide, before the combination is efiected. Iron scale consists of

Common mst is sesquioxide in combination with water. It is known as hydrated brown oxide.

layers of mixtures of each of the above oxides. The outermost layer contains most oxygen, and is nearly pure sesquioxide. The middle layer is nearly pure magnetic oxide — scale being strongly magnetic, as may be shown with any common horseshoe magnet — and the innermost layer, next the iron, is a mixture of magnetic oxide and protoxide. Sand, chemically known as silica, will combine with iron in the protoxide state only. At a high heat, sand in admixture with red oxide will reduce the latter to protoxide — by driving off some of the oxygen — and then combine with the protoxide to form slag. This occurs in the process of welding iron. The reduction of scale to protoxide is greatly assisted, too, by the presence of the fuel, which is nearly all carbon, and which has a great affinity for oxygen at a high temperature.

It may be useful to observe here that, in the absence of sand, a welding slag may be obtained by dipping the heated scarf into finely-powdered limestone, or unslaked lime. This is one of the exceptional cases in which the sesquioxide combines with another substance in metallurgical operations. In the proportions of 8 of sesquioxide of iron to 5 of limestone, or to of unslaked lime, a fusible slag is formed experimentally. The fact that scale and lime will form such

b3

10 Mining Tools.

a slag is occasionally taken advantage of by smiths.

The appearance of the fracture of wrought-iron varies with the mode and rapidity of its occurrence. A good bar of iron slightly nicked with chisel or clift, and then slowly bent to and fro until it breaks, displays a fracture full of fine, clean, bright, silky fibres, of some shade of dark grey colour. The same bar nicked deeper, with the nicked part placed between supports two or three inches apart, and there smartly struck with one or more good blows, will break short ofi*, and show a crystalline fracture of a colour very near that of silver. Frequently in the piling up of pieces of puddled bar for the succeeding process of rolling out into finished bars, pieces of inferior quality, yielded by pig-iron derived from cheap ores contaminated with phosphorus or any other injurious element, are built into the middle of the pile. The presence of any cold-short iron from phosphatic ores, thus introduced, may be discerned in the fracture of a bar which has been broken by a dead pull, as having a light and bright crystalline short -broken appearance, surrounded, perhaps, with moderately good fibre. As the strains producing such a fracture act almost uniformly upon the molecules of iron, it is clear that it must be composed of different qualities to show the dis-

INTRODUCTIOy. 11

similarity of fracture. A crystalline fracture may be induced in the middle of a uniformly good bar by a to-and-fro breaking movement, as at that place — the neutral axis — no tensional strain from the bending, which develops fibre, has acted upon the iron, and the fracture of the central part being sudden, is therefore similar to that produced by a smart transverse blow.

Similar crystalline patches in a fibrous fracture may result from insufficient working — incomplete decarburization — in either the puddling furnace, or refinery. Such is known as raw iron by forge workmen. Its condition may range from that of mild puddled steel up to that of cast-iron.

The appearance of the fracture of iron, wrought or cast, is by no means a perfectly reliable index to its quality. Very indiflferent wrought -iron sometimes shows good fibre. As a rule, the finer the crystals and fibres are, the better the quality. Sometimes very strong hammered charcoal-refined iron, when smartly broken, shows a very coarse crystalline fracture. Good bars generally have a clean smooth skin, with their edges full and sharp, and free from skin cracks. A similarly clean and smooth appearance can be imparted to inferior bars by passing them through the last and finishing groove of the rolls at a low heat — an arrangement being at the same time provided

12 Mining Tools.

for carefully removing any scale adhering to the groove, that it may not be pressed into the skin of the bar at the next revolution.

The quality of bar-iron is best determined by a direct-pull testing machine, supplemented by a smithes trial of subjecting it to bending, and to punching near the edge, both while in a hot and cold state, and also to a good heat to determine its welding capability.

Good bar-iron is inclined to brittleness when exposed to cold during frosty weather. Chains and bars often then snap suddenly when struck. If a bar requires slight bending during very cold weather, it should be first slightly warmed.

Long- continued vibration, or percussion, will resolve fibrous iron into crystalline. This is frequently seen in broken railway- waggon axles.

Steel occupies a chemical position between wrought and cast iron. Wrought-iron holds only the slightest quantity of the element carbon. Coal, soot, plumbago, and the diamond are each carbon in a less or more pure form. In iron, carbon can exist simply suspended or uncombined, so that it is disseminated in distinct particles or flakes through the iron, although these particles maybe too fine to be visible; but in some descriptions of iron they are easily perceived. It occurs

Introduction. 13

in this way in, and gives distinctive properties to, dark grey pig-iron, and from a fresh fracture of such pig-iron it can occasionally be picked out with a penknife in the form of scales of graphite or plumbago. Carbon can also exist in iron in a chemically combined state, in which case the physical features of the carbon are entirely lost, as in steel, and most kinds of white pig-iron, some of the properties of which diflfer widely from those of grey pig-iron, and still more widely from those of pure iron, or pure carbon. We have already seen that by the chemical combination of iron scale and sand, induced by heat, a compound is produced, having some important qualities different from those of either of the substances of which it is formed. Pig-iron holds an average of from 3 to 5 per cent, of carbon. In dark grey pig-iron it exists mainly in flakes of graphite, but yet with some little in combination. Such cast-iron is soft, is not very strong, can be readily chipped and filed, is only very slightly elastic, and breaks with a dull thud or leaden sound when thrown down smartly across any other piece of iron. Light grey and mottled pigirons have the carbon partly free and partly combined. They are harder than dark grey under the chisel and file, are both stronger and tougher, break with a clearer sound, melt at a lower

14 Mining Tools.

temperature, and shrink more during cooling. In white iron the carbon is nearly all in combination. It is much harder than the greyer sorts, and sometimes cannot be chipped or filed. It breaks with a clear bell-like sound when thrown, is very brittle, and therefore weak for most purposes, and is used only in such castings as require hardness without strength.

Pig or cast iron cannot be welded, but is quite brittle under the hammer at a high red heat. The presence of as little as 2 per cent, of carbon deprives cast-iron of the property possessed by wrought-iron, of becoming plastic and weldable through a considerable range of temperature before arriving at the melting point.

Steel contains from to 2 per cent, of carbon. When the quantity of carbon is small, the steel is termed " mild ; " and, seeing that it then differs from wrought-iron only in the matter of about J per cent, of carbon, it naturally partakes largely of the properties of wroughtiron. Like it, it is readily weldable, and only melts at a high temperature, but is stronger, tougher, and more elastic than wrought-iron.

As the amount of carbon in steel increases, both its melting point and weldability decrease. Steel with 1 J per cent, of carbon very decidedly partakes of the properties of cast-iron, and if then

Introduction. 15

capable of welding, it is so at a very mucli lower heat than wrought-iron.

Of the several methods of manufacturing steel, we will, in a few words, glance at only two, viz., Bessemer's, and the Sheffield cementation process.

The Bessemer process begins operations upon pig-iron containing 4 or 5 per cent, of carbon. From this, steel, containing any desired quantity — say from to 1 J per cent. — of carbon, is obtained by blowing common air upwards through the pig-iron in a molten state, contained in a converting vessel, suitably lined with some very refractory material, and having a perforated firebrick bottom through which the blast is introduced. The converting vessel is filled with molten iron to a depth of about two feet, and as a column of iron that height exerts a pressure on the bottom of the vessel of about 61bs. per square inch, the pressure of the inflowing blast must necessarily be above that, to prevent the iron from running down through the perforated fire-brick twyere. To debar the possibility of this, and to hasten the process, blast is commonly supplied at a pressure of from ISlbs. to 201bs. per square inch. The molten pig-iron thus operated upon is run from a cupola, or air-furnace, into the converter, the blast being, of course, turned on before the iron comes into the vessel.

16 Mining Tooijs.

Now grey cast-iron often contains as much as 2 per cent, of an element termed silicon, and the presence of nearly this amount is requisite for the success of the Bessemer process. Experiments have shown that the blast first attacks the silicon, and converts it into silica — a substance identical with common sand — and so much heat is developed by this chemical change as to raise the temperature of the mass very considerably — a favourable condition for the continuance of the conversion. The silica produced incorporates itself with any cinder previously existing in the pigiron, and further combines with any oxidized iron, resulting from the blowing, to form cinder. The cinder floats on the surface of the metal, and much of it is projected through the neck of the converter by the violent boiling of the mass.

As soon as nearly the whole of the silicon is oxidized into silica, the blast begins to attack the carbon, to combine with and remove it, in the form of carbonic oxide gas, which burns with a pale blue flame at the mouth of the converter, and engenders an intense heat. Although upon first thought it might scarcely have been expected, the heat developed during the combination of the silicon and carbon of the iron with the oxygen contained in the blast is something astonishing.

la the early days of the process, Mr. Bessemer used to stop the blowing when so much of the carbon had been consumed as would leave the desired amount of that element in the fluid mass, which would then be properly called steel. It was, however, found impracticable to stop at the desired point with any degree of accuracy, and so, instead of attempting this, the whole of the carbon was burnt out, and a plan of Mr. Mushet's adopted — that of adding to the decarburized mass a known weight of molten pig-iron, contedning a known weight of carbon. Thus, if the vessel contained 4 tons of decarburized iron, which it was desired to form into steel having 1 per cent, of carbon, it would be necessary to add about 901bs. of carbon — about 22. to the ton — to effect that object. In a ton of iron known to contain 5 per cent, of carbon, the total of carbon amounts to 1121bs. Therefore, by melting, and adding a ton of such iron to the 4 tons in the converter, the whole mass of 5 tons would be saturated with 112lbs. of carbon — one hundredth of the whole, equal to about of carbon to the ton of metal — thus giving steel with 1 per cent, of carbon, as desired. It is seldom, in practice, that so much as 1 per cent, of carbon is added. Frequently it happens that by insuring the total removal of the carbon the iron gets

18 Mining Tools.

overblown, resulting in the oxidation of some of the iron itself after the carbon is all gone. By continuing the blowing, the whole of the iron could be burnt away in this manner. Any free oxide of iron thus formed, and floating in the mass, has to be removed, or its presence in the pores of the cast-steel would greatly damage its tenacity. The removal of such oxide is very simply and beautifully effected thus: — The pigiron having a known percentage of carbon, and which is added to the decarburized iron in the converter, has also from 5 to 10 per cent, of the metal manganese alloyed with it. Manganese, having a greater affinity for oxygen than is possessed by iron, attacks the oxide of iron mingled in the mass, and frees the iron by combining with its oxygen. The oxide of manganese which is thereby formed readily rises through the mass and mixes with the slag, which it renders still more fusible and liquid by its presence. Pigiron alloyed with sufficient manganese for the purpose just referred to is most commonly produced in Germany, and is known as spiegeleisen. As soon as spiegeleisen has been added to the converter, the mass is run into ingots and cooled. After examination, the ingots are heated, hammered, and rolled into bars.

Unfortunately, blowing air through pig-iron

Introduction. 19

does not remove either sulphur or phosphorus, and the Bessemer process is so far restricted to the use of pig-iron containing only traces of those elements. During the blowing, there is a certain loss of weight in the charge by oxidation and removal of silicon, carbon, and some iron ; but as sulphur and phosphorus are not attacked or reduced in quantity, the mass, at the termination of the blowing, contains a larger percentage of those elements than at the commencement.

The other process of producing steel which will be noticed is that very extensively followed in this country, and known as cementation. It is far less direct than Bessemers original, and much less expeditious than his modified, process. The cementing process starts with bars of good wrought-iron, derived, almost invariably, by complete decarbuiization of pig-iron. They are then saturated with from J to per cent, of carbon to form them into steel, the operation being simply that of putting back a portion of an element which once before existed in the iron. This is effected by placing the bars in layers alternately with layers of ground charcoal in a rectangular "pot," or walled crucible, capable of holding from ten to twenty tons of bars. Each bar is completely surrounded with a layer of charcoal about half an inch thick, space being allowed for expansion.

20 Mining Tools.

The " pot " 18 constructed over a fire-place, and is surrounded with flues. When filled with the layers, the top is closed with a thick plastering of sand and clay, or any substance suitable for forming a compact and gas-tight covering at a high temperature. Fire is next kindled under the pot, and the heat brought up to about 2,000 Fah., the melting point of copper, in the course of from twenty- four to forty-eight hours. This heat is continued as equably as possible for from six to nine days, the time being dependent upon the thickness of the bars and the amount of carbon it is desired to impart to them. If for certain bars six days would be deemed sufficient to make spring-steel, about seven days would be required for the production of that for shear, and eight days for that for cast steel. After conversion, each lOOlbs. of bars has increased to from 100| to lOllbs., according to the degree of carburization. If the process were prolonged, highlycarburized cast-iron would be produced. The carburization is by no means uniform in the whole of the bars, and there is often much difference at different points in the same bar. The bars situated in the hottest positions absorb most carbon. After treatment in the pot, the bars are covered with blisters, and are known as blister steel.

Introduction. 21

The cause of the blistering is the subject of two or three scientific theories. It is believed to occur only where a little slag exists in the pores of the bars; and as its presence weakens the tenacity at those points, the heat causes a separation and blister by expansion, assisted by pressure from gas generated through chemical reaction between the advancing carbon and the impounded cinder. It would be expected that in the best and most uniformly worked iron the unexpressed cinder woidd be most uniformly distributed, and so cause a regular arrangement of small blisters over the steel. The best iron does yield such steel, whereas inferior bars, after conversion, display large and small blisters of very irregular occurrence.*

Case-habdenino wroTight-iron is eflfected by the application of the cementation process during a short time only. Casehardened tamed and fitted pieces of iron are frequently used in the gearing of engines and machines, and for other purposes. Axles and journals are sometimes thus superficially hardened, as are also screw-bolt nuts which have to be frequently moved with a spanner. This occasionally very serviceable process is conducted in the following manner : — In a wrought-iron box of suitable size, made of sheet-iron or boiler-plate, is laid a layer of dried parings of leather, horns, or hoofs, to nearly an inch in depth. If thought proper, these substances may be previously charred enough to admit of their being crumbled into coarse dust for use in layers. Upon the bottom layer are placed some of the articles to be hardened, with not less than quarter-inch spaces between them. These spaces are then carefully filled with the dried parings or charred powder, and the iron articles are overlaid with not less than one-quarter inch of the same

22 Mining Tools.

In east'Steel the carbon is more uniformly distributed than in blister-Bteel, It is manufac-

carburizing material. Alternate layers of iron articles and parings are arranged, finishing with a top layer of paiings of not much less than an inch in thickness, as at the bottom, ends, and sides of the box. A flanged cover is placed over, or a plain cover is dropped into a rabbet in, the top of the box, and the joint well luted with fireclay, to exclude air as perfectly as possible. The box is then placed in any heating furnace or fire at hand, gradually raised to a good red heat, and steadily maintained at that heat for from half to three or four hours, according to depth to which it is required to carburize. Two hours will carburize some qualities of iron to a depth of nearly one-sixteenth of an inch. Upon withdrawal from the fire, the box may be opened and the articles at once dipped in cold water, when they will be hardened to the depth to which they are carburized; or the box maybe covered with ashes and allowed to cool slowly, after which the articles must be heated and quenched, as in ordinary hardening. Cast-iron boxes can be used for the case-hardening process, but require more care in handling. The case, while in the fire, being always hotter than its contents, allows for free expansion of the latter ; but if allowed to remain in the case until cold, the case, from its earlier cooling, contracts first, and is thus capable of throwing enough of strain upon delicate articles within to distort them. To prevent bending in any of the articles, a heat sufficient to soffcen them should be avoided, otherwise the unequal pressure from the top layers will alter the form of the bottom ones. The leather and hoof parings, &c., used in the above process, besides being carbonaceous, are nitrogenous. Some chemists assert that nitrogen is essential to the conversion of steel, and, further, that it exists in all steel. Others dispute both these statements, especially the latter. The presence of nitrogen may have a catalytic influence upon the carburizing process. A convenient and ready means of case-hardening to a slight depth, for polishing, or moderate wearing, purposes, is simply to sprinkle upon the red-hot article powdered yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium). This substance, during the few seconds the requisite temperature exists, eflects carbu-

I r'

tured by cutting up the latter into and melting them in crucibles, then casting into ingots, and afterwards tilting the ingots into bars. The melting is generally conducted in small draught coke furnaces, similar to those used for melting brass in pots. It being necessary to exclude the air, the pots are closed with covers. The heat required is manifestly above that required for welding cast- steel. From this process, it is evident that simply heating steel to a high temperature, even above its melting-point, does not injure it if air is excluded. Air present

rization enough to give a hardened surface upon quenching in water. By returning the article after sprinkling to a quiet fire, and re-sprinkling once or twice before quenching, hardness to a greater depth may be obtained. Yellow prussiate of potash is prepared from skins, horns, woollen rags, &c., and consists percentically very nearly of — potassium, 37 ; carbon, 17 ; nitrogen, 20 ; iron, 13 J; water of crystallization, 12f. The latter is driven off upon the application of heat.

Malleable cast-iron, the introduction of which is daily progressing, is prepared by cementation, the object being to withdraw instead of to introduce csurbon. In most foundries the details of the process are kept strictly secret, but the points refer chiefly to the kind of pig-iron used. After objects are cast in the usual way, they are embedded in red iron ore — sesquioxide of iron — then raised to a bright heat, bordering on fusion, and kept at that temperature for from two to four days, according to the size of the articles and depth to which it is needful to decarburize them. The red oxide of iron at this heat parts with some of its oxygen, which combines, through stronger affinity, with the carbon of the casting, by that means forming a gas which escapes. The iron ore is reduced to the state of magnetic oxide, and possibly lower. Cast-iron so treated is toughened, and afforded malleability when cold.

24 Mining Tools.

in a smith's forge instantly acts upon hot steel, by removing some of its carbon and oxidizing or burning some of its iron — both eflfects injuring the steel if they occur beyond a very small extent. For this reason a difference exists between the processes of welding steel and iron. While heating wrought-iron the scarfs are allowed to scale to a slight extent, in order that a protecting cinder may be formed by the scale and sand when the latter is applied. During the heating of steel for welding, it is sought to prevent oxidation altogether. This is done by dipping the steel, at a dark red heat, into powdered borax, which of itself forms a liquid glaze at a low temperature. By heating in a clear fire, and frequently adding borax, scaling of the steel may be entirely prevented, seeing that the borax glaze protects it exactly as the fusible cinder protects wrought-iron.

Shear-steel is obtained by cutting blister-steel into lengths, then piling them into faggots, and afterwards getting them up to a welding heat, so that they may be drawn out into bars under a tilt-hammer. The product is known as singleshear steel. When single-shear bars are in like manner cut up, faggoted, and drawn out, the product is called double-shear steel. During the shear-steel process the percentage of carbon is

somewhat reduced in course of heating and hammering ; but it is clear that shear-steel has its carbon more uniformly disposed than blister-steel. The presence of the carbon in steel very singularly renders it capable of being hardened to a very high degree ; and, whether in a soft or hard state, steel is materially stronger than the pig, or wrought iron, from which it was made. The reason why heated steel becomes hardened by a sudden and great reduction of temperature is not perfectly understood. Singularly enough, it becomes slightly increased in volume during the process, so that a cubic inch of soft steel measures rather more than that size after it has been hardened : consequently, for equal bulks, soft is heavier than hardened steel. In usual practice, heated steel is hardened by sudden quenching in a fluid. Water, oil, and mercury are the fluids most commonly used. If either of them is a good conductor of heat ; nevertheless, they rapidly abstract heat from an immersed article by the processes of conduction and convection. When a molecule of either of these fluids touches something hotter than itself, it abstracts heat by conduction, and accordingly expands in volume. It consequently becomes lighter for equal volumes than the surrounding molecules, and is pressed upwards towards the surface by them. Fresh molecules

26 Mining Tools.

then touch and expand, and in their turn are pushed upwards by the colder and denser ones, and thus an ascending current is formed, each atom of which takes away some heat from the article immersed. For equal additions of temperature, water expands about two and a half times more than mercury ; but, on the other hand, the same quantity of heat that would raise a given weight of water one degree, would raise the same weight of mercury thirty degrees ; hence, for equal quantities of heat imparted to equal weights of water and mercury, the mercury expands about eleven and a half times more than the water, which results in its partaking of a much quicker motion, by which the heat is conveyed away more rapidly than in the case of water. Mercury is the most useful of all fluids for disclosing the presence of carbon by the hardening process. It will harden steel that has too small a quantity of carbon to be affected by water.

Oil is not quite such a good conductor of heat as water. A quantity of heat that would raise a given weight of water one degree, would raise the same weight of olive oil three and a quarter degrees. For equal increments of heat, the rate of Expansion of olive and most oils is nearly double that of water. For equal quantities of heat imparted to equal weights of oil and water, the

oil expands five and a half times more than the water, and would thereby ascend from a heated article, by the influence of convection, much more rapidly than woidd residt with water, and, so far, would insure quicker cooling ; but as it happens that a red heat carbonizes oil, any red-hot article plunged into it is immediately coated with a little charred oil, which largely prevents further contact between the liquid and the article immersed, and thus retards the cooling process.

It must be remarked that at 212° Fah. water is vaporized, as is mercury at 660° ; and since even highly-carburized steel requires a dull red heat, say 1,200°, before hardening can be eflfected by quenching, it follows that upon its inmiersion in water or mercury, either of these fluids is necessarily vaporized, and the hardening is effected in an envelope of vapour. The simple changing of state from fluid to vapour instantaneously abstracts a very large amount of heat, which becomes latent in the vapour. The vapour, being so much lighter than the fluid, in a moment rushes upwards, where it is condensed,* if covered with sufficient fluid, and is followed by succeeding

In the case of water-hardening, if any scaling has occurred in the water by which some of the latter has necessarily been decomposed— its oxygen haying gone to form the scale— the liberated hydrogen is not condensed by the overlying water but escapes as gas.

28 Mining Tools.

portions of vapour— the effect being a very speedy reduction of heat in the article immersed.

The degree of hardness imparted depends upon the difference of temperature between the heated steel and the cooling medium. The greater that difference the greater the resulting hardness ; but while very hot steel quenched in very cold water is made extremely hard, the long range of cooling here involved is so violently sudden as often to fracture steel so treated, or, if not that, it induces such unequal internal strains as occasion great liability to break from percussion or sudden strains. Thin strips of steel at a strong heat can be hardened in boiling water. Highly-carburetted steel is more sensitive to hardening, and becomes harder, than mild steel containing less carbon. It requires more care than the latter, being far more liable to fly. It consequently does not bear heating so high as mild steel before quenching. In cold weather water is generally warmed to about 60 Fah. before it is used for hardening. If during cold weather anything thin is hardened in warmed water, and then quickly exposed to cold air, especially to a cold draught, the further reduction of temperature frequently causes the steel to fly, unless of mild quality.

For the sake of tenacity and toughness, the lowest possible heat requisite for producing the

Introdtjction. 29

desired hardness should be imparted to the steel prior to quenching, because then occurs the least range of reduction in temperature, which is attended with the least tendency to disruption within the steel. A matter of great significance is the fact that steel hardened in oil is not merely toughened, but is likewise increased in tenacity. Steel hardened in water bears less pulling strain than the same steel in a perfectly soft state. Smiths have long practised hardening screw-taps and other tools in oil for toughening them ; but, until demonstrated by Mr. Kirkaldy, it was not understood that steel so hardened was much increased, but was rather believed to be decreased, in tenacity. Experimenting upon pieces of the same bar of chisel-steel, of unusually good quality, that gentleman found that one piece in a perfectly soft state broke with a pulling strain of 54 tons to the square inch of cross area ; another piece, highly heated and hardened in water, with 40 tons ; another piece, hardened at same heat, and tempered to " yellow," with 45 tons ; another, similarly hardened, and tempered with tallow to " spring " temper, with 47 tons ; another, so hardened and tempered to " blue," with 50 tons ; another, highly heated and quenched in oil, required 96 tons per square inch to break it. Each piece was turned down in a lathe to about

30 Mining Tools.

half an inch diameter before the experiments were beguD. As regards quenching in oil, it was foimd that the higher the steel was heated before dipping, the stronger it became. The reverse of this is true with water-hardening. That there is a wide difference, chemically and physically, between the operations of hardening in water and oil will be readily perceived. Water is composed, by weight, in round numbers, of 89 per cent, of oxygen, and 11 per cent, of hydrogen— both of these elements being gases when in a free state. Their affinity for each other when combined, as in water, is not very strong. Red-hot iron easily breaks the combination, by taking the oxygen to itself, and freeing the hydrogen as gas. When a large and highly-heated piece of iron is immersed to a shallow depth in water, it fires the liberated hydrogen gas, which may be seen burning in yellowish-blue flames on the surface of the water. With lower heats and greater depth of water, hydrogen does not take fire, but it always escapes, if unobserved, when iron is in the least degree scaled by the action of water. The oxygen seized by the iron forms the well-known scale, which, being thin, brittle, and instantly cooled, is peeled off and drops away by the later contraction of the iron. It has been observed, in the foregoing notices of the Bessemer and other

Introduction. 31

metallurgical processes, that when oxygen is brought into contact with a highly-heated mixture of iron and carbon, as ordinary pig-iron, the carbon first combines with oxygen — the affinity between these two being greater than between iron and oxygen. When hot steel is dipped in water, and decomposes the latter, the same ratio of affinity for oxygen exists between the iron and carbon forming the steel, and it is probable that the carbon is removed to a greater depth than the iron is scaled, in proportion to the greater or lesser heat of the steel. It might be expected that the sudden movement among the molecules of steel, during the rapid fall of temperature in hardening, would diminish its tenacity, and this might be somewhat promoted by a slight decarburization of its surface, if such is assumed to occur.

Now wood — which, when heated without access of air, yields charcoal, besides some liquid and gaseous products — has an average composition of — carbon, 52 ; hydrogen, 5J ; and oxygen, 42J per cent. Olive oil, which is similar in composition to most common oils, contains — carbon, 77 ; hydrogen, 13J ; and oxygen, 9J per cent. ; and in the absence of air becomes carbonized or charred at between 600° and 700° Fah. An ordinary red heat, visible in daylight, is of about 1,000° or 1,100° Fah, in temperature, so that red-hot iron

32 Mining Tools.

or steel, if covered with oil, will readily char the latter. This occurs in oil-hardening. A coating of soot covers the article after the process, instead of the scale attendant upon water-hardening. This sooty covering attached to the steel being a bad conductor of heat, greatly retards the rate of cooling, and in this respect the process resembles annealing, in giving the molecules some time for equable arrangement. At a red heat carbon will combine with iron, or, at the same heat, will disunite itself from iron to combine with any element at hand, as oxygen, for which it has a greater affinity. It is possible that during the short time a red heat exists in steel immersed in oil, a slight carburization or case-hardening of the skin occurs, from the presence of sooty carbon — a process exactly the reverse of that presumed to occur by water-hardening. Regarding this point, and still more the retarded rate of cooling, a wide difference is to be expected between the effects of immersion of hot steel in oil and in water.

When numbers of any article are to be hardened, a special heating furnace is made, suitable to the size and number of the articles it is desired to have together in the furnace. As one hot article is withdrawn, a cold one is introduced, which becomes hot enough for dipping by the time its turn comes. Such articles are generally supported

Introduction. 83

above the fiiel, that they may be in contact with flame only ; and flame-giving coal, in small lumps, is constantly thrown on the fire by hand, and the draught regulated with a damper, to produce an abundance of smoky flame. When articles thus heated are withdrawn for quenching, they are coated with hot soot, instead of scale, and the steel suffers no damage. In furnaces for this purpose, heated by carbonic oxide gas, the admission of air for its combustion is so regulated that the gas is always in slight excess ; accordingly, the oxygen of the air admitted is all appropriated by the gas, leaving none to scale the articles.

Sometimes a bath of molten lead, kept at a constant red heat, and covered with sawdust, is employed for heating articles for hardening. No scaling occurs during heating by this mode.

All hardening operations are, for the sake of judging heats, best conducted in the dark ; and darkened shops are for this purpose provided in establishments where hardening is extensively practised.

Chisels, borers, &c., to be hardened are generally treated for this purpose in a smith's fire at the time they are made or repaired. It is well to have them thoroughly covered with fuel, and far enough from the twyere to prevent contact of the

blast with the steel.

34 Mining Tools.

Several theories to account for the hardening of steel have been propounded by distinguished chemists and others. There is not compass for inserting any of them here.

The operation of tempering steel requires as much skill and judgment as, or even more than, hardening. The theories to account for hardening are elaborated to explain the phenomenon of tempering. One or two of them are supported by considerable probability, but not perfect proof.

It is desirable to use all tools at the lowest possible temper compatible with the performance of their work. The lower the temper, the stronger and tougher is the steel, and therefore the longer it will endure in work ; but in all cases the hardness of the tool must be so much in excess of the hardness of the material operated upon, as shall remove the necessity of too frequent grinding or sharpening. It occasionally happens in rock-boring operations that tools having the utmost hardness are " blunted," from the very refractory nature of the ground, after a few blows only, although with light percussion the edges may not " fly.*' When a tool is to be prepared for work, it is first hardened, and then some of the surface around the cutting e9ge is filed, ground, or rubbed up cold to a clean and bright surface. Heat is then applied to the hardened portion, and the brightened sur-

Introduction. 85

face is carefully watched for the colours produced, which always succeed each other in regular order as the temperature increases. The order according to which they appear is as follows: pale yellow, straw yellow, golden yellow, brown, brown dappled with purple, purple, bright blue, full blue, and dark blue.

Experience has shown that for edge-tools, saws, files, &c., for specific purposes — which should always be made of steel having the most suitable percentage of carbon — certain of the above colours are particularly suitable ; but the best colour and temper vary somewhat in tools for the same purposes when there is a difference in the amount of carbon in the steel from which they are made. The steel possessing most carbon must be brought to the lowest temper.

Brightened surfaces of iron, when heated, acquire colours in the same manner and order as steel, but not so distinctly, and a higher temperature is required to produce any given colour. When iron and hardened steel, both brightened, are similarly heated together, the iron will have acquired only a straw colour when the steel is purple or bright blue.

Both hardening and tempering of many things, as -chisels, borers, &c., are performed by a single heating. Their cutting edges are first dipped

36 Mining Tools.

and hardened, and then immediately filed, or ground, or rubbed bright. The heat stored up further back in such tools is sufficient to bring the edges gradually down to the colour required, whereupon further progress is arrested by instant quenching. When hardening and tempering are made two separate operations, first by completely cooling the article for hardening, and next by raising it to the necessary tempering heat, the heat for the latter object is sometimes imparted by holding the article in a flame, or on some hot substance ; but when quantities are to be tempered, metallic baths are provided for heating them. Metals melt at certain constant temperatures, and mixtures of them melt at certain intermediate constant temperatures. Experiments having shown what temperatures are required to produce certain temper colours, the proper alloys are prepared, and kept just melted, so that articles dipped into them acquire the desired temper with great certainty and uniformity.

The following table shows the melting points of certain alloys, and some of the articles for which such tempering heats are employed : — -

Helting

Lead Tin.

point,

Cotour.

Suitable for tempering

Fah.

Dg.

White

Tjancets.

Yellowisli white

Surgical instruments.

Very pale yellow

Best razors.

Pale straw

liazors.

FuU yellow

Common razors and large pen-knives.

Brown

Shears, scissors, cold chisels.

Brown, dappled with purple

Hatchets, plane irons, pocket-knives.

Purple

Table-knives, large shears.

Bright blue

Swords, watch and bell springs.

Full blue

Fine saws, augers.

Boi:

ling

Bark blue

Pit and hand saws.

linfl

eed

Those colours ranging from straw, for very hard ground, to bright bite, for mild ground, are commonly selected for tempering rock-borers, picks, &c., according as the ground may require them to possess greater or less hardness. When hard ground is also very cellular and much fissured, so as to cause unequal strains on the cutting edges of the tools, then it is necessary to lessen their liability to break through brittleness, by adopting a somewhat lower temper than would be adapted for use in ground uniformly solid.

By far the best temper for boring and other tools is that obtained by heating them only so much as shall, upon quenching, give the proper

38 Minino Tools.

hardness at once. To perform this it Is, of course, not necessary to heat the steel as much as for full hardening, and therefore such considerable and irregular strains are not produced within the steel as are often evinced by water cracks and the breaking away of pieces under slight strain. Tempering, without first hardening, as just mentioned, requires much judgment regarding the proper heat, which is dependent upon the nature of the steel, whether mild or otherwise. The system is always attended with some failures, often to such an extent as to preclude a pursuance of it.

Passing to another subject — that of fuel — which is of some importance in the preparation of miners* picks, boring tools, &c., a few observations will suffice.

Coal that is slightly caking or binding in its nature is most useful for a smith's fire when an intense heat is required, seeing that the heat is reflected and concentrated within the vault formed before the blast; and such coal yields plenty of flame when required for any purpose. The most important points relating to any forging coal are the quantity and nature of the ash and clinker or cinder which result from burning it. A coal may yield a large quantity of ash, yet be useful for pretty high heats, providing the

Introduction. 39

ash is white, and does not form any sticky cinder upon the heats." Many caking coals contain a considerable amount of iron pyrites, which is occasionally invisible, but more generally can be seen in the form either of yellowish spots, crystals, or thin plates. Iron pyrites consists solely of 8 parts of sulphur, by weight, to 7 parts of iron. Cold sulphur brought into contact with red-hot iron readily combines with it, and forms a sulphide of iron, of which there are several kinds, having different proportions of sulphur. On the other hand, when sulphide of iron — especially the one known as iron pyrites — is made red hot with free access of air or blast, some solid sulphur separates by sublimation, and most of the remainder flies off in gases of various compositions, while the place of the sulphur, in connection with the iron of the pyrites, becomes occupied by oxygen with which the iron forms the wellknown red or sesquioxide, and this red oxide of iron so formed it is which gives the reddishbrown colour to the ashes of " red-ash " coal. During the burning of such coal the solid sulphur liberated by sublimation acts very injuriously upon highly-heated iron, or " scarfs " heated for welding, by becoming incorporated with the welding cinder, and communicating red-shortness to the iron. Some coals have clay shale mixed

40 Mining Tools.

with them, and occasionally silica and a little lime. The shale often forms a sticky paste upon the heats. In other coals, shale, silica, and any red oxide of iron from pyrites, form a fusible cinder which goes to the bottom of the hearth. When shale sticks to the heat, it is a source of danger to the welding, and of great irritation to the workmen. When an abundance of clinker is formed, the fire has too often to be raked out to keep the twyere clean, that good heats may be obtained. Many coals, unsuited for smiths' forges, can be made useful for the purpose by thoroughly washing them by one of the several methods in existence.

Table of Heats, Melting Points, &c.

Fah. Fah. Dg. By.

Water freezes . . ... ... at 32

Olive oil freezes . . . „ 36

Summer heat in England „ 75 to SO

Blood heat „ 98

Water boils „ 212

Sulphur melts ,, 218

Tin melts „ 426 to 442

Bismuth melts „ 476 to 507

Lead melts „ 594 to 630

Mercury boils „ 661

Zinc melts „ 680 to 700

Iron : red heat hardly visible in dark . . „ 700

red heat visible in dark . . . . „ 810

dark red heatjust visible in daylight „ 980

dark red heat ,, 1,200

Introduction. 41

Fah. Fah. Dg. Dg.

Iron : commencing cherry red . , . .at 1,470

strong cherry red „ 1,660

full cherry red „ 1,800

Silver fuses „ 1,870

Iron, dark yeUow heat „ 2,000

Copper melts „ 1,990 to 2,140

Iron : light glowing heat „ 2,200

white heat „ 2,370

strong white heat „ 2,6 oO

hright white heat „ 2,700 to 2,900

Cast-iron melts „ 2,740 to 3,090

Steel fuses „ 3,090 to 3,460

Wrought-iron fuses y, 3,460 to 3,800

UKn'EESITY

Tools for penetrating rocks by bore-holes are every day contributory to the accomplishment of the miner's ultimate purpose. The rock-borers, we have to notice, work either by percusstotif or by revolving under weight or pressure. They are sometimes termed " drills or " augers."*

The cutting or operating part — termed the "bit" — of a borer is nearly always formed of steel.

Percussion borers are by far the more extensively used. It is difficult to get a steel bit to stand well for a revolving borer, except in rocks which are not very hard, such as coal, salt, &c.t

Nitric or hydrochloric acid, passed down a small funnelled glass tube drop by drop, is capable of making vertical holes in some rocks. Limestone, magnetic ore, and native copper have been acted upon in this way. Iron pyrites also, which is somewhat impregnable to a steel bit, will yield to this treatment. The process is slow. Acids are also used for enlarging the bottoms of. holes to receive the charges.

t Very hard minerals — black diamonds — mounted on the end of a revolving borer, have been found to answer very well, excepting their expensiveness.

Borebs. 43

In percussion borera the blow is frequently produced by the force of gravity acting upon the tool itself. The common "jumper" represented by Fig. 1 is an example. It consists of a bar of iron with a steel bit formed on each extremity, and having a swell or " bead formed between, to give it greater weight. The bead divides the jumper into two "stocks" of unequal lengths. The shorter one is used for commencing a borehole, and the longer one for finishing it, and often the bit on the long stock is made a trifle smaller than the other, to remove any chance of its not follomng into the hole which has been commenced.

To properly use the jumper, it must be held by both hands in the direction of the required hole, and a series of sharp blows must be produced, by lifting it up about a foot high and letting it drop, assisted by a little force, so that by the concussion of the bit against the rock, the latter gets gradually pounded or nibbled away, and by slightly turning the jumper between each blow, a round hole can be bored very truly with a little expertness.

The jumper is well adapted for boring ordinary holes which are intended to be vertical, or nearly so ; but it is not suitable in other cases. Although very serviceable tools in quarries and open cut-

44 Mining Tools.

tings jumpers are not often used underground ; but it is found more convenient to use instead borers having bits at one end only, so that the comminuting effect may be produced by striking on the other end with a hammer or sledge — the borer being turned slightly between each blow, to secure a round hole in the rock. These are sometimes called " striking borers " for distinctness, and they are most extensively used.

The jumper is considered to have what is termed a liveliness in its fall — due to direct impact — which gives it greater effectiveness in cutting vertical holes than accompanies the use of the striking borer under similar conditions.*

Frequently the steel bits of borers get broken or blunted in use, and the re-sharpening of them is the work of a smith — sometimes requiring the employment of considerable skill. A smith who can sharpen well is always held in esteem by miners having to work in hard ground, and, to say the least, he is a valuable miner's coadjutant.

If a borer is to stand well, five things must be

♦ Whenever it is possible, it is usual to keep water in a borehole, to facilitate the work and to assist in preserving the sharpness of the bit. This converts the boring dust into a wet sludge, and to keep it from splashing out and over the person boring, a piece of leather, having a hole in the middle, is placed over the stock of the borer, thus forming a collar above the mouth of the hole. Sometimes a smaU hay-band is wrapped around the stock instead.

Borers. 45

secured, viz. : 1st, good steel ; 2iid, good smith's coal ; 3rd, a well-shaped bit ; 4th, good tempering ; and dth, fair jumping or striking, and good turning when the borer is in use. There are also two things to be avoided, viz, : 1st, overheating in the smithes shop; and, 2nd, very heavy blows in forging.

Before steel was as plentiful and cheap as at present, all borers were usually made of bars of iron, with a tongue of shear or blister steel welded in a " split weld " at the extremity, intended to form the bit. At many places these borers are still used.

Shear-steel is most suitable for forming the bit, and, to preserve its good qualities, a careful smith will sometimes draw out the iron to overlap the steel like two ears — sprinkling over plenty of sand or borax to form a flux, in order to keep the steel from losing its nature in the fire. Sometimes the steel and iron will be heated separately — the steel tongue, heated to bright redness, being put between the split of the iron bar upon drawing the latter out of the fire with a welding heat.

Striking borers of this class are now being superseded by borers made entirely of cast-steel, which is generally drawn under the tilt-hammer into octagonal bars called "borer-steel."

46 Mining Tools.

A bar of steel being stiffer and stronger than iron, admits of using steel borers with stocks of a smaller diameter — i.e. lighter — than if made of iron. Consequently a hammer-blow of given intensity will be transmitted with greater effectiveness through a steel borer than an iron one, because — independently of its superior firmness or solidity of texture — to satisfy the inertia of a borer, the lesser quantity of matter in a steel one will not require to appropriate as much of the effect of the blow as in the case of a heavier iron one. This is also one reason why a short borer is more effective than a long one. We have in some cases realised like advantage by using very small steel stocks, upset at the bit end to, the usual size; but these borers require more than ordinary care. The use of steel borers is, moreover, favoured by their comparative lightness for transport through the mine ; but they are more easily broken than iron by careless conveyance.

Some sorts of borer-steel are greatly superior to others. Actual use is the only reliable test. We have referred to this subject in our Introduction. Many different qualities are in the market at from £28 to £60 per ton. The price is a very poor criterion to quality. Good shear-steel for iron-stock borers costs from 45a. to 55s. per cwt. ; blister-steel about 35a. per cwt. ; and suitable iron

Borers. 47

from £8 to £10 per ton. Common iron bars, hard and crystalline, answer welL

Experience has always shown that good coal is of great importance in forging and tempering steel. The impurities of dirty coal affect the composition of steel, and probably its molecular arrangement, so as to impair its most yaluable properties. This subject has also been before alluded to.

The bit of a borer is generally formed by flattening and spreading out the end of the bar until about a quarter of an inch thick, and a little wider than the diameter of the hole intended to be bored. A sharp edge is then hammered or filed up, and the comers hammered in at intervals, until the width of the bit corresponds with the diameter of the intended hole. Sometimes the edge is filed up with a rasp ; but when it has to be used in boring hard ground, it is better formed by tapping with the face of a light hammer, and afterwards touching it up with a file.

The edge is sometimes made " straight," as in Fig. 2, or " bowed " (curved), as in Fig. 3. In a set of borers intended to work in succession, if any difference is made in the widths of the bit, the long borers should be slightly narrower than the short ones, to allow them to follow easily in deep holes.

48 Mining Tools.

The shaft of a borer is generally from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch, and for the larger sizes an inch, smaller in diameter than the width of the bit when finished. In very hard ground the comers of the bit break off if it is much wider than the diameter of the bar.

The following are about the average proportions of the diameter of the stock to that of the hohy employed with borer-steel : —

Diameter of hole or width of bit. Diameter of stock.

1 inch I

Ij „ 1

If ,

2 li

2i If

24 „ Ij

The contained angle between the two sides of the cutting edge, as seen in section across the edge itself, and represented by Fig 4; is commonly about 80° or 90°, but varies from 60° to 100°.

In free-boring ground, or ground which is tough but not hard, the edge may be rather acute ; but in hard ground the edge should have greater obtuseness.

A curved or bow bit is stronger in the comers than a straight one, consequently in hard ground

B0Kbr8. 49

the is the better one for standing ; still, in softer ground the straight bit answers well, and is considered to cut its way more freely, but it is not so readily forged.

By hammering in the comers of a bit, care should be taken to preserve the splay throughout to the extremity, by properly inclining the face of the hammer. When this is neglected, the comers get " nipped,'' as in Fig. 5, and the bit will not free itself in cutting.

When one part of the edge of a bit is " backward,'' as shown by Fig. 6, or when a bit is " odd-cornered," as in Fig. 7, the onward parts have to bear too much from the blows; for, by turning the borers in the holes, these parts have constantly to cut away the rock, while the other parts do not encounter any work. In this way the edge soon gets damaged, and frequently the overstrained part flies o£P, and causes much trouble by remaining in the hole. We have examined blunted and broken bits having such, defects, and found that some parts of the edge had not even touched the face of the hole while in use. If a smith has a good eye, he can largely obviate the defect here mentioned ; but the best sometimes fail. Somewhat recently the writer's father contrived a tool for sharpening borers, which gives satisfactory results. It is represented

5.0 Mining Tools.

in two side views by Figs. 8 and 9, and is simply a kind of stage made of steel, and having, in the bottom part, a groove of the same form as the edge of the bit is required to assume. The swage is placed upon the heated and flattened bit end of the borer — which is represented by dotted Knes — and a few blows struck on the top of the swage mould the bit, and form an even and uniform edge. After the comers are hammered in, the swage is again applied, and another blow or two struck upon it.

"When curved edges are reqiiired, the swages can be made three or four at a time, all centred on a lathe face-plate, as shown in Fig. 10, and the sharp V groove can be turned out of the lot with a bent V point tool. They can be used also as bottom swages, and the borer-bits hammered down on them ; but there is some difficulty in keeping the scale out of the groove.

The greater durability of borer-bits sharpened by the tool described is referable to the regular evenness of the edge, and the effect of the swage in compacting the steel without straining its particles, as in the ordinary case of hammering the edge, first on one side and then on the other, in succession.

The tempering of bits exercises an almost paramount influence upon their durability and service.

Bouers. 6 1

When the rock to be bored is very hard, or when traversed by hard veins or interspersed with nodules of closely-compacted siliceous and other obdurate minerals, then very careful tempering is required.

Some elvan courses and tinny capel are almost impenetrable ; so that a hundred borers are known to have been blunted in them by two men in a single core, and all, the work done for it would be about three inches of boring, costing over 2s. 6d. per inch. Compact iron pyrites also defies penetration in a very similar way.

But when the rock is of a more yielding nature and of equable texture, then great nicety of tempering is not so indispensable.

The usual method of tempering borers is as follows : — About four inches of the bit end — previously sharpened — is heated to cherry redness in the fire.* It is then immersed in cold water to a depth of about three-quarters of an inch, and thoroughly chilled or " hardened." f The remaining

If it is so arranged that sufficient heat remains in the bit end, after sharpening, to avoid again exposing it to the fire, and to proceed to temper direct from the anvil, it is better than reheating for tempering, and thereby further submitting the steel to the effect of the blast and heat.

t At this stage of the process the bit should not be steadily held in one place, but it should be slightly moved up and down in the water, else the hardness will terminate abruptly in a line corresponding with the surface of the water, and the different conditions of the molecules of steel above and below

D 2

62 Mining Tools.

hot portion is next plunged in altogether for a short time, still leaving sufficient heat in it for tempering, and then the borer is entirely withdrawn. The heat still remaining in the body of the borer and adjoining the bit will be conveyed through the particles of steel towards the hardened edge, and the hardness will be thereby reduced, while the increasing temperature of the bit will be marked by first a yellow and then the succeeding hues, creeping on towards the edge. If the scale be rubbed off with, say, a little grit-stone, the colours are very plainly visible, and when the proper tint appears, the borer is plunged into water, and the tempering finished.

After first observing the proper tint, instead of plunging the bit finally into water in the usual manner, if the edge is simply dipped in — say half an inch deep — it will be chilled sufficiently to let the colour creep on again, so that the same colour can be produced in this way three or four times before final cooling, and when the trouble is taken an improved tempering is believed by many to result ; but it is not often practised.

With bits having much convexity or bow, the colour creeps on to the corners before it reaches

that line will there render the borer weak, and almost certainly cause it to break ofif at that point during work. Numerous persons are perplexed through not recognising this cause of fracture.

Borers. 53

the middle, so that it has to be checked by dipping the comers in the water, otherwise the middle would be too hard or the comers too soft to stand well.

Almost every different sort of steel requires its own peculiar tempering, and thus sometimes an excellent steel, through not being properly manipulated in this respect, has been condemned by smiths and miners. Afterwards, when the smiths get into the way of tempering it, the same steel might give great satisfaction to all parties.

The colours for tempering bits mostly vary from straw to purple. The shades of brown give excellent tempering for many kinds of rock.

The best degree of tempering depends as much upon the condition and nature of the rock to be bored as it does upon the character of the steel; and smiths can secure considerable advantage by observing the results of different temperings, as indicated by the blunted bits from various sorts of ground. If the edges blunt very much by wearing off round and smooth, they may be tempered a little harder ; but if they break and crack off very much— unless due to burning the steel, or the fault of holding the bit still in hardening — they may be tempered a little softer to advantage.

Oil-tempering is not often used for borers.

64 Mining Tools.

but it is advantageous when haying to deal with some extremely hard and brittle rocks. The bit is first hardened by sudden cooling in water. The hardness thus produced is next tempered by slow re-heating while smeared with oil, until it flames, whereupon it is finally cooled by immersion. When moistened over with oil, and cooled in the same fluid, the bits are believed to acquire greater elasticity and toughness.

As steel is known to suffer injury by heating for frequent hardening and tempering, it is sometimes beneficial to avoid high hardening and subsequent tempering, by giving the steel its final degree of hardness direct by the first cooling. To do this, instead of heating the steel red hot at random, as in the case of high hardening, it must be heated to a particular degree for each stage of hardness required, and cooled at that temperature, by which means all tempering by drawing down is avoided, and the required amount of hardness is obtained by the first cooling.

Heating the steel to the exact temperature is the main point to be secured. This has been referred to in the Introduction. A cheap and enduring alloy, melting at the proper temperature for this purpose, would be extremely useful for heating for the operation.

Borebs. 55

Unfair blows, and bad turning when a borer is in use, will spoil bits almost as quickly as any-* thing. The force of the blows for boring to the best advantage depends chiefly on the nature of the ground and the size of the bit. As a rule, in having to encounter very dense, sharp rock, the borer will not bear beating as heavily as in more impressible yet tougher rock, such as some sorts of killas and hornblende. Generally speaking, heavy blows are not desirable, " smart blows and plenty of 'em being preferable, and intelligent miners always notice what strength of blow answers best.

Nearly as much depends on the turning of borers ; and if this is not done well, so as to keep the hole round and true, the bit suffers undue strains, and soon gets impaired.

Under these circimistances, it is a matter of no surprise that the same bit will go through much more ground with some men than with others.

Cast-steel should never be heated above bright cherry red. In all particular cases it should be worked at a dull red if possible. In fact, the lowest heat at which all kinds of steel can possibly be worked is always the best heat.

Overheated steel is apt to Jlp or crack in hardening. Its fineness of structure, elasticity, and cohesiveness are also greatly injured, and this

56 MINING TOOLS. i

injury increases with the intensity and frequency of overheating.

Although overheated or burnt borers do get sent underground, they are of poor use there, and are very soon sent back again. Further, they never can be of any good until the burnt part is broken or cut o£P. Good steel is often blamed from neglect in this direction ; and when mine managers and agents give a little attention to the smith's shop, now and then taking a borer out of the fire, and properly reprehending any cases of having in the fire too many tools to attend to, or of some being overheated, the results are surprisingly modified for the better.

In forging steel, very heavy striking should be avoided, because it is known to impair the texture of the steel ; and hence, in drawing out borer bits on the anvil, this should be borne in mind.

Ordinary bore-holes for blasting range mostly from I to inch diameter for single-hand boring, and from 1 J to about 2J inches diameter for double-hand boring.

A smith and striker will usually sharpen and temper from thirty to forty-five medium size single-hand borers per hour, according to how much they are blunted or broken, or from twenty to forty medium size double-hand borers in the

University

flame time. These will be hardened in water, and the colour brought up once in tempering.

By use in hard ground, borers shorten rapidly. . In striking borers this shortening goes on at both the bit and striking ends. The wear at the bit end is governed by the quality of the steel, sharpening and tempering, and the nature of the rock to be bored, as well as the character of the striking. The wear of the striking end also depends upon the quality and condition of the metal of which it is formed, and the character of the striking and the rock.

Wrought-iron borers, when not steeled on the striking end, wear away very fast — especially so with poor and badly- welded or " hollow " iron.

Good cast-steel borers stand decidedly better ; but they should always be well annealed on the striking end. Should the steel, however, be rash, it will wear down quickly, even with the best annealing, and pieces four or five inches long will often spall off the side of the borer at the striking end.*

In very hard ground some steel will do good service at the bit end, but stand very indifferently at the striking end, and this is a consideration

Borers -which have been some time in nse are considered to transmit the blow better than new ones. This applies mainly to borers with iron stocks, the strnctnre of which becomes conspicaonsly changed by repeated concussion.

d3

58 Mining Tools.

which should be attended to in selecting borersteel. If new borers be marked in the middle with a centre-punch, and their lengths measured, the rate of wear and tear of both ends can be ascertained at intervals, under different conditions.

The writer found, from carefully -noted results, that some sorts of steel wasted away from two to three times faster on the striking end than on the bit end; and that in the same kind of groimd one sort of steel stood three times the work of another, and, notwithstanding the extra striking to which it was thus submitted, the striking ends did not wear down any faster, although both sorts were sharpened, tempered, and annealed to the best advantage.* The great quantity of steel used in British mines is ample reason for noticing this subject, and mine agents would often derive useful information by recording such results for themselves. It would invariably inculcate the principle that the use of inferior steel is attended with loss and disadvantage, and that careful sharpen ing and tempering pays best in the long-run.

It is almost a cruelty to provide bad steel for miners, or to make them receive their tools from the hands of an incompetent smith; and when they have to pay for the steel wasted, it is proper

Steel thimbles, with thick tops for striking on, are sometimes driven on the borers to keep them irom wearing on the striking end.

Borers. 59

for masters to see that their earnings are not epitomized by the expense and waste of time consequent upon carelessness on these points.

The bits we have noticed are the commonest forms in use and for most cases of ordinary handboring they are unexcelled. Other forms are in nse, particularly in some foreign mining districts.

Fig. 11 represents the " swallow-tail " bit. It is rather weak, and requires to be used with care in very compact rock. In some sorts of ground it cuts rather deady but it makes a good hole, as the width of the comers contributes to removing any ruggedness from the sides. The " club '' bit, Fig. 12, has two cutting edges crossing each other at right angles, so that the impact of the blow is divided over more cutting edge. This is an advantage in some mild and some hard rocks, which would require light striking on a single edge. Fig. 13 represents the "nicker" bit, having a cross edge at one corner for cutting the circumference of the hole, and keeping it round.

All of these bits are troublesome to sharpen when they break, and it is difficult to temper them equally.

Some bits, instead of being curved outtcards or bowed, as in Fig. 3, are curved inwards —

60 Mining Tools.

crescent- like — but the comers are necessarily very weak.

Revolving borers are generally turned direct, either by a lever, crank, wheel, gearing, or some such contrivance.

Fig. 14 represents a revolving bit, sometimes used for hand-boring in coal for "benching-down," either by explosives or by hydraulic benchingdown machines, instead of wedging. The bit fits into the end of a mandrel, sometimes made hollow, and out of a piece of wrought-iron gaspipe.

When used for making holes to receive benching -down machines, a fine thread is in some instances cut around the outside of the mandrel, which passes through a nut fixed in an upright prop, and the prop is secured firmly between the floor and roof by end screws or wedges. Upon turning the handle, the nut forces the mandrel and bit to advance, and thus the borer is selffeeding. A worm is sometimes coiled around the mandrel to clear out the boring dust.

We shall conclude this chapter by noticing some boring bits used for sinking artesian wells, or deep exploratory bore-holes. The bits are usually fastened by a key, or screw joint, to the tail of the rope or rods which descend into the hole,

Fig. 15 shows a " bow " bit, which is exten-

Boreks. 61

sively used. Sometimes the edge is formed as at a, and then it is called a " V " bit.

Fig. 16 is a double nicker bit, with a straight edge, and is a very serviceable tool. In some instances only one comer has a nicker, and its width is equal to about half the width of the bit. It is bent, to fit the circular form of the hole. This is called a " T " bit.

Figs. 17 and 18 represent bits which present a good deal of cutting edge, but are difficult to resharpen when broken. They both answer very well for fair ground. The " S " bit cuts a very true hole. For boring holes of large diameter, instead of using one large bit, it is better to use separate bits of a convenient size for sharpening, and all made to screw firmly into one iron block.

In some instances the bits are arranged around a cylinder for the purpose of cutting " cores,'' as shown in Fig. 19.

All these are percussion borers, and they generally act by the force of gravity.

For penetrating soft ground, such as clay, revolving borers are preferred. One of these is represented by Fig. 20, which is an "auger shell " for scooping up the clay. In some cases there is a valve inside, opening upwards, for keeping the stuff from falling out when it is being drawn up.

62 Mining Tools.

For boring in Juird clay, or loam, the " nose " of the bit is shaped similar to the dotted lines, and there is a narrow slit all up the side of the shell. The stiffer the clay the wider the slit may be. Sometimes a similar tool, forming half a cylinder, like a carpenter's barrel auger, is used in like manner.

Figs. 21 and 22 show other tools used for penetrating stifle clays. Fig. 21 — the " worm auger " — is occasionally used . for loosening the stuflP in bore-holes.

The patterns of borers employed in well-sinking and trial borings are very midtifarious, especially those used in soft ground.

HAMMEES, SLEDGES, &c.

This class of tool is of indispensable service, because it admits of storing up power, that it may be, with convenience, given out abruptly in the form of a blow, which is useful for the purpose of striking. The striking part of the tool (called the " head ") is proportionately massive and for most purposes made of metal. It is usually furnished with an " eye " for receiving a wooden " handle," " stick," or " helve." When such a tool is made with a metal head, and is intended to be used with one hand, it is called a " hammer." When intended to be used by both hands, it is called a "sledge."* Miners' hammers and sledges are of various forms and dimensions. A variety of patterns (as used in various mining districts) are illustrated. Fig. 23, called the " bully " pattern, is a very frequent form. Fig. 24 is the '' block," Fig. 25 is the "pointing," Fig, 26 is the "bloat," and Fig. 27 the "plug " pattern. The striking face is called

Hammers and sledges arc sometimes called " mallets," but the name properly refers to -headed tools.

64 Mining

the " pane," and it has generally a little convexity when new to allow for its wearing.

The shape of the " head " is sometimes modified by varying its width, as in Fig. 28, which is termed a " broad bully," and Fig. 29, which is termed a "narrow bully." Besides this, the "head" is sometimes curved, as in Fig. 24, in which case it is said to " sweep."

Occasionally the " head " is formed with the side of the " eye," extended to form " cheeks," as at a. Fig. 30, which represents a "bloat" head cheeked.

The " eye " is commonly oval, as in Fig. 23, but sometimes round, as in Fig. 26, and occasionally it is square, or rectangular, as in Fig. 24 ; but it is varied often in the same pattern. The patterns described are drawn to represent sledges, but the same shapes are used for hammers, and the proportionate length of the head is often varied from that shown in both hammers and sledges. These patterns are used for boring, and for driving wedges and other tools to be again noticed. Fig. 33 shows the " dally " hammer, sometimes made with a circular or cheese-shaped head, and sometimes with four faces, or six (as shown), or more. This hammer is used for single-hand boring, and so is the cube hammer, shown by Fig. 34. The St. Just miners are, perhaps, unexcelled

Hammbr8, Sledges, Etc. 65

for expert single-hand boring, and they use a hammer shown by Fig. 36, which is a long bloathead with a little sweep. There is not usually any steel in the panes. In some other parts of Cornwall, very short, broad bully-heads are used, with the panes sharply chamfered down to about the size of a halfpenny, so that with a false blow the sledge glances sideways instead of striking the individual who turns the borer. These are called "cat's-head" hammers or sledges, and Fig. 31 represents a sledge of the kind. A miners boring mallet is illustrated by Fig. 32. The head is usually made of a block of elm.

Hammers for single-hand boring range from 2ilb8. to 41bs. weight. Some miners like them lighter than others, and much, in this respect, depends on the nature of the work. For boring downwards, as in under-hand " stoping," heavier hammers can be used than for horizontal or upward boring.

Sledges used for double-hand boring [Le, in the case of one person striking the borer while another turns it) vary in weight in the " head " from 41b8. to lOlbs. for the same reasons as do hammers. A very convenient weight for a boring sledge-head is 71bs. or 81bs.

The handles of boring hammers are from 6 to 18 inches long ; but in boring sledges the handles

66 Mining Tools.

range from 18 to 30 inches long, common lengths being 24, 26, and 28 inches.

Sledges used for driving wedges are almost identical with boring sledges, and very often the same one is used for both purposes. Wedge or gad driving often injures sledges more than boring, so that some miners like to use a particular sledge for each purpose. In some collieries a special kind of sledge is used for wedging down coal after holing. It is commonly a pointing sledge, with a head 10 to 15 inches long, by from to inches square in the thickest part, tapered to about or 1 J inch at the panes, with the angles taken off by a chamfer gradually increasing from the eye to form an octagon shape at the panes. The weight of the head varies from 41bs. to lOlbs. ; a very serviceable weight being 81bs., with a head 12 inches long by 2J inches square over the eye, tapering to IJinch octagon panes.

It will be noticed that most of the hammers illustrated have two striking stumps," with panes like each other. Miners are partial to this form, because it balances well in the hand.

Sledges are frequently required for breaking up lumps, and as this work is very rough usage for a sled there is often one of a particular form used for the purpose, and called a " lump

Hammers, Sledges, Etc. 67

sledge." The weight of the head is from lOlbs. to 201bs. It has usually egg-ended panes, but varies in shape. Fig. 36 shows a lump sledge used in some metalliferous mines.

Fig. 37 shows a " cobbing hammer " used for dressing ores by hand. The head varies from 14 to 18 inches long, and from 21bs. to 4Jlb8. weight. Fig. 38 represents a " bucking iron " with the stirrup (to receive the handle) welded on the back of the striking-plate. This is used for hand-crushing in dressing ores. Fig. 39 represents another bucking iron, in which the handle is secured in the stirrup by a wooden wedge driven on the back of the striking-plate. The adoption of rollers and other crushing machinery is gradually dispensing with the use of these tools.

The " spalling hammer " is used for breaking up lumps of orey mineral for sorting before crushing and stamping. The head weighs generally about 21bs. or 31bs., according to the class of work to be done. It is shaped similarly to the pointing pattern, Fig. 25; but with spherical ends — almost identical with the common road-metalling hammer — and furnished with a handle about 26 to 30 inches long. Spalling hammers are not intended for cleaning ore fit for market, as are cobbing hammers.

68 Mining Tools.

Sledges are often made at the mines where they are used. The head then consists of wronght-iron with steel panes. The eye is generally punched hot, out of a short square bar of iron of suitable size, and a drift is worked in to keep the eye in shape while the sledge is being forged.

Bar-iron being generally manufactured by rolling, at a welding heat, a pile of separate pieces of iron, has often a laminated or leafy structure, due to imperfect welding in its manufacture, which can be detected on inspection. Fig. 40 shows this laminated feature as it would appear in the section of a bar.

When sledges have to be made out of such a bar, the eye is not as strong if punched with the laminsB, according to Fig. 41, as if punched across as in Fig. 42. If sledges are to stand well, it is important to punch the eye across the laminaD; but many smiths overlook this point, and sledges punched the other way are constantly splitting in use. Bully-heads are often forged as follows : —

A bar of iron, say 2 inches square and 13 inches long, is cut oflF. This will make two 81b. sledges. One set of corners is chamfered down in the cutting-off heat, as shown by Fig. 43. The eye, a, is next punched, and then by and the sledges

HAMMERS, SLEDGESi ETC. 69

are divided by a clift, one set of comers being chamfered down, as shown by dotted lines, all in the same heat which was drawn for punching b. Afterwards the other sets of corners are similarly chamfered down by new heats, and both sledges are ready for "steeling." For this purpose is used a flat bar of good blister or shear steel of about 2 inches wide by f inch thick. One end is heated to redness, and after about 2 inches have been nearly severed with a clil*t, as in Fig. 44, it is bent, and two corners hammered down on the anvil, as in Fig. 45. Then, by bending it the opposite way, the two other comers are hammered down similarly, as in Fig. 46, where it assumes an eight-square outline, and forms a pane for the sledge, attached to the bar by only a slender neck. The steel pane is next welded on. This is done by heating the steel and one end of the sledge separately. When a welding heat is drawn — sand having been used to form a glaze — the sledge is rapidly placed on the anvil, with the heated end uppermost, and the hot steel pane being quickly laid on, with the sides corresponding with the iron part, as in Fig. 47, a few light hammer blows on the surface of the steel pane weld it firmly to the iron, and by twisting the steel bar it breaks off at the narrow neck, leaving the pane properly attached.

70 Mining Tools.

The chamfers are then dressed with a hammer and after the opposite face has been treated similarly, the sledge is hardened by heating both faces to redness, and plunging it into cold water until quite chilled, upon which it is finished. Although the faces are not tempered at all, they are often found to be too soft, and this arises from the violent ebullition which the hot sledge produces when immersed, and which prevents the water from coming into close contact with the steel, so that it is cooled too slowly to be sufficiently hard. If streams of cold water are made to play with some force against the hot panes, they are always found to be well hardened.

When these sledges are made well, out of good iron, they stand a great -deal of wear, and possess the advantage of being easily re-steeled when the panes are worn out. If, however, they are defective in quality, or workmanship, they are very liable to break by splitting, or giving way across the eye. A smith and two strikers will commonly forge eight 71b. bully sledges per day, and turn them out of hand in a workmanlike manner. This is a fair day's work, although some smiths, after getting well used to the work, can do ten. The cost may be arrived at as follows : —

Hammers Sledges, Etc. 71

1 Smith at 5s 60 pence.

2 Strikers at 28. 6d. (58.) 60 ,,

Labour 120 pence!

50lb8. iron, say . . . . 50 pence. . steel, say . . , 32 „

82 „

Total . . 202 pence.

Weight of sledges 8 X 7 - 66 lbs.

Then — 3*60 pence per lb., or nearly 3 ji.

The cost of coal, wear and tear of tools, &c., would amount to a trifle, say d, to Id. per lb., extra.

Similar sledges can be bought ready-made by the cwt. at about the same rate ; but they do not, as a rule, stand as much work as home-made sledges, and it is sometimes necessary to make sledges at the mine in order to fill up the smith's time. A smith and striker can re-steel about twelve of these sledges (twenty-four panes) per day. Excellent solid cast-steel sledges are now procurable from steel manufacturers at 9d per lb. for sizes above 61bs. weight, and increasing to Is, per lb. for smaller sizes. Occasionally these sledges break by cracking, after which they cannot be repaired ; but if they are well made, and used carefully, they are remarkably durable, and are becoming very favourite amongst some miners, many of whom claim that they give a " smarter " and more effective blow than steeled iron sledges.

Picks.

The pick is notably a miner's implement. In different districts it is called either a "mandrel," " pike," " slitter," mattock," or " hack." ♦

Fig. 48 shows the common pick. The head is usually made of wrought-iron with steel at the " tips," a, a, b, b, which form the wearing parts. An eye is formed at e, to receive the handle or "helve," which is secured by a wedge (shaded dark), and the sides of the eye are spread out to form " cheeks," as at/. About half of the head, viz., f, a, or /, b, is occasionally termed a "shank," or " stem." The " helve " is ordinarily made of ash ; and the part g, formed to suit the eye, is called the "feather," while h is called the " haft," which is made of a suitable size for holding in the hands, and is usually oval in shape. There are many other patterns of picks to be noticed presently.

The action of a pick is very similar to that of a sledge, but the tools are of different utility. While

This tool is said to be represented on Egyptian monuments of sreat antiquity.

Picks. 73

the akdge conveys impetus for driving other implements which make the impression, the pick does the twofold work of supplying the blow and making the impression also. The pick-head is mounted on a helve similarly to a sledge, but the stems of a pick are sharpened out at the tips, to penetrate, chip, or pulverize the mineral substance against which the tool is directed.

The tips of a pick are generally sharpened to a point by a square taper, or to a chisel-edge; so that the tapering extremities possess the property of a wedge, which is very advantageous in working jointy, scaly, or fissured rock, and equally serviceable for excavating more yielding kinds of ground, because the force of each blow expends itself in making the tip penetrate the ground, which is thereby loosened or disturbed all around. Another feature which aflPords most substantial value to the pick is the facility it offers for being used as a bent lever. When once entered into any sort of ground, the pick forms its own fulcrum, and acts like a crowbar, by prizing on the helve, so that it offers the most convenient opportunity for levering out the surrounding ground at every stroke. When one tip of a pick has entered in hard ground, the miner often assists the prizing by pressing with one foot, or hand, against the other tip, thereby diminishing the strain upon the helve.

74 Mining Tools.

The last use to whicli a pick is applied, whicli we shall notice, is that of a scraper which is occasionally required in narrow cuts for dragging out the stuff loosened by working.

In Fig. 48 the head of the pick is curved slightly. When this is the case, it is said to "sweep." Picks, as Fig. 60, having straight tips converging to the eye, instead of being curved, are said to be " elbowed " or " anchored."

In some picks there is no curvature, and then the head is said to be " straight," as in Fig. 50.

For under-hand work, a pick having a little sweep is preferred, because, as miners say, it "falls" into its work better than a straight head ; but for over-hand or long-reaching work a straight-headed pick is generally chosen, or one having but very slight sweep*

Straight-headed picks assist the reach, and are best for getting into comer work.

As in the case of sledges, the weights of pickheads vary according to tte preferences of the users, and the sort of work to be performed. From 21bs. to . are the common extremes. When required chiefly for downward cutting, heavier picks are used than for horizontal or upward work ; and it is usual to employ heavier picks in hard ground than in soft.

The stems are commonly rectangular in cross

Picks. 75

section — the angles being sometimes chamfered down — and they are from inch to 1 J inch thick near the eye, according to the shape, strength, and weight required. Very commonly the stems are square in section, but often they are flattened sideways to make them deeper in the direction of the helve, as in Fig. 63. This gives them greater strength for prizing. Fig. 49 represents a form of pick in very common use in iron mines. It is forged out of l|-inch square iron, and weighs about 4. when new. A similar pick, largely used for the same purpose, is forged out of 1-inch square iron, and weighs SJlbs. For working loose or soft iron ore, picks of the same shape made out of 1-inch square iron, and weighing 31bs., are often preferred.

The helves in these picks are generally from 24 to 33 inches long. The length varies according to the nature of the work and user's taste ; it being further influenced in some cases by the size of the lode or deposit to be worked.

Fig. 50 represents a coal pick in common use in the Gloucestershire and Somerset collieries for "holing" and "cutting" purposes.* The head is

The operation of under-cutting the coal, so that it may afterwards fall, or he wedged or lasted down, is called "holing," "henching," " kirving," or "under- going." The long gash, jad, or jud, cut for this purpose parallel to the plane of the seam does not sometimes exceed 8 or 9 inches in width at the

e2

76 Mining Tools.

double-cheeked, and weighs about 21bs. or A common length for the helve is 30 inches.

Fig. 51 shows the pick commonly used in the same districts for " dead work " or " reading." The head weighs about 41bs. or Fig. 52 represents a very similar form of pick, used for coal-cutting in the Bedminster part of the Bristol coal-field. The head weighs 2ilbs., and the helve is only 25 inches long.

Fig. 53 represents a holing pick slightly steeped, as used in the Forest of Dean — weight about 25lbs. ; and Fig. 54 represents a cutting or " cut-oflf " pick — used in the same place — the head being somewhat heavier.

Fig. 55 represents the form of holing pick in common use at the collieries of South Wales. The head weighs about 2. ; sometimes 21b. heads are used. At other times two sizes are used, — large, with heads about 31bs., and small, with heads about lib. less. When a long reach is required, the helve is 34 or 36 inches long. 28 and 30 inches are lengths frequently adopted. Fig. 56 represents the cutting pick commonly

front or " foreside," and it may penetrate to about 3 feet inwards, gradually narrowing. It is generally made near the Jloor, but its position depends mainly on the nature of the deposits — being often cut with advantage where a layer of soft coaly or other substance occurs in or adjoins the seam. See p. 85 — holing and cutting picks.

Picks. 77

used in the same collieries. It is sometimes the same weight as the holing pick, but often a little heavier — 31b. head. The stems, as a rule, taper regularly from eye to tip.* After holing and cutting, a somewhat stronger pick — about 41b. head — called a "stripping mandrel,' is employed, in some instances, for " pulling down the coal. A form of " rock pick " for dead work, frequently used in the South Wales coal-fields, closely resembles Fig. 48, the head being about 61bs. weight. Another form resembles Fig. 49, with a head. " Bottom picks " are also used in the same locality for cutting the floors or thills of coal seams. These are often shaped like Fig. 49, and sometimes like Fig. 67, with 51b. or 61b. heads ; but when the bottom is not very hard, lighter heads are used.

Fig. 58 represents a holing pick, with about a 21b. head, used in Flintshire. It has a sweep head, and often chisel tips. The cutting pick is slightly* heavier, and has points, but is of the same pattern with less sweep. Fig. 59 represents a " driving pick " for dead work, having about a 31b. head, used in the same collieries. It is tqp'Bweeei only.

Holing and cutting picks, extensively em-

In this district new heads for cutting and holing picks often measure 20 inches long. The stems are very thin and slender.

78 Mining Tools.

ployed in the North of England collieries, are represented by Figs. 60 and 61. The heads weigh from 21bs. to 31bs., and have very small cheeks. Fig. 60 is more elbow-anchored than Fig. 61. Fig. 62 represents a "driving" or "stone" pick, elbowed in character with the former ones, and used for dead work. The angles are not always chamfered, and the head weighs about 41bs. or 51bs. In Northumberland leadmines a pick represented by Fig. 63 is used. The head weighs about

Were we to omit reference to the " poll-pick," we should overlook one of the most valuable of the British miner's tools.

Fig. 64 represents the poll-pick commonly used in Cornwall. It has one stem about 12 inches long, from the end of the eye, and one stump about 3 inches long to form the "poll." The eye is about inches long. When forged out of l|-inch square iron — the thickest part of the stem — the head weighs about 41bs., and is a favourite size for hard ground. The face of the poll is steeled like a sledge, to form a pane, so that it can be used for striking blows. 26 to 28 inches is a common length for the helve, which is slightly feathered on one side only, and curved in the haft.

The head is sometimes quite straight. The poll-pick has the " much-in-little " recommenda-

Picks.

tion. It has the properties of t" addition, it can be used as a sledge to drive in wedges, &c., thus avoiding the necessity of laying it aside and taking up a sledge for the purpose ; but more than this, it can be used as a wedge itself, and, by striking it on the poll end, it performs very useful service in this respect, although the eye is liable to burst if thus tried too severely.

With these points in view, it is easy to understand why the poll-pick should be a favourite tool with many miners, and any one need only use it for a bare month or two to comprehend how greatly does a miner accustomed to its use feel the loss when deprived of it by any circumstance. Sometimes, for soft ground, the stem is 18 inches long, and only of an inch square in the stoutest place.

Poll-picks are used in several parts of Great Britain. Fig. 65 represents a rather stumpy form used in some hard ground by Derbyshire lead miners. The head is about . weight.

Fig. 66 represents a poll-pick used by Flintshire lead miners.

In prizing or levering a pick, strain is thrown on the helve in the eye, thereby inducing a tendency to " wince,'' by the yielding of the feathered part, as shown in section by Fig. 67.

80 Mining Tools.

Now the bearing surface at each end of. the "eye" is usually rather short and narrow, but it should be long and wide to best counteract wincing. The keener the edges of the helve feather are made, the more liable it is to wince, or to split the eye.

Prevention of wincing is aimed at by wedging the helve in the eye, so as to make it press very tightly against the cheeks and sides. This makes the helve tight ; but it sometimes causes the eye to split, so that the proper amount of wedging to stop at is not always easily determined.

The mischief of wincing can be largely avoided by increasing the end bearing surface of the eye ; for which purpose the eye should not feather very keenly, as in Fig. 68, but should rather have the ends rounded, as in Fig. 69, and the ends bf the eye should be made as deep as possible in the direction of the helve, in order to give the feather, when prizing, fulcrum as far as possible from the neutral axis of the head. There is generally not sufficient regard given to this matter. We have found it an advantage, for picks exposed to severe wincing strain, to weld two corbel bits at the ends of the eye, as shaded dark on Fig. 70.

The Forest of Dean miners have a device to

Picks. 81

prevent wincing which is applied to some of their tools, and illustrated by Fig. 71, which they call a " strap-mattock," and Fig. 72, which they call a "dresser." Fig. 71 is a doublestemmed* pick, and Fig. 72 is a poll-pick which is very useful for repairing roads. Both are used in collieries for dead- work purposes.

The plan consists in using two iron " straps," — one being represented quarter-size by Fig. 73, — which are put in the ends of the eye, with the tee-piece clipping the top of the pick. The helve is properly fitted, and a long wedge — shown at a, Fig. 71 — is driven between the straps to force them tightly against the ends of the eye, and to wedge the helve at the same time. This being done, the straps are bent to the shape of the helve feather, and riveted firmly .to it by two rivets passing through the whole.

The tee-pieces, clipping the top of the pick, tend materially to prevent wincing, and if some sort of stud on the strap were contrived to clip under the pick also, it would be better still.

Occasionally the stems of picks are made much longer than any of those illustrated. Sometimes long heads, 2 to 3 feet over all, are useful for sinking under the snore or windbore. They ofier

These are often confusedly called douhlQ-head picks.

e3

82 Mining Tools,

a good purchase for levering, without prizing greatly on the helve.

In loose ground, light stems, each as much as 18 inches long, are at certain times used.

Continental miners have very diversified forms of picks. Figs. 74, 75, and 79 are single-stem picks, which belong to a very general class used in some collieries.* Figs. 76, 77, and 78 belong to the poll- pick class, which is very common in metalliferous mines.

Our continental friends give much more heed, in the construction of their picks, to the prevention of wincing than is manifested in this country.

Figs. 74, 75, 76, 78, and 79 give a large and long bearing surface for the helve in the eye. Sometimes the eye is lightened by cutting out the sides, as in dotted lines Fig. 74. Fig. 77, though not afibrding a long bearing for the helve while prizing J nevertheless offers a broad, flat surface at the ends on account of the eye forming a wide rectangle. Very slight wedging of the helve is suflScient for either of these picks.

The sizes of picks vary in foreign countries just as they do here. A fair variety was shown at the late Paris Exhibition. Some of them in

♦ A single-stem pick of this class— 74— is used in our anthracite collieries.

Picks. 83

handling felt rather clumsy, according to British notions, while others evidently possessed great handiness. Although continental mining tools, on the whole, cannot he considered superior to those used in this country, it is prohahle we may derive a few good hints from them, especially in the construction of pick-eyes, which are often the most faulty portions of mining picks.

Fig. 78 is often made without the poll. The pick illustrated by Fig. 80 is a very favourite tool with Belgian colliers, who call it a " rivelaine." It is light for using — in some cases not exceeding 2ilbs., including helve. The head (which is either steeped or straight) and part of the handle are formed of one piece of flat iron, and it is furnished with two ears or straps, between which a straight, round handle is fixed. The tips are of steel, as usual.

Fig. 81 represents a common form of pick used in Saxony, the single-stem head being from . to 41bs. weight. Fig. 82 is a stumpy poll-pick, with a 61b. head, used also for working veins in Saxony. Sometimes it is small, for single-hand use, with only 2jlb. head, as in Fig. 83.

Fig. 84 is a form of " stone pick '' much used in Brazil and other countries. A very similar tool, known as a " scabbing pick," is often used

84 Mining Tools.

in quarries for scabbing over the surface of large blocks of stone (to partly reduce irregularities) before they are sent to the stone dressers. A miner's " twibill is a similar pick, with an eye generally rectangular. Fig. 85 is a form of pickhead sometimes used in Germany. Figs. 86 and 87 represent the forms of "Australian " or " nugget " picks, used in gold-mining districts, the weight of the heads varying from If lbs. to

We understand that American mining picks are closely akin to those used in Great Britain, and some of them are similar to the single-stem and poll-picks used on the Continent. Fig. 88 shows a poll-pick used in some American iron mines, where it is called a " hammer-pick."

The tips of picks are sharpened on an anvil to the required form. Most commonly they are drawn out to a point like a four-sided pyramid, and this is the best form for hard or crisp ground. But when required for chipping the ground, or for working tough ground, a chisel tip is more suitable. Some kinds of holing ground are rather binding, so that a chisel tip clears it out better than a point, after the pick has entered. For this reason, chisel tips j-inch wide are used for working parts of the so-called " soap '' vein in Monmouthshire. When the tips taper gradually, they are spoken of as being " slim ; but when

Picks. 86

they taper quickly, they are said to be " bluff." The rate of taper is regulated by the following considerations, viz. : the strength required, the nature of the work to be performed, and, sometimes, the length of the head. The bluffer the tips, the stronger they are ; but very stumpy tips will not always cut the ground well, or penetrate it sufficiently. Coal picks, used for holing and cutting, are often required to work in a narrow slit or cut, to deepen or prolong it. Reference to Fig. 89 will explain why, under such circumstances, the tips must be drawn out slim, because it is necessary for the point to " catch '' in the corner of the cut, and if made bluffer, as in Fig. 90, the head cannot be turned sufficiently oblique to enable the point to touch the side at all, and so with such a pick, by losing its catch, the sides of the cut would soon close together and meet, or "cut out." It will be clearly seen that the shorter the pick-head the more obliquely it can be turned in a narrow cut, and the bluffer the tips may be used without losing the catch.

Cutting picks are used for cutting or shearing off the coal at the sides of the stall or face, so as to part the seam on each side, and facilitate the bringing down of the coal between the cuts. These " side cuts " are generally vertical, and are

86 Mining Tools.

made as narrow as possible, to avoid wasting the coal.

Some good colliers will work in cuts from 2 to 3 feet deep, and not exceeding 5 to 8 inches wide at the front, so dexterously, that the standing side, as the face advances, will form a large surface with evenness resembling a good brick wall, and covered with marks of the pick-point, not unlike the track marks of circular-saw teeth.

The tips are tempered in the same way as borers — generally to a straw colour, or a very light blue on the extremity — by first hardening and then reducing or tempering with the heat remaining behind the extremity.

This is the right principle of tempering, because it leaves the hardest parts nearest the extremity. When picks are not blunted very much before they are sent to be sharpened (as is usually the case with cOal picks), one smith and a boy can sharpen and temper in the ordinary way about 70 to 100 tips per hour ; 120 per hour is viewed as brisk work. Mr. J, T. Green, manager of the Tredegar Collieries, informs us that a smith and a boy can sharpen 150 points of their picks per hour in the usual way. Two or three points or tips are generally heated in the fire together for following in succession. Some dead- work picks, and picks used in metalliferous mining, are

Picks. 87

commonly blunted much more than coal picks so that they take a longer time to sharpen, and often require to be drawn out a little with the striker's sledge. In this case, 40 to 60 tips per hour are as many, as one smith, assisted by a striker, can sharpen and temper.

Picks are ordinarily made at the mine. One method will be understood from the following description, which, for convenience, will refer to heads weighing about 4., a very useful size for hard ground. A piece of l|-inch square bar iron, about 14 inches long, is cut off. The middle part is then heated, and " upset " — by striking the bar endwise — until it forms a swell about inch square where the eye is to be made. A gash is next cut through the middle of the swell, with a kind of clift, after which the bar resembles Fig. 91. A " drift " of the proper shape and size is then worked in, to form the eye, as shown by Fig. 92, and the sides of the eye are stretched out, by hammering, to form cheeks of any desired shape. When this is finished, each end of the bar is split, as shown by Fig. 93, and a tongue of steel (shaded dark on the figure) is welded between, to form the wearing extremity.*

After this the stems are drawn out to the re-

The remarks on borers for making " split welds " apply to picks also.

88 Mining Tools.

quired taper, — being curved to any sweep, if so required, — and the tips are next sharpened and tempered to finish the head.* One smith and striker will make, in the usual way, twelve of these pick-heads per day, well finished and good, the labour costing about 7d, per pick; making the cost of the head 1. Id,, or nearly Zd. per lb. for labour and materials. If the pick-heads are about 21bs. weight, and made out of f-inch square iron, one smith, with a striker, will make twenty per day — the cost for each head being, for labour 4|(/., and for materials 4fl?. ; in all, 8 Je.f Poll-picks are made by the same method, only a poll is left for welding on a steel pane, instead of drawing it out into stem. They take about the same time to make as double-stem picks of

The eye should be punched aerosa the lamiiUB of the bar, as in sledges.

t At some collieries in South "Wales, where hard steam coal is worked/ a smith and striker are paid 4. 9. per set, not including wedges, for labour only for making colliers' tools. The set consists of : —

1 Bottom pick . 6 lbs A

1 Sledge . . . 7J „ J-iSlbs. 5 Coal picks . . 11} „

2 Wedges . . . 6 „

A good smith and striker, accustomed to the work, wiU make two sets per day, excluding wedges ; and they consider it good work to make 10 bottom picks per day, or 8 sledges, or 24 21b. coal picks. By long practice, however, some will exceed this. For some of the soft seams of North Somerset, one or two co picks with a sledge and wedge make up a set.

Picks. 89

the same weight, and are commonly sold in Cornwall at from Sd. to 4d. per lb.

Another method of making picks — commonly practised in Somerset and Gloucestershire — is by welding together two flat bars, having the sides of the eye flattened out in them as indicated by Fig. 94. The welding is commenced for each stem at the end of the eye, — which is formed on a dresser, — and the tongues of steel, shaded dark in the figure, are welded in before the stems are drawn and tapered.

Picks made in this way stand excellently if well welded, otherwise they are apt to split in use. Sometimes a tongue of iron, or a " burr " from a punching machine, is welded in each end of the eye, to make it stronger ; and this also increases the end bearing surface for the helve.

To make ten 4Jlb. heads in this way, or twelve 251b. heads, and turn them well out of hand, is a fair day's work for an ordinary smith and striker.* At some collieries they pay for labour only, for making these heads, 9d. each for the larger, and 7d. each for the smaller ones.

After much use the stems of picks wear away too short for further service, but when the eyes

Oast-steel pick-heads are sold at from 9d. to U. per lb., but are not much employed, on account of their liability to break.

90 Mining Tools,

have stood well, they are generally considered too valuable to throw aside, and the stems are lengthened by first cutting off the old tips, and then welding on new pieces of iron, putting in tongues of steel between split welds at the extremities, after which the whole is drawn out to the required taper, and shaped as in making new picks.

This is called "lining " picks. A smith generally lines eighteen 2 Jib. pick-heads — equal to thirty-six stems — in one day, or fourteen 4ilb. heads-equal to twenty-eight stems — in the same time. This is about as much trouble as making new picks, but the advantage connected with lined picks is that the eyes have been proved to stand well in work.

Figs. 95, 96, and 97, show some of the chief forms of Messrs. Dahne and Thomas's patent picks for holing and cutting coal, the particulars of which were kindly furnished us by Mr. David Thomas, Manager of the Rhymney Iron Company's Collieries. These picks have removable tips, which can be readily changed. They are very portable, weighing only from 6 to 7 ounces each, so that a miner can conveniently carry several to work, and need never be short of a sharp tool. This is equivalent to a great saving of weight and of expense in furnishing each miner's equipment. It cannot be expected

Picks. 91

that these picks are as strong as the ordinary ones ; but for work not requiring much prizing the contrivance possesses many recommendatory points.

Figs. 96 and 97 represent holing picks, with gun-metal or malleable cast-iron stems and steel tips, examples of the same patent.

A form of pick, patented in 1869 by Mr. Charles Atwood Hardy, of Philadelphia, is illustrated by Fig. 98. The " bills," or stems, s, are in this case formed out of a distinct bar, and can be readily removed and changed by slackening the top screw-pin, p, in order that the bar may be slipped out endwise. A simple key for turning fits into the square hole shown in the centre of the pin, for screwing into the middle of a boss, b, formed at the top of a malleable socket-piece, 5, r, h, which may be made of malleable cast-iron. The spreading part of the helve is embraced by the socket-piece — a rivet passing through the combined legs or ears at h, h, as there shown in dotted lines. The movable bar may be recessed, leaving in the middle a stud, as shown in dotted lines at a?, matching a corresponding surface formed within the socket-piece. The end steps of the recessed part clip over the socket-piece at r, r, where the shoulders are intended to retain the bar firmly in its place.

92 Mining Tools.

Since the socket-piece and movable bar of this pick go together to make up the whole weight of the head it naturally occurs that for picks of a given weight, this one would not be expected to give blows quite as effective as the ordinary pick, in which the head is made of one entire piece of metal, so disposed as to be very direct and effectual in its work; but the merits as regards facility for renewal and transport are of very material consequence in some instances, and the firmness and simplicity of this particular arrangement are highly spoken of.

In the specification diagrams, the legs or straps of the socket-piece, which embrace the helve, are seen to be so tapering as to converge towards the extremities. Fig. 98 is drawn accordingly but it is not clear how the helve could be got into the socket under these circumstances, since the screw-boss prevents its being passed in at that part, and the feather or spreading end of the helve is too wide to pass between the straps in the reverse way. But this is merely a matter of detail, and is readily met by forming the straps so as to taper or converge the opposite way, corresponding with the dotted lines z, z, shown on one side only.

The designing of a really good pick, with movable tips or stems, is an object which has

Picks. 93

long been aimed at; and various ideas have arisen some more or less similar, but it does not appear that any yet tried can supersede the common description of pick, except in some special cases.

Shoyels, Spades, Etc.

The ground which is loosened and broken by blasting, and by the use of picks, and other tools to be hereafter noticed, soon requires to be collected together or shifted. The shovel is a highly serviceable tool for such work, within small limits. It consists essentially of a light " plate," furnished with a handle, or helve — the plate being suitable for scraping together a mass of loosened ground, and also for passing under a portion thereof which will afterwards rest upon it ; while the handle is required for conveniently carrying the stuflf thus supported, or for jerking it off to a different place, or into vehicles.

The desirability of having such a tool must have been recognised by the ancients at a very early period. An examination of the relics of some of their wooden shovels is likely to satisfy any one that they thoroughly apprehended the principles of the shape of a good shovel. To facilitate the passing of the plate under or between the stuff, they reduced it to the minimum

..Universitt,

thickness consistent with the stre of the available material. To remove a convenient quantity at each stroke, they took pains to secure a broad plate, and that the grain should run the best way to give it strength. They knew the conditions of distance for shovelling, and of space available in large and small workings, as is proved by their having used long and short handles, according to the controlling circumstances.*

These considerations include most of what enters into the question of shovels.

When iron and steel became plentiful, it was a fortunate circumstance as regards shovels. Scarcely any materials could be more suited to the requirements for the plate, as they combine toughness, stiffness, and hardness.

Fig. 99 illustrates the very useful and common gravel shovel.'* The plate is of iron, with steel around the front edges or " mouth,'* and is furnished with two "straps'* or "ears," to receive a helve, which is nearly always made of ash wood. The plate is slightly " dished," which means that it is slightly concave in the top surface, caused by the sloping of the back and

We have the plate of an oak shovel found in the old workings of an iron mine at Llantrissant. Although much wom it is as large as an ordinary shovel of the present day. The handle was formed out of the same piece.

96 Mining Tooi.

sides. This affords firmness, and enables the plate to sustain and keep together its load better than if quite flat. The shaded part of the plate — where it joins the straps — is buckled upward to give strength, and it is termed the "crease." The part of the plate each side of the straps is called the " shoulder." The entering part of the plate — or mouth — which in the gravel shovel is pointed like the bow of a ship, forms two sides, which are termed the "edges." The helve is set at an angle of about 140 to 160 with the surface of the plate, and is about 30 inches long. This is necessary in all shovels on this principle, to enable the plate to be horizontal with easy stooping by the users. The plate of this shovel is well formed to facilitate its entering between closely-compressed, heavy, or lumpy ground.

Fig. 100 represents a "Devon" or "longhandled " shovel, with a plate of the same class, only furnished with a " socket " for receiving a long handle, generally 4 or 5 feet long, which admits of shovelling with less stooping, and of getting a longer reach. The crease is long and pointed, to facilitate entering. These shovels are frequently used in Cornwall, Devon, and Somerset, when there is sufficient room for such " stand-off" helves. The point of tbe crease is the place at which they are most liable to break.

Shovels, Spades, Etc. 97

Fig. 101 represents a "frying-pan shovel," used for "filling*' at many North of England collieries. The plate resembles a shallow fryingpan, but the tumed-up edges drop away at the mouth. This has a socket-helve also.

Fig. 102 shows a " round-mouth shovel," used for filling coal in many North Somerset collieries, where the thinness of the seams necessitates using helves not exceeding 20 inches long. " Roundmouth" shovels — knownalso as " ballast shovels" — answer very well for shovelling loose stuff not too lumpy or heavy, and they are extensively used at collieries, with helves about 30 inches long. Sometimes the same sort of shovel is made with a " square-mouth," as indicated by dotted lines, Fig. 102, and these are often used for shovelling very loose stuff, like small coal, &c.

Each of these shovels, except Fig. 100, has a "crutch" handle or hilt, so called from the cross-piece at the end. This kind of handle is mostly preferred by miners to the D handle or hilt (known also as the " open " or " eyed " handle) shown by Fig. 103, which represents a " pronged shovel," used for shovelling lumpy stuff, or for leaving small stuff behind. Sometimes a strip of iron or steel is welded along the points of the prongs, to strengthen them, as in "chaff" or "pulp forks," and sometimes the prongs are

F

98 Mining Tools.

welded to the back. These are sold either of caststeel or welded iron, as graips or " diggings forks," with diamond, square, flat, or round sectioned prongs, and they are stronger than prongs riveted.

Shovels are almost invariably bought ready made. Ordinary qualities have the plates manufactured by roUing out, under a welding heat, two pieces of iron with a piece of steel between. The ears, having been previously drawn out, are kept from sticking together by sprinkling ashes between. Iron of inferior quality can be used by this method. Before rollers were employed, the plate was formed by spreading out iron under a weighty hammer. This is still done by some manufacturers, and as only good iron will bear spreading in such a way by "plating" under the hammer, it is considered that good quality is guaranteed in shovels made by this method.*

There are various other shapes of this class of tool. In clay ground, a " clay spade," having a

Anvils used for plating " are 5 to 7 inches long by 1 J to 2 inches wide. The hammer faces are somewhat smaller and oval-shaped. They are of mottled cast-iron, with chilled working surfaces ground to a slight convexity. In order that there may be a clean bright skin to the plate, it must not be heated above a dull yellow heat, else the plating tools chop in too much, and embed scale in its surface. From this limited temperature, and the action of the tools, the process is a severe test of the quality of iron.

Shovels, Spades, Etc. 99

long and narrow square-mouthed plate, is in many cases used. When the plate of such a spade is straight lengthwise, but curved in the back, like part of the side of a cylinder, as in Fig. 104, it is called a " grafting tool " or a " grafting spade,'' and is much used for working in soft or clay groimd. The plate is a little wider across the mouth than shoulders. A bit of iron, called a tread, for putting the foot upon, pointed at one end, is driven into the handle, and the other end riveted on the top of the plate, at a?. When the plate tapers so as to be narrow at the mouth, but not at the shoulders, it is called a " soughing tool."

The sizes of shovels are distinguished by the width of the plate, measured in the widest part. Shovels 8 and 10 inches wide are used for heavy stuff; 11 to 12-inch shovels are useful for general work ; and for shovelling moderately light stuff, such as coal, &c., 12 to 16-inch shovels are regularly used.

In use, shovels are often strained like levers, although they are ill fitted to withstand much of it. This happens repeatedly, and in a manifest manner, by shovelling from the bottom of a large heap of stuff. After the shovel has entered the pile of stuff above, the plate is freed by prizing on the helve as indicated by the arrow a, Fig. 99.

r2

100 Mining Tools.

The shovel immediately takes fulcrum at the part near the dotted lines b, and by the superimposed weight or resistance acting on the surface of the plate, a severe tensional strain is thrown on the crease, over the fulcrum, and on the top strap near where it joins the plate. Shovels often give way at this part by the breaking of the top strap, and many almost new ones are spoiled thereby. This is the weak point in most shovels, and as the prizing is, within certain limits, legitimate and necessary, shovels made with long straps extra strong at the shoulders, and strong over the crease, will always carry good recommendation.

Very good 10, 11, and 12-inch gravel shovels and round-mouth filling shovels can be bought at from 22. to 28. per dozen, fitted with crutchhandles complete.

Grafting tools, 12 inches by 6J inches, with similar helves, cost about 28. 6d, each, and 14 to 16-inch frying-pan shovels from 33. to 435. per dozen. Well-made iron-pronged shovels, with three to six prongs welded, and strapped helves, cost from about Ss. to 58, each ; if of cast-steel, from 6. to l8. each extra. The best plated shovels, without handles, can be bought for about 7d. per lb. A 41b. Devon shovel-plate, often used in Cornwall, is generally sold for 28, 6d,

There is great multiformity in the shovels used

Shovels, Spades, Etc. 101

in foreign mines. Many of them are much like those of our own country. Some are of a large size but in many instances they are used down to as small as 5 or 6 inches in length and breadth.

We have no equivalent in this country for some of the continental mining shovels. They are more like what would be termed scrapers in the British Isles ; but they are used by foreigners in some cases as substitutes for shovels. Fig. 105 represents such a tool, which is made use of in Saxony. The plate is a little curved up at the sides. It will afford an idea of numerous other congruent forms of shovel, with square, round, and pointed mouths, to the use of which Hungarian and other foreign miners are accustomed.

The practice of using scrapers and scraping shovels is very common in foreign mines. A box or tray having two sides and a back, something like a waiter's tray, is used with them. The stuff is first scraped into the tray, which is then taken up by two side handles, and conveyed in front of the individual (who generally wears a leather apron) to the point required, where it is tipped.

In Norway and Sweden wooden trays about 2 feet long, 15 inches wide, and 6 inches deep, are used with a rectangular scraper, having a blade 8 inches wide by 5 inches high, and handle

102 Mining Tools.

2 feet long. The trays carry about 401b8. of mineral, and answer much the same purpose as the "billies" so commonly used in the Dean Forest iron mines by persons there employed at conveying ore upon their backs — a mode of transport which is in some measure advantageous to the working of the irregular accumulations of that district, but very prodigal when depended upon to a great extent.

Hatchets, Axes, And Adzes.

A MINER cannot do much in soft-ground mining without the use of timber, to cut and dress which lie requires a few tools well adapted to the purpose. Those now to be considered form an important part of them.

A hatchet or axe consists essentially of a broad heavy description of chisel, called the " head," having an eye running in the direction of the cutting edge for receiving a handle, so that, like a pick in one particular, it is suitable for giving out a blow, to be expended in actuating the cutting edge, which forms part of the tool itself; the main difference being that a pick is used for cutting rock, but an axe for cutting timber.

Illustrations of several patterns of this class of tools are given. Handles shorter than those shown are often used.

Fig. 106 represents the form known as the " Irish axe," of very general use in numerous districts. The main objection to this form is that the edge gets narrower by wear. Fig. 107 shows

104 Mining Tools.

the " Yorkshire axe/' not much unlike Fig. 108, which represents the "Newcastle axe." The Scotch axe " is shown by Fig. 109, and the "Kent axe" by Fig. 110. A "claw" is often formed on the back of this axe, as shown in dotted lines, for drawing out spikes and nails. Sometimes the " claw " is put on the under side ; and in other cases a slit, dotted on Fig. 109, is used instead of a claw. Fig. Ill is known as the " wedge axe," from its being suited for use as a wedge ; and another axe, somewhat similar in that respect, is shown by Fig. 112, called the " forest axe."

The hatchet and axe are almost identical in character. Some persons consider the axe is the heavier tool, with heads weighing above 31bs., and suited for use with both hands, while the hatchet is intended to be used by one hand only, and has a head weighing under 31bs.

Some manufacturers consider that the difference between hatchets and axes is entirely in the grinding of the edge. When the edge is bevelled off distinctly, as at a, Fig. 106, it is a hatchet; but when the edge is rounded off gradually, as at h, in Fig. 107, like the bow of a ship, it is an axe. Axes are considered best for splitting and cross grain hewing; but for chopping tcith the grain, hatchets are best, because the bevel turns

Hatchets, Axes/ And Adzes. 105

off the chips, and keeps them out of the way of the head. The part p, h, Fig. 106, is the head in every hatchet or axe. The back, p, is called the " poll," and, when well made, it is strong and faced with steel, to form a surface for striking moderate blows. The " eye " lies between the cheeks c, c. The " blade " of an axe is the part between the eye and cutting edge. It is generally broad and thin, composed of a doubled piece of flattened wrought- iron welded together, with a thin piece of steel between, to form the edge. Hatchet and axe-heads used in mining may be said to range from 21bs. to 81bs. in weight.

In some Somerset collieries, where light timbering is practised, a 31b. hatchet is found very handy. A 41b. hatchet is in very general use in many districts. A 61b. or 71b. head is, perhaps, usually the most convenient size for a timbering axe. It is in very general use for ordinary timbering, and for rather heavy work. Axe-heads of 81bs. weight and upwards are in common use at South Wales collieries, the pattern being like the forest axe, with the length of the head disproportionately increased so as to measure 12 inches and more when new.

Hatchet handles are generally single-feathered, and from 14 to 20 inches long. Axe handles are longer ; from 16 to 26 inches, in many instances 80 inches, and occasionally as much as 36 inches.

p3

106 Mining Tools.

The cutting edge of these tools is formed by grinding the front of the plate, both sides in ordinary cases, on a grindstone, so as to form two inclined planes or curved surfaces, meeting each other at an acute angle. In this manner the iron on both sides is ground away, and the steel between forms the edge.

The acuteness of the angle forming the edge should not be enough to make it very thin and liable to break, for it wastes a lot of time and material to grind out notches in order to reproduce a sharp edge. On the other hand, if the edge is hluff by a very obtuse angle, it will not cut well, and for chopping deep cuts it will not catch the sides in a narrow gash, but will require a cut to be very wide at the top to allow the head to be held sufficiently oblique.*

For chopping hard wood, the requisite strength requires a bluflfer edge (a more obtuse angle) than may be used for soft wood. The angle contained between the two sloping planes to form the edge usually varies from 15 to 30 accordingly.

For chopping large flat surfaces, some hatchets or axes are always used one way — only one particular side of the blade is ever used to face

♦ This will be clearly tmderstood by referring to Fig. 89 and 90, relating to picks. The same conditions apply to the hatchet and axe.

Hatchets, Axes, And Adzes. 107

the surface which is being chopped. This is called the irmde of the blade, and the edge is ground very acutely on this side, while on the outside it is ground more obtusely, as shown by sections at Figs. 106, 109, and 110. Such a form of edge is very suitable for side chopping over large flat surfaces. The so-called " squaring axe " or side axe," of sundry patterns, is ground in a corresponding manner.* Miners almost invariably grind both sides alike, so that the tool may be used with equal success both ways.

The felling axe " has usually a long narrow blade, shaped like Fig. 113, thick and heavy at the eye, and tapering gradually towards the edge. The "mortise axe," Fig. 114, is often useful for mortising heavy timber used in large workings.

Hatchets and axes are generally bought ready made. Only the best quality can be recommended for mining. The sizes of axe-heads are sometimes classed under the following heads : —

Extra light, from 21b8. to 3. Light, from Silbs. to 41bs. Medium, from 41bs. to 5Ibs. Heavy, from 5. to 71bs. Extra heavy, above 71bs.

Sometimes the eye of a squaring axe is altogether on the outside, as shown at q, Fig. 110, or like a cooper's axe.

108 Mining Tools.

With steel polls, good axes cost in this country : for the light size, about Sd. to 9d. per lb. ; medium size, from 7d. to 8c?. per lb. ; and size, from to 7d, per lb. Solid steel axes cost about Qd. per lb. extra.

Best solid steel 61b. axes, with good helves complete, are sold by some ironmongers at 8. d, each.

Sham-polled iron axes can be bought for 6d. per lb., but they are almost worthless to miners.

Hatchets and axes are often made at the mine, and some miners think them stronger and more serviceable than those supplied by ironmongers ; but they cost more than ready-made ones. Mine smiths are not, as a rule, much accustomed to making them.

Usually they form the eye by doubling over a piece of iron to make a loop for afterwards drifting to shape. The doubled part is then welded and spread to form the blade — a piece of steel having been put between to form the cutting edge. After the head is shaped as desired, and the poll faced with steel, the edge is hardened and tempered straw colour, and the poll about purple.

Axe-heads which have much outlying," as is represented in Fig. 108, are liable to quiver in use, and to produce a tremor through the helve when the cutting comes on* the outer part of the

Hatchets, Axes, And Adzes. 109

edge. They are not generally considered to fall so effectively as "inlying" axe-heads, indicated by Fig. 112.*

As may be expected, foreign miners have a great variety of chopping tools for timbering. They are oftenest single-hand, and rather light tools.

Figs. 115 and 116 are hatchets used in Saxony, and Fig. 117 shows one used in Hungary, with an outer and inner keen edge on the blade.

The adze known as the railway adze (the head of which is seen in Fig. 118), or the platelayer's adze, Fig. 119, is very useful where much flat surfacing or " dubbing " work has to be done. Both have steeled polls.

Adze-heads vary in weight, like hatchets and axes, and cost about the same, or often Id. or 2d, per lb. extra. A convenient weight is 51bs.

The edge of an adze stands square across the helve, as it is used underhand for cutting surfaces parallel to the soles of the user's feet.

As a rule, miners are not adepts at using an adze, but now and then they find it a very useful tool.

♦ The relative positions of the centres of gravity and of percussion are more favourable for the prevention of jarring in inlying than outlying axes.

For block-chopping stone axe, see Miscellaneous Tools, Fig. 169.

Saws.

An attempt to divide thick timber with an axe will soon show that, in order to give the axe room to work, the cut must be a gash of considerable width ; and the deeper it is required, the wider it must be at the top. This involves great waste of timber and physical effort; and, after all, the cut is not, at the best of times, very even or regular. Timber can be divided in a neat and comparatively easy manner by the mw*

The saw consists essentially of a thin plate — best of steel — having a line of small chisels or teeth formed in succession on one of its edges, and furnished with means for moving it in the direction of the teeth while they are pressed against the material to be sawn.

Each tooth, one after the other, cuts away a shaving or chip; and as all the teeth follow in

llie saw is of great antiquity, and is said to be represented on Egyptian monuments, owing its origin to the use of a snake's jaw-bone for dividing small pieces of wood.

SAWS. Ill

line, they form a narrow slit, or " kerf," of the same width as the teeth occupy.

While the motion is continued, the kerf is prolonged, or deepened, and the plate or blade, as it is usually termed, passes into the kerf to allow the teeth to follow their work.

Saws are used for cutting various substances, but it will be our business to consider them mainly as applied to cutting timber for underground work.

The best saw-blades are made of steel. Shear-steA makes fair blades. They should be thin, and as stiff as possible, with sufficient elasticity to regain their truth after bending. The blade is made as thin as possible, consistent with giving it the necessary stiffness, in order to secure a narrow kerf, thereby to save timber and useless expenditure of power in sawing.

Fig. 120 represents a "hand saw," which is frequently a very useful tool to miners. 26 to 28 inches is a convenient length for the blade. The cost of such a saw, of the best cast-steel quality, is from 4. 6g?. to 5*. at ironmongers' shops.

Fig. 121 is a sketch of the " crosscut saw." This is a very serviceable tool for dealing with heavy timber. Two persons are required to use it. A blade of from 4 to feet in length is a useful size, and when made of good cast-steel, the

112 Mining Tools.

cost may be taken as ranging from 10. to 13. each.

Fig. 122 shows the blade of a pit saw." This saw is of great utility in converting large quantities of rough timber into true pieces, planks, or boards. It is used by two persons — one standing above the other. The top sawyer's handle, called the " tiller," is illustrated by Fig. 123 ; and the "pit saw box," the bottom sawyer's handle, which is made entirely of wood, by Fig. 124. For the latter purpose, Fig. 125 shows one which is made partly of iron.

Although the pit saw is seldom used by mine timber men, it is advantageous if they are able to work with it in some cases of emergency. In cases of rareness it finds its way underground, and a capital saw-pit can be made by stoping out the floor of a level.

A pit saw blade about 7 feet long is a useful size, and if made of best cast-steel, it would cost about 17. to 20

Saws of an inferior quality, known as German steel, can be bought for about one-sixth less.

As much as possible of the sawing required at mines is bst done at the surface by men specially accustomed to the work ; but often a miner's calling demands that he should be able to saw for himself, underground as well as above.

Saws. 113

The teeth of saws are sharpened by fine files — generally second-cut single, or smooth, or dead' smooth float-cut, according to the fineness required. Three-square files are used for sharpening hand and crosscut saws, and half-round or round gulleting files are used for pit saws. For hand-saw files, serviceable lengths are 6 or 7 inches, and they cost &d, to 7d, each, or less if bought in quantities.

After the teeth are filed, a little raggedness is left on their outside edges. This should be removed by laying the saw down on its side on some flat surface, and rubbing a long hone, or fine grit-stone, along the sides of the teeth — thus giving the tips smooth and keen edges and points, and reducing any prominences.

Of all saws, the hand saw is most useful to miners. The handle — made of wood, and fixed on the wide end of the blade — is generally more slender and gracefully formed than the one we have shown ; but a plain, strong, and comfortable handle is what is really required.

Properly there are two sorts of hand saws, differing chiefly in the shape of the teeth. One is used for cutting with the grain of the wood, and is called a rip saw ; " and the other is adapted for cutting across the grain, and is called a " crosscut

These files are called blunt when the comers are parallel and taper when they tend to a point.

114 Mining Tools.

hand Hand bewb are made to cut one way only — by pushing — so that the thinness of the blade requires that it should be made wide to give it sufficient stiffiiess to resist buckling, and to aflford room for sharpening the teeth, which gradually wear away by filing.

When a curved cut is required, saw-blades must be narrow, in proportion to the radius of the curve and the width of the kerf, so that they may form a tangent to the circular cut. This circumstance requires that the blade should be strained — to give it stiffiiess — in a frame, sometimes called a " saw bow," in which it is tightened by a screw, or Spanish winch arrangement.

Four points, relating to the teeth of saws, deserve consideration, viz. : —

1st. Setting.

2nd. Bevelling.

3rd. Angle of the cutting edge.

4th. Size of the teeth. We shall find it most convenient to take them in this order.

1st. Setting, — The teeth of a saw have to be arranged to cut a kerf somewhat wider than the thickness of the blade, to allow it to move freely between the sides of the kerf, without wasting the power applied by having to overcome much friction. This object is sometimes attained by grinding

Saws. 115

the blade of the saw thinner behind the teeth. Oftener, however, the same purpose is answered by bending every other tooth sideways in one direction, and every intervening tooth in the opposite direction. This operation is called " setting," and it explains the spreading out of the teeth noticeable in Fig. 126, which shows the end of a sawblade as seen by looking along the line of teeth.

As the teeth thus bent, or set, would cut a kerf equal in width to the space between the dotted lines, the blade would have plenty of liberty to pass between.

The setting of the teeth requires care. It should be done throughout with, as much uniformity as possible. A wrench having slits in it to fit over the teeth, and called a saw set," is generally used for bending the teeth, each succeeding tooth being inclined in an opposite direction. Many persons require long practice to do this well. There are some mechanical contrivances to be obtained for setting saws by hammer blows, which greatly simplify the work. Very wet or " green " wood, being a little spongy, requires more set on the saw used for cutting it than timber which is dry. For the same reason, the sawing of soft wood requires a little more set than hard wood. The set should be only just enough to permit the blade to move easily in the

116 Mining Tools.

kerf. Whenever the blade jams in the kerf, if not buckled, then the set is not sufficient.

2nd. Bevelling. — Instead of the tips of saw teeth terminating in a narrow chisel-edge they can be made to terminate in a sharp point by what is termed "bevelling," and the front or back of each tooth may partake of a knife edge on the outer side by the same operation.

This is done by holding the file, used for sharpening the teeth, obliquely to the plane of the saw plate, instead of at right angles to it, so that the edges of the teeth become bevelled as shown in Fig. 127, and consequently, by looking at the end of the blade, the line of teeth is seen to form two rows oi points, as shown by Fig. 128.

Bevelling, then, makes the tips of the teeth more incisory, and enables them to score into the wood on each side of the kerf. The more

obliquely the file is held to the line of teeth, the more the bevel will be, and the more acute will be the points of the teeth. The acuteness of the points can be influenced by the amount of bevel on the backs of the teeth independently of the bevel on the front edges, but in the crosscut saw both edges are alike.

The proper bevel to be adopted depends mainly upon the angle at which the line of teeth has to intersect the grain of the wood to be sawn.

8Awb. 117

The advantage of beyelling applies principally to saws for cross cutting, because in this kind of work the fibre has to be severed on each side of the kerf, and the teeth should have acute points, in order that they may easily score down the sides of the kerf, whereupon, through the fibre being completely cut off in two places, the intermediate bits will crumble out as " dust " by contact with the moving teeth.

The more acute the points can reasonably be

made for crosscutting any sort of wood, the

better for sawing; but with hard wood much

bevel would make the points too slender to stand

well.

For crosscut hand saws, one thing to avoid is filing too mtuih bevel on the front edges of the

teeth. When bevelled very much the teeth do not carry out the dust well, but they turn it over alternately from side to side of the kerf, so that it gets jammed in and binds the saw. Fig. 129 shows a plan of a horizontal saw cut, showing two teeth in it, and supposing the back of the saw to be removed. It will be noticed that, at a, the bevel fronts of these teeth act like the breast of a ploughshare by turning the dust aside but the square-front teeth, shown at i, are better adapted for carrying the dust forward that it may be cleared out of the kerf. The difference between

1J8

Mining Tools.

the bevel fried on the hack and on the front of a tooth is not sufficiently understood. Many singular opinions respecting much bevel being a disadvantage for crosscutting hard wood on account of the teeth scoring too easily and cutting deeper chips than they can carry out, probably owe their origin to an oversight of the difference just referred to.*

Now, for rip saws hardly any bevel is required, since the fibres part easily in longitudinal direction, while the dust, instead of being crumbled, is shaved off, as will be seen hereafter. A slight bevel is generally allowed, as the grain of the wood does not always run exactly in line with the saw cut.

3rd. Angle of the cutting edge, — This refers to the inclination of the front edge of the tooth, and it is sometimes spoken of as the pitch.

In the case of rip saws, the angle of the cutting edge is a very important point, because each tooth ought to be well adapted to the paring off of small shavings. Reference to Fig. 130 will show that the teeth at the lower part are formed suitable for paring the shavings easily, while the upper teeth can only drag or Jag out little bits,

The crosscut saw, shown by Fig. 121, must have the same bevel filed on the front as on the back of the teeth, because it cuts both ays.

at the expense bf much waste of piiJ; bill and gullet teeth are not used for sawsr

In sawing timber, one tooth cuts a shaving or carries out a bit of " dust " behind another, and this allows the blade to progress in its course or to " advance " by deepening the kerf continuously. The rate of advance depends upon the thickness of the shaving cut by each tooth, as will appear plain on reference to Fig. 130, where the thickness of the shavings, represented by dotted lines, is a little exaggerated for the sake of clearness.

When the teeth are sawing, the line of motion of each tooth is parallel to a, b, and not to the line of tips, b, c. By the time the tooth b has cut along and down to a, other teeth, above J, will have cut the upper part of the kerf back to d, so that the face of the kerf always remains parallel to a, d — the direction maintained by the line of tips.

The thicker the shavings are, the greater will be the angle contained between the line of tips and a, by and the quicker will be the rate of advance. As in the case of any cutting tool, the thickness of the parings, or the penetration of the edge, is governed not entirely by the angle of the edge, but largely by the pressure applied ; and so it is with the teeth of a saw. The total pressure applied to a saw may be said to be divided about equally on each of the teeth which take bearing.

/

120 Mining Tools.

If, then, the piece to be sawn is very thick or deep in the direction of the face of the kerf, there will be more teeth bearing, and consequently less pressure per tooth, so that thinner shavings will be cut than when the piece is thin or shallow. In sawing such a thin piece, all the pressure on the saw being divided on few teeth causes them to penetrate deeply and cut coarse shavings or dust; hence the saw advances rapidly. This explains how, with the same saw, the dtist from a deep-faced cut is finer than from a shallow-faced one.

Although the teeth x, Fig. 130, would be a better form for a rip saw than the teeth z, they would not answer as well for a crosscut saw, because, as it will be remembered, the teeth of a crosscut saw are not required to pare shavings so much as to score through the fibre on both sides of the kerf. It also appears plain that the tooth shown by Fig. 131, if moved in the direction of the arrow over a piece of wood, is not adapted to make such a smooth and clean incision as the dog-tooth shown in Fig. 132.*

If, however, the teeth of a crosscut hand saw are made quite of the dog-tooth shape, they will often be found to have too much tendency to ride

Scribing tools are, for a similar reason, sharpened with diagonal edges, to enable them to scribe into wood without causing raggedness.

Saws. 121

aver the dust, so that the fronts of the teeth require to be a little more upright, as at z, Fig. 130, to properly clear the kerf.

The crosscut saw (Fig. 121), having to cut both ways, has -teeth, which are filed so that the cutting edges are identical in shape for both strokes, as previously observed with reference to the bevel. The result is that, although the angle is favourable for scoring easily, it is not the most favourable for clearing out the dust either way, unless made moderately upright with slight bevel.

To remedy this, Tuttle's patent crosscut saw has been introduced. The novelty is in the shape of the teeth, a few of which are represented by Fig. 133, which shows a piece of the edge of the blade, supposed to be broken off with a few teeth on it. The dog-teeth are bevelled for scoring easily, whereas the intermediate hook-teeth are filed with square edges, and shaped well for clearing out the dust.

This saw is reputed to do its work very rapidly. The teeth are rather slender, which is no recommendation for underground work; and after repeated sharpening, the hooks, instead of being preserved, will file out altogether, thereby necessitating the formation of a new set of teeth.

4th. Size of teeth, — After deciding the snape and the pitch or cutting edge of saw teeth to the

122 Mining Tools.

best advantage for strength, eflSciency, ana convenience of sharpening, their size depends on four considerations, viz. : — Ist, the nature of the wood to be sawn ; 2nd, the direction of the cut ; 3rd, the pressure to be applied on the saw, and the sharpness of the teeth ; 4th, the depth of the cut.

When a saw is in use, every space between the teeth becomes a store-room for the chips, shavings, or dust, until it passes through the wood, whereupon the dust falls out. It is an advantage, in some respects, to have the greatest number of teeth which can be consistently formed in a saw for .doing the work, but if the teeth are numerous they are necessarily narrow, and the spaces between them are smalL These spaces have to serve as repositories for the dust, and in case of their not being sufficiently large, the dust, by accumulating, gets compressed in them, and keeps the teeth from advancing with good effect.

Now spaces cannot be enlarged between teeth of given distance apart without weakening the latter ; therefore, when large spaces are required, it necessitates having fewer teeth.

The softer the wood, the coarser the teeth are required, to afford ample intermediate space for holding the dust, which collects more rapidly from soft wood than from hard-cutting sorts.

For a similar reason, as wood cuts more easily

Saws. 123

iciih than the grain, the teeth of a rip saw should be coarser than are needed for eLcrosscui saw.

As increased pressure on the saw, or sharper teeth, make it cut dust more rapidly, it is clear that the greater the pressure and sharpness, the larger the store-room or space should be. Saws worked by two persons, on account of having more pressure applied to them, require coarser teeth than saws worked by one individual ; and sometimes good cutting saws get crammed or choked by putting an excess of pressure upon them.

In a deep or long kerf a great many teeth pare at once, and under a given pressure the shavings or chips cut are thinner than would come from a shallow or short kerf, but the whole volume of dust cut by each tooth throughout the long kerf is generally greater than would be produced in a short one ; and hence the deeper kerf needs the larger store-room or space between the teeth.

For hand saws the following are the numbers of teeth per inch suitable for the different sorts of wood : —

Soft wood

crosscut

. 5 teeth

per inch

. 6 points

Medium ,,

. 8 „

Hard ,,

if

. 10 „

Soft wood

rip

if

Hard „

. 6 „

o2

124 Miniko Tools.

Saws should be selected to suit the work which they are intended chiefly to do — in some mines cuttmg larch, spruce, &c., in others chestnut or beech, and sometimes chiefly oak.

Before a saw can be expected to cut with facility, the plate should be true and smooth, and every tooth should be formed to do its work with as little expenditure of power as possible. Moreover, the kerf ought to be as narrow as practicable with giving the blade sufficient freedom. The teeth should stand in regular order, and should be uniformly filed; for if only one tooth projects beyond the rest, or is too prominent sideways, it encounters unnecessary work, and interferes with the duty of others, while a too retired tooth does no service whatever, but rather overburdens

the adjoining ones.

In hand and pit saws the line of tips should be straight, or very slightly " bellied." If the tips get very irregular they had better be filed off until all project equally, and then every tooth can be sharpened again, care being taken to stop the filing immediately the tip is formed, for if continued further it shortens the tooth. If by any accident a tooth becomes too short, it should be allowed to remain so until, from wear, all the rest of the teeth get filed down to fall in line with it.

Saws. 125

No good can be done by filing down a few teeth adjoining the short one.

When a hand saw is held vertically, a piece of fine cotton suspending a weight, and fastened between the top pair of teeth, will hang like a plumb-line, and ought to lie quite straight in the bottom of the yalley formed by the bevel and set of the teeth, from top to bottom of the saw.

"Stone saws," which are commonly of the double-hand crosscut pattern, but with a straight back to the blade, like a Bussian crosscut saw, are used by miners in certain instances for cutting soft minerals, such as rock-salt, freestone, &c. They are furnished with dog-teeth, which are filed without any bevel. A common size is f of an inch from point to point. The blades of stone saws are commonly nearly of an inch thick ; and, for large sizes, still thicker. Sometimes the difference between the thickness of the blade at the back and at the front is sufiicient to give proper clearance without any set on the teeth. Setting of the teeth may be performed by laying them on an iron block, so that the points overhang a little more than of an inch, and then giving every other tooth a smart tap with a hammer having about a lib. head, with a narrow pane. The intermediate teeth are set in

126 Mining Tools.

the same manner, after turning the blade to lie on the reverse side. This mode of setting bends the teeth only near their tips, and produces a small flattened surface where contact with the hammer occurs on one side or the other of each tooth — slightly diminishing the thickness at the points. It is a method preferred by many to the use of a saw set, which they consider increases the liability to break teeth by straining them at the roots, especially as the saws referred to are of a rather hard temper for wearing well in use. In cutting dry freestone, the dust from sawing clears out from the kerf freely; but in dealing with damp stone, though softer, the dust often clogs, unless water is passed into the kerf in sufficient quantity to convert the abraded stone into a liquid sludge capable of being worked out by the movement of the saw. The handles of stone saws used for freestone cutting are usually from 18 inches to 2 feet in length. Sometimes they are furnished with ferrules like file handles, suited for driving over tangs, — called " starts,'* — riveted to the blade. More generally, however, the handles fit into sockets, after the manner shown in Fig. 121 — a plan which is better for convenience of changing, or renewing, when needed. The blade of a 7- feet stone saw, about 11 inches deep at the bellied part, can be procured for about 21.

Saws. 127

At the Box stone-quarries " one-handled saws are in constant use for cutting off blocks of stone from their natural positions, in a manner which is far superior to the former practice of doing so with jadding tools, which required more time and caused greater waste of stone — no trifling considerations.* The length of these saws is, of course, governed by the dimensions of the blocks required. It is seldom less than 6 feet, but sometimes more than double that length. The end at which the handle is placed is called the "heel,'* and it is less in depth than the other extremity — the " toe " or " point,'* which encounters greater wear in use, chiefly by a tendency of the saw to weigh upon that part. When new, the teeth range in a straight line, continuing quite out to the point. The back is also straight, and the blade regularly increases in depth from its heel until near the point where the back is curved off, as a quadrant, to meet the line of teeth at the toe end. By use, the wear of teeth near the toe, and frequent filing, cause them to deviate from a straight line, and to curve upwards to meet the back. Small sizes of such saw-blades when new

Jadding tools are still used for holing over the upper sides of the blocks to be detached, in order thB,t room may be provided for the saws to commence workina for the vertical side and back cuts.

128 Mining Tools.

are about 10 inches deep at the heel, and 12 inches at the toe, but after continued wear the toe becomes much less in depth than the heel. Socket handles are usually employed, on account of being handiest for changing. When beginning a cut close under the overlying strata or roof of the so-called quarry, the handle has to be removed and driven in at the under side of the socket, in order to clear the roof and enable a sawyer to take hold below the socket-piece. When socketpieces are fitted to saws at the quarries, smiths put them on the blade in a red-hot state, and the holes are not punched through the steel blade until it has become a little heated to reduce any risk of cracking. The three-square files used for sharpening are about 10 inches long, and cost 9a. per dozen or thereabout. Some proprietors of these quarries — producing Bath stone, so much in request for architectural purposes — order their saws by tons. This will convey some idea of the extent to which saws are employed by those engaged in this branch of industry.

Proficient saw-filing, although in some cases involving many considerations, is an art nevertheless easily acquired by any person of ordinary intelligence. When a miner has much timbering to do, his work will be greatly facilitated if he can command the use of a good saw, and he will soon

Saws. 129

experience the advantage of keeping it in efficient order.

A good saw is a most serviceable cutting instrument, and, by attending to the points which have been noticed, miners will be able to make favourable use of its capabilities, and to fettle their saws for themselves better than many who profess to understand it.

It may be noticed that the teeth of bl saw, especially if worked by machinery, can become so heated by work as to reduce their temper, at the same time causing, by expansion, local or general buckling of the blade or plate.

o 3

Miscellaneous Tools.

We now enter upon a very diversified chapter.

Fig. 134 represents a "scraper/* used for cleaning out, at intervals, the pulverized matter from bore-holes, so that it may not prevent the bit from operating freely on the solid rock. The pulverized matter is called boring-dust or mealy and when it has been wetted to facilitate boring, it is called sludge. If much of it is allowed to accumulate in a hole, it materially interferes with the effectiveness of borers. Scrapers are usually made of light rod-iron — to inch diameter — suflBciently long to reach to the bottom of the hole intended to be cleaned, and having the scraping end flattened out nearly as large as the diameter of the bore-hole, so that it may be turned up at about right angles to the rod for forming a small circular platform, on which the boring-dust maybe collected and removed. When the scraper is put into a bore-hole and slightly turned round, the dust, or sludge, accumulates on the platform, and can be

Miscellaneous Tools. 131

drawn out a little at a time until it is suflBciently cleared away. From ascending bore-holes, with a rapid upward inclination, the dust falls out of its own accord ; but the advantage of thus having the end of the hole constantly cleared is countervailed by the disadvantage of there being no means of keeping water in the hole while boring. Fig. 135 shows a double scraper, with a mushroom stage on one end. Fig. 136 shows a scraper having a sliding-rod, so that it can be lengthened for long or deep holes. Fig. 137 shows a scraper with a " drag-twist " on one end of the rod. The drag is used for cleaning out holes before putting in the charge. In this case a wisp of hay is pushed into the hole, and the drag is afterwards put in and turned around, so that the hay, becoming entangled, gets turned around also, and sweeps the sides of the hole. Upon withdrawing the drag, the hay comes out in one wad, and carries the sludge with it. Fig. 138 shows a scraper made out of light flat iron, with a " loop-drag " on one end, used also for cleaning holes by passing a bit of rag or tow through the loop, so that it may be put into the hole to sweep out the sludge.

Fig. 139 represents a scraper having a powder charger on one end of the rod, forming a " scoop or " spoon " for conveying the powder to the

132 Mining Tools.

ends of borizontal holes. The scoop is also used, in some instances, for clearing out the boring-dust.

Drags and spoons are often made as separate tools. These, and ordinary scrapers, cost from 4d. to 6d. per lb.

The " swab-stick," represented by Fig. 140, is habitually used by many miners for clearing boreholes. It is simply a piece of stick — generally deal — small enough to enter the hole, and long enough to reach to the bottom, with its fibre at one end spread out by bruising to form a stumpy sort of brush, called the " swab." When this is put into the bore-hole, the sludge passes by the fibrous swab, which, when it reaches the extremity of the hole, can be spread by pressure so as to touch the sides all round ; and when it is withdrawn, it sweeps out the sludge before it. [Repeating this operation a few times makes the hole tolerably clean, and by throwing a little dust, at the latter part of the operation, into the hole, the moisture is absorbed thereby, and the sludge dried up. Any grains of powder adhering to the side of the hole after charging are removed by damping the swab in water.* Another contrivance also used for clearing bore-holes is the " sludger," represented

♦ When a borer-bit breaks in the bole, the broken piece can often be extracted by hammering down the swab-stick upon it BO as to embed it in the swab.

Miscellane0I7S Tools. 133

by Fig. 141. It consists of a long cyKnder — ordinarily a piece of wrought-iron gas-pipe — for reaching into the hole, furnished with a small rod of iron to work inside, having a bow handle at one end, and a drag- twist at the other. A bit of hemp or tow is wound around the twist, to form a kind of piston for working within the tube. When this sludger is placed in a descending hole, upon drawing up the piston-rod it sucks the sludge up into the tube, and by rapidly withdrawing the whole apparatus, the sludge can be squirted away outside by pushing the rod back again. The hole will be properly cleared by repeating the operation a few times. There is no valve at the bottom of this sludger, which is seldom made of a tube above three-quarters of an inch diameter inside, so that it is suitable for use only in boreholes of ordinary size for blasting.

In cases of deep bore-holes, as for wells or exploratory purposes, Fig. 142 shows a section of a sludger or " scoop " sometimes employed, and dropped down into the hole on the end of a rope, chain, or the rods. By jerking the sludger on the bottom of the hole, the sludge raises the valve at the bottom of the cylinder, and enters. It soon becomes laden with sludge, and is then drawn to the top, the valve at the bottom resting on its seating, and preventing the contents from runniug

134 Mining Tools.

out. The same kind of sludger is also used for clearing bore-holes through running sand. The common trap-clack, or conical valve, is sometimes fitted at the bottom. A butterfly-valve, or an ordinary ball or shot valve, is also used in some instances.*

Mr. Mather, who employs flat wire ropes instead of rods for deep boring, uses a sludger which is fitted with an inside piston for producing a partial vacuum above the bottom valve, in order to suck the sludge into the cylinder upon the same principle as in Fig. 141, with the addition of a bottom valve. The tool shown by Fig. 20 is occasionally used for removing boring- dust or sludge from the bottoms of deep holes.

Figs. 143 and 144 represent ordinary forms of " clay-irons used for forcing clay into the joints and crevices around watery holes, in order to make them dry, and fit for using naked powder, which is more effective and cheaper than when enclosed in cartridges or pitch-bags. The clayiron is a round bar of iron (called the " shaft ") a little smaller in diameter than the bore-hole, furnished with a broad top (called the " head for striking upon. Some provision is necessary for turning the shaft around its axis, &c. This is

Leather or india-rubber valves are said to hold tighter than metallic valves, which are sometimes trigger with grit.

Miscellaneous Tools. 136

usually done by a lever, shown at a, which is put into an eye formed through the head of the clayiron ; but the one illustrated by Fig. 145 has a square head for being turned by a spanner or wrench, c.

After a wet hole is charged with some tough clay, the shaft of a clay-iron is driver through it by a sledge, and this, acting like a wedge, forces the clay into the crevices on all sides. The shaft is then turned and gradually drawn out. Sometimes the entrance of water is thereby stopped, and the hole remain quite dry after the first attempt, but it may require several repetitions, and in some instances it cannot be made to succeed at all, either from the rock being too open or cavernous, or from the water acting with great pressure — in some instances sufficient to make the clay-iron rebound after each blow of the sledge, and to force it completely out of the hole.

Clay-irons have to endure a good deal of hammering on the head; therefore this part is usually made very stout on account of the wear. Those with an eye are most convenient for drawing out. The shaft should be smooth, and should taper a little to conduce to withdrawing, but the bottom of the hole will be too much contracted unless the taper be very slight. Miners accustomed to

136 Mining Tools.

driving through watery strata, often importance to the clay-iron, and it is easy to conceive why so, if we remember how frequently it enables them to stop back all water running into a bore-hole, and thereby provide a dry receptacle for the charge.

Ordinary clay-irons cost about 3. per lb.

When the heads wear down near the eye, they should be sent in good time to the smith's shop to have a new piece welded on.

Fig. 146 represents a "shooting-needle" or "nail," made of round rod-iron, and used for forming a " vent-hole " or small passage through the tamping which confines the charge in a borehole for blasting. The passage is used for admitting a mote or squib to enable the charge to be ignited. When the charge is put into the hole, the needle is laid in with its point penetrating the explosive compound. The tamping is next rammed or stemmed in, and the needle is afterwards drawn out, which is often facilitated by putting an iron bar through the bow handle, and striking the bar with a hammer. When it is withdrawn, a small passage or channel remains, like a long touch-hole, leading into the charge. A rmh, reed, paper, or quill tube, filled with a "priming" of gunpowder, and termed a " match," "squib," "mote," or "train," is next passed

MTSCELLANEOtJS TOOLS. 187

through the touch-hole into the charge. Subse* quently, a " smift/' which is variously made of either a bit of touch- wood, touch-paper, greased candle-wick or paper, or cotton dipped in molten sulphur, is attached by a bit of grease or clay to the outside end of the train. At the extremity farthest from the train, this smift is ignited, after it has been arranged to bum long enough to give the miner suflScient time to retire before it kindles the top of the train, which then instantly conveys the fire to the charge and exjiodes it. This primitive method of exploding charges is still in considerable use. Many casualties have occurred by accidentally lighting the train instead of the smift, whereupon the explosion occurs before the miner has any chance to get away. Such accidents may now and then be traced to carelessness in adjusting the smift in places where a current of air occurs, by thoughtlessly putting it on the windward side. Then, on attempting to Ught the proper end of the smift by applying a flame, the latter may be so deflected by the draught as to prematurely ignite the squib. Again, in working some parts of coal measures a little fire-damp will sometimes escape unawares through or about the bore-hole, and lurk about the smift. On bringing a naked light into contact with the smift, the gas explodes and forms a small cloud of fire sur-

138 Mining Tools.

rounding the priming, which thereby fires the charge without warning.*

Untold accidents hae also occurred by drawing out the needle, in consequence of sparks being produced by its rubbing against any silicious matter in the tamping, whereupon the charge, or any powder in stray grains f adhering to the sides of the hole, becomes ignited, and disastrous consequences succeed. For greater safety the needle is often greased and covered by a casing of paper. To better avoid danger, copper needles are used. Being inore liable to bend than iron needles, they are often made stouter. Fig. 147 shows a copper needle with an iron handle heated and shrunk, or brazed on. It is about the best sort of needle that can be used.

Fig. 148 represents a " pricker,'* used instead of a needle, for being driven through the tamping with a hammer after the tamping is finished. It is next drawn out, something like a needle, and leaves a perforation for putting in the train. The pricker is more dangerous to use than the needle. If made of copper, it is too easily bent.

By employing safety-fuse — to be noticed sliortly — instead of the common squib, the risk alluded to is, so far, removed.

t This danger is avoided by using powder in cartridges. Miners' conmion objection to cartridges is, that the powder space below the tamping is not so completely filled as when naked powder is used, and that the air spaces around the cartiidge act as cushions against the force of the charge.

Miscellaneous Tools. 139

Shooting-needles and prickers are usually from 18 inches to 3 feet long and from to f inch diameter tapering almost regularly to the point. When made of iron they are worth from 4d. to 6c?. per lb., and if copper, about 1. 4fl?. per lb.

In some continental mines a much safer plan is adopted — that of putting a casing of large reeds around the needle. This keeps it away from all grains of powder and tamping ; and, after the needle is drawn out, the reed casing remains behind, to form a passage for the train.

In many places the use of needles and prickers has been entirely abandoned in favour of safety/'fuae, which is sold in coils of 24-feet lengths, resembling a coil of plain cord. The fuse is made ordinarily of tape, hemp-cord, yam, gutta-percha, or metallic covering, called the " coimtering," which forms a small tube for containing a continuous core of slow -burning powder -composition or priming. A piece of this fuse is put into the hole instead of a needle, and the tamping is rammed in afterwards, one end of the fuse being outside of the hole, and the other end penetrating the charge. When the outside end is ignited, the fuse serves as a aiow train, burning at the rate of about two feet per minute, and it can be cut off sufficiently long to give the miner time to retire in security after lighting it.

140 Mining Tools.

The 4;Eiain dangers with Aise are, the risk of its being pressed into crevices and bruised, or cut through with sharp angular stones in the tamping, and moreover of there being a defect in the continuity of the powder core, or of its becoming damp and wetted through in the hole, in all of which cases there is danger of the fuse hanging firCy and, by smouldering, it may rekindle the unbumt portion, and imexpectedly explode the charge after a long interval. We have known this happen after fuse has hung fire nearly an hour, but it almost exclusively applies to fuse of inferior quality, which ought never to be used. With good fuse, and especially when covered with a waterproof coating of gutta-percha, and having one or two touch-threads running throughout the middle of the core, hardly any danger need be apprehended from this source if only ordinary precaution be observed. Reliable safetyfuse can be obtained in most mining localities at an inexpensive rate ; and wherever this is the case, needles and prickers, with their concomitant dangers, should be regarded as things of the past.

The method of firing charges by electricity is calculated to surpass all others for perfect safety.

Fig. 149 represents the ordinary " tamping bar," used for driving some suitable substance.

Miscellaneous Tools. 141

called '' tamping/' into blasting-holes after the charge has been put in, in order that the force of the explosion may be pent up and act against the side intended to be removed. The tamping end of the bar is grooved on one side, to admit of its clearing the needle or fuse lying along the side of the hole. The other end is left plain for the hand, or for being struck with a hammer.

When tamping can be put in sufficiently tight by simply ramming the bar against it with the hand, then, instead of leaving one end plain for being struck — cramming by sledge blows being dangerous in the estimation of many — another tanking end is sometimes formed, as indicated by the dotted lines on Fig. 149.

Tamping bars are commonly made of iron, and many accidents have happened in consequence of their striking fire against quartzose matter which they have come in contact with. To prevent such accidents, tamping bars are sometimes faced with copper, as at a, Fig. 150. This tamping bar has a bit at one end for boring holes in any frangible mineral, by impetus given with the hand. Another form of tamping-end, sometimes faced with copper, is shown at b, Fig. 161.

Bronze facings or tips, as shown at c, Fig. 151, are also used to avoid the danger of striking fire.

Occasionally these tools are made wholly of

142 , Mining Tools.

copper or bronze. Bronze has the advantage of being harder and stiffer than copper.

Iron tamping bars cost from 2d. to 3. per lb. ; with copper or bronze tips, from 6d, to 9d. per lb. ; and copper or bronze altogether, from Is. to 1. 6d. per lb.

Many different persuasions are to be met with regarding the material best suited for the purpose of tamping, or, as it is sometimes called, stemming. Baked or sun-dried clay makes tamping of very good quality. Powdered brick answers the purpose very well. The boring-dust out of dry rising holes — generally collected on the plate of a shovel — in many instances makes excellent tamping. It is not imcommon to find an accumulation of binding argillaceous ground, possessing good properties for tamping, occur in mines ; then the miners dig it out as required. All tamping should be selected to contain no particles likely to strike fire ; but the cause of such casualty may lie in the sides of the hole itself, and it is surprising that this is so much lost sight of.

Under these circumstances is seen the advisability of using bronze or copper-faced tamping bars, and of not hammering violently on the tamping until a little of it has first been gently pressed down to cover over the charge, because the

UNU'ilESIT

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS. /y 14,2

earlier blows on the tamping bar are gerous in event of any spark occurring. A little wadding, tow, paper, or a wooden plug, is sometimes put to lie against the charge before any tamping is placed in the hole.

It is generally troublesome work to get tamping up into rising holes, having a rapid upward inclination.

The hand sludger is occasionally made to assist, by putting a little tamping into one end of the tube, which is then placed in the hole so that the tamping can be forced out by the piston-rod.

Fig. 152 shows a " tamping case," which may be used to greater advantage in such instances. It is made of copper or brass, with a long handle, and is passed over the end of the tamping bar. When this is done, the case — which has a slit for clearing the fuse — is filled with tamping, and pushed up into the bore-hole. The case is next drawn back, so as to leave the tamping in front of the bar, by which it can be pressed or hammered up.

We have found plaster-of-paris, used in a plastic or semi-fluid state, make excellent tamping, first putting a little dry plaster against the charge. The plaster costs only about 2s, per cwt. in large lots. It sets quickly, expands slightly by setting, and requires no ramming, as it can be poured

144 Mining T00Jl8.

into downward holes and can be put, in a plastic state, into rising holes, with a light copper scraper.

Fig. 153 shows a funnelled " powder-charger,*' best made of copper. The powder is received by the conical part, and passes through the pipe — which may be screwed together in several lengths — to the bottom of the hole without hanging about the sides, thus avoiding a well-known danger. A long stick fits inside for pushing forward the powder when necessary. A common saucepan handle is often used for charging.

Figs. 164 to 158 show ordinary forms of "gads," used for working jointy or cellular ground, or rock which has been fissured by blasting. They are also much used for wedging down hard coal after undercuttiug. Some apply the term gad to these tools when they have a pointy and when they have a chisel edge the term wedge is used.

Figs. 159 to 163 represent other forms of gads and wedges used in various mining operations. There is great multiplicity in the sizes of gads, the length often varying from 3 inches to 2 feet. Six inches to 1 foot are useful lengths.

They are sometimes made ox wrought-iron, with a tongue of steel welded in to form a point, and sometimes the striking- end is faced with steel. Very often, for the sake of durability, they are made of steel altogether. Cast-steel borers, which

Miscellaneous Tools. 145

have been worn short, are often used for making gads in hard-ground mines, and, in order to stand well, they should be carefully annealed, as they are submitted to cross strains by side blows from the sledge, for the purpose of loosening them or the adjacent rock.

Fig. 164 represents a Saxon gad, having near the middle an eye, which is used by Saxon miners for threading several gads together on a sling, to faciKtate carrying them to and from work, or for putting in a light helve to form a temporary handle. This has but little recommendation to a British miner, considering that the eye weakens the gad. Fig. 165 shows a gad used by Mexican miners. It is round in cross section.

In working some sorts of " jointy " or " vuggy ground, gads are of great importance, and each miner sometimes carries over a dozen of them to his work daily. The best sort of gad for this purpose is made of shear-Bteel, and to cleave well it should approximate the shape of Fig. 154. It is generally about lib. weight, and 6 inches long by x or 1 X J inch, in the largest part, tapering to a point.

Iron gads with steel points are chiefly used in collieries. Their lengths range from 6 inches to 2 feet — a very common length being 12 inches, and weighing about 31bs. — the greatest thickness

H

146 Mining Tools.

being about 1 inch, and the greatest breadth about If inches. These wedges resemble Figs. 154 and 155 in shape, and one smith with a striker can make about two and a half dozens per day. The collier's wedge-sledge, noticed on p. 66, is speciallyadapted for driving these wedges (as is often necessary) after their ends have gone in flush with the face, because the panes of the sledge are small enough to follow the wedges.

Steeled iron wedges cost from 2d, to Sd, per lb,, and solid steel wedges from 4d, to 5d. per lb. Gads are usually blunted more than pick-points, and therefore they take a little longer time to sharpen. They are tempered in the same manner as picks. In some collieries the remnants of old iron wedges are collected in when new ones are supplied; and when sufficient numbers have been accumulated they are faggoted under a steam or other hammer into bars for new wedges.

Gads and wedges are very liable to get buried beneath the coal, rubbish, ore, or attle underground, unless carefully looked after. A great deal of steel often gets lost in this way, and it has been the chief reason for introducing into many mines the system of charging miners for all the steel they wear away or lose.

In some collieries, where wedges have to be driven into a yielding substance, or under a soft

Miscellaneous Tools, 147

top, a pair of thin plates, called " clamps," are first let into the ground, to afford a larger bearing when the wedge is driven between, as shown by Fig. 166.

The "plug and feather*' arrangement, shown by Fig. 167, is very useful for wedging off large blocks of mineral. A hole is first bored, and after the two inverted wedges, a, a, with circular backs, are placed in it, the driving wedge, or plug, is driven between to detach the mass. Plugs and feathers lessen the friction of wedging. They are occasionally found useful for benching down long faces of coal, and are of constant use in some quarries for breaking off large pieces of stone, by arranging several of them along the line of intended fracture. In the Box stone-quarries, two iron wedges called " chips '' — see x, Fig. 167 — are used instead of the feathers, a, a, and are placed, with the thin edges outward, in a recess cut to receive them, so that a wedge may enter between.

It is to be hoped that the time is rapidly approaching when a very large part of the labour of driving gads and wedges will be superseded by the use of the excellent hydraulic machines now being introduced into collieries by Mr. J. Grafton Jonei — well known in connection with his patent coal-cutting machinery — and other inventors.

H 2

148 Mining Tools.

These machines fit into holes previously bored for them, and they force down the coal by pistons or wedges acting under very great hydrostatic pressure, produced by a small hand-pump. The entire apparatus is quite portable, and where the occurrence of fire-damp in collieries makes the use of blasting-powder dangerous, these machines are destined to acquire a highly important substitutionary value. They are also applicable to many other branches of mining.

Mr. Davies, of Crumlin, has invented a machine to act upon the same principle, which, by a kind of flexible or jointed arrangement, will relieve itself of undue strains when at work, and accommodate itself to a crooked hole.

We now turn to notice some tools which are of special utility for advantageously working the well-known Bathstone at the quarries of Box (and other places), where, instead of removing the overburden, the quarrying is carried on underground, from adits or shafts, without disturbing the cultivated surface.

The "jaddingpick," illustrated by Fig. 168, serves for cutting in long and deep holings, juds, or "jads," for the purpose of detaching large blocks of stone from their natural beds. The jads specified were formerly made in vertical as well as horizontal directions. Not long since,

Miscellaneous Tools. 149

however, an Improved plan of saving the vertical —or, as they are termed, " upright " — jads became generally adopted ; but for working in the first cut horizontally in order to free one side — generally the top surface — of the block, and thereby to provide room for the saws afterwards to commence severing the other sides, nothing has superseded the use of jadding picks. They are made in sets of about three or four, with helves ranging from 3 to 5 and even 6 feet in length, so that the reach of the pick may be accommodated to the increased depth of the jad as it advances ; and to enable the pick-point to catch properly under the same circumstances — besides having to reach into the comers — the head is not fixed on square, but obliquely , with the helve, as appears in Fig. 168. Wedges or iron dogs, driven in between the helve and the ends of the eye, assist in maintaining the proper obliquity of the head. That stem which forms an obtuse angle with the helve is called the " spreading " end, while the other is called the coming end ; and the longer the handle — which implies the deeper the jad — the more the spreading is required to be, in order that the tip may have a chance to penetrate properly. For example, with a handle 5 feet long, a line square from helve, set off through the middle of the eye, would leave one tip about

160 Mining Tools.

inches on tte inner side of it, and tte other tip about inches on the outer side. This is called 6 inches of spreading. With a helve of about 3f feet long the spreading would be, say, 3 J inches, and with a 3-feet helve about inches. The feature here particularised prevents one tip from being employed. It is only the spreading stem that is usable in the long-handled picks, since it is impossible to get the opposite tip to even touch the face of the jad.

The tips have chisel-edges |th to -Aths of an inch wide.* They are sharpened with a fine file, being bevelled ofi* from the inner side, like the edge of a common adze. They are not sent to the smith's shop oftener than about once a fortnight, as the stone operated upon is very mild for working. For the shorter helves — say 3 feet — the heads may be 6 or 71bs. weight ; but for longer helves the weight usually diminishes to but little over half as much, seeing they are more fatiguing to use. Smiths in the locality supply 61b. heads for about 3s. each, and re-steel for 4fl?. per tip.

A pick of the same character, known in these quarries as a " holing pick," has its spreading-tip ahout of an inch wide, for cutting recesses just of the right size for receiving the two chips, X, Fig. 167, in cases of wedging. Sometimes, instead of this pick, the quarrymen prefer to use a " holing iron,'* which consists of a har of 1-inch round iron, with a crutch handle at one end, and a steel chisel-edge ahout of an inch wide at the other extremity.

Miscellaneous Tools. 161

Horizontal jads are constantly being cut in these quarries close under the roof at the faces of the advancing headings, which are 15 feet wide and upwards, separated by pillars. After penetrating a depth of about 30 inches, a course of stone some 9 or 12 inches thick is " rapped in — wedged down — from over the jad to increase its width, and then it is worked in another 30 inches, or so, deeper, making in all 5 feet, or sometimes more.

It is interesting to observe a Box quarryman cutting in a jad under the roof with a pick having a handle 5 or 6 feet long, and striking each blow with the nicest precision, thereby forming a large surface as even as the top of a table. Such a man will do an average day's work of 13 superficial feet of jadding, and with his long- handled pick will deal out about 26 effective blows per minute. Accustomed to the work, perhaps from boyhood, he can cut in very deep jads, not more than 4 inches wide, with surprising evenness.

For clearing out the corners of jads, or for widening them a little inwards, when they tend to cut out and get somewhat too narrow for the fair working of the pick, the jadding iron. Fig. 168a, is found a very serviceable tool. It is made about 7 feet long, out of, say, 1-inch round iron, and is furnished with a steel chisel-edge about i inch wide, which is very effective in

162 Mining Tools.

chipping away the stone when driven against it by smartly-directed strokes. It is difficult to cut jads deeper than 5 or 6 feet with picks, but a depth of 7 feet and upwards can be more readily accomplished with the jadding iron, which is directed by hand so as to deal out a succession of strokes against the face of the jad. To penetrate this extra depth is sometimes very desirable for working out large blocks, or it may be for making the jad reach in to a suspected joint traversing the beds. Jadding irons were found to possess great adaptableness for cutting the upright jads formerly required. The jad was commenced with a pick, and continued with jadding irons until several feet deep. A man would thus do an average of 12 superficial feet of jadding per day, wasting only a width of about 4 inches of stone. Extravagant this may appear when compared with the kerf of a sawcut; but the only marvel is that deep cuts so extremely narrow could be at all worked in by jadding, and that so evenly (as is testified by old pillars) that were it not for the tool marks the surfaces would be hardly distinguishable from those that are sawn. For deep horizontal cutting the jadding iron is greased to slide freely over a pick-helve, which is laid across under it. More than one bed at a time is worked in tlie quarries

Miscellaneous Tools. 153

under notice and thus the workings are somewhat lofty. The sawn pillars are mostly rectangular and regular but their position is to some extent regulated by the occurrence of joints, or disturbances, as well as any occasional difference in the quality of the stone at certain parts. When the face of any heading from which the stone is to be worked away has been properly added under the roof, the side saw-cuts are proceeded with. A narrow block between two vertical cuts — generally made at one side, unless some flaw in the stone or some question of sizes would dictate another place — is afterwards wedged up from one of the bedding-joints, for the purpose of enabling the sawyer to get forward for sawing the hack cut parallel with the face. This being done, and the ends and top being free, the principal block easily parts from its lower bedding-joint, and is drawn out by a crab or crane.*

Blocks thus obtained from the working faces often need a little squaring or trimming, which is effected by the use of a " stone axe." The head of one is illustrated by Fig. 169. It is furnished

It by no means appears palpable that some elements of this system of excavation might not be successfully applied for the working of hard coal, and other minerals which occur in thick deposits. Lewis holes are frequently used in these quarries for securing snatch-blocks to the pillars in order to draw out blocks of stone from the different headings.

H 3

154 Mining Tools,

with an oval handle from ahout 26 to 30 inches in length. The head is of iron, with steel inserted at each edge. Smiths in the neighbourhood supply them at about 10c?. per lb., a 121b. head costing 9s. or 10. The edges are sharpened on a piece of pennant grit, and now and then they need to be drawn out by a smith, his common charge for doing so being 4rf. They are tempered to about hroion or purple.

In the same quarries the wedges employed with the chips, x, Fig. 167, are commonly about 18 inches long, in shape approaching that of Fig. 160, but with less taper from near the point to the striking- end, where the size is about 3 inches wide by inches thick.

What is termed a " driving iron,*' used for rapping or wedging down from over the jad, as before explained, is simply a bar of round iron about If inches diameter and 3 feet long, having a few inches at one end flattened out to a chisel shape for being driven like a wedge.

The sledges employed with these tools and for general purposes belong chiefly to the bully pattern, with heads varying from 8 to 201bs., according to the use for which they are intended.

Passing from the class of quarrying tools which have engaged our notice, we may now glance at some for other purposes.

Miscellaneous Tools. 155

Figs. 170 and 170a represent two " pickers/* and Fig. 170b represents a " poker." These tools are used in Saxony and in parts of Cornwall for working in jointy ground, and in some thin hard veins. They are very useful for getting between the sides of narrow clay joints, for clearing them out, to give side shots a better chance for blasting. Such tools are commonly employed in Saxony, but their use is, in this country, almost confined to the St. Just district. Some of the miners in that part use them very dexterously, and a St. Just miner can often be distinguished from his fellow-countrymen by a horny blister mark on the back of the Kttle finger on his left hand, caused by holding it under the haft of the picker, or poker, for keeping up the point. These tools are generally made out of |-inch round iron, with steel tips. The picker is flattened out to form a blade about 1 foot long. The remaining part is left round to form the haft. The whole length rarely exceeds 30 inches, the average being about 26 inches. They are sharpened to a point, or narrow chisel-edge, and tempered in the same way as picks. They are held by the miners in one hand, and struck by a hammer held in the other hand. "When they have entered they are often used like short levers for loosening or clearing out the ground.

156 Mining Tools.

Fig. 171 shows a "set" or "moil," used for cutting ground where it requires to he done evenly, such as in the case of cutting " hitches," or preparing seatings for pit work, or forming a regular hedding for supporting a wedging-curb for tubbing shafts, and for various kindred operations. Sometimes the tip is sharpened to a diamond-point, or to a circular form, to suit particular cases. Most usually it is shaped like the tip of a poker, or picker. When intended for single-hand use, sets do not often exceed 41bs. weight. If much heavier than this they are called double-hind sets, and are the more useful size. They are often made of cast-steel borerbars, or of a bar of wrought-iron with a tongue of steel welded in to form the cutting part. After sharpening they are hardened and tempered like ordinary borers.

Sets of this character, with chisel tips, are in many cases used for working the native copper accumulations of Lake Superior.

Fig. 172 represents an iron " socket-bar " or " beche," used for drawing cartridges, or broken drills, out of ordinary bore-holes by wedging the socket over them.

Fig. 173 represents a " pointed crowbar." Fig. 174 is a " pinch-bar," with a chisel-edge on one extremity. Sometimes one end of these bars

Miscellaneous Tools, 157

is left blunt for striking on. Fig. 175 shows another pointed crowbar. Fig. 176 is called a "crook-bar," and is also pointed at one end. When the ends are shaped as at 8, with A points, it forms a " timber-bar," useful for moving heavy timber. In this case the bend of one end is usuaUy opposite to that of the other, and one bend is somewhat shorter than the other. Fig. 177 is a crook-bar, occasionally used for dragging stones and lumps out of loose ground.

Bars are very useful in mining operations for levering out ground, and for splitting rocks traversed by cleavage planes. They are also useful, in some instances, for forcing down coal after undercutting, and are constantly employed for moving or purchasing heavy weights.

Bars are nearly always made of round iron with steel at the extremities, welded on by a splice or split weld. They require occasional sharpening, and are tempered like borers — generally to a blue tinge. For lightness they are now and then made hollow. They usually range in length from 3 to 5 feet. A convenient size is 4 feet or 4 J feet long and IJ to 1$ inch diameter for ordinary work. They are worth about from 12s. to 15s. per cwt., and each bar weighs from 12 to 241bs.

Fig. 178 shows a " claw-bar," well suited for

158 Miking Tools.

drawing out bolts or spikes, and for purchasing weights. A light bar of this description, about 4 feet long and 1 inch diameter, is very handy for repairing tramroads. The pointed ends of bars are often slightly bent, to facilitate getting a pinch and levering in certain positions. The end, d, is called a " dibber,** for making holes.

Figs. 179 and 180 represent two sorts of bars used in some foreign mines. Bound crowbars, with points and chisel-edges, are also used abroad, as are claw and crook bars.

Fig. 181 shows a tramplate or rail " scraper,** used for clearing off dirt from tramroads. In some cases one extremity is formed as at a.

Fig. 182 represents a "push-pick," sometimes used for working in soft or clayey ground. It consists of a thin iron palm or fluke-plate, with steel around the front edges, resembling a flat shovel blade, and has ears for receiving a long and straight wooden handle.

Fig. 183 represents a similar tool, with an iron handle, and a long tongue tapering to a chiseledge, which is formed of steel, and ground nearly as sharp as the edge of an axe. These tools are useful for cutting out corners in driving through soft ground, for making headway for breasting boards, and for clearing the course for laths or laggings, &c.

Miscellaneous Tools. 169

Fig. 184 represents a tool called a " spiker," which is used in some collieries for clearing out places for the cleats or laggings, posts, bars, or eaps, &c., in places where a pick will not work or reach. The spiker is made of wrought-iron, with a steel tongue welded in to form the point. It seldom requires sharpening, but when it does it is treated just like a pick-point. Sometimes a bow handle is made instead of a crutch handle.

Fig. 185 represents a "bull-crook/* used in some collieries, principally by hitchers and banksmen, for dragging the boxes or trains.

Fig. 186 represents the ordinary two-prong "pitchfork,* which miners often prefer to use, instead of a shovel, for filling or removing lumps of tough clay which have been cut with the grafting tool or spade. The pitchfork is easily stuck into lumps of clay, so that they may be moved as desired, and it can be drawn out again without the clay sticking about it, as is often the case with the use of a shovel for the same work. A medium-sized two-pronged cast-steel pitchfork with 5-feet haft or handle costs about 3s.

Fig. 187 represents an " axe-mattock,*' which is sometimes used for working or driving through clay ground, growan, soft elvan, or other loose or soft accumulations. The head consists of an

160 Mining Tools.

eye and two blades, one standing like a hoe, and the other at right angles to it, like the blade of an axe. The ordinary-sized head weighs about 51bs. It is mounted on a helve like a common pick. One smith and striker will make five of these heads per day. The edges are generally sharpened — which is seldom required — by filing them when hot, and they are tempered to about blue. Fig. 187a shows a top view of the head.

Fig. 188 represents the head of a " pick-mattock," used for a similar purpose. The pick stem is useful for loosening harder portions of the ground. When the blade edge is turned parallel with the helve it is called a "pickaxe." Axe and pick mattocks from 5 to 81bs. each can be bought from tool-makers at about 40s. per cwt.

Fig. 189 represents a " mortise chisel," often found useful for framing timber work. Miners' mortise chisels are made with iron handles, with steel welded on the back of the blade to form the cutting edge, which is usually from f to 1 inch wide, and tempered straw colour. Sometimes they are made with a socket for receiving a wooden handle, as in Fig. 190. This is the sort always sold by ironmongers at from Is, to Is. 6/. each. Socket-firmer chisels — Fig. 191 — are used for wide mortises. 1 and 1 J inch are useful sizes, and cost from \0d, to Is. id. each.

Miscellaneous Tools. 161

Fig. 192 represents a miner's " screw-auger," mucli used for boring pin or bolt holes through timber. The cross handle of wood is fastened by driving it on the flattened dagger at the top of the auger-stem, which is afterwards clenched, as shown ; or by forming a round eye on the top of the auger -stem, so that the handle can be driven into it. A more durable auger, but less free for cutting, known as the " barrel " or " shell auger," is shown by Fig. 193. Augers of this type, with long shells, are known as " treenail " or "long-pod augers."

A gouge. Fig. 194, is used with these augers for cutting out a circular bit of wood, where a hole is to be commenced, to enable the bit to catch. Augers are drawn out of the holes at intervals when boring, to clear out the chips or dust. The cutting part is of steel, and the stem of iron. They are generally bought ready made. The most convenient sizes for mining purposes are f , f , 1, and inch diameter of bit. They cost from 9d. to Is. 6d. each, without handles. Eyed augers 2d. to 6d. extra. The cutting edge is occasionally sharpened with a dead smooth file, or a thin hone stone.

Fig. 195 shows the "skewnose auger," often used by platelayers.

When required for a deep reach, the stem of an

162 Mining Tools.

auger may be cut off, and a piece welded in to make it of any required length.

Fig. 195a shows a "pad -handle," used for receiving augers of different types and sizes, either of which fits into a metal socket, where it is secured by a set- pin at the side, as shown.

A strong "spike -gimlet/* which is a small kind of barrel -auger with a screw tip, is also a very useful tool. A strongly-made one, J-inch size, costs about 9.

Fig. 196 shows a form of "rake** which is used in many collieries and mines for separating lumps from the small stuff, and sometimes for facilitating the picking out of rubbish or impurities from mineral heaps. The rake illustrated has a wooden cross-piece, to which teeth of iron or steel are fastened, and a wooden handle is wedged in the middle. Sometimes the cross-piece is made of iron, through which the teeth are riveted, and provided with a socket to receive the handle. These are best known as " gravel rakes,** and cost from to 8d. per tooth. The length of the teeth, and their distance apart, vary according to the character of the work required to be done.

Fig. 197 shows a "brace-key,** or "tiller,** which consists of two iron handles screwed together in opposite ways, so as to clip between them the rods used in deep borings. When the

Univeksit

handles are screwed on firmly they fol levers for turning the rods as required, the top length of rod being furnished with a swivel. Sometimes the levers are welded to a short intermediate length of boring-rod. Their extremities are occasionally turned up at right angles.

Instead of tillers of this class, some boringmasters prefer to employ a wooden lever or handspike, which passes through an eye in the rods just below the swivel-joint. The reason is that with the concussion of the rods iron tillers are more jarring to the hands.

Fig. 198 represents the " wrench " in common use for screwing and unscrewing rods employed in sinking bore-holes.

Figs. 199 and 200 represent the " grips,'' or " lifting-dogs," which are fastened to the end of a rope or chain, and used for letting down or drawing up boring-rods, by catching them under the collar at the joints of the rods. Other forms of grips are used, and sometimes a simple lashing chain is made to answer the same purpose. Perhaps with screw joints the best plan is to use a " drawing-cap,*' which is a strong iron loop or eye with a socket having an internal thread, so that it can be screwed on the rods and drawn up by a hook.

Fig. 201 represents the "nipping -fork," or "tiger," often used for temporarily supporting

164 Mining Tools.

the train of rods while ihey are being let into, or drawn out of, a bore-hole. The joints of the rods are too large to pass through the nipping-fork, so that when it is placed oyer the bore-hole the rods cannot run back if one of the joints is resting upon it. In case of an unexpected breakage the nipping-fork is often yaluable in presenting the rods from falling down the bore-hole. It is alsa used as a wrench.

Fig. 202 is a form of " wad-coil," now and then employed for drawing loose stones out of boreholes, such stones being clipped within the coils.

Fig. 202a shows a " worm," used like wormaugers, for loosening some tough clays at the bottoms of bore-holes. A similar tool, called a "coil-drag," is in some instances employed for drawing up the bottom part of broken rods from bore-holes or pumps. The coil-drag is welded or screwed on to a length of rods, and lowered down to the broken portion. It is then turned around seyeral times until it entwines itself around the broken portion sufficiently tight to draw it up. The coils are often made of a larger diameter at the lower part than upwards, and frequently the tool is made out of a square bar of iron bent diagonally, in order that the angular edge running inside the spiral may grip the tighter. It is proper to remark that in Figs. 202 and 202a the

Miscellaneous Tools. 165

way in which the coils are represented to twist is reverse to what it should be. They should twist the same way as the joint-screws, otherwise there would be a tendency to unscrewing in use.

Fig. 203 represents a " claw " used for the same purpose. It is lowered into the bore-hole, or pipes, to get below a joint in the broken rods, and is then turned round, so that the claw may get a holdfast under the collar, or knob.

Tools working on these principles are known amongst many miners as " German keys."

Fig. 204 represents the "bell-screw," or "screwsocket," which is also used for drawing broken rods. It is generally furnished with an internal screw tapering with the socket. When let down over a broken rod the socket is designed to embrace the top of the same, so that after a few turns the thread will often make sufficient bite to draw up the rods. The accompanying torsional strain is objectionable on some occasions.

Sometimes a plain socket is filled with wax, and lowered down to take an impression of the top of the unrecovered broken rods, when the nature of the fracture is not shown with sufficient plainness by the recovered portion. Information thus derived may be useful for designing a special tool for raising the rods which have broken off.

By using similar sockets filled with tough clay.

166 Mining Tools.

fragments of broken bits, by embedding themselves within it, have been eily removed.

Fig. 205 represents a "grapple," or "trap," used in connection with exploratory bore-holes, in which the borers used are constructed with narrow bits arranged on a cylinder or ring, so as to make an annular cut, with a solid core, column, or carrot in the centre. The tool illustrated is used for cutting off and raising the carrots. It consists of a cylinder with several teeth or pauls, hinged around the bottom, and forced towards the centre by springs. After the boring-bit is taken off from the rods, this tool is fastened on instead, and dropped down the bore-hole. The teeth slip over the carrot nearly down to its base. The rods are next slightly moved up and down in quick succession, so that the teeth may nibble notches into the side of the carrot, as shown. A sudden upward jerk is afterwards given to the rods, and the carrot snaps off near the bottom. Being thus detached, and within the cylinder, it can be raised to the surface, as the teeth at the bottom close inwards, and prevent the carrot from dropping out. A heavy iron ring is sometimes employed, instead of the springs, for pressing the teeth inwards. In other cases the springs are fastened to tKe outside of the cylinder — Wholes being made through the side so that the teeth may

Miscellaneous Tools. " 167

be pressed inwards — and a wedge on the outside of the cylinder is used for snapping off the carrot. This tool is revolved — turned like an auger — so that the teeth cut away a neck all around the bottom of the carrot, where it is intended to be broken.

"When carrots are cut in a bore -hole, they afford an excellent opportunity for ascertaining with the greatest certainty the mineral and fossil characters of the strata which are passed through ; and they often reveal lines of stratification, so that the true power or thickness of any stratum can be determined by multiplying its carrot length, or vertical measurement, by the cosine of the angle of its dip from the horizon. This contrivance then is a kind of mtness-trap, as we have heard it called, which brings to view the soundest and most reliable testimony regarding the strata which have been pierced by the bore-hole.

A similarly-designed tool, called a " bell-box," with pauls. Fig. 206, is occasionally used for passing over the joints or projections on broken rods for drawing them up. It is not unusual to find bell-screws fastened to the ends of forked rods, after the manner of the bell-box here noticed. The hole then passes completely through the socket portion, so that, if needful, the top of the broken rod may pass up between the fork, in

168 Kininq Tools.

order that the internal screw may get a holdfast around the first joint below the fracture.

Fig. 207 shows a " stud-block," which is used for suspending tube or pipe linings for bore-holes, either for putting them down or drawing them up. It consists of a block made to fit inside the end of the tube, and attached to the rods. In the side of the block are fixed iron studs for slipping into slits cut in the side of the tube, like a bayonet-Joint, so that it may be suspended as illustrated.

Fig. 208 shows a " spring-dart,'* used for the same purpose.

Sometimes a conical plug with a screw cut around the outside for tightening itself in the upper end of the tube is used for raising and lowering the linings.

" Heating-tongs " resemble a smith's tongs, but they are made circular to clip around the tube lining of a bore-hole. The part which embraces the tube is made Tery stout to retain heat for melting solder at joints, for imiting some sorts of tubing, by making the stout part red-hot, and causing it to surround the joint. The " heater," which is a heavy bar of iron, dropped hot down the tube by a chain, is used for the same purpose.

Occasionally it has been found necessary to cut

Miscellaneous Tools. 169

off the tube linings in bore-holes. This is done hj fastening on the end of the rods a taper block pointing downwards. A serrated tooth projects by the force of a stiff spring from the side of the block. "When this contrivance is forced down inside the tube, the tooth retires, and when opposite the required point the rods are turned around by a lever, so that the tooth, by pressing tightly against the inside of the tube, cuts a groove all around and severs it.

Fig. 209 represents the " scraper," or " spreader," used for spreading ore when it is being dressed on the frame-table and racks. Sometimes the pattern is like the "solid halfmoon hoe," as at a. The scraper is like a broad tulip-hoe, fitted with a long handle. It may be simply a piece of wood nailed across one end of a long handle.

Fig. 210 shows the " broom," used for moving ore about when it is undergoing dressing in the tt/e and other apparatus. It is a little smaller than the common broom. The broom is generally made of heath. Birch would be too rough.

Fig. 210a represents the "horn," used for washing and cleaning the dressing-frames and tables. In the case of m-dressing> a thin surface of ore left in the frame is washed down into a sort of chest, called a " cover," by water dipped

170 Minikg Tools.

ap in the horn. The handle, abont 5 feet long, is fitted and wedged to a bullock's horn, which is cut off at the point and plugged np with wood to form a water-tight bottom.

The limp," used for scraping mineral off a jigging-sieve, is a piece of board, or sheet-iron, about a foot wide, and formed semicircularly, resembling half the head of a small cask.

The plate of a " bulling-shovel,'' also used in ore-dressing, is shown by Fig. 211.

Fig. 212 represents a "dipper,*' or dipscuttle," or " bail," used for dipping water out of a shallow place. The scoop part is generally made of elm board. The sides and back are high for holding the water. Sometimes a piece of board is nailed on the top, at the back, to preyent the water from spilling over. The long wooden handle, passing through the scoop, enables it to be used like a shoyel.

Fig. 213 represents a platelayer's "keyinghammer," used for driving keys in the chairs of tramroads and railways, for securing the rails. One stump is made haK-round for this purpose. In some instances both stumps are the same.

Fig. 214 represents a " beater," or " beatingpick." The cross-piece on one tip is used for packing in ballast under the sleepers of tramroads or railways. A similar tool, made stouter, but

Miscellaneous Tools. 171

m

without the pointed stem — i,e.y with the beating stem only — is known under the name of a " packing- tool."

Fig. 215 represents a " rail-gauge/' employed in laying or repairing railroads or tramways, for showing the proper gauge or width between the rails. Fig. 216 is another, with two discs on a round bar, faced in a lathe, and termed a rolling rail-gauge."

Fig. 217 represents a steel "punch," and Fig. 218 a steel " set," used in some instances for laying rails Both are famished with iron handles, made of light rod-iron, bent around the tool. A platelayer's "driver," or "driffcingpunch,'' is a long form of punch resembling Fig. 217, but with a, flat end suitable for driving out keys, &c.

Fig. 219 illustrates a " rail-cramp," used for bending rails and tramplates for going round curves. A spanner, shown, is used for turning the nut working on the ram, after a rail is adjusted in the claws. About 6d. per lb. is the value of cramps of this kind.

Fig. 220 represents a " bottle-jack," which is very useful in mines for raising heavy weights, and, in some instances, for supporting timber undergoing renewal in heavy ground, or for forcing the pieces into their proper positions.

172 Mining Tools.

Fig. 221 shows the extensively-used " traversingjack."

A bottle-jack to lift 6 tons costs about £3. A good traversing-jack to lift the same weight may be bought for about £7.

Very serviceable hydraulic lifting-jacks can now be obtained. One to lift 6 tons, weight not exceeding 701bs., costs about £10. If traversing, about £3 extra.

Fig. 222 represents a " lewis/' which is a contrivance made of iron, and often used in raising or drawing heavy weights, particularly in quarries. The two side-pieces, which are made with taper, are dropped into a dovetail recess, formed in the piece to be removed. The ring-tongue is then put in between, and a bolt is afterwards passed through all three of the pieces, and secured by a small split-key inserted through its point. If the lifting- gear is next attached to the ring for raising the piece, the lewis will obtain a firm hold by wedging itself tightly in the dovetail.

Fig. 223 represents a "nipper,'* of frequent use in quarries for raising blocks of stone. The fangs open and close on a hinge, like a scissors joint, so that the points may span over a block of stone, and catch in two small notches cut in opposite sides. When the hoisting-gear is

Miscellaneous Tools. 173

applied to the ring, the bridle-chains make the nipper clip firmly in the notches, and the heavier the weight the more tightly it holds. A very similar contrivance is used for raising timber.

Fig. 224 represents a " cant-hook," found convenient for rolling over timber by means of a lever or handspike passed through the ring. Sometimes two of them are strung on a chain, and used instead of a nipper. These, made somewhat stronger in the hook, are known as " quarrydogs " or " crane-hooks."

The last tool we shall notice is the " marlinespike," Fig. 225, used for rope splicing. It consists of a round pointed piece of steel, called the " tusk," fixed in a stout wooden handle. A tusk about 6 inches long, by f inch diameter in the largest place, is a very convenient size ; but much larger ones are used for splicing very stout ropes, such as capstan ropes. Sometimes the marline-spike is made entirely of steel, or iron steeled in the point, with a hole in the head for passing througl\ a string, or with a pear-shaped loop to form the handle. In other cases the head of the spike is turned off at right angles to form a handle.

Besides understanding how to tie good hitches and knots, every* miner should be able to splice well. A short splice is a very useful one ; but when the rope has to run through tackle or blocks a long splice is necessary.

Helyes Oe Handles.

Many of the tools whicli we have noticed are furnished with wooden helves handles, shafts, or sticks, as they are variously termed. A tool helve ought to combine three qualities, viz. : — toughness, with moderate hardness; slight elasticity; and lightness. It should also be sufficiently large to enable it to be held firmly in the hand without cramping the muscles. Ash-wood compKes with these conditions better than any other material which is easily procured in this country.

Hickory — a valuable American nut-bearing tree, of various kinds, similar to the walnut tribe — is largely used for helping tools of American manufacture, many of which find their way into English markets.* This wood makes very good helves, and is commonly considered to be particularly suited for axes. Some of it is peculiar for the

Hickory is very much employed in the manufactiiTe of handspikes — imported from North America, ready made, and weighing about 20lbs. each — fishing-rods, shafts, &c.

Helves Or Handles. 175

lozenge-shape structure of its tissue. For most purposes, however, good ash helves are unsurpassed.*

The holding surface of a helve has all its angles rounded off smoothly, so that it may be used without galling the hands. The best shape is either oval or round, in cross section. Oval is the better shape for picks, sledges, and axes, because it gives the hand greater control over the directing of the tool; but in the case of shovels round is generally preferred for sliding and turning in the hand. When shovel helves of short or medium length are used, the crutch, or open handle, is serviceable, not only for affording a large pressing surface to one hand, but also for controlling the turning of the helve in the other, and for preventing any capsizing of the plate when filled ; but when long helves are used — as with the Devon shovel — their high inclination enables the helves themselves to afford a large pressing surface, and the weight upon the plate is so much below the level of the hands that it has hardly any tendency to capsize ; hence the ordinary grasp of the hand gives sufficient control over the turning of the helve when needed. Very common oval

The following is the order of arrangement usually accepted as showing the relative values of a few sorts of wood for elasticity : — ash, hazel, hickory, lancewood, yew.

176 Miking Tools.

sizes aire — for small tools, incli x f incli ; for medium size. If x ; and for large size. If x 1$ or If. The length is not usually less than 18 inches, or more than 36 inches ; 24 to 30 inches being most common.

Kound helves maj be said to yary from to If inch average diameter ; If inch being a very convenient size.

Long shovel helves are commonly from 4 to 5 feet long, and short ones about 30 inches long, except where required for use in confined places.

Short-helped shovels are usually bought with helves fitted to them.

Spare shovel helves are often kept in mine stores, although it is comparatively seldom that one has to be replaced ; but the helves of sledges, and of picks especially, are found to break so often that a large stock is usually kept at the mine for replacing broken ones.* Fig. 226 represents a pick helve, and a sledge helve is shown by Fig. 227.

Both sorts are generally split out of round logs of timber into shapes represented by Figs. 228 and 229. They are next rough hetcn by an axe into the shapes represented by Figs. 230 and 231.

Axe handles do not often break. They are usually replaced by a handle made out of a pick-helve, when they require to be renewed at mines.

Helves Or Handles. 177

Afterwards they are dressed by drawing-knives, spokeshaves, or planes, until they assume the forms shown by Figs. 226 and 227. In consequence of the feathered part, a, b, occurring in a pick helve, there is some extent of timber wasted in forming the haft, b, c, as will be seen by reference to Fig. 226, where the dotted lines show the outline of the piece of timber from which the helve is made. It will be seen this does not apply to sledge helves, Fig. 227, unless they are formed with a feather, as in Figs. 24 and 28, which is not usual. The sizes of helves are, to a certain degree, regulated by the sizes of the eyes, into which they must fit tightly. This is always the case with the feather of a pick helve, which ought to taper as represented in Fig. 226, so that the helve might be taken from a worn-out or broken tool, and used in another, or refitted in cases of vnncing. As a rule, it is about 1 to IJ inch thick, by 3 to 4 inches wide, in the largest part of the feather.

A helve should be fitted into the eye of any tool as nicely as possible, by driving it partly in and withdrawing it a few times, so that the too prominent parts, which will be marked by having pressed against the inside of the eye, may be reduced until an equal bearing is obtained. Before the helve is permanently wedged in, it is neces-

178 Mining Tools.

sary to see that the stems stand perpendicular, or at a proper angle thereto. Almost invariably double-stemmed picks should be fixed square with their helyes. To test that they are so before wedging up, it is common, after driving a pickhead on the feather end, to place the other end of the helve against a fixed point on the ground — usually, for the time being, against the shoe worn on left foot. With one stem then pointing downwards, a line is scratched on the ground with its tip. The other tip is next turned down, and if it do not touch the same line, the head will be out of square, and must be struck, so that the lines scratched by both tips coincide. The helve is then fastened by a hard oak wedge (about f inch thick, and as wide as the eye is long), which is driven at the top of the feather, in the direction of its long axis, as shaded in Fig. 48. An entrance is made for the oak wedge by a broad steel chisel. Sometimes narrow iron wedges are driven in across the oak one.

In some instances the eye is " threaded " over the haft, and then the feather tapers the opposite way, as in Fig. 187.

For making helves, suitable ash timber in the round is cut by a crosscut saw into logs of lengths corresponding with the lengths of the helves required. The logs are then split or

Helves Ob Handles. 179

cleaved, as required, by an iron wedge, like Fig. 160, driven in at one end.

The manner in whicli helves are cleft is of some importance. It is well known that in every tree, the wood is more porous at the circumference than at the centre, and consequently the outer part shrinks more by drying than the inner part.* It is very objectionable to have helves warp sideways, and to avoid this, as well as to counteract, as far as possible, the tendency of helves to warp at all, they require to be cleft in a particular direction, so that the long axis of the oval or feather shall radiate from the centre of the log, similarly to the medullary rays, or just like the cracks often seen in the end of a felled tree after drying.

The foregoing will be easily understood by reference to Fig. 232, which represents the end of a log, with lines showing how it is cleft radially in segments for forming pick helves as described. The dotted lines show the feathered part afterwards formed out of each piece. At a, the outside angles are chopped off, to suit for a straight axe

Boards often warp from this cause, and the same reason explains why the middle cut in a piece of timber over the sawpit so conmionly requires no wedging for clearing the saw, because the tendency of the outer portion of the timber to contract naturally causes the separated pieces to splay away from each other.

180 Minikg Tools. .

handle. The diameter of the log must slightly exceed twice the widest part of the feather. In converting larger logs there is ample latitude for the exercise of good judgment in making the most of timber. In Fig. 233 the log is first halved, then quartered, and each quarter is cleft in the most advantageous manner into pick or sledge helves, or both, according to the sorts and sizes required.

The best helves are those from nearest the centre. In Fig. 234, and part of Fig. 236, the quartering is unequal to economise the timber. A cleaver will often apply unequal quartering for gaining a few more helves out of a log than could be otherwise obtained ; and when some of various sizes are required, and there is much difference in the sizes of the logs, a considerable amount of contriving is necessary to make the timber go as far as possible. Generally a few wasters may be expected, much according to the skill of the cleaver, but with good straight-grained timber there need hardly be any. A log of suitable ash, 1 foot girt (about 15 inches diameter), is expected to cleave into 36 or 38 good coal pick helves, each of about 3 inches wide, by inch thick, in the largest part of the feather.

The same timber would cleave into about twice as many sledge helves.

Helves Or Handles. 181

As regards the number of helves which one man will cleave per day, there is great variableness, as in all other things, according to the skill of the handicraftsman.

Two men are required to use a crosscut saw, and it is considered a fair day's work for both of them, with good timber, to cross cut sufficient ash into suitable lengths, and cleave and rough hew about 12 dozen 30-inch pick helves per day, or about double as many sledge helves.

It is considered that one man will afterwards dress about 5 dozen rough-hewn pick helves per day, or 10 dozen sledge helves ; and that he will fit and wedge up about 7 dozen dressed helves into picks, or 10 dozen into sledges, per day.

In some places a carpenter is considered to cleave rough hew, dress, fit, and wedge up 2 dozen pick helves per day, or 4 dozen sledge helves in the same time.

At many colKeries and mines, dressed pick helves are sold to the men at 4cd. each, and sometimes the colliers do the fitting and wedging up themselves. In other cases a new helve, fitted and wedged complete, is sold for 5d, to 6d. each for picks, and 4d. each for sledges.

Helves ought always to be cleaved and rough hewn when the timber is green, and then they should be stored away for about three months to

182 Mining Tools.

season and dry before use, after which time any slight warp can be corrected in dressing.

At some collieries, where the grain of the ash used is not straight, or good for splitting, the logs are divided by a circular saw. This often produces very bad helves, when, as often, the grain does not run properly with the haft ; consequently, they warp and break too easily. For the same reason they are not so easily hewn and dressed as cleft helves.

The price generally paid for simply hewing and dressing pick helves which have been sawn out of curly-grained ash is 2s. Qd. per dozen.

The expense of a new helve is not of so much importance as the delay often occasioned by the breaking of one. It is always more profitable in the end to give a little more for good helves than to go on using poor ones because they are procurable at a less cost. At one colliery where sawn helves are used, we ascertained that two dozen pick helves, per hundred hewers, were broken per week, although the picks were not exposed to very hard holing or cutting, and only one face of hard dead work was being carried on at the time. This gives about four weeks as the average duration of each helve ; whereas a good helve ought to last more than four times as long under the same conditions.

It is by no means an uncommon thing in col-

Helves Ob Handles. 183

lieries to find the same helve, where good ones are used, last a hewer in regular work upwards of twelve or eighteen months. In collieries where very hard coal seams are worked in South Wales, and where a hard bottom has to be cut very much, moderately good cleft helves are found to endure six or seven weeks on an average — bottom picks included. As a rule, pick helves are exposed to much greater strain in metalliferous mines, and their duration is considerably shortened, in some instances not exceeding a fortnight.

A little observation bestowed upon this subject will sometimes show a surprising disparity between diflferent sorts of ash, as regards durableness for helves, although in external appearance there is nothing very dissimilar.

In some colliery districts, good cleft helves in the rough-hewn state, and 30 to 34 inches long, are sold at from 2s. 3c?. to 2s. 6d, per dozen for holing and cutting picks, and 2s. 9d. to 3s. per dozen for bottom picks.

The haft of an axe handle is generally oval in section. Ordinary axe handles range from 18 to 26 inches long, with a difference of 2 inches between each intermediate size. If straight, they cost, dressed, from 4rf. to 6d. each, and if bent, from Id. to 2d. extra.

Felling axe handles, straight, and from 34 to

184 Mining Tools.

36 inclies long, cost from 6d, to 7d. eacli in ironmongers' shops.

"Wedge axe handles, from 32 to 34 inclies long, are sold at about lOd. to Is. each.

A round-sectioned helve, as before observed, is the most convenient shape for a shovel. The grain should run with the handle. The best handles are bent, after steaming, out of tough, straight-grained ash. If satin out, and they are cross-grained between the straps, helves do not afford sufficient support to the shoveL

Gravel shovel helves, about 30 inches long, with crutch handles, are commonly sold for about 6c?. each, best quality. Long shovel helves cost about the same price, and up to 9d. each.

The common growth of ash is confined to temperate and northern latitudes. Locality, climate, and soil each greatly influence the quality of the timber, and sometimes a very remarkable distinction exists in the natures of different varieties of ash-trees grown in proximate positions.

Ash produced on land which is rather poor, or only moderately rich, is said to be most suitable for helves.

Ash does not suffer by altitude, if it is moderately well sheltered. When it grows in very moist or boggy soil, the timber is not very solid or tough.

Helves Or Handles. 185

If growing at the bottom of a slope, near a stream, in a loamy soil, where it is not wet, but kept slightly moist daring the heat of summer, ash thrives in an excellent manner.*

It often grows to perfection on the sheltered sides of hills and glens.

A uniform hazelly loam is very congenial soil for ash. It produces tough, straight -grained, and durable timber, of the character required for helves.

Some very tough and hearty ash, good for riving into helves, is found to grow in coldish parts of our country, on clayey soils covering argillaceous rocks, about hill-sides often exposed to the westerly wind, but sheltered from the east.f

Ash may be said to be of rapid growth, but the difference of soil influences the growth so much that trees fifty years old may each give seventyfive feet of timber in one coppice, while in another they may not yield thirty feet each.

It is not well for ash intended for helves to grow

Ash roots axe very strong suckers of the nutritive properties of soil, and they will reach as far as 40 or 50 yarcls from a tree of eighty years' growth. The roots often impoverish pasture and crops growing over them to a very marked extent, which is shown in stunted vegetation, so that it is unadvisable to adopt ash for hedgerow planting and such-like.

t The timber which has grown on the west side of a tree is noticed by some woodmen to be harder than other parts, and many sawyers aver that they can readily detect the difference in sa¥ring the timber.

186 Mikik6 Tools.

very rapidly. A moderate rate of growth gives the greatest tonglmess and compactness of fibre.

Foresters consider that the most profitable age for felling ash is from ninety to one hundred years' growth. It is then generally " ripe," which indicated by the " leading point '' beginning to is fail and to lose its yerdure. But for making helyes, this is too old to cleaye well. The best age for felling ash for helves is from forty to fifty years. It will then cleaye in a proper manner, and be hearty and tough. At this age it is termed about " half ripe." The proper season for felling it is between October and February, when the sap is down.

Some ash is imported from Canada. About forty cubic feet are allowed to the ton, and the same quantity if not "squared" makes a "load."*

The price of good ash for helves generally ranges in this country from 9c?. to Is, 4d, per cubic foot — standing in the coppice — including the measurement of branches over 6 inches girth but all the rest, with brushwood, &c., is included free.

Kot unfrequently the difficulties of getting the timber away from- the place where it grows influence the value in parts of England to the

A variety of timber called " hally wood," not mucb. unlike ash, is occasionally imported from New York.

Helves Or Handles. 187

extent of 3c?. per foot. In country places, large standing lots can often be bought for 6d. per cubic foot, the branches over 6 inches girth being measured in, but tops, brushwood, &c., go free.

At seaport towns it costs about 1. 4c?. per foot in the rough.

Sometimes owners sell trees felled and lopped for Is. to Is. Sd, per cubic foot in the wood ; and they consider the value of the tops, brushwood, &c., sufficient to pay for the labour of cultivating the young trees and felling.

Forty to fifty years' growth may be considered to produce, under average circumstances in this country, about forty cubic feet of measurable timber in each tree, and ninety trees will grow, on an average, per acre.

Notes And Sttpplementaey

Matter.

Note to Page 4.

Amount of during conversion of pig-iron to wrought iron. — 27 to 28 . of forge pig-iron make a ton of cheap merchant iron, or common railway bars cut to length. 30 to 35 . of good grey pig-iron are used for the production of a ton of good merchant bare, sheets, or rods for wire-drawing.

Note to Page 4.

For proportioning the sizes of materials for bearing certain strains — as in the case of boring rods, &c. — and for estimating the weights of tools or implements, the following data are now and then serviceable : —

Ketalb.

Brass — cast

„ wire

Copper— cast

„ wire

Iron— cast

„ wrought, bar . . .

„ plates

„ „ double riveted ) „ „ single „ /

„ wire

„ wire ropes . . . Lead — cast

BRBAEDfO StrAIK IN LBS.

Sb

Psr Bquars Inch.

p

Tension.

Compression.

Bes. to

Res. to

tearing.

crushing.

18,000

10,300

49,000

19,000

11,700

60,000

17,000

80,000

to

to

to

to

28,000

100,000

55,000

( 35,000

to

to

( 70,000

( 40,000

50,000

seams

35,000 28,000 85,000 85,000

1,824

7,000

K0Te8.

hardened

Tin Zinc

Dry Timbbb.

Beech

Birch

Chestnut

Elm

Hazel

Larch

Oak — English . .

„ American . .

Spruce and Bed Deal

Brbakcto Stbaut nr lb8.

Pbb Bquabb Ihoh.

65

Tension.

Res. to

tearing.

100,000

to 120,000 74,000

to 80,000 4,750 7,500

17,000 11,000 16,000 12,000 12,500 17,000 9,600 18,000 11,000 12,000

Gompressioxk

Res. to

croahing.

15,000

9,100 9,100 6,000

10,000

5,400 10,500

5,700

Weight of Hound and Square Bar-ikon in lbs. per lineal

Foot.

Size. Inches.

f

4 ' I

Bound bars, lbs.

Square bars, lbs.

1'

Size. Inches.

Bonnd bars, lbs.

Square bars, lbs.

Mining Tools.

Wbioht of Metal Sebets m lbs. peb supebficlal foot.

Tbickness.

Iron.

Copper.

Tjead.

Thickness.

Iron.

Copper.

Lead.

[Inch. B.w.o.

Inch.

A

f H

U

B.W.G.

72

92

2p00

Taking wrought-iron as an example, although, a bar of given quality will not break until each square inch of its sectional area has to bear a tensional strain of, say, 65,0001bs., or a compressive strain of, say, 35,000lbs., yet it is not safe in actual practice to load the iron up to more than from ith to rd of that strain. The safe " working load is found by dividing the " breaking strain by a certain figure, termed a " factor of safety." When the strain brought to bear upon any material is perfectly steady and uniform, it is called a dead load but when, as in the case of the moving parts of a machine, the strain is irregular, vibratory, or sudden, it is called a "Hve load." Factors of safety vary accordingly, and may be registered as follows: —

For dead loads 3, for live loads 5 to 6, in the case of

Metals.

For dead loads 5, for live loads 8 to 10, in the case of Timber and Masonry,

When, however, dealing with cases like pump rods, which may be submitted to extra strains by the jamming of pump buckets or otherwise, and which are liable to quiver or shake considerably in work, the factors of safety are increased to 3 or even 4 times greater than those given above, or, to meet the same end, the strain on the pump rods is taken at 3 or 4 times

o:f

Notes.

greater lan the nominal " load/' and safety are then adopted.

It is nseful to cany in mind that a square foot of wroughtiron plate, 1-inch thick, weighs 40lbs., because, by reckoning parts thereof the weights of plates of other thicknesses, as well as the weights of different sizes of square and flat bars, may be easily worked out mentally.

To find the equivalent weights of other metals, multiply the weight of wrought-iron by 1*021 for steel, by '928 for cast-iron, by 1*092 for cast brass, by 1*105 for brass wire, by 1*131 for cast copper, by 1*171 for copper wire, by 1*16 for sheet copper, by 1*483 for lead, by *950 for tin, or by '910 for , as the case may be.

"Weight and Strength of Chains.

H

s

Oq

Diameter

in inches

of iron in

links.

2&t

f

86|

A

la

H

Weight in lbs. per fathom.

Proof

strain

To find the weight which ordinary short-link chains unll carry with safety. — Multiply the square of the diameter (reckoned in 16ths of an inch) by '035 ; the product will be the weight in tons. Thus, in the case of a f-inch chain: if, and 12 X 12 144 ; then 144 X 'OSS 6*04, say 6 tons—the safe working strain. If the squares are divided by 28, a similar answer is obtained. Thus, 144 -f- 28 5*14 tons. For general purposes 30 may be used as a divisor. The same squares, multiplied by '062, give approximately the proof strains in tons.

Oq

Dq .

Vi M

A H

3

o

&

n.

Diameter in

inches of iron

in links.

If

If

Weight in lbs. per fathom.

!

Proof strain in .

1,100

1,440

Mining Tools.

Weight and St&both of Wire and Hemp Bopes.

Bound Hopes.

Stkeij Wibb.

Ibok Wibb.

Hemp.

Equivalent Stbbkoths.

H

O

§ Ob

h

0)

3J

af

6J

Uf

-J

Car

2J

Notes.

Flat Bopxs,

Eopes differ somewhat in weight and strength according to make.

KoTB TO Page 6.

Oxidation or sealing in a smithes fire. — At the hottest position in a smith's fire there is a surplus of air which will scale iron placed there to be heated. Further away from the blast, all the oxygen is appropriated by the fuel to form carbonic oxide gas, which possesses both reducing and carburizing properties. It will reduce iron scale to metallic iron by combining with the oxygen of the scale, and in its presence iron absorbs part of its carbon to form steel. This gas bums in blue flames on the outside of the fire, and then forms carbonic acid gas. Carbonic acid is an oxidizing agent, which, in the absence of carbonic oxide, readily scales highly-heated iron. It wiU also oxidize or '*bum " the carbon in iron (as well as that and some other constituents of fuel) when at the requisite temperature. In like manner it will reduce heated steel to the state of wrought-iron by

104 Miniko Tdols.

combining with and removing carbon from the steel. By this reaction, carbonic acid is reduc e d to the state of carbonic ozidey the former consisting, by weight, of 1 of carbon to of oxygen, the latter of 1 -earbi to of exyg.

KoTss lb Paob 12.

Welding test for — "Wronght-iron containing enough of phosphorus to render it to some extent old-short, can be welded with the utmost feicility.

A simple test for distinguishing steel and wrought-iron is that of placing a drop of aqua-fortis (nitric add) npon a brightened surface of each. The acid must be sufficiently dilute to prevent the formation of frothy gas bubbles. The drop placed upon steel becomes darkened to a resemblance of ink through the separation of solid carbon, which remains floating in the acid by reason of not being dissolved like the iron. Acting upon wrought-iron, the drop of add soon beoomes tinged yellowish brown, which gradually changes to a greenish colour. Upon washing off the acid with cold water, vcy slight rubbing removes almost all trace of the spot from the iron, whereas there is a dark stain left upon the steel. Steel in a hardened state exhibits more decided and rapid separation of carbon, and bears a deeper stain after washing than the same steel in a softened state. This arises, probably, from the more porous condition of hardened steel, due to its permanent expansion by hardening.

The bevel edge of a hatchet, ground through both wroughtiron and steel, is convenient for this experiment The line of junction of the iron and steel can usually be seen by reflected light, but if not thus discernible, it can be readily distinguished by drawing a little aqua-fortis across tiie bevel.

The same dilute acid will act upon brightened grey, chilled grey, mottled, and white cast-iron with much the same efibct as produced upon wrought-iron, but with less coloration in the cases of chilled and naturally white cast-irons. In each case, if washed and slightly rubbed, after having been acted upon Ave or ten minutes by the acid, scarcely any trace of the spot remains upon cast-iron.

Brightened steel, rich in cai'bon, can be distinguished, when hardened, from mild or sliirhtly carburized steel, similarly

Notes. 195

brightened and hardened, by merely playing the two sorts side by side, whereupon the fenner will be observed to have a decided yellowish tint, but a silvery whiteness will be shown by the latter.

NoTB TO Paob 16.

Meat developed in the Seeaemer converter during blowing. — The ehilg effect of blast blown downwards into molten iron is well known. In refining-fires this is compensated by the eombxistion of a oonsiderable quantify of fuel upon the surface of the molten iron. By introducing the blast at the bottom of a '' converter," the heat of chemical combination becomes well diffused throughout, and is largely absorbed by, the charge. In the case of the refinery, the reactions occurring on or near the surfSace penpit the upward escape of heat without directly contributing to the liquefiictidn of the mass.

Nons TO Paoe 17.

Bessemer Steel, — In Sweden, first-class razors and cutlery are made out of steel manufactured by this process from pigiron derived from very pure iron ores smelted with charcoal. Bessemer steel, or steely-iron, for wire drawing and sheet rolling, contains from 0*05 to 0'15 per cent, of carbon ; steel for boat) bridge, and boiler plates, railway axles, and gun barrels from 0*3 to 0*4 per cent, of carbon ; for tyres and rails from. 0*4 to 0*5 per cent. ; for files, razors, and cutlery, 1*0 to 1*5 per cent. Swedish Bessemer steel must be quite suitable for borers and other mining tools.

NoTB TO Paoe 21.

Case'hardening, — Strongly-heated wrought-iron plunged into fine charcoal powder, or sprinkled with it, becomes skin carburized. Only a very thin coating of steel is formed by the experiment ; but, after hardening, it will resist a file. Russian sheet-iron, so generally cebrated for toughness, is hammered — prior to the finishing process — in piles at a red heat, in which the meets are separated from each other by a thin layer of nearly impalpable charcoal powder. This operation, no doubt, effects a degree of carburization sufficient to partly account for

k2

196 Minikg Tools.

the excellence of the sheets, which might be called steel, or steely-iron sheets. We have drawn attention, on page 32, to the likelihood of similar skin carbnzizatioa in the process of oil hardening.

Kon TO Paos 24.

Welding Steel, — Some smiths mix a little sal-ammoniac with the borax nsed for forming a glase to prevent scaling in drawing heats. Abont 1 part of the former to 8 or 10 parts of the latter are mixed in a powdered state, and heated oyer a fire. When melted to a dear liquid, it is poured out to cool, and then pounded up for use as required.

Note to Page 27.

Vaporization of Water during process of hardenvtg steel.—' Sainte-Olaire Deville recently found that the higher the temperature iron is raised to before plunging into water, the less water is decomposed during the first given measure of time after the instant of immersion. He concluded that the affinity of the iron for the oxygen in water decreased with increase of temperature, or, what amounts to the same, that the affinity of hydrogen for its accompanying oxygen in water increased notably with increase of temperature. The &ct observed may be influenced by the well-known spheroidal condition which water assumes when in contact with heated metals, i

besides by the greatly increased tension of the envelope of vapour surrounding a more highly heated mass of iron when in water — a circumstance which would prevent the access of equal quantities of water to the iron.

The phenomenon above referred to must have an influence on the operation of hardening steel. This operation is also greatly influenced by the shape and mass of articles under treatment. A 1-inch cube of steel exposes 6 square inches of surface upon which water can operate for cooling ; while a 12-inch cube, containing 1,728 cubic inches, exposes only 864 square inches of surfieice, or only a square inch of surface per cubic inch of content, instead of 6 square inches per cubic inch, as in the first case. In this example the ratio of cooling surface per cubic inch of content in the two cubes is as 12 to 1, so that to obtain equal eflects in the same time, twelve times the

Notes. 197

quantity of "water, per unit of snriiEue, miut come into contact with the larger cube, and the heat or caloric must travel out through the mass twelve times faster — the first condition difficult, and the last impossible, to obtain. For hardening smiths' anvils — and heavy sledges, referred to on page 70 — large running streams of cold water are requisite, but even then the articles are often too soft, owing to the annealing influence of heat slowly travelling from their centres. For obtaining sufficient hardness in dies used for coining — which, though not of large mass, require to be exceedingly hard — a stream of cold water escaping £rom heavy pressure is used.

Note to Page 35.

Tempering Colours, — The various colours occurring in regular order on the surface of either brightened iron or steel are attributable to the decomposition of light by the film of oxide of iron — which increases in thickness — formed on the article. The colours can be produced upon brightened soft as well as upon hardened steel. Misleading consequences as to the quality of steel, and mischief to others, have been effected by ill-disposed workmen acquainted with the fact that colours can be reproduced on steel already tempered.

Notes to Page 39.

Red-aeh Coal, — The depth of reddish coloration of the ashes from this, in conjunction with the quantity of ash, is an index to the amount of sulphur existing as iron pyrites in the coal. The deeper the redness the greater is the proportion of oxide of iron, representing a larger amount of pyrites.

Saws are invariably hardened in oil, which also toughens them. Various oils are used, as linseed, whale, &c. The oil bath is kept heated to a certain point— often about Fah. — to render it thinly liquid ; thus, by its increased fluidity, to accelerate the abstraction of heat by convection. In regular work more than one oil bath is necessary, because the temperature of oil very. rapidly rises (already referred. to on paige 26), and above a certain point it will not harden plates of ordinary thickness. At the most favourable temperature it is

198 Mini2Tg Tools.

rery difficult to " atrilce*' hardseu through saw bl&dee which re as much as f -inch in thickneu.

Some reference haa been made to the yarious sorts of tamping in common use in connection with rock blasting. When nitro-glyoerine — discovered by Nobel — was first being inlxo* dnoed as an exploeiye agent, one point, urged strongly in its favour, rested on the convenience it offered regarding tamping. A little soft clay, mould, dust, or sand, gently placed against the oharge, afforded sufficient resistance to cause most effective blasts by using nitro-glycerine, because of the instantaneous and. violent action of its explosive force. Even water tamping was adequate, and for downward holes nothing could be more convenient. Necessity for claying wet holes disappeared. The charge had simply to be poured in, that it might sink to &e bottom of the water. In case a faulty fuse .caused a misfire, there was no occasion for risking the loosening out o£ tamping by prickers, or otherwise, in order to recharge. Tamping bars were, so far, valueless. To be able to discard their use entirely could grieve no one.

The necessity, however, for creating jwrliamentary reslziotion against the employment of nitro*glycerine was soon suggested by several calamitous accidents which attended its storage, transit, and use, and which soon caused its destructive peculiarities to be regarded with widespread alarm. Many who looked forward to increased prosperity of mining industry regretted that an explosive agent, possessing after all so much to recommend it, should, notwithstanding, be characterized by such dangerous attributes.

Since that time Nobel set himself the task of discovering a safeguard against the danger, and of producing a compound having practically the enormous strength of nitro-glycerine, yet without its special drawbacks, and his labours have been encouragingly rewarded by the production of dynamite, said to consist of about 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine and 25 per cent, of soft and porous silicious matter.* The compound is- of pasty consistence. Lit by fire in the open aii it bums away in a

Porosity seems to be an important character, to render the material sufficiently absorbent to imbibe all the nitro-glycerine, and secure against any separation of the same in free drops, which would be extremely daagerous.

Notes, 199

yesj quiet maimcpr, but if fired by a detonag or perciveiozL eap or guapowd it elodea with almost iacrodiblQ forcQ. Sand tajnping, genUy laid agaiat it in auffident for dry holee, and water tamping serves for wot onfis. Ita extreme quickaesf In exploding makes it highly effeetiTo, even ia blasting opem fissured, or potty ground, ordinary blasting powder would be of little <Mr no good. Pynamite has bei proved to keep without any deterioration for years. If frozen, it is m a warm place until softened fit ior use. It is used in cartridges of oiled paper, er tin, each having a fuse with a cap fastened on one end, which penetrates the charge, and is secured in place by a string tied around the neck of th0 cartridge. At about 2. per pound, in small quantities, it may seem to be expensive, but against this must be set its far greater strength and convenience than blasting powder, as well as its better adaptability for small bore-holes.

Nitrous oxide fumes from exploded nitro-glycerine have been complained of, but dynamite has acquired great favour in actual work on many parts of the Continent ; and the risk of its exploding under any ordinary conditions, excepting those of actual work, is sufiELciently remote to satisfy all reasonable requirements.

Another compoimd with which we have more recently been brought acquainted in this country is lithofraeteur, first brought out under that expressive name in Germany, by Professor Engels of Cologne. According to accounts, it consists of 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine, and the rest gun-cotton, constituents of gunpowder, and infasorial earth. Litho&acteur is a black plastic substance, manufactured (under trade secrets) so that it may be made up into cartridges of any sizes. It is employed much like dynamite, and offers similar advantages regarding tamping, &c. Fired by a capped or percussion fuse, it gives out immense force, otherwise there to be practically no liability of explosion. For some time past, it has been used in Germany with good results, and lately it has been submitted to the most searching tests upon its strength and safety at quarries near Shrewsbury, owned by Mr. R S. France, the results being very convincing of its value. The encouragement given by that gentleman to the carrying out of the experiments — no cost being spared to make them conclusive — deserves to be acknowledged in high terms.

200 Minino Tools.

The chief difference between dynamite and lithofractenr appears to be that the latter contains a small percentage of explosive ingredients besides nitro-glyceriue, and therefore it may be expected to be somewhat stronger, which is some advantage, providing no element of safety be thereby sacrificed.

Since nitro-glycerine happens to ent into the composition of such explosive mixtures as those referred to, we are at present prohibited in this country from benefiting by the ad* vantages accruing from their use. On the Continent their application is not hampered by any Nitro-glycerine Act, but their superiority, compared with powder, is taken advantage of daily. In this country the minJTig portion of the community is not prone to agitation, but every day adds to the dissatisfaction felt towards the Act alluded to, and the anxiety to witness proper modification thereof is already very great.

Index.

weight and cost of,

Air, oompoedtion 6: scaling effect 6, 193; upon steel, 23.

American picks, 84.

Anchor-hid picks, 74.

ATififlftli-ng in oil bath, 27, 82.

Ash, age for felling, and season, 186 ; average produce of per acre, 187; for helyes, soils and climate for growth of; 184; imported, 186; price 186; trees, rate of growth, 186.

Ashes in coal, 88, 197.

Angers, 42, 161.

Anstralian pick, 84.

Axe (see also Hatchet), 103; angle of cutting edge, 106 ; claw of; 104; cost 108; cutting edge of, 104, 106, 107 ; difference between it and the hatchet, 104 ; felling, 107 ; forest, 104 ; handles, 105, 183; heads, advantage of inlring, 109; forging and tempering, 108; oonstrootion, sizes and weights of! 104, 106 107; Irish, 108; Kent, 104; mattock, 169; mortise, 107; N'ewcastle, 104 ; Scotch, 104 ; side or squaring, 107; stone, 168; wedge, 104; Yorkshire, 104.

Ballast shovels, 97.

Bar-iron, weight of round and

square, 189. Ban, size, weight and cost

167 ; used in foreign mines, 158. Bathstone, jadding in quarries,

Beater, or beating-pick, 170. Bell-boz, 167. Bell-screw, 165. Benching, 76; down, by machines,

14a

Bessemer process for steelmaking, 15-19, 80; over-blown charges, 17; manganese for, 18: influence of sulphur and phosphorus, 19; heat developed, 16, 195.

Bits, borer-, removing fragments firom bore-holes, 182, 166.

Blast, scaling effect ot, 6, 198.

Blasting, danger of using smift and teain, 187.

Blister-steel, 20.

Borax for welding steeL 24.

Borers, 42; auger-sheU, 61; bits 42, 48 ; effectiveness of short, 46; for deep holes, bow-bit, 60; double nicker-bit, 61 ; 8-bit, 61 ; separate bits for large sizes, 61 ; for soft ground, 62; for stiff days, 62; hardening, 83; sizes of bit, shaft or stock, 48.

Borer-steel, 45.

Borers, striking-, making and usinff , 46.

Borer-bits, angle of cutting-edge, 48; backward edges, 49; bow, 47; dub, 69; colours for temperin, 63; orescent-shape, 68; defective shapes, 49 ; forging, 47, 49, 65, 66; impaired in use, 65; strength mfluenced by shape of, 48 ; injured overheating, 66 ; nicer. 69; nipped comers of, 49; odd-cornered, 49; tempering, 86 87, 61, 62— in oil, 68; precaution in hardening, 61; revolving, for coal, 60 ; straight, 47 ; swallow-tail, 69 ; time taken to sharpen and temper, 56 ; tool for sharpening, 49 ; width oH, in sets, 47.

Bore-holes for blasting, ordinary, sizes, 56 ; putting in pipe-linings,

Boring dust, 180.

Boring, hardness of some rocki 61; mallet, 65; tools, 162-160 (see other Tods, also Borers) ; use of cutting carrots or cores, 167.

Bottle-jadc. 171. Bottom pick, 77. Box quarries, jadding tods used

in, 148. Brace key, 162.

K 3

Index.

BreaUng Btrains of metals and

timber, 186.

Bronze and copper shooting needles, prickers and tamping bars, 188, ld9, 141.

Broom need for ore-dressing, 169.

Bucking iron, 67.

Ball crook, 160.

Bulling ghoyd, 170.

Gakt-hooks, 178

Carbon, forms ol IS ; affinities 82; modes of, in iron, 12.

in oil, 81 ; in pig or castiron, IS, 16; in steel, Id-ld, 22, 81 ; in wood, 81.

in steel, hardening pro-

per 25, 28; inflnraiceupon welding, 14 ; upon tearing, 36.

, removal firom pig or castiron, 8, 16 23 81.

Carbonic acid, oxidizing influence,

Carbonic oxide, formed by Bessemer process, 16; carDnrizing nropty 193; for heating niinace,88.

Carbonisation of oil, 27, 81; of wood, 81.

Carborisation of iron, 19, 21, 198, 196; of steel, 32.

Carrots or cores, advantage of cutting in ])ore-hole8, 166.

Cartridges for blasting, 138.

Case-hardening, 21, 22, 82, 195.

Cast-steel, 22; picks, 88; sledges

Cat's-head sledge, 66.

Cementation process for steeL 19.

Chains, weight and strengUi 191.

Gharooal for case-hardening, 196; for steel-making, 19.

Cheek-head hammers, 64.

Chips and clamps, 147.

Chisels, firmer and mortise, cost of; 160.

Chisels or borers, hardening, 83, 61. 64; tempering, 35, 61.

Cinders (see Slags).

Clamps and chips, 147.

Claw. 168 ; -bar, 157.

Clay irons, 134 ; cost oi 136; nse 136,136.

Clay shale in coal, 89 ; effect upon

Clinker cot, 88, 40.

Coal, ash. &c., in, 88, 40 ; importance ox gtxKi quality for forging, 47 ; lime in, 40 ; pyrites and suiphur in, 89 ; shale in, 89 ; silica in, 40.

, caking, 89; suitable for

hardening-nre, 33.

Coal, impure, effect upon welding, 40.

, red-ash, 89, 197 ; smith's, 88.

-, washing 40.

Cobbing hammer, 67.

Coil-drag, 164,

Cold-shoit iron, 2, 10.

Colours during tempering, 86, 197.

on brightened iron, 8cs

Copper and bronze shooting needles and prickers, 188, 139.

Corbel-bits to counteract wincing,

Crane ho( 178.

Crook-bar, 157.

Crosscut saw. 111.

Crowbar, 156.

Cutting coal, side cuts, 85.

Cut-off pick, 76.

Dangkb of flying charges by amiflL

Dark shops for hardening, 83. Dead-work picks, 76-78, &L Decarburization of pig-iron, Us

of cast-iron, 23. Devon shovel, 96. Dibber, 158. Dipper or bail, 170. Drag-twist, 131. Drawing c, 163. Drills, 42.

Driver, or driving punch, 171. Driving iron, 154. Dynamite, 198.

Elbow- AVCHOB pick, 76.

Elbow-head pick, 74.

Electricity for safe firing of

charges, 140. Expansion of mercury, odl, and

water, 26. of steel by hardening,

26, 194. Eyes of foreign picks, 62, 88; of

hammers, 64; of picks, 80; of

sledges, 68.

Factors of safety for loads, 190.

Felling axe, 107.

Files for sharpening saws, 113.

Fluids for steel hardening, 26.

Fluxes for welding, 7, 24 j for iron ores, 8; sulphur, &c., in, 3.

Fluxing iron scale with sand, 7.

Forest axe, 104.

Forging borer-bits, 47,. 48, G6 66; cast-steel, 55.

Fracture of bar-iron, 10 ; containing phosphorus, 10 ; " raw iron,"

Frost) effect upon iMr-uraU) 13 Fryingwpan flfaorel, 97. Fael, 38, 47 ; sulphur ia, Sft. Furnace, hardening, 82*

Gads and wedges, 144: cost 146; losing same underground, 146 ; Mexican, 145 ; Saxon, 145.

German keys, 166.

Gimlet, spike, 162.

sizes and cost ol 161.

Qxaniag tool or spade, 99.

Grappe 166.

Gravel rakes, 162.

Gravel shovd, 95.

Grips, 163.

Hack, 72.

Hammers (see also Sledges}, 68 ; balance of two stumps, 66 ; road and narrow heads, 64; cat's- head, 65; cheek-heads, 64; cobbing, 67; dally, 64; description and use of. 63; eyes oi; 68, 64, 68 ; head at 63; lengths of handles of, for boring, 65 ; shape of eye, 64; spaUing, 67; St. Just, boring, 64 ; various patterns 63 ; heads, weight of, 65-68.

Hammering iron, purifying by, 4.

Hammer-pick, 84.

Handles (see also Hdves), 174; fbr axes, shape and length 106; shape, sizes, and cost 183, 184.

Hand -saw. 111.

Hardened steel, tenacity 29, 189 ; effect of cold draughts, 28.

Hardening sledges, 70.

Hardening steel, 25 36, 64, 196; fluids for 25, 197 ; best heat for, 28 ; in boiUng water, 28 ; heatinff furnace for, 32, 33 ; molten lead for, 33 ; coal for, 33; darkened shops for, 33.

-, effect upon tena-

city, 28-31.

by, 29.

bon by, 31.

-, degree 28. - in oil, toughening

-, removal of car-

ds.

-, water cracks by,

- borers and chisels, 33, 35, 51.

Hardness of some rocks for boring,

Hatchet (see aiso Axe), 103; blade ol 105; description of 108, 105; eves 103, 106; foreign, 109 ; handles, 105 ; heads of, 103, 105, 107 ; poll of; 106 ; weight of heads, 104, 107.

effeet upoK rteel 28.

' -, best for haidemng, 28 ; for tempering, 87.

Heater, 168.

Heating tongs, 16a

Heats, &c., tables 87, 40.

Helves (see also Handles), 174; cleaving logs 179, 180; dressing, 181; duration at, in use, 182; father 177 ; fitting atnd wedging, 177, 178; for picks and shovels, 175, 176; for shovels, cost 184; for picks, how made, 176; haft of, 177 ; hiiokory, 174 ; lengths of, for boring hammers and sledges, 65; lengths for picks, 76, 76; lecogths for shovels, 96, 97 ; price of for picks and shovels, 181, 183; rough hewing, 181; sawn, cost of hewing and dressing, 182 ; shape of, in section, 175 ; sizes oi 176, 177 ; time taken to make and fit, for picks and sledges, 181 ; warping of, 179 ; wasters numbers made a log, 180; wood suited for, 174.

Holing, 76, 85.

Holing picks, 76-78; taper of tips,

Horn used fbr ore-dressing, 169.

Hydrogen, in water, 80; liberation 27, 80 ; in col, 31.

Inamsa axes, 109.

Irish axe, 103.

Iron for borers, price oi 4&

Iron, steeled-, sledges, 70.

Iron, distinguished from steel, 194 ; loss during converaioii pig to wrought, 4, 188.

, pure, 2; steely, 196; malleable cast, 23.

, oxides oi 8, 28, 39; sulphides oi 39, pyrites, 39.

scale, 6; production

193 ; composition of, 8, 9 ; magnetism of, 9 ; difficult fusibility 6; effect of; upon weld& 6; combination with sand, 9 ; taaa ble compound with sand, 7, IS.

, heated, scaling in water, 27,

30, 33, 198.

ores, 2 ; fluxing or siagging,

, pig, varieties and chaxae-

teristics 13; carbon in, 3. 13, 16 ; phosphorus in, 2, 19 ; silicon in, 16 ; sulphur in, 2, 19 ; deoarburization ot 3, 11, 23, 31 ; refining of, 3 ; loss during, 4, 188 : reduction tcoax ores, 2; fluxes used for, 3.

Index.

Iron, alloyed ivith maiuieie, 18.

— , TTTOUflrht, 1 ; puriftsation oi 4; cheaply-made qnalityj 4; Blag in, 4; weight oi; 4, 6, 188; strength 4, 6, 188, 189 : fraotnre at 10; scaling of, 6, 198; skin 11 : testing of; 12; wading properly of, 6 ; carbnrization of, 19, 21, 196: case-hardening 21, 196; carbon in, 12; coldshort, 2 ; red-short. 2, 89 : effect of vibration, 12; of cold, 12.

Jacks, cost of, 172. Jadding, 161, 162.

iron, 161; picks, 148, 150.

Jads or jtids, 148. Jumper, 48.

Kent axe, 104. Keying hammer, 170. KirviBg, 76.

liBAD bath fbx hardening, 88. Lewis, 172.

lifting-dogs, 163. . Lime for iron-smelting, 8; for

weldixig, 9; in coal, 40. Limp, 170. Un picks, 00. Lithofracteor, 199. angers, 161* Loop-drag, 131. Lump sledge, 68.

Mallsabls cast-iron, 28.

Mallet fbr boring, 66.

Mandrels, 72.

Manganese for Bessemer process,

Marline-spike, 173.

Match, 186.

Mattock, 72 ; cost of, 160.

Meal,130.

Melting points of metals, 87, 40.

Mercury for hardening, 26 ; vaporization 27.

Metallic baths fbr tempering, 36.

Metals and timber, weights and breaking strains at, 188.

Metal sheets, weight ot, 190.

MisceUaneons tools, 180.

Mortise axe, 107.

chisel, 160.

Mote, 136.

Nail or needle, shooting, 186. Needle, shooting, 186; copper,

188; cost oi; 189; dangers in

nsing, 138. Newcastle axe, 104. Nipper, 172.

Nipping-, 168.

Nitrogen for steel converting, 22.

Nitroycerine, 198.

Nugget pick, 84.

Oils, composition oi 31 ; carbonisation oi; 27, 31 ; expansion 26 ; used for hardening, 25, 197.

Outlying axes, 106.

Overheating steel, 23, 66.

Oxides of inm, 8.

Oxygen, scaling effect 6, 27, 80,

— in oil, 81 ; in water, 80.

Fackiko tool, 171.

Pad-handle, 162.

Phosphorus, cold-short effect of,

2, 10. , influence in

mer process, 19; upon welding,

Picker, 155.

Pick-head, making, 87, 89; shape and weight according to work to be done, 74-79, 83, 81, 87-89

Pick helve, 176 ; winding, 79.

Picks, action and use oC 72 ; caststeel, cost oi; 89; cheeks of; 72 ; Dslhne and Thomas's patent, 90; elbow-anchor, 78; Showed or anchored, 74 ; eve 72 ; foreign, 82-84; of tips. 73; and weight used— at Bedminster, 76 ; in Dean Forest, 76 ; in flintshire, for holing, 77; in Gloucestershire and Somerset 76, 76 ; in iron mines, 75 ; in lead minea, Northumberland, 78; in N. of England, for holing and cutting, 78 ; in S. Wales, for holing and cutting, 76 ; Hardy's patent, 91 ; heads, cost of; 88 ; heads, lengths for holing and cutting, 77 ; helves of; 72 ; lengths of helves, 75, 76, 78 ; lengths of stems, 81, 82; lining, 90; prizing, 78; shank or stem of; 72 ; shape of stems in section, 76 ; stripping, 77; sharpening tips tO, 84; straight-held, 74; sweet-head, 74; tampering, 37, 86; tips 72, 73; top-sweep, 77; wincing of helves, 79; with corbel-bits,

, bottom, form and weight

used in 8. Wales, 77.

, dead-work, 76-78, 81.

, driving or stone, 77, 78.

heads making, 87, 89;

shape and weight of heads, 74- 79, 83 81, 87-89.

Index.

TkkB, jadding, 148; oost IfiO.

, poll-, form and weight of

Cknoiah, 78; used in Derbyshire, 79 ; fled in Flintshire, 79 ; service of, 79; size of stem for soft gronnd, 79. , push, 158. , rock, form and weight used

in S. Wales, 77.

Pinch bar, IM.

Pit saw, 112.

box, 112.

Pitchfork, 159.

Platelayer's adze, 109.

Platelaying tools, 170.

Plating shovels, 96.

Plug and feather, 147.

Poker, 166.

Poll-cks, 78 79; making and oost, 88,89.

Powder-diarger, 144.

Prickers, cost (d, 139 j danger of nsing, 188.

Priming, 136.

Prizing on picks, 73.

: shovels, 99.

Pronged shovel, 97.

Pmssiate of potash f6r casehardening, 28.

Punch, 171.

Push-pick, 168.

PyritM, iron, 39; in coal, 39, 40.

QuABRT dogs, 173.

Quarrying tools, Bathstone, 148.

Bail-cramp, oost 171.

Bail-gauges, 171.

Bailway adze, 109.

Baising broken rods out of boreholes or pumps, 164, 165, 167.

Bakes, cost 162.

Bed-ash coal, 39, 197.

Bed-short iron, 2, 39.

Befining pig-iron, 3; loss in weight during, 4, 188.

Be-steeling sledges, 71.

Bivelaine, 83.

Bock pick, 77.

Bods of bore-holes or immps, raising when broken, 164, 165,

Bope splices, 173.

weight and strength 192,198.

Safbtt-fusb, 138-140.

Sal-ammoniac, use of 196.

Suid, di£adult fusibility of, 7 ; use for welding, 7, 24 ; fosible compound with scale, 7 ; combination witiii scale, 9.

Saws, 110.

Saws, blades of; 111 ; cost ot, 111, 112, 126 ; crosscut. 111 ; crosscut hand, 113; description and oriflinof, 110: hand. 111; hand, wioui and thickness of plate, 114; handles, starts, and sockets 126, 128 ; hardening, 197; aelectinc, good points in, 124; sharpening teeth 113; stone, 125; cutang damp fireestone, 126; stone, one-handled, 127; room between teeth for dust, 122 ; rate of advance, 119 ; rip, 113; teeth oi, 110; tempering 197.

Saw teeth, advantage and amount of bevel on edges 117 ; angle of cutting edge, 118; bevelling, effect 116 ; care in flUng, 124; dog-teeth, 120 ; dost compressed between, 122 ; for paring, 118 ; form tot scoring, 120; heatmg in work, 129; line of tips, 124, 125; number per inch for hand saws, 128; parrot-bill and gpllet teeth, 119 ; teeth, 121 ; pitch of; 118 ; set according to character of wood sawn, 115 ; setting, 114 ; setting stone saws, 125; short teeth, 124 ; size of; 121 : spaces between, 122 ; according to sharpness and pressure, 128 : spaces, crammed, 123; hardness and grain of wood sawn, 122 ; spaoea m relation to strength 122.

Saw teeth, tendency oi; to ride over dust, 120.

Saw bow, 114.

Saw files, cost of, 113.

Saw set, 115.

Saw, Tuttle's patent crosscut, 121.

— — tiller and pit saw box, 112.

Scabbing pick, 83.

Scale, inm (see Iron scale).

ScarfiB for welding, 7; removal of scale 7 ; effect of sulphur upon, 39.

Scoop or spoon, 131.

Scoop or sludger, 138.

Scotch axe, 104.

Scrapers, 130. 131.

Scrapers, rail, 158.

Scraping shovels, 101.

Screw-auger, 160.

Screw-socket, 165.

Set, 171.

or moil, 156.

Sharpening and tempering ; borerbits, 47-68 ; time tiucen, 66 ; picks,

Shear-steel, 24.

Shovels (see alsp Spades), 94.

Ikinsx.

Bhorels, angie of helve witii plate, 96; bQlli%, 170; eoet of, 100; ereaee 96 ; deaoriptioa 94, 96 ; Devon, or lonhandled, 96 ; edges oitf 96; effect of , in on, 99 ; foreign, 101 ; fryingpan, 97; gravel, 96; plates of 94 ; made by rolling and plating, 98; mouth 96; pronged, 97; qoalitj 96; roimd-moath, 97; scraping, (and tra) 101; shoulders of, 96; sizes, 99; square-month, 97 ; where liable to break, 96, 100; -woodeiij of ancients, 94; suitability of urcn for, 96.

Shovel helves, 175 ; omtch, or D, 97.

Bide or squaring axe, IQPT.

BiUca, 9; by Bessemer proeess, 16 ; in coal, 40.

Silioon in pig-iron, 16.

Bkewnose aupr, 161.

Skin of bar-iron, 11.

Blag ; forge and mill, weight of, 6 ;

in wrought-iron, 4, 6 ; use for

refining, 4 ; use during welding,

7; by Bessemer process, 16;

from iron ores, 8 ; from coal, 40.

Bledges (see also Hammers), 63.

, broad and narrow heads, 64; cast-steel, 71; colliers' wedge, 146; cost of making and of ready-made, 71 ; tor quarrying Bathstone, 154; for wedge driving, 66; hardening, 70, 197; lump, 66; making, direction of eye through bar. 68; ironsteeled, 70 ; time of makmff, 70 ; re-steeliQg, 71 ; weights of, 65-

Slitter, 72.

Sludge, ISO; scoop for clearing,

Sludge, employed by Mather, 134 ; hand, 132 ; or scoop, 133.

Smift, 137 ; dangers of usm, 137.

Smiths' coal, 38; fire, ecalmg in,

Socket-bar or beche, 156.

Southing tool, 99.

Spades, 94; clay or grafting, 98,

Spelling hammer, 67.

Specific gravities of metals, &c.,

Spiegeleisen used in Bessemer process, 18.

Spiker, 159.

Splices, rope, 178.

Spoons and scrapers, cost of, 132.

Spreader, used for ore dressixM,

Spreading** and "coming" ends of jaddig pick, 140.

Springart, 168.

Squib, 186.

Steel, oonstitatioii o& 13; carbon in, 13, 14; scaling, or burning" of; 24, 31. 88, 193 ; hardening property od; 25, 196 (see Hardung) ; scaling S3, 193 ; tempering 84, 35, 63 (see Tempering) ; weldabiHty 14 ; welding 196.

-, blister, 20 ; prioe for bits.

46 : cast, 22 ; low heat tor forging, 55; price for borers, 46: shear, ii; prioe for bits, &c., 46 : by Bessemer process, 16, 30, 195 ; by cementation, 19.

"2 effect of mating heat upcm.

23 ; injury to, byovenieating, 55 . wading, borax for, 24 ; sal-ammoniac for, 196: diHtingninhing firom iron, 194.

Steel borers superior to iron, 46.

Steelmaking, influence of nitrogen uinm 22.

Stemming or tamping, dangers connected with, 141-143, 196.

Stems of picks, 72, 75; lengths, 81,82.

Stone axe, 153 ; weight and cost of,

Stone pick, 83.

Stone saws, 125.

Straight-head pick, 74.

Strength and weight of chains, 191 ; of ropes, 192, 198 ; of materials, 188-191 ; fEwtors of safety, 190; of wrought-iron, 4, 6, 188,

Striking borers, 44 ; wear of 57.

Stripping manarel, 77.

Stud-block. 168.

Stumps of hammers, 66.

Sulphides of iron, 89.

Sulphur, effect upon wrought-iron, 2, 89; in fuel, 8, 39; in fluxing materials, 8; influence in Bessemer process, 19.

, &c., in pig-iron, elimi'-

nation of, 3.

Swab-stick, 132.

Sweep-head pick, 74.

Tablb of heats, mating points. &c., 87, 40; of specific gravifcyj strength and weight of metals and timber, 188: of strength and weight of chains, 191 ; of hemp and wire ropes, 192, 198 : of weight of bar-iron, 1; of sheet metals, 190.

Index.

Tamping bars, 140 : bronze faced. 141 ; copper feed, 141 ; cost ol;

Tamping case, 143.

Tamping, 141 - 148 ; plaster-ofparifl, 143 ; water, 198 : or stemming, 136: dangers connected with, 141-143,8.

Tempeied steel, tenacity and toughness of, 29, 34.

Tempering steel, 34, 63 ; best tem- ];>er for tools, 34; influence of carbon percentage npon, 35.

, brightened snr&oe for, 34) 36; colours, 36k 197; heats, 37; metallic bats for, 36; method for mining tools, 37.

borers, 36, 37, 61, 63 ; in

oil, 63; chisels, 86, 37; picks, 37, 86 ; saws, 197.

Testing wrought-iron, 12, 194.

Tiger, 163.

Timber and metals, weight and breaking strain 188, 189 (see Wood).

Timber oar, 167.

Tips of picks, 72, 78, 84.

Top-sweep pick, 77.

Train, 136.

Trap, 166.

Traverainff-jack, 172.

Trays nsed with scrapers, 101.

Treenail anger 161.

Tube linings m bore-holes, cutting, 169.

Tidbm,84.

hole through tamping, 136. Vibration, effect upon iron, 12.

Wad coil, 164. Washed coal, 40.

Water, composition 80; effect oif upon heated iron, 27 80 ; for hardening, 25 ; expansion at, 26; vaporizatioa 27, 196; hydrogen liberated from, 27.

Water cracks produced by harden-

ing, 88. ''edge axe. 104.

Wec slecue, 66; collier's, 146.

Wedges and gads, 144.

Weignt and strength of chains, 191 ; of ropes, 192, 193; of materials, 188-191 ; fiEUjtors of safety, 190; of wrought-iron, 4, 6,

Weight of forge slags, 5 ; of metals and timber, 188 ; of metal sheets, 190; of round and square bariron, 189.

Welding steel, 14. 196; influence of combined carbon upon, 14.

wrought-iron 6; shaie

of scarfs for, 7 j testmg quality by, 12, 194.

, influence of phosphorus.

194; of sulphur, 89; of dirty coal, 40.

slag or cinder from scale

and sand, 7 ; scale and lime, 9.

Wincing, corbel-bits to counteract, 80; Dean Forest mode of preventing, 80; fordgn picks, 82; shape of pick-eyes to counteract, 80.

Wire ropes, weight and strength 192, 193.

Woodj composition 81; carbonization of, 81; weight and strength oi; 189.

Worm, 164.

Worm-auger, 62.

YoBKBHXBB axc, 104.

The End

VIBTUS AMD CO., PRIHTKBB, CITY BOAD, LOffOOH.

/;

London, August, 1879,

Including Many

New & Standard Works

In

Engineering, Architecture, Agriculture, Mathematics, Mechanics,

SCIENCE, &c., &c.

Pubushbo By

Crosby Logkwood & Co.,

7, Stationers'-Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, E.C

ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c.

r-¥

Humberts New Work on Water-Supply.

A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-StTPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c., &c. Imp. 4to. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text, elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. 6/. 6x.

List of Contents :—

I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns. — II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. — III. Rainfall and Evaporation. — IV. Springs and the'water beaLzing formations of various districts.— V. Measurement and Estimation of the Flow of Water.— VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply.— VII. Wells.— VIII. Reservoirs.— IX. The Purification of Water. — X. Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery.— XII. Conduits. — XIII. Distribution of Water.— XIV. Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings. — XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works.— XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply. — XVII. Description of Plates. — Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c. &c, together with Specifications of several Works illustrated, among which will found : — Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others.

Opinions Of The Press.

" The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto. produced in Snglish, or in any other language." — Engituer (first notice).

Mr. Humberts work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." — £ngineer (third notice).

'*We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of information on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, are mostly drawings of executed works, mid alone woiild have commanded the attention of every engineer whose practice may lie an this branch of the profession. "-<-//i/m

B

2 Works In Engineering, Surveying, Etc,

Humbers Modem Engineering. First Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1863. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William HUMBER, Assoc Inst C.E., &c Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait oi John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c 3/. 3. haK morocco.

" Handsomely lithographed and hinted. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the contractors for many important engineering works." — Engi$teer.

Humbefs Modem Engineering. Second Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER- ING, 1864 ; with Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., Ac. 34 3x. half moroccan

''A risumi of all die more interesting and important works lately completed in Great Britain ; and containing, as it does, carefully executed drawings, with full working details, it will be found a valuable accessory to the profession at large." — Engineer.

" Mr. Humber has done the profession rood and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brougnt before ue profession and the Practical Mechanics* yonrnal.

Humberts Modern Engineering. Third Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER-

ING, 1865. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, drawn to a lax

scale, and Photo. Portrait of J. R. M*Clean, Esq., late President

of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 3/. 3. half morocco.

"No engineer, architect, or contractor should fail to preserve these records of

works which for magnitude have not their parallel in the present day, no student in

the profession but should carefully study the details of these great works which he

may one day be called upon to imitate if not to surpass." — Mechanic Magazine.

Humberts Modern Engineering. Fourth Series.

A RECORD of the PROGRESS of MODERN ENGINEER. ING, 1866. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, and Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, Esq., President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. 3/. 31. half morocco.

" Of peculiar value, as well to those who design as to those who study the art of

engineering construction. Mr. Humber embodies a vast amount of practical information in the form of full descriptions and working drawings of all the most recent and noteworthy engineering works." — Mechanics' Magazine.

Humbets Great Work on Bridge Construction.

A COMPLETE and PRACTICAL TREATISE on CAST and WROUGHT-IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts — I'theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By William Humber, Assoc. Inst. C. E., and M. Inst. M. E. Third Edition, revised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous additions to the Text. In 2 vols. imp. 4to, 6/. its, 6d. half-bound in morocco.

Mr. Hvimber's stately volumes lately issued— in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of our most eminent engineers, Stfe drawn and specified in great detail." — Engineer.

"A book— and particuLarly a large and costly treatise like Mr. Humber's— which has reached its third edition may certainly be said to have established its 01m reputation. — Engineering.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 3

Strains, Formula & Diagrams for Calculation of.

A HANDY BOOK for the CALCULATION of STRAINS in GIRDERS and SIMILAR STRUCTURES, and their STRENGTH ; consisting of Formulaeand Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous Details for Practical Application, &c. By William HUMBER, Assoc. Inst C.E., &c. Third Edition. With nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, Crown 8vo, *js, 6d, cloth.

The arrangement of the matter in this little volume is as convenient as it well

could be The system of employing diagrams as a substitute for complex

computations is one justly coming into great favour, and in that respect Mr. Humber's volume is fully up to the times.'* — Engineering.

"The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams VM/y'-'Atkenatum, Mr. Humber has rendered a great service to the architect and engineer by producing a work especially treating on the methods of delineating the strains on iron beams, roofs, and bridges by means of diagrams." — Builder

Barlow on the Strength of Materials,

A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, with Rules for application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. ; and an Appendix on the Power of Locomotive Engines, and the effect of Inclined Planes and Gradients. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. The whole arranged and edited by W. Humber, Assoc. Inst. C.E. 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 lai Plates, and numerous woodcuts, l&r. cloth.

The best book on the subject which has yet appeared. We know oi no work that so completely fulfils its xoAssioa.— English Mechanic.

The standard treatise upon this particular

TaSles of Curves.

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES and MULTIPLES

for setting out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander

Beazeley, M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. Printed on 48 Cards,

and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, 3J. 6d,

" Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves

the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage as regards the rapidity

of work. They are clearly printed, and compactly fitted into a small case for die

pocket — an arrangement that will recommend them to all practical men." — Engineer.

Iron and Metal Traded Calculator

THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION: Being a Calculator containing a Series of Tables upon a new and comprehensive plan for expeditiously ascertaining the value of any goods bought or sold by weight, from \s. per cwt. to Ii2j. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to loo tons ; to which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration of Superficies and Solids, &c. ; also Tables of Weights of Materials, and other Useful Memoranda. By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp., Qj.- " A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before

existed." — Building News.

Will save the possessor the trouble of making numerous intricate calculations.

Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables contained in this

handy Kttle companion will be found useful in every other business in which mtr*

chandise is bought and sold by weight."— i?rtVtwy News*

B 2

4 Works In Engineering, Surveying, Etc.,

Tramways and their Working.

TRAMWAYS: their CONSTRUCTION and WORKING. Containing a Comprehensive History of the System ; an exhaustive Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses, with Special Reference to the Tramways of the United Kingdom. Ity D. Kinnear Clark, M. I. C. E., Author of Railway Machinery,' &c., in one vol. 8vo, with numerous illustrations and thirteen folding plates, i8j. cloth. \yust published, " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engmeers nave turned to the author's work ' Railway Machinery/ but the more moderate dimensions of Tramways ' will place it within the means of every individual, instead of limiting its purchase to institutions or to those having a large practice." — Tke Enginetr. " Mr. Clark's book is indispoisable for the students of the subject." — The Builder. " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this kind of locomotion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found. . . . The other parts of Mr. Clark's valuable treatise relating to cost and expenditure, and tramway cars, are handled in the same thorough vaacoiMxJ*— Buildit News.

Iron and Steel.

'IKON AND STEEL': a Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing Ready, Useful, and Trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stocktakers; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rollbig Mills ; Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge BuUders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoare, Author of The Slide Rule,' &c Eighth Edition. Revised throughout and considerably enlarged. With folding Scales of "Foreign Measures compared with the English Foot," and "fixed Scales of Squares, Cubes, and Roots, Areas, Decimal Equivalents, &c." Oblong, 32mo, leather elastic-band, dr.

" For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal." — Iron.

" One of the best of the pocket books, and a useful companion in other branches of work than iron and steel. — Etilish Mechanic.

" We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds of iron and steel works." — Naval Science.

Pioneer Engineering.

PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settlement of Waste Lands in New Countries. By Edward Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of "The Art of Building," &c. With numerous Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown Svo, loj. (xi, cloth.

" A most useful handbook to engineering pioneers." — Iron.

The author's experience has been timed to good account, and the book is likely to be of considerable service to pioneer engineers." — Building News.

Strains.

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Shsilds, M. Inst C.E. Second Edition, with 5 plates. Royal 8vo, 5j. cloth.

Mr. Sheild8."*-rA# EnsriHeen '

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 5

Metallurgy of Iron,

A TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON i containing Outlines of the History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S., Associate of the Royal School of Mines. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, revised and much enlarged. i2mo, cloth boards, 5j. "Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less important

points, while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly entered into/' —

Standard,

Sanitary Work.

SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND IN VILLAGES. Comprising : — i. Some of the more Common Forms of Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water Supply. A useful book for Members of Local Boards and Rural Sanitary Authorities, Health Officers, Engineers, Surveyors, Builders, and Contractors. By Charles Slagg, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Crown 8yo, 3. cloth.

"This is a very useful book, and may be safely recommended The author,

Mr. Charles Slagg, has had practical experience in the works of which he treats. There is a great deal of work required to be done in the smaller towns and villages, and this little volume will help those who are willing to do it." — Builder.

Steam Engine.

TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. By T. M. GooDEVE, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Author of *'The Principles of Mechanics,'* Elements of Mechanism," &c. Second Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6j. cloth.

" Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which will bear comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise." — Engineer.

Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself." — Mining JournaL

Iocomotives.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Comprising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive Engine. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large additions treating of the Modern Locomotive, by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E., Author of" Tramways, their Construction and Working," &c., &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo. 3J. 6d, cloth boards.

[Just published. " The student cannot fail to profit largely by adopting this as his preliminary textbook."— /rew attd Coat Trades Review.

Seems a model of what an elementary technical book should be. The book will be useful to all young engineers." — Academy.

Steam.

STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Portable, an Elementary Treatise on. Being an Extension of Mr. John Sewell's Treatise on Steam. By D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E., Author of Railway Locomotives," &c. Second Edition Revised. With Illustrations, i2mo, 4. cloth.

Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently and in a popular

6 Works In Engineering, Surveying, Etc.,

Fuels.

FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; consisting of an Abridgment of "A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A.I.C.E. With extensive additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of Fuel—Coal Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. ; by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E. With numerous Illustrations. l2mo. 5 J. cloth boards. [Just published,

" Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete and satisfactory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be had.*' — Engineer.

" The book is a valuable one, and will be found of great interest to Gas Engineers and Managers." — Gas Trade Circular.

Roads and Streets.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. In Two Parts. I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads. By Henry Law, C.E. Revised and Condensed by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E. — II. Recent Practice in the Construction of Roads and Streets : including Pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte. By D. Kinnear Clark, C.E., M.I.C.E, With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 5. cloth.

A book which every borough surveyor and engineer must possess, and which will be of considerable service to architects, builders, and property owners generally. " — Building News.

To highway and town surveyors this book will have the utmost value, and as containing the largest amount of information in the shortest space and at the lowest price, we may predict for it a wide circulation." — youmale/Gas Lighting.

Steam Boilers.

A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS : their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. i2mo, 6j. cloth.

The best work on boilers which has come under our notice." — Engineering. The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." — Engineer.

Practical Tunnelling.

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING: Explaining in detail the Setting out of the Works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-Driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling under Ground, Sub- Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels with the amount of labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick Walter Simms, M. Inst. C.E., author of A Treatise on Levelling." Third Edition, Revised and Extended. By D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. Imp. 8vo, witli 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30. cloth.

" Mr. Clark's additional chapters on the Mont Cenisand St. Gothard Tunnels contain minute and valuable experiences and data relating to the method of excavation by compressed air, the heading operations, rock-boring machinery, process of enlarge* ment, ventilation in course of construction by compressed air, labour and cost, ftc." — Building News.

The estimation in which Mr. Simms' book on tunnelling has been held for over thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Professor Rankine :— ' The best source of information on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms' work on " Practical Tunnelling." ' — The Architect.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 7

Locomotive- Engine Driving.

LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING ; a Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds, Member of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. Fourth Edition, greatly enlarged. Comprising A KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illustrations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 4r. 6. cloth.

Mr. Reynolds deserves the title of the engine driver's friend." — Railway News, ' Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommenaK book not only to the practical driver, but to every one who takes an interest in the P£finance of locomotive engines." — TJu Engineer.

Mr. Reynolds has* .ned a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical treatise, yx t},© practical utUity of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation. —

The Engineer Fireman, aru Engine-Boy.

THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, AND ENGINE-BOY : comprising a Historical Notice oc tVi Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors, with a project for the establishment of Certificates of Qualification in the Running Service of Railways. By Michael Reynolds, Author of Locomotive- Engine Driving.'* With numerous Illustrations, and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson, ♦'the Father of Railways." Crown 8vo. 4r. 6d, cloth. \yust published.

Levelling.

A TREATISE on the PRINCIPLES and PRACTICE of LEVELLING ; showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. By Frederick W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Sixth Edition, very carefully revised, with the addition of Mr. Law's Practical Examples for Setting out Railway Curves, and Mr. Trautwine's Field Practice of l2lying out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, &f. dd. cloth. %♦ Trautwine on Curves, separate, s.

" One of the most important text-books for the general surveyor, and there is scarcely a Question connected with levelling for which a solution would be sought but that would oe satisfactorily answered by consulting the volume." — Mining JoumaU

The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."— Engineer,

The High-Pressure Steam Engine.

THE HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM ENGINE ; an Exposition of its Comparative Merits, and an Essay towards an Improved System of Construction, adapted especially to secure Safety and Economy. By Dr. Ernst Alban, Practical Machine Maker, Plan, Mecklenberg, Translated firom the German, with Notes, by Dr. Pole, F.R.S., M. Inst. C.E., &c., &c With 28 fine Plates, l$vo, ids. dd, cloth.

" A work like this, which goes thoroughly into the examuiation of the high-pressure engine, the boiler, and its appendages, &c., is exceedingly u&eful, and deserves a place in every scientific XitKCf.team Shipping Chronicle.

S Works In Engineering, Surveying, Etc.,

Slate and Slate Quarrying.

A TREATISE ON SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING, Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. Crown 8vo, ds. cloth. "A useful and practical hand-book on an important industry." — Engineering. " There is no other book which contains so much information concerning the procedure observed in taking quarries, the processes employed in working them, and such full statistics of the present and past position of the great slate trade of Wales."— 7 Architect.

Metalliferous Mining,

A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUSNERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G author of " A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying." JU*2itrated with numerous wood engravings, crown 8vo. . - [In prfparaiion.

riYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULAE for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R. LA. Third Edition, carefully revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 14. cloth.

Undoubtedly an exceedingly useful and elaborate compilation." — Iron.

" Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice." — Mining JoumaL

Strength of Cast Iron, &c.

A PRACTICAL ESSAY on the STRENGTH of CAST IRON and OTHER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, M.I.C.E., Author of Elementary Principles of Carpentry." Fifth Edition, Edited by E. Hodgkinson, F.R.S. With 9 Engravings and numerous Woodcuts. Svo, \zs. cloth.

Minings Surveying and Valuing,

THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- PLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying, with new Traverse Tables ; and Descriptions of Improved Instruments ; also an Exposition of the Correct Principles of Laying out and Valuing Home and Foreign Iron and Coal Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c., i2mo,4x. cloth.

" Contains much valuable information given in a small compass, and which, as far as we have tested it, is thoroughly trustworthy." — Iron and Coeil Trades Revievt.

The above, bound with Thoman's Tables. (See page 21.) Price 7 J. 6. cloth.

Common Sense for Gas-Users,

COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS : a Catechism of Gas- Lighting for Householders, Gasfitters, Millowners, Architects, Engineers, &c., &c. By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers." Second Edition. Crown Svo, sewed, with Folding Plates and Wood Engravings, 25, 6d,

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 9

Coal and Coal Mining.

COAL AND COAL MINING : a Rudimentary Treatise on. By

Wabington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector

of the Mines of the Crown. New edition, revised and corrected.

l2nio, with numerous Illustrations, 4J. cloth boards.

"Every portion of the volume appears to have been prepared mlh much care, and as an outlme is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of the two principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers." — Mining Journal.

Earthwork.

EARTHWORK TABLES, showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C. E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Cr. 8vo, oblong, 5. cloth.

"The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, two of which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." — A thenaum.

Trigonometrical Surveying.

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with the most useful Problems in Geodesy and Practical Astronomy. By Lieut. -Gen. Frome, R.E., late Inspector-General of Fortifications. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, and partly Re- written. By Captain Charles Warren R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, I dr. cloth.

Fire Engineering.

FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Remarks on Fire- Proof Buildings, and the Preservation Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns ; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c., &c By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With numerous Illustrations, handsomely printed, 544 pp., demy 8vo, i/. cloth. " We can most heartily commend this book.'* — Engineering,

We strongly recommend the book to the notice of all who are in any way interested in fires, fire-engines, or fire-brigades." — Mechanic Magazine.

Mantial of Mining Tools.

MINING TOOLS. For the use of Mine Managers, Agents, Mining Students, &c By William Morgans, Lecturer on Practical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. Volume of Text. i2mo, 3 J. With an Atlas of Plates, containing 235 Illustrations. 4to, 6s. Together, 9J. cloth boards.

Students in the Science of Mining, and Overmen, Captains, Managers, and Viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful by the study of Mr. Morgans' Manual." — Colliery Guardian.

"Aytry valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our miniil litem- Journal,

10 Works In Engineering, Surveying, Etc.,

Engineering Fieldwork.

The Practice Of Engineering Fieldwork,

applied to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Survejring and Leyelling. Second Edition, revised, with considerable additions, and a Supplementary Volume on WATER- WORKS, SEWERS, SEWAGE, and IRRIGATION. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Numerous folding Plates. Demy 8vo, 2 vols, in one, cloth boards, i/. 5j. (published at 2/. 4J.)

Waterworks for Cities and Towns.

WATERWORKS for the SUPPLY of CITIES and TOWNS, with a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water. By Samuel Hughes, C.E. New and enlarged edition, i2mo, 4X. td. cloth.

" One of the most convenient, and at the same time reliable works on a suliject, the vital importance of which cannot be tyttx-tcaoAXK,* Bradford Observer,

Steam.

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM : containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. 4th Edition. Sewed, 6</.

If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become sensations by their rarity Mechanic,

Field-Book for Engineers.

THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, and CON- TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and Use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; Setting out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and MiStiples with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument ; Setting out Curves without Theodolite on the S3rstem of Tangential Angles by Sets of Tangents and Offsets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. With numerous wood-cuts. Fourth Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo. I2J. cloth.

" The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existmg all the same." — Atketueum,

" The work forms a handsome pocket volume, and cannot fail, from its portability and utility, to be extensively patronised by the engineering profession.''— ilfMCV

Earthwork, Measurement and Calculation of.

A MANUAL on EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, C.E., Resident Engineer, Forest of Dean Central Railway. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2J. td, cloth.

" As a really handy book for reference, we know of no work equal to it ; and the railway engineers and others employed in the measurement and calculation of earthwork wiy find a great amotmt of practical information very admirably arranged, and available for general or rough estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations reqwred m the engineers' contractor's offices."— r/uoi*.

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & CO. ii

Bridge Construction in Masonry Timber y & Iron.

EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC- TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON ; consisting of 46 Plates from the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of select Works. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the Practice of Setting out Works, illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 4to, 2/. I2J. deU halfmorocco.

" One of the very few works extant descending to the level of ordinary routine, and treating on the conunon every-day practice of ue railway engineer. ... A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience, must prove invaluable to himdreds. The tables of estimates appended to this edition will considerably enhance

Drawing for Engineers, &€.

The Workman'S Manual Of Engineering

DRAWING. By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering

Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich, formerly of R. S. N. A.,

South Kensington. Third ££tion, carefully revised. With upwards

of 300 Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, cloth, strongly bound, 4f.

" Even accomplished dratuhtsmen will find in it much that will be of use to them. A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — Engineering. " Indispensable for teachers of engineering dcctmag"— 'Mechanics* Magazine,

Oblique Arches.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION of OBLIQUE ARCHES. By ToHN Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, &r. cloth.

Oblique Bridges.

A PRACTICAL and THEORETICAL ESSAY on OBLIQUE BRIDGES, with 13 large folding Plates. By Geo. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E, Second Edition, corrected by W. H. Barlow, M. Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, lis. cloth.

"The standard text book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise and it would be impossible to consult a Engiuer,

Wealis Dictionary of Terms.

A DICTIONARY of TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, METALLURGY, ARCHBOLOGY, the FINE ARTS, &c. By John Weale. Fifth Edition, revised and corrected by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records, Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts,** &a i2mo, cloth boards, dx.

" The best small technological dictionary' in the language. "-—rrAtV/.

" There is no need now to speak of the excellence of this work ; it received the approval of the community long ago. Edited now by Mr. Robert Hunt, and published m a cheap, handy form, it will of the utmost service as a book of reference scarcely to be exceeddl in value." — Scotsman.

" The absolute accuracy of a work of this character can only be judged of after extensive consultation, and from our examination it appears very correct and very

la WORKS IN NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, ETC.,

Naval Architecture And Navigation, Etc.

Pocket Book for Naval Architects& Shipbuilders.

THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET BOOK OF FORMULA, RULES, AND TABLES AND MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S HANDY BOOK OF REFERENCE. By Clement Mackrow, Naval Draughtsman, Associate of the Institution of Naval Architects. With numerous Diagrams, &c. i2mo, strongly bound in leather, with elastic strap for pocket, \zs, 6d, ready.

Grantham s Iron Ship-Building,

ON IRON SHIP-BUILDING ; with Practical Examples and Details. Fifth Edition. Imp. 4to, boards, enlarged from 24 to 40 Plates (21 quite new), including the latest Examples. Together with separate Text, also considerably eidarged, i2mo, cloth limp. By John Grantham, M. Inst. C.E., &c. 2/. 2j. complete.

A very elaborate work. . . . It forms a most valuable addition to the history of iron ipbuUding, while its having been prepared by one who has made the subject his study for many years, and whose qualifications have been repeatedly recognised, will recommend it as one of practical utUity to all interested in shipbuilding/' — Army and Navy Gazette.

Mr. Grantham's work is of great interest. , It is also valuable as a recoid of the progress of iron shipbuilding. ... It will, we are confident, command an extensive circulation among shipbuilders in general. . . . By order of the Board of Admiralty, the work will form the text-book on which the examination in iron shipbuilding of candidates for promotion in the dockyards will be mainly based."— Engineering.

Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers.

A POCKET BOOK FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. Containing useful Rules and Formulae in a compact form. By Frank Proctor, A. I.N. A. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4. *'We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want."— Naved Science. "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette. Scarcely anything required by a naval engineer appears to have been for* gotten." — Iron.

Light-Houses.

EUROPEAN LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEMS ; being a Report of a Tour of Inspection made in 1873, By Major George H. Elliot, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 Engravings and 31 Woodcuts in the Text. 8vo, 2IJ. cloth.

Surveying (Land and Marine).

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways, Canals, River, Towns' Water Supplies, Docks and Harbours ; with Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With 14 folding Plates, and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 12s. 6d. doth.

A most useful and well arranged book for the aid of a student** — Builde.

Of the utmost practical utility, and may be safely recommended to all students who aspue to become clean and expert surveyors. "--J/win; Journal,

PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD Sc CO. 13

STORMS : their Nature, Classification, and Laws, with the Means of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. By William Blasius. With Coloured Plates and numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, lor. 6d, cloth boards.

Rudimentary Navigation.

THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. Part I. How to keep the Log and Work it off. Part II. On Finding the Latitude and Longitude. By James Greenwood, B. a. To which are added, the Deviation and Error of the Compass ; Great Circle Sailing ; the International (Commercial) Code of Signals ; the Rule of the Road at Sea ; Rocket and Mortar Apparatus for Saving Life ; the Law of Storms ; and a Brief Dictionary of Sea Terms. With numerous woodcuts and coloured plates of flags. New, thoroughly revised and much enlarged edition. By W. H. Rosser, Author of the "Deviation of the Compass considered practically," "The Yachtsman's Handy-Book for Sea Use," &c., &c. i2mo, 3J. cloth boards. [Just published.

Mathematical and Nautical Tables.

MATHEMATICAL TABLES, for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By Henry Law, C.E. Together with a Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. New Edition. i2mo, 4r. cloth boards. [yust published.

Navigation radical) with Tables.

PRACTICAL NAVIGATION : consisting of the Sailor's Sea- Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems. By Henry Law, C.E., and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings and Coloured Plates. i2mo, s. strongly half bound in leather.

\yuit published.

Weale'S Rudimentary Series.

The following books in Naval Architecture etc. , are published in the

above series,

MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. Illustrated. i2mo, 2s, 6d. cloth boards.

SAILS AND SAIIMAKING. Tenth Edition, enlarged, with an Appendix. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Illustrated. i2mo, 3. cloth boards.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. By James Peake. Fourth Edition, with Plates and Diagrams. l2mo, 41-. cloth boards.

MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS. By Robert Murray, C.E. With a Glossary of Technical Terms, and their Equivalents in French, German, and Spanish. Seventh Edition. Illustrated. I2m0| 3. 6. cloth boards.

14 Works In Architecture, Etc.,

ARCHITECTURE, &c.

♦

Construction.

THE SCIENCE of BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. With 47 Wood Engravings. Demy 8vo. &r. 6d. cloth. A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students.''— " No architectural student should be without this hand-book."— n:>bVc/.

Beaton's Pocket Estimator.

THE POCKET ESTIMATOR FOR THE BUILDING TRADES, being an easy method of estimating the various parts of a Building collectively, more especially applied to Carpenters* and Joiners* work, priced according to the present value of material and labour. By A. C. Beaton, Author of Quantities and Measurements.** Second Edition. Carefully revised. 33 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size. i. 6/,

Beaton's Builders* and Surveyors Technical Guide.

THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE AND MEASURER FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS: containing a Complete Explanation of the Terms used in Building Construction, Memoranda for Reference, Technical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, &c. By A. C. Beaton. Second Edit. With 19 Woodcuts. Leather. Waistcoat-pocket size, u, 6</.

Villa Architecture.

A HANDY BOOK of VILLA ARCHITECTURE ; being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Detailed Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of " The Spires and Towers of the Mediaeval Churches of England," &c. 31 Plates, 4to, half morocco, gilt edges, \l. \s, Also an Enlarged edition of the above. 61 Plates, with Detailed

Specifications, Estimates, &c. 2/. 2. half morocco. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive.— wjVwjf News,

House Painting.

HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING : a Practical Manual of. With 9 Coloured Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson, Author of Building Construction," &c Second Edition, carefully revised. i2mo, 6s, cloth boards. Contains a mass of information of use to the amateur and of value to the practical nian." — E7iglish Mechanic.

Wilsons Boiler and Factory Chimneys.

BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; their Draught -power and Stability, with a chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of "Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c., &c. Crown 8vo, 3J. dd. cloth. A most valuable book of its kind, full of useful information, definite in statement and thoroughly practical in treatment."— 7" 1,<kq,1 Qhronick, '

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. Is

A Book on Building,

A Book On Building, Civil And Ecclesiastical.

By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D., Q.C., F.R.AS.,

Author of "Clocks and Watches and Bells," &c. Crown 8vo,

with Illustrations, *js. 6d. cloth. A book which is always amusing and nearly always instructive. Sir E. Beckett will be read for the raciness of his style. We are able very cordially to recommend all persons to read it for themselves. The style throughout is in the highest degree condensed and epigrammatic."— yi'ww.

We commend the book to the thoughtful consideration of all who are interested in the building 9xt,**— Builder.

Architecture, Ancient and Modern.

RUDIMENTARY ARCHITECTURE, Ancient and Modern. Consisting of VITRUVIUS, translated by Joseph Gwilt, r.S.A., &c., with 23 fine copper plates; GRECIAN Architecture, by the Earl of Aberdeen ; the ORDERS of Architecture, by W. H. Leeds, Esq. ; The STYLES of Architecture of Various Countries, by T. Talbot Bury; The PRINCIPLES of DESIGN in Architecture, by E. L. Garbett. In one volume, half-bound (pp. 1,100), copiously illustrated, I2j. Sold separately y in two vols., as follows —

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. Containing Gwilt's Vitravius and Aberdeen's Grecian Architecture. Price 6j. half -bound,

N. B.—This is the only edition of VITRUVIUS procurable at a moderate price.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE. Containing the Orders, by Leeds ; The Styles, by Bury ; and Design, by Garbett 6j. half-bound.

The Young Architects Book.

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wightwick, Architect, Author of " The Palace of Architecture," &c., &c New Edition, revised and enlarged. By G. HusKissoN GuiL-

lame, Architect. Numerous illustrations. 1 2mo, cloth boards, 4.

"Will be found an acquisition to pupils, and a copy ought to be considered as necessary a purchase as a box of instruments." — Architect.

" Contains a large amount of information, which young architects will do Mrell to acquire, if they wish to succeed in the everyday work of their profession."— £/iEf/A Meckanic,

Drawing for Builders and Students.

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING for the OPERATIVE BUILDER and YOUNG STUDENT in ARCHITECTURE. By George Pyne, Author of a Rudimentary Treatise on Perspective for Beginners." With 14 Plates, 4to, 7j. 6. boards.

Builder's and Contractors Price Book.

LOCKWOOD & CO.'S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTOR'S PRICE BOOK for 1879, containing the latest prices of all kinds of Builders' Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building, &c., &c. The whole revised and edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Architect and Surveyor. Fcap. 8vo, strongly half-bound, 4J.

i6 WORKS IN ARCHITECTURE, ETC.,

Handbook of Specifications.

THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical

Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing

up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions.

Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent

Architects and Engineers. Preceded by a Preliminary Essay, and

Skeletons of Specifications and Contracts, &&, &c. By Professor

Thomas L. Donaldson, M.I.B.A. With A Review of the

Law of Contracts. By W. Cunningham Glen, of the

Middle Temple. With 33 Lithographic Plates, 2 vols., 8vo, 2/. 2j.

In these two volumes of 1,100 paes (together), forty-four specifications of executed

works are given, including the specifications for parts of the new Houses of Parliament,

by Sir Charles Barvy, and for the new Royal Exchange, bv Mr. Tite, M.P.

Donaldson's Handbook of Specifications must be bought by architects." — Builder .

Taylor and Cresys Rome.

THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By the late G. L. Esq., F.S.A., and EpwABD Cresy, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly revised, and supplemented under the editorial care of the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Cliaplain of Gray's Inn. This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, 3/. 3j. Originally published in two volumes, folio, at 18/. 18/.

Specifications for Practical Architecture.

Specifications For Practical Architecture:

A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder ; with

an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modem Buildings. By

Frederick Rogers, Architect. With numerous Illustrations.

Demy 8vo, 15. cloth. (Published at i/. lar.)

A volume of specifications of a practical character bemg greatly required, and the

old standard work of Alfred Bartholomew bemg out of print, the author, on the basis

of that work, has produced the above. He has also inserted specifications of worics

that have been erected in lus own practice.

The House-Owner s Estimator.

THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or. What wiU it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price-Book adapted to the Use of Unprofessional People as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B. A Edited and Revised by Francis T. W. Miller, Surveyor. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, with the prices carefully corrected to present time. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3. 6.

" In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over." — Field.

A very handy book for those who want to know what a house will cost to build, alter, or repair." — English Mechanic.

Useful Text' Book for Architects.

THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE : Being a Text-book of Useful Information : for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c., &c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect, Author of Specifications for Practical Architecture," &c With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth, -

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 17

Carpentry, Timber, Mechanics.

TredgolcTs Carpentry y new and cheaper Edition,

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY : a Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, BridgeSj'Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the Kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Edited by Peter Barlow, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, corrected and enlarged. With 64 Plates (l i of which now first appear in this edition), Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In I vol., 4to, published at 2/. 2J-., reduced to i/. 5J-. cloth.

" Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library, and Aose who do not abready possess it ought to avail themselves of the new issue." — Builder.

work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful car pea tiy is concerned. The Author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." — BuHding News.

Grandy's Timber Tables.

THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Comprising : — An Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, witli comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for Fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c, &c. ; together with Copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Second Edition. Carefully revised and corrected. i2mo, 31. dd, cloth.

Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c. — all that the class to whom it appeals requires." — Enelisk Mechanic.

" The only difficulty we have is as to what is not in its pages. we have tested of the contents,taken at random, is invariably correct." — Illustrated Builder* s JoumaJ.

Tables for Packing-Case Makers.

PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Superficial

Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and

upwards. Compiled by William Richardson, Accountant.

Second Edition. Oblong 4to, 3. dd, cloth.

"Will save much labour and calculation to packing-case makers and diose who use packing-cases."— " Invaluable labour-saving tables." — Irotimoner.

m

Nicholson! s Carpenter s Guide.

THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE ; or, BOOK of LINES for CARPENTERS : comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A new Edition, revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A., together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, i/. ix. cloth.

i8 WORKS ON CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC.,

Dowsing s Timber Merchant's Companion.

THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- PANION ; containing and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburgh Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet ; the proportionate Value xA Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot. Also a variety of other valuable information. By William Dowsing, ' Timber Merchant Third Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown

8vo, 3x. cloth. "Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it" — Hull Advertiser.

Timber Freight Book,

THE TIMBER IMPORTERS* AND SHIPOWNERS' FREIGHT BOOK : Being a Comprehensive Series of Tables for the Use of Timber Importers, Captains of Ships, Shipbrokers, Builders, and all Dealers in Wood whatsoever. By William Richardson, Timber Broker. Crown 8vo, 6j. cloth.

Hortons Measurer.

THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, &c., &c. ; Unequal-sided, Square-sided, Octagonal-sided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing Timber. With just allowances for tJie bark in the respective species of trees, and proper deductions for the waste in hewing the trees, &c. ; also a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided timber, or of any octagonal-sided column. By Richard Horton. Third edition, with considerable and valuable additions, l2mo, strongly bound in leather, 5. *'Not only are the best methods of measurement shown, and in some instances illustrated by means of woodcuts, but the erroneous systems pursued by dishonest dealers are fully exposed The work must be considered to be a valuable addition to every gardener's library. — Garden. '

Superficial Measurement.

THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, by I to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES Haw- KINGS. Fcp. 3J. 6d, cloth.

Practical Timber Merchant.

THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT, being a Guide for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising usefld Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. Bv W, RICHARDSON. Fcap. 8vo, 3J. 6. cloth>

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 19

Tlie Mechanics Workshop Companion,

THE OPERATIVE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP COM- PANION, and THE SCIENTIFIC GENTLEMAN'S PRAC- TICAL ASSISTANT. By William Templeton. Twelfth Edition, with Mechanical Tables for Operative Smiths, Millwrights, Engineers, &c. ; and an Extensive Table of Powers and Roots, &c., &c. II Plates. i2mo, 5j. bound.

"As a text-book in which mechanical and commercial demands are judiciously met, Templeton's Companion stands —Mechanics" Magazine.

" Admirably adapted to the wants of a very large class. It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this Little work. " — BuiMtn News,

Engineer's Assistant

THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT ; comprising a Collection of Usefiil Tables, Rules, and Data. Compiled and Arranged, with Original Matter, by William Templeton. 6th Edition. i8mo, 2j. 6. cloth.

" So much varied information compressed into so small a space, and published at a price which places it vrithin the reach of the humblest mechanic, cannot fail to command the sale which it deserves. With the utmost confidence we commend this book to the attention of our readers.*' — Mechanics' Magazine.

more suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be xaaL,6&,"-~Building News,

Designings Measuring and Valuing.

THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEA- SURING and VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS ; containing Directions for taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater, Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 43 Plates and Woodcuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. New Edition, re-written, with Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and useful Tables for facilitating Calculations and Measurements. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., 8vo, ioj*. 6d. cloth.

" We have failed to discover anything connected with the building trade, from excavating foundations to bell-hangmff, that is not fully treated upon."— Artisan.

Altogether the book is (me whioi well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the usefulness of the work and have especially augmented its value to sindexits,"— Engineering.

Plumbing.

PLUMBING ; a text-book to the practice of the art or craft of the plumber. With supplementary chapters upon house- drainage, embodying the latest improvements. By William Paton Buciian, Sanitary Engineer. i2mo, with 300 illustrations. 3. dd. cloth.

'Will be welcomed as the work of a practical master of his trade." — Public Health.

The chapters on house-drainage may be usefully consulted, not only by plumbers, but also by engineers and all engaged or interested in house-building." — Iron.

"A book containing a large amount of practical information, put together in a very intelligent manner, by one wUo is well qualified for he task."— C//?/ Jreis;

20 Works In Mathematics, Etc.,

MATHEMATICS, &c.

Gregory s Practical Mathematics.

MATHEMATICS for PRACTICAL MEN ; being a Commonplace Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the Use of Civil Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors, Part I. Pure Mathematics — comprising Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Properties of Curves. Part II. Mixed Mathematics— comprising Mechanics in general. Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, Mechanical Agents, Strength of Materials. With an Appendix of copious Logarithmic and other Tables. By Olinthus Gregory, LL. D. , F,R. A. S. Enlarged by Henry Law, C. E. 4th Edition, carefully revised and corrected by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College ; Author of " A Course of Mathematics," &c. With 13 Plates. Medium 8vo, i/. u. doth.

" The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand, rules for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that mav arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out,"— Buildgr.

"One of the most serviceable books to the practical medianics of the country.

In the edition just brought out, the work has again been revised by

Professor Young. He has modernised the notation throughout, mtroduced a few

Earagraphs here and there, and corrected the numerous typographical errors whidi ave escaped the eyes of the former Editor. The book is now as complete as it is possible to make it. It is an instructive book for the student, and a Textbook for him who having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them." — Btulding News.

As a standard work on mathematics it has not been excelled."—

TAe Metric System,

A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, hi which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in use on the Continent By C. H. DowLiNG, C. E. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo, lOJ. dd. strongly bound.

" Mr. Bowling's Tables, which are well put together, come just in time as a ready reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." — Atkenatum.

"Their accuracy has been certified by Prof. Airy, Astronomer-Royal.*— 5Wpr.

Resolution 8. — That advantage will be derived from the recent publication of Metric Tables, by C. H. Dowling, C.:'— Report 0/ Section F, Brit, Assoc., Bath,

Comprehensive Weight Calculator.

THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR; being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from lib. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from i Penny to 168 Shillings per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure Correctness and promote Despatch. By Henrv Harben, Accountant, Sheffield, Author of Discount Guide." An entirely New Edition, carefully revised. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound, i/. 5J. IJtist published.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 21

Comprehensive Discount Guide.

THE DISCOUNT GUIDE : comprising several Series of Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by which may be ascertained the exact profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from I J to 90 per cent.. Tables of Discount from I J to 98! per cent., and Tables of Commission, &c., from i to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant, Author of "The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefiiUy Revised and Corrected, Demy 8vo (544 pp.), half-bound, ;i 5.

InwoocTs Tables, greatly enlarged and improved.

TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING of ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, &c., and for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other corporate bodies ; for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c., together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By William Inwood, Architect. The 20th edition, with considerable additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c., by M. FDOR Thoman of the Societe Crt Mobilier of Paris. I2mo, %s, cloth.

" Those interested In the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of eminent 9iaviat**'-'Engtneering.

" Inwood's Tables' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched by large additional contributions by M. Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot fail to be of the utmost utility."—

Geometry for the Architect, Engineer &c.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and

Mechanic ; giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of

various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn,

M.A., Architect, Author of The Science of Building," &c.

With 164 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. I2j. 6d. cloth.

" No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so ssXys-

Compound Interest and Annuities,

THEORY of COMPOUND INTEREST and ANNUITIES ; with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c., in all their Applications and Uses for Mercantile and State Purposes. With an elaborate Introduction. By FfeDOR Thoman, of the Socit Credit Mobilier, Paris. 3rd Edition, carefully revised and corrected. i2mo,4J. 6. cl.

A very powerful work, and the Author has a very remarkable command of his saMect.'*—Pro/essor A. de Morgan. "We recommend it to the noUce of actuaries and accountants."—

22 Works In Science And Art, Etc.,

Science And Art.

Dentistry.

MECHANICAL DENTISTRY. A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Useful Formulae, Tables, and Receipts for Gold late, Clasps, Solders, etc., etc. By Charles Hunter. With numerous Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 7. dd. Cloth.

"The work is very practical" — Monthly Review of Dental Surgery.

" An authoritative treatise Many useful and practical are scattered

throughout the work, while its value as a text book is enhanced by numerous illustrations. We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparine for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentisL" — Dublin Joitmal of Medical Science,

Brewing.

A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By Herbert Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3j. 6d, cloth.

"A thoroughly scientific treatise in popular language. It is evident that the author has mastered his subject in its scientific aspects." — Morning Advertiser.

" We would particularly recommend teachers of the art to place it in every pupil's hands, and we feel sure its perusal will be attended with advantage." — Brewer.

The Military Sciences.

AIDE-MEMOIRE to the MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Services. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with many additions ; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 3 vols, royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, 4/. lor.

"A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge.*'— A Review. " The most comprehensive work of reference to the xmlitary and collateral science — Volunteer Service Gazette,

Field Fortification.

A TREATISE on FIELD FORTIFICATION, the ATTACK of FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, and RECON- NOITRING. By Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R. M. A., Woolwich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 12J-. complete.

Dye- Wares and Colours.

THE MANUAL ot COLOURS and DYE-WARES : their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c By J. W. Slater. Post 8vo, *js. td. cloth.

"A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tincioria. The information is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles liable to sophistica won, are practical as wU as valuable,"— CAiw/ tatd Druggist,

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 23

Text-Book of Electricity.

THE STUDENTS TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters by W. H. Preece, Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. Illustrated with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 1 2 J. dd. cloth. [Just published.

A reflex of the existing state of Electrical Science adapted for students."- W. H. Preece, Esq., vide Introduction,"

We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable." — Athetueitm.

An admirable text-book for every student— beginner or advanced— of electricity." — Engineering.

A most elaborate compilation of the facts of electricity and magnetism. " — Popular Science Review.

Electricity.

A MANUAL of ELECTRICITY ; including Galvanism, Magnetism, Diamagnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.C.S., Fourth Edition, with 500 Woodcuts. 8vo, i/. 41. cloth. " The accounts given of electricity and galvanism are not only complete in a scientific sense, but, which is a rarer thing, are popular and interesting."— anrr/.

Rudimentary Magnetism.

RUDIMENTARY MAGNETISM : being a concise exposition of the general principles of Magnetical Science, and the purposes to whidi it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S. New and enlarged Edition, with considerable additions by Dr. Noad, Ph.D. With 165 Woodcuts. i2mo, cloth, 4.?.

" As concise and lucid an exposition of the phenomena of magnetism as we believe it is possible to write." — English. Mechanic.

The best possible manual on the subject of magnetism." — Mechanics' Magazine.

Chemical Analysis.

THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK of CHEMICAL ANA- LYSIS ; or Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the Arts. By A. Normandy, Author of Practical Introduction to Rose's Chemistry," and Editor of Rose's "Treatise on Chemical Analysis." New Edition. Enlarged, and to a great extent re-written, by Henry M. Noad, Ph. D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 125. 6d. cloth. "We recommend this book to the careful perusal of every one ; it may be truly

affirmed to be of universal interest, and we strongly recommend it to our readers as a

guide, alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner."—

Medical Times. Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results

are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." — Nature.

Mollusca.

A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA ; being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. 3rd Edition. Cr. 8vo, is. 6d. doth.

24 Works In Science And Art, Etc.,

Gold and Gold-Working.

THE PRACTICAL GOLD- WORKER ; or, The GoldsmitV/s and Jeweller's Instructor. The Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting and Refining. The processes of Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold, with a new System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. By George E. Gee. Crown 8vo, 7j. 6//. cloth.

"A good, sound, technical educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority. It gives full particulars for mixing alloys and enamels, is essentially a book for the workshop, and exactly fulfils the purpose intended." — Horological yourfuU.

" The best work yet printed on its subject for a reasonable price. We have no doubt that it will speedily become a standard book which few will care to be without." — Jeweller and Metalworker.

Silver and Silver Working,

THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, containing full In- St ructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, including the different modes of refining and melting the metal, its solders, the preparation of imitation sdloys, methods of manipulation, prevention of waste, instructions for improving and finishing the surface of the work, together with other useful information and memoranda. By George E. Gee, Jeweller, &c. Crown 8vo, numerous illustrations, yj. (>d. cloth.

" This work is destined to take up as good a position in technical literature as the Practical GoldworkcTy a book which has passed through the ordeal of critical examination and business tests with great success." — Jeweller and Metalworker.

Clocks Watches, and Bells.

RUDIMENTARY TREATISE on CLOCKS, and WATCHES, and BELLS. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart, (late E. B. Denison), LL.D., Q.C., F.R.A.S., Author of Astronomy without Mathematics," &c. Sixth edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. Limp cloth (No. 67, WeaJe's Series), 4J. (id, ; cloth boards, 5J. dd,

" As a popular and practical treatise it is unapproached." — English Mechanic.

"The best work on the subject probably extant. The treatise on bells is imdoubtedly the best in the language. To call it a rudimentary treatise is a misnomer, at least as respects clocks and bells. It is the most important work of its kind in

'*The only modem treatise on clock-making." — Horological Journal.

" This admirable treatise on clocks, by the most able authority on such a subject, is completely perfect of its kind." — Standard.

Science and Scripture,

Science Elucidative Of Scripture, And Not

ANTAGONISTIC TO IT ; being a Series of Essays on— i.

Alleged Discrepancies; 2. The Theory of the Geologists and

Figure of the Earth ; 3. The Mosaic Cosmogony ; 4. Miracles in

general — Views of Hume and Powell ; 5. The Miracle of Joshua —

Views of Dr. Colenso : The Supematurally Impossible ; 6. The

Age of the Fixed Stars — their Distances and Masses. By Professor

J. R. Young. Fcap. 8vo, 5j. cloth,

Distinguished by the true spirit of scientific inquiry, by great knowledge, by keen logical ability, and by a style peculiarly dear, easy, and energetic.*'— iVmcott/nvmrA

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 25

DR. LARDNER'S POPULAR WORKS. Dr. Lardners Museum cf Science and Art.

THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by DiONYSius LaRDNER, D.C.I*, formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1200 Engravings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes. Price £,1 Is., in a new and elegant cloth binding, or handsomely bound in half morocco, is, 6d,

" The ' Museum of Science and Art ' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." — Sir David Brevaster in the North British Review.

Whether we consider the Hberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found among the new books, one that would be welcomed by of so many ages and classes as a valuable present." — Examiner.

Separate books formed from the above suitable for Workmen* s

Libraries, Science Classes, &c.

COMMON THINGS EXPLAINED. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 5'.

THE MICROSCOPE. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Microscope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s.

POPULAR GEOLOGY. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of the Earth, etc. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s, 6d,

POPULAR PHYSICS. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmosphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s, 6d,

STEAM AND ITS USES. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s,

POPULAR ASTRONOMY. Containing How to Observe the Heavens. The Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets. Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 4J. 6d.

THE BEE AND WHITE ANTS : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustrations of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH POPULARISED. To render intelligible to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, is, 6d,

Scientific Class-Books, by Dr, Lard7ier,

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition, i vol. 3J. dd. cloth. " Conveys, in clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science." — British Qttarterly Review.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition, i vol. 3. 6d. cloth. "Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated."— Cardfew/rrf'CArvwrc/.

a6 WORKS IN SCIENCE AND ART, ETC.,

Dr. Urdner'S Scientific Works.

Astronomy.

THE HANDBOOK OP ASTRONOMY. 4th Edition. Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.S., RI. Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. Cr. 6vo, 9. dd, doth. "Probably no other book contains the same amount of informaaon sq compendious and well-arranged a form." — Atherueum,

Animal Physics,

THE HANDBOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSICS. With 520 Illustrations. New edition, small 8vo, cloth, is, 6d. 732 pages. We have no hesitation in cordially recommendbg iV—Educatimal Times,

Electric Telegraph.

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. New Edition. ByE. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, zs, 6d. cloth.

' ' One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." — £fij. Mechanic,

LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Mechanics.

THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost rewritten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. WiUi 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6j. cloth. " The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete, have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout sire studiously popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches 01 physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of life." — Mining JoumaL

Heat.

THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely Rewritten by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. etc 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6j. cloth.

" The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts —Engineering,

Hydrostatics and Pneumatics.

THE HANDBOOK of HYDROSTATICS and PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Benjamin Loewy, r.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post Svo, 5 J. cloth. For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the profound methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but well 3idsiptcd.*'—CAemicai News,

Electricity Magnetism, and Acoustics.

THE HANDBOOK of ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, and

ACOUSTICS. New Edition. Edited by Geo. Carey Foster,

B. A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Post Svo, s, doth.

" The book could not have been entrusted to any one better calculated to preserve

the terse and lucid style of Lardner. while correcting his errors and bring up his

work to the present state of scientific knowledge." — Popular Science Review,

Optics.

THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B. A. 298 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5. cloth. Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaboi&tely illustrated. "— Mechanics' Magazine.

The above 5 Vols, form A Complete Course of Natural

Philosophy.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 27

Woods and Marbles {Imitation of).

SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also 12 Plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Royal folio, bound, 2/. I2s, 6d, [Just published.

Pictures and Painters,

THE. PICTURE AMATEUR'S HANDBOOK AND DIC- TIONARY OF PAINTERS : being a Guide for Visitors to Public and Private Picture Galleries, and for Art-Students, including an explanation of the various methods of Painting ; Instructions for Cleaning, Re-lining, and Restoring Oil Paintings ; A Glossary of Terms; an Historical Sketch of the Pdncipal Schools of Painting ; and a Dictionary of Painters, giving the Copjdsts and Imitators of each Master. By Philippe Daryl, B. A. Crown 8vo, 3J. dd. cloth. The bulk of the book is occupied by a dictionary of painters which, considering its small compass, is really admirable ; the utility of a table of dates of painters in so portable a form is unquestionable. We cordially recommend the book.' — Builder.

" Useful as bringing together in a compendious form an almost complete biographical stock of information respecting the painters of the world. " — May/air.

Popular Work on Painting.

PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED; with Historical Sketches of the Progress of the Art. By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. With Frontispiece and Vignette. In small 8vo, 6j. cloth. This Work has been adopted as a Prize-book in the Schools of Art at South Kensington. " Contains a large amount of original matter, agreeably convcytd Builder. " Much may be learned, even by those Vho fancy they do not require to be taught, from the careful perusal of Uiisunpretendmg but comprehensive treatise. ''—ylr/y((7ra/.

Grammar of Colouring.

A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, appKed to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New edition, enlarged and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer, by Ellis A. Davidson. With new Coloured Diagrams and numerous Engravings on Wood. i2mo, 3', 6. cloth boards. " The book is a most useful risumi of the properties of pigments." — Builder. "One of the most useful of students' books> and probably the best known of the few we have on the subject." — Architect. '

Wood' Carving.

INSTRUCTIONS in WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with Hints on Design. By A Lady. In emblematic wrapper, handsomely printed, with Ten large Plates, 2s. 6d. The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt rom ' A Ijady's ' publication."— Antrwm.

Letter Painting.

THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By James Greig Badenoch. Illustrated with Twelve full page Engravings of Examples, &c. i2mo. \s, cloth, \jfust published.

28 Works In Science And Art, Etc.,

Delamotts Works on Illuminatum & A Iphabets.

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION ; for the use of Beginners : with a Rudimentaiy Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its Exercise, and numerous Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Dela- MOTTB. Small 4to, 9j. Elegantly bound, cloth antique.

" A handy book, beautifully illustrated ; the text of which is well written, and calculated to be useful . . . The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as

ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT and MEDIAEVAL ;

from the Eighth Century, with Numerals ; including Gothic,

Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials

for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of

Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters,

Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers,

&c. &c. &c. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and

printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo,

oblong, 2J. 6. ornamental boards. [Jfustpublished,

"A well-known engraver and draughtsman has enrolled in this ilsl the

result of many years' study and research. For those who insert enamelled sentences

round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church

walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book wm be useful." — Atheneeum*

EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN and ORNA- MENTAL; including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2J. (>d. ornamental boards. [yust published.

" To artists of all classes, but more especially to architects and engravers, this very handsome book will be invaluable. There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the talent whic has been expended in the conception of the various plain and ornamental letters is yixadedxA. -Standard,

MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- NATORS. By F. Delamotte, Illuminator, Designer, and Engler on Wood. Containing 21 Plates, and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J, Willis Brooks. Small 4to, 6s, cloth gilt.

" A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, sometimes with a sort of rainbow arabesque. A poem emblazoned in these characters would be only comparable to one of those delicious love letters symbolized in a bunch of flowers well selected and cleverly arranged." — Sun.

THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN ; containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesias* tical Devices, Mediaeval and Modem Alphabets, and National Emblexxis. Collected and engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, ij. 6</. in ornamental boards.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 29

AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, &c.

Potato Culture,

POTATOES, HOW TO GROW AND SHOW THEM; A Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the Potato. By James Pink, Author of How to Grow One Thousand Pounds of Potatoes from I lb. of Seed. " With Illustrations. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo, 2s, cloth. \Just published,

"A well written little volume. The author fves good practical mstructions under both divisions of his subject." — Agricultural Gazette.

"Cordial praise must be given to Mr. Pink for his thoroughly practical and useful work." — Daily Chromcle.

Kitchen Gardening.

KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. Showbg how to

prepare and lay out the ground, the best means of cultivating every

known Vegetable and Herb, with cultural directions for the

management of them all the year round. By George M. F.

Glenny, Editor of **Glenny's Illustrated Garden Almanack," &c.

. With Illustrations, i2mo, 2J. cloth boards. [Just PMished.

" As a guide to hardy kitchen gardening, this book will be found trustworthy and useful to the many who cannot spare the time to consult more comprehensive and' detailed works." — North Britislt Agriculturist.

Bulb Culture.

THE BULB GARDEN, or, How to Cultivate Bulbous and

Tuberous-rooted Flowering Plants to Perfection. A Manual

adapted for both the Professional and Amateur Gardener. By

Samuel Wood, Author of "Good Gardening," etc. With

Coloured Illustrations, Plans, and numerous Wood Engravings.

Crown 8vo, 35. 6. cloth.

Supplies the want which has hitherto existed of any sufficiently modern work of the kind. The book contains practical suggestions as to the arrangement of the flowers, and the growth of flower*roots for the trade, as well as for amusement." —Saturday Review.

Production of Meat,

MEAT PRODUCTION. A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' Meat. Being a treatise on means of increasing its Home Production. Also comprehensively treating of the Breeding, Rearing, Fattening, and Slaughtering of Meatyielding Live Stock ; Indications of the Quality ; Means for Preserving, Curing, and Cooking of the Meat, etc., etc. By John EwART, author of "The Land Improvers Pocket Book," etc. With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, s. cloth. " A compact and handy volume on the meat question, which deserves serious and thoughtful consideration at the present time, when the question of the food supply of the country has become one of the leading topics of the day." — Meat attd Provision. Treidei Review.

History y Structure and Diseases of Sheep.

SHEEP ; THE HISTORY, STRUCTURE, ECONOMY, AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C, &c. Fourth Edition, with fine engravings, including specimens of New and Improved Breeds. 366 pp., 4J. cloth. [Just published.

30 Works On Agriculture, Gardening, Etc.,

Good Gardening.

A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, How to

Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on

Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and

Grounds, &c. By S. Wood. Third Edition, with considerable

Additions, &c, , and numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 5. cloth. " A thoroughly useful guidebook for the amateur gardener." — Daily Telegraph. " A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical directions are excellent*' — Athetuntm.

Gainful Gardening.

MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING; or, How to make One Acre of Land produce ;£620 a year, by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables ; also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise £l6 per annum clear Profit. By Samuel Wood, Author of " Good Gardening," &c. 3rd Edition, revised. With Wood Engravings. Cr. 8vo, 2s. cloth. " We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's gardener, but to the market grower." — Gardener s Magazitu,

Culture of Trees.

FRUIT TREES, the Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of Du Breuil, revised by Geo. Glenny. 187 Woodcuts. i2mo, 4. cloth.

Scott Burfis System of Modern Farming.

OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming Economy — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of the Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry — UtiUsation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. New Edition. In I vol. 1250 pp., half-bound, profusely illustrated, 12s, "There is sufficient stated within the limits of this treatise to prevent a&rmer from going far wrong in any of his operations." — Observer,

Ewart's Land Improver s Pocket-Book.

THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FOR- MULAE, TABLES, and MEMORANDA, required in any Computation relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor aiid Agricultural Engineer. Royal 32mo, oblong, leather, gilt edges, elastic band, 4J. A compendious and handy little voXnm*'— Spectator.

Hudson s Tables for Land Valuers.

THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT : being Tables, on a very much improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute Measure, &c By R. Hudson, C.E. New Edition, royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, elastic band, 4f. 'Of incalculable value to country gentlemen and professional men. "—Farmtfijoumdl.

Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book.

THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM- PLETE POCKET-BOOK ; consisting of the above two works bound together, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 7. 6. We consider Hudson's book to be the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and crops we have ever seen, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances the value and usefulness of the latter-mentioned . , It is most usefiu as a manual for reference."— iV?r/A 0/ England Farmer.

Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co. 31

Yotiatt and BurfCs Complete Grazier,

THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. 12th Edition, very considerably enlarged, and brought up to the present requirements of agricultural practice. By Robert Scott Burn, Author of "The lessons of My Farm," &c. One large 8vo volume, 860 pp. with 244 Illustrations, i/. i. half-bound.

The standard and text-book, with the farmer and Farmer's Magazine.

"A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture endures." — Mark Lane Express.

Donaldson and Burns Suburban Farming.

SUBURBAN FARMING. A Treatise on the Laying Out and Cultivation of Farms adapted to the produce of Milk, Butter and Cheese, Eggs, Poultry, and Pigs. By the late Professor John Donaldson. With considerable Additions, Illustrating the more Modem Practice by Robert Scott Burn. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s, cloth. "An admirable treatise on all matters connected with the laying-out and cultivation of dairy farms." — Live Stock JournaL

Scott Burn's Introduction to Farming.

THE LESSONS of MY FARM : a Book for Amateur Agriculturists, being an Introduction to Farm Practice, in the Culture of Crops, the Feeding of Cattle, Management of the Dairy, Poultry, Pigs, &c. By R. Scott Burn. With numerous Illus. Fcp. dr. cl. "A complete introduction to the whole round of farming practice." — John Bull,

Auctioneer's Assistant,

THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND ESTATE AGENT, AND VALUER'S POCKET AS- SISTANT, for the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities, and Reversions, and of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c By John Wheeler, Valuer, &c. Fourth Edition, enlarged, by C Norris. Royal 32mo, cloth, s, "A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearlyarranged list of prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &.c*'— Standard.

The Management of Estates.

LANDED ESTATES MANAGEMENT: Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Peculiarities of its Farms, Methods of Farming, the Setting-out of Farms and their Fields, Construction of Roads, Fences, Gates, and Farm Buildings, of Waste or Unproductive Lands, Irrigation, Drainage, Plantation, &c. By R. Scott Burn, Fcp. 8vo. numerous Illustrations, 3J. 6.

A complete and comprehensive outline of the duties appertaining to the management of landed estates." — Journal of Forestry.

A very useful vade-mecum to such as have the care of land." — dobe.

" Should be in the hands of all young men whose pursuits are in any way connected with land." — Estates Gazette. '

" A valuable and important work on a subject of imperative moment, as there is a large and daily increasmg demand for farm produce of all kinds." — Farmer's Herald.

31 Works Published By Crosby Lockwood & Co.

'*A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this

EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER ; a Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. i6th Edition, Revised to the end of last Session. Including a Summary of the principal Acts of the past Session (1878), viz. : — The Bills of Sale Act, The Weights and Measures Act, The Dentists Act, The Public Health Act (as to the Supply of Water to Dwellinghouses), The Matrimonial Causes Act (as to aggravated Assaults upon Wives), &c., &c. With Notes and References to the Authorities. Crown 8vo, price 6s, Sd. (saved at every consultation), strongly bound. {jfust publisheiL

COMPRISING THE LAWS OF Bankruptcy — Bills op Exchange — Contracts and Agrbembnts — Copyright —Dower and Divorce — Elections and Registration — Insurance — Libel AND Slander — Mortgages— Settlements— Stock Exchange Practice — Trade Marks and Patents — Trespass, Nuisances, btc. — Transpbr of Land, etc. — Warranty — Wills and Agreements, etc. Also Law for Landlord and Tenant — Master and Servant— Workmen and Apprentices — Heirs, Devisees, and Legatees — Husband and Wife — Executors and Trustees — Guardian and Ward — Married Women and Infants — Partners and Agents — Lender and Borrower — Debtor and Creditor — Purchaser and Vendor — Companies and Associations — Friendly Societies — Clergymen, Churchwardens — Medical Practitioners, &c. — Bankers — Farmers — Contractors — Stock and Share Brokers — Sportsmen and Gamekeepers — Farriers and Horse-Dealers — Auctioneers, House-Agents— Innkeepers, &c. — Pawnbrokers — Surveyors — Railways and Carriers, &c, &c.

No Englishman ought to be without this book." — Engineer,

What it professes to be — a complete epitome of the laws of this country, thorouijfhly intelligible to non-professional readers. The book is a handy one to have in readiness when some knotty point requires ready solution." — BelVs Life.

" A concise, cheap, and complete epitome of the English law, so plainly vnitten that he who runs may read, and he who reads may understand." — Figaro.

A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care." — Law Magazine.

" Full of information, fitly expressed without the aid of technical expressions, and to the general public will, we doubt not, prove of considerable worth." — Economist.

A uctioneeri7tj,

AUCTIONEERS : THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES. By Robert Squibbs, Auctioneer. Demy 8vo, ioj. 6a. cloth.

\Jtist published, Mr. Squibbs writes with evident knowledge of his subject and shrewd common sense. His book should be useful to young auctioneers, and serviceable for reference even to old ones.'' — Scotsman.

House Property.

HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY : a Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land ; including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures ; with Explanations and Examples of all kinds of Valuations, and useful Information and Advice on Building. By Edward Lance Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. i2mo, 5J. cloth boards.

We are glad to be able to recommend it." — Builder. The advice is thoroughly practical." — Law Journal.

Bradbury, Agnew, & Co., PrinterB, Whitefriars, London.

Wle&U'g KuWmcntars Series.

SSSKSjy PH I LADELPH lA, 1878. I, THE PRIZE MEOAL

Wai awudcd iDHieFublishenfor

BoDb : Bndimentar; Sintifle, "VEllE'S SERIES," TC.

A New List Of

Weale'S Series

London, 1862. The Prize Medal

Wu awarded to the Fnbliiben of

ainval ntty depaHxtmt of iciice. Art, and KdiuaiuH, are re-

Liitran B-td Sci

N.Bh ordtt

witfa a t vaij

Y Sciemt Ific Series.

No ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC.

16.' ARCHITECTURE—ORDERS— The. Orders and Uieir .ffislhcfic

Principles. By W. M. . Illuslralcd. n. 5d.

17. ARCHITECTURE— STYLES—TVe. History and Description of

Pr'smlPcriod.'BiT. Talbot Bury, F.R.LBi Illuilrat' u. OBDr'ii) AND Ktylis Or Auch iTBnoR B, in Om Vol., 11. bd.

18. ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN—The Principlea of Design in

ArcliilMiure. ai deducible from Naiura and erempliStd in the Worla of the

Greek and Gothic Aichilecti. By E. L. Gakdett, Architect, rioitraled. 19.

Till tkra fnctdin Works, in Oni kandsamt To/., ha!/ aliUid

'MODBKH ARCmTBCTUKIl,"/n6j.

3*. THE ART OF BUILDING, Rudiments of. General Principle*

of Copstniction, Materials niej in BuJIdinR, Sliengtll and Uhi of Material!,

23. BRIcSs JiAzf' '.i,*Ru1iimentarTteati on the Manufac- DolsON, M.R.i"ai.'wilh Adlilmiij bT C. Toh"n°ok,

Crosby Lockwood And Co., 7, Stationers Hall Court, K.C.

i WeALES RUDIMfiNtARV SERIES.

Architecture, Building, etc., continued,

2$. MASONR Y AND STONECUTTING, Rudimentary Treatise on ; in which the Principles of Masonic Projection and their plication to thd Construction of Curved Wing-Walls, Domes, Oblique Srides, and Roman and Gothic Vaulting, are concisely explained. By Edward M.K.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s. 6d4

44. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE a Rudimentary

Treatise on ; containing a Synopsis of the principal cases of Foundation Works, with the usual Modes of Treatment, and Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, B6ton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By £. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A., &c. Fourth Emtion, revised by Georgb Dodd, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d.

42. COTTAGE BUILDING. By C. B&UCE Allen, Architect

Eighth Edition, revised and enlarged. Numerous Illustrations, is. 6d.

45. Limes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes, Mastics,

PLASTERING, &c. By G. R. Bornkll, C.E. Eleventh Edition, is. 6d.

57. WARMING AND VENTILATION, a Rudimentary Treatise on ; being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of the Art of Warming and Ventilating Domestic and Public Buildings, Mines, Lighthouses, ' Ships, &c. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated. 3s.

CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS. Compiled from the Papers of A. C. Hobbs, Esq., of New York, and Edited by Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. To which is added, a Description of Fenby's Patent Locks, and a Note upon Iron Safes by Robert Mallet, M.I.C.E. IUus. 2s. 6d.

III. ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES, &c.: Experimental Essays on the Principles of Construction in ; made with a view to their being useful to the Practical Builder. By William Bland. Illustrated, is. 6d.

116. THE ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS; or. The

Principles of the Science of Sound applied to the purposes of theArchitect and Builder. By T. Roger Smith, M.K.I.B.A., Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d.

124. CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS,' Treaitise on the, as regards Carpentry and Joinery. Deduced from the Works of Robison, Price, and Tredgold. Illustrated, is. 6d.

127. ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, the Art of.

By T. A. Richardson, Architect. Illustrated, is. 6d.

128. Vitruvius—The Architecture Of Marcus

VITRUVIUS POLLO, In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. With 23 Plates. 5s.

130. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in ; with a Historical View of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen, is. The two preceding Works in One handsome Vol,, half bound, entitled "Ancibnt

. Architecture," price 6s. 132. DWELLING-HOUSES, a Rudimentary Treatise on the Erection of. By S. H. Brooks, Architect. New Edition, with Plates. 2s. 6d.t

156. QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, Howto Calculate and Take them in Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers*, Plumbers*, Painters*, Paperhangers', Gilders', Smiths', .Carpenters', and Joiners' Work. By A. C. Beaton, Architect and Surveyor. New and Enlarged Edition. Ulus. is. 6d.

T75. LOCK WOOD 6j* C0.*S BUILDER'S AND CONTRACTORS PRICE BOOK, for 1880, containing the latest Prices of all kinds of Builders' Materials and Labour, and of all Trades connected with Building: Lists of the Members of the Metropolitan Board of Works, of Districts, District Officers, and District Surveyors, and the Metropolitan Bye-laws. Edited by Francis T. W. Miller, Architect and Surveyor. 3s. 6d. ; half bound, 4s.

182. CARPENTRY AND yOINERY—Tms. Elementary Pmn-

ciFLBS OF Carpentry. Chiefly composed from the Standard Work of Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With Additions from the Works of the most Recent Authorities, and a TREATISE ON JOINERY by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Numerous Illust rations. 3s. 6d.J

The t indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra.

London ; Crosby Lockwood And Co.,

weale's rudimentary series.

Architecture, Building, etc., continued.

i82*. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, ATLAS of 35 Plates to

accompany the foregoing book. With Dcriptive Letterpress. 4to. 6s. ;

cloth boards, 7s. 6d.

187. HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. By George Wight-

wrcK. New, Revised, and enlarged Edition. By G. Huskisson Gdillaumb, Architect. "With numerous Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.t

188. House Painting, Graining, Marbling, And Sign

WRITING: A Practical Manual oL With 9 Coloured Plates of Woods and Marbles, and nearly 150 Wood Engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. Second Edition, carefully revised. 5s. cloth limp ; 6s. cloth boards.

189. The Rudiments Of Practical Bricklaying,

In Six Sections : General Principles ; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting : Pointing; Paving, Tiling, Materials; Slating and Plastering; Practical Geometry, Mensuration, &c. By Adam Hammond. Illustrateo. xs. 6d.

191. PLUMBING, A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of

the Plumber. With Chapters upon Honse Drainage, embodying the latest Improvements. Second Edition, revised and much enlarged. Containing 300 Illustrations. By W. P. Buchan, Sanitary Engineer. 3s. 6d.t

\yusi published.

192. The Timber' Importer'S, Timber Merchants,

and BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE ; comprising copious and valuable Memoranda for the Retailer and Builder. By Richard £. Grandy, Second Edition, Revised. 3s.t 205. THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By James Grbig Badbnoch. Illustrated with 12 full-page Engravings of Examples, xs. published

Civil Engineering, Etc.

13. CIVIL ENGINEERING, the Rudiments of; for the Use of Beginners, for Practical Engineers, and for the Army and Navy. By Henry Law, C.E. Including a Section on Hydraulic Engineering, by George R. Burnell, C.E. 5th Edition, with Notes and Illustrations by Robert Mallet, A.M., F.R.S. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams, ss.t

29. THE DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS. By G.

Drysdalb Dbmpsey, C.E. New Edition, enlarged. Illustrated, is. 6d.

30. THE DRAINAGE OF TOWNS AND BUILDINGS, By

G. Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. New Edition. Illustrated, as. 6d. With " Drainage of Districts and Lands. in One Vol.. s. 6d.

31. WELL-DIGGING, BORING, AND PUMP-WORK, By

John George Swindell, Assoc. R.I.B.A. New Edition, revised by G. R

Burnell, C.E. Illustrated. is.6d. 35. THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, for

Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of Bridges,

By Gen. Sir John Burgoynb, Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated, is. 6d. 43. TUBULAR AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES,

Particularly describing the Britannla. and Conway Tubular Bridges.

With a Sketch of Iron Bridges and Illustrations of the Application of

Malleable Iron to the Art of Bridge Building. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E.

New Edition, with Illustrations, is. 6d.

62. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, Elementary and Practical Instruction on. By Sir Macdonald Stephenson, C.E. New Edition, enlarged 'by Edward , C.E. Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 3s. 80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA, the Practice of. Treated as a Means of Profitable Employment for Capital. With Examples and Particulars of actual Embankments, and also Practical Remarks on the Repair of old Sea Walls. By John Wiggins, F.G.S. New Edition, with Notes by Robert Mallet, F.R.S. as.

81. WATER WORKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as influencing Supplies of Water ; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinery for raising water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S., C.E. New Edition, revised and enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 45.

The % indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra.

7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, E.G.

wsalb's rudimentary series.

Civil Engineering, etc., continued,

GAS IVORKS, and the Practice of Manufacturing and Distributing

Cnal Gas. Bv Samuel Hughes, C.£. New Edition, revised by W.

Richards, C.E. Illustftited. 3s. 6A.t

117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, an Elementery and Prac-

tical Treatise on. By Thomas Fenwick. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Surveys without the Use of the Magnetic. Needle, and other Modem Improvements. By Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.$

118. CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, a Sketch

of. By David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams, is. 197. ROADS AND STREETS {THE CONSTRUCTION OF), in two Parts : I. The Art of Constructing Common Roads, by Henry Law, C>£., revised and condensed by D. Kinnear Clark, C.E. ; II. RECExr Practice, including pavements of Stone, Wood, and Asphalte, by D. K. Clark, M.I. C.E. 4s. 6d.i

203. SANITARY IVORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND IN VILLAGES. Comprising: — i. Some of the more Common Forms ot Nuisance and their Remedies ; 2. Drainage ; 3. Water Supply. A useful book for Members of Local Boards and Rural Sanitary A uthonties. Health Officers, Engineers, Surveyors, Builders and Contractors. By Charles Slagg, A.I.C.E. 2s,6d.J [Just published.

Mechanical Engineering, Etc.

33, CRANES, the Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising

Heavy Bodies for the Erection of Buildings, and for Hoisting- Goods. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S., &c. Illustrated, xs. 6d.

34. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Rudimentary Treatise on. By Dr.

Lardnbr. Illustrated, xs. 6d. 59. STEAM BOILERS : their Construction and Management. By

R. Armstrong, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d. 67. CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND BELLS, a Rudimentary Treatise on. By Sir Edmund Beckett (late Edmund Beckett Denison, LL.D., Q.C). ; A New, Revised, and considerably Enlarged Edition (the 6th), with very numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d. cloth limp ; 5s. 6d. cloth boards, gilt. 82. THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S &c. New Edition, Illustrated. v&.% 98. PRACTICAL MECHANISM, the Elements ot ; and Machine Tools. By T.Baker, C.E. With Remarks un Tools and Machinery, by J. Nasmyth, C.E. Plates. 2s. 6d.t 114. MACHINERY, Elementary Principles of, in its Construction and Working. Illustrated by numerous Examples of Modem Machinery for different Branches of Manufacture. By C. D. Abel, C.E. xs. 6d. 139. THE STEAM ENGINE, a Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules at length, and Examples for the Use of Practical Men. By T. Baker, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d. 162. THE BASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL; Instructions for Modelling, Pattern-Making, Moulding, Turning, Filing, Burnishing, Bronzing, &c. With copious Receipts, numerous Tables, and Notes on Prime Costs and Estimates. By Walter Graham. Illustrated. 2s.t

164. MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, as applied to Marine,

Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, Dredging Machines, Bridges, Cranes, Ship-building, &c., 8cc. ByT.G. Winton. Illustrated. i%.X

165. IRON AND HEAT, exhibiting the Principles concerned in the

Construction of Iron Beams, Pillars, and Bridge Girders, and the Action of Heat in the Smelting Furnace. By J. Armour, C.E. 2s. (AX

166. POWER IN MOTION: Horse-Power, Motion, Toothed- Wheel

Gearing, Long and Short Driving Bands, Angular Forces. By James Armour, C.E. With 73 Diagrams. 2S. 6d.t

167. The Application Of Iron To The Construction

OF BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER WORKS. By Francis Campin, C.E. Second Edition, revised and corrected. 3s. 6d.t

Tket indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d, extra.

London : Crosby Lockwood And Co.,

weale's rudimentary series.

Mechanical Kngineerlng, etc., continued,

171. THE WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. By John Maxton, Engineer, Instructor in Engineerine' Drawing, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Third Edition. Illustrated with 7 Plates and nearly 350 Woodcuts. 3s. 6A.X

190. STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and Portable. Being an extension of Mr. John Sewell's " Treatise on Steam." By D. KiNNBAR Clark, M.I.C.E., Author of " Railway Machinery," &c., &c. Second Edition, revised. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d.

200. FUEL, its Combustion and Economy ; being an Abridgment of " A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke," by \C. W. Williams, A.I.C.E. With extensive additions on Recent Practice in the Combustion and Economy of Fuel — Coal, Coke, Wood, Peat, Petroleum, &c. — by D. KiNNEAR Clark, M.I.C.E. With numerous 1 Uustrations. 4s. 6d.t [Just published.

202. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, A Rudimentary Treatise on. Comprising an Historical Sketch and Description of the Locomotive Engine by G. D. Dempsey, C.E. ; with large additions treating of the Modem Locomotive, by D. KiNNEAR Clark, M.I.C.E. With numerous Illustrations, js.t

Shipbuilding, Navigation, Marine

Engineering, Etc.

51. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, the Rudiments of; or an Exposition of the Elementary Principles of the Science, and their Practical Application to Naval Construction. Compiled for the Use of Beginners. James Peake, School of Naval Architecture, H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth Fourth Edition, corrected, with Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 6d.t 53. SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND RIVER SERVICE, Elementary and Practical Principles of the Construction of. By Hakon A. Sommer- . Surveyor of the Royal Norwegian Navy. With an Appendix, xs.

AN ATLAS OF ENGRA VINGS to Illustrate the above. Twelve

large folding plates. Royal 4to, cloth. 7s. 6d.

54. Masting, Mast-Making, And Rigging. Of Ships,

Rudimentary Treatise on. Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks ; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, &c., relative to every class of vessels. With an Appendix of Dimensions of Masts and Yards otthe Royal Navy. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Fourteenth Edition. Illustrated. 2s.t 54. IRON SHIP'BUILDING, With Practical Examples and Details for the Use of Ship Owners and Ship Builders. By John Grantham, Consulting Engineer and Naval Architect, sth Edition, with Additions. 4s. AN ATLAS OF FORTY PLATES to Illustrate the above. Fifth Edition. Including the latest Examples, such as H.M. Steam Frigates " Warrior," Hercules,' " Bellerophon ; " H.M. Troop Ship " Serapis," Iron Floating Dock, &c., &c. 4to, boards. 38s.

55. THE SAILOR'S SEA BOOK: a Rudimentary Treatise on

Navigation. Part I. How to Keep the Log and Work it off. Part II. On Finding the Latitude and Longitude. By Jambs Greenwood, B.A. To which are added, the Deviation and Error of the Compass ; Great Circle Sailing ; the International (Commercial) Code of Signals ; the Rule of the Road at Sea ; Rocket and Mortar Apparatus for Saving Life ; the Law of Storms ; and a Brief Dictionary of ea Terms. With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Plates of Flags. New, thorouly revised and much enlarged edition. Hy W. H. Rosser, Author of the "Deviation of the Compass considered practically," &c. 2s. 6d.t [Just published. 80. MARINE ENGINES, AND STEAM VESSELS, a Treatise on. Together with Practical Remarks on the Screw and Propelling Power, as used in the Royal and Merchant Navy. By Robert Murray, C.E., Engineer-Surveyor to the jard of Trade. With a Glossary of Technical Terms, and their Equivalents in French, German, and Spanish. Seventh ' Edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 3S.t

The X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATS HILL, E.G.

weale's rudimentary series.

Shipbuilding, Navigation, etc., continued.

SSts. THE FORMS OF SHIPS AND BOATS: Hints, Experiment-

ally Derived, on some of the Principles regulating Ship-building. By TV. Bland. Seventh Edition, revised, with numerous Illustrations and Models.is.6d.

99. NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, in Theory and Practice. With Attempts to facilitate the Finding of the Time and the Longitude at Sea. By J. K. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College.. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.

106. SHIPS* ANCHORS, a Treatise on. By George Cotsell,

N.A. Illustrated, xs. 6d. 149. SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING, an Elementary Treatise on.

With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. Also, Weights and Sizes of Ropes ; Masting, Rigging, and Sails of Steam Vessels, 8cc., Sec. Tenth Edition, enlarged, with an Appendix. By. Robert Ejfping, N.A., Sailmaker, Quayside, newcastle. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.t

155. THE ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO THE ROYAL AND MERCANTILE NAVIES. By a Practical Engineer. Revised by D. F. M'Carthy, late of the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. 3s.

55 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book. By Jambs Greenwood and W. H. Rossbr. Together with 2Qj the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Workmg of the T" Problems. By Henry Law, C.E., and J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics m Belfast College. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings and Coloured Plates. 7s. Strongly half-bound in leather.

\Just Published,

Physical Science, Natural Philo- Sophy, Etc.

1. CHEMISTRY, for the Use of Beginners. By Professor George

FowNES, F.R.S. With an Appendix, on the Application of Chemistry to Agriculture, xs.

2. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, Introduction to the Study of; for

the Use of Beginners. By C. Tomlinson, Lecturer on Natural Science in King's College School, London. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

4. MINERALOGY, Rudiments of; a concise View of the Properties of Minerals. By A. Ramsay, Jun. Woodcuts and Stoel Plates. 3s.t

6. MECHANICS, Rudimentary Treatise on; being a concise Ex-

position of the General Principles of Mechanical Science, and their Applications. By Charles Tomlinson, Lecturer on Natural Science in iting's College School, London. Illustrated, xs. 6d.

7. ELECTRICITY; showing the General Principles of Electrical

Science, and the purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris, F.R.S., &c. With considerable Additions by R. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A. Woodcuts. IS. 6d.

7*. GALVANISM, Rudimentary Treatise on, and the General Principles of Animal and Voltaic Electricity. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition, revised, with considerable Additions, by Robert Sabine, C.E., F.S A. Woodcuts. IS. 6d.

8. MAGNETISM ; being a concise Exposition of the General Prin-

ciples of Magnetical Science, and the Purposes to which it has been applied. By Sir W. Snow Harris. New Edition, revised and enlarged by H. M. NoAD, Ph.D., Vice-President of the Chemical Society, Author of "A Manual of Electricity," &c., &c. With 165 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.

11. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH; its History and Progress;

with Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. By R. Sabine, C.E., F.S.A ., &c. Woodcuts. 3s.

12. PNEUMATICS, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles

Tomlinson. Illustrated, is. 6d.

The X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d, extra.

London : Crosby Lockwood And Co.,

weale's rudimentary series.

Physical Science, Natural Philosophy, etc., continued,

72. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A ; a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. 6s. 6d. Cloth boards, 7s. 6d.

PHOTOGRAPHY, Ptpulir Treatise on; with a Description of the Stereoscope, &c. Translated from the French of D. Van Monckhovbn, by W. H. Thornthwaite, Ph.D. Woodcuts, is. 6d.

96. ASTRONOMY, By the Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

Nw Edition, with an Appendix on " Spectrum Analysis." Woodcuts, is. 6d.

97. STATICS AND DYNAMICS, the Principles and Practice of;

embracing also a clear development of Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. Baker, C.E. is. 6d. 138. TELEGRAPH, Handbook of the; a Manual of Telegraphy, Telegraph Clerks' Remembrancer, and Guide to Candidates for Employment in the Telegraph Service. By R. Bond. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged : to which is appended, QUESTIONS on MAGNETISM, ELEC- TRICITY, and PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHY, for the Use of Students, by W. McGregor, First Assistant Supt., Indian Gov. Telegraphs. 3s.t

143. EXPERIMENTAL ESSAYS, By Charles Tomlinson.

I. On the Motions of Camphor on Water. II. On the Motion of Camphor towards the Light. III. History of the Modem Theory of Dew. Woodcuts, is.

173. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, parfly based on Major-General Port-

lock's "Rudiments of Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S.,&c. Woodcuts. 2s.

174. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, partly based on Major-General

Portlock's " Rudiments." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

173 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, Physical and

& Historical. Partly based on Major-General Portlock's Rudiments of

1 7d Geology." By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c., &c. Numerous lUustra-

' t' tions. In One Volume 4s. 6d4

183. ANIMAL PHYSICS, Handbook of. By Dr. Lardner, D.C.L., & formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University

184. College, Lond. With 520 Illustrations. In One Vol. 7s. 6d., cloth boards.

Sold also in Two Paris as follows : —

183. Animal Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part I., Chapters I— VII. 4s.

184. AjtiMAL Physics. By Dr. Lardner. Part II., Chapters VIII— XVIII. 3s.

Mining, Metallurgy, Etc.

117. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fbnwick, Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. Illustrated. 2s. 6d.t

133. METALLURGY OF COPPER ; an Introduction to the Methods

of Seeking, Mining, and Assaying Copper, and Manufacturing its Alloys. By Robert H. Lamborn, Ph.D. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.t

134. METALLURGY OF SILVER AND LEAD, A Description

of the Ores ; their Assay and Treatment, and valuable Constituents. By Dr. R. H. Lamborn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.t

135. ELECTRO-METALLURGY; Practically Treated. By Alex-

ander Watt, F.R.S.S.A. Seventh Edition, revised, with important additions, including the Electro-Deposition of Nickel, &c., 8tc. Woodcuts. 3s.t \yusi published.

172. MINING TOOLS, Manual of. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. Comprising Observations on the Materials from, and Processes by, which their are manufactured ; their Special Uses, Applications, Qualities, and Efficiency. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. 2s. 6d4 172*. MINING TOOLS, ATLAS of Engravmgs to Illustrate the above, containing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to Scale. 4to. 4s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 6s.

I'he % indicates thai these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra, 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G.

8 weale's rudimentary series.

Mining, Metallurgy, etc., continued,

176. METALLURGY OF IRON, a Treatise on the. Containing History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. Bauerman, F.G.S. Fourth Edition, enlarged, with numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d.t

180. COAL AND COAL MINING, A Rudimentary Treatise on. By Warington "W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. New Edition, revised and corrected. With numerous Illustrations. 3s. 6d4

195. THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COM- PLETE GUIDE, with new Traverse Tables, and Descriptions of Improved Instruments ; also the Correct Principles of Laying out and Valuing Mineral Properties. By William Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. With four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c. 3s. 6d4

Agriculture, Gardening, Etc.

29. THE DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS, By G. Drysdalb Dkmpsby, C.£. Illustrated, xs. 6d. %♦ With " Drainage of and Buildings,** in One Vol., 3*.

63. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING: Farm Buildings, Motive Powers and Machinery of the Steading, Field Machines, and Implements. By G. H. Andrews, CE. Illustrated. 3s.

66. CLAY LANDS AND LOAMY SOILS. By Professor Donaldson, is.

131. MILLER'S, MERCHANT'S, AND FARMER'S READY RECKONER, for ascertaining at sight the value of any quantity of Com, from One Bushel to One Hundred Quartern, at any given price, from to Pci* Qr* With approximate values of Millstones, Millwork, &c. xs.

140. SOILS, MANURES, AND CROPS, (Vol. I. Outlines of

Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts, as.

141. FARMING AND FARMING ECONOMY, Notes, Historical

and Practical, on. (Vol. 2. Outlines op Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 3s.

142. STOCK; CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HORSES, (Vol. 3.

Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d

145. DAIRY, PIGS, AND POULTRY, Management of the. By

R. Scott Burn. With Notes on the Diseases of Stock. (Vol. 4. Outlines OF Modern Farming.) Woodcuts. 2s.

146. Utilization Of Sewage, Irrigation, And

RECLAMATION OF WASTE LAND. (Vol. 5. Outunbs of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn. Woodcuts. 2s. 6d.

Nos. 140-1-2-5-6, in One Vol., handsomely half-bound, entitled " Outunes of Modern Farming.** By Robert Scott Burn. Price 12s.

177. FRUIT TREES, The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of Du Breuil, Revised by Geo. Glenny. X87 Woodcuts. 3s. 6d4

198. SHEEP; THE HISTORY, STRUCTURE, ECONOMY, AND DISEASES OF. By W. C. Spooner, M.R.V.C, &c. Fourth Edition, considerably enlarged; with numerous fine engravings, including some specimens of New and Improved Breeds. 366 pp. 3s. 6d.t

201. KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. Showing how to prepare and lay out the ground, the best means of cultivating every known Vegetable and Herb, with cultural directions for the management of them all the year round. By George M. F. Glknny, Editor of " Glenny's Illustrated Garden Almanack," and Author of " Floriculture," &c. xs. 6d.t

The % indicates that these vols, may be had stron gly bound at 6d. extra. LONDON: CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.,

weale's rudimentary series.

Fine Arts.

20. PERSPECTIVE FOR BEGINNERS. ' Adapted to Young

Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By George Pyne,

Artist. Woodcuts. 2s. 40 GLASS STAINING; or, Painting on Glass, The Art of. Com- & prising Directions for Preparirg the Pigments and Fluxes, laying them upon the Glass, and Firing or Bumiag in the Colours. From the German of Dr. . Gbssert. To which is added, an Appendix on The Art of Enamelung,

&c., with The Art of Painting on Glass. From the German of Emanuel

Otto Frombbro. In One Volume. 2s. 6d. 69. MUSICy A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. With

numerous Examples. By Charles Child Spencer. 2s. 6d. 71. PIANOFORTEy The Art of Playing the. With numerous Exer-

cises and Lessons. Written and Selected from the Best Masters, by Charles

181. PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED, includmg Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, Encaustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivor>', Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, &c. Witn Historical Sketches of the Process of the Art by Thomas John Guluck, assisted by John Times, F.S.A. fourth Edition, revised and enlarged, with Frontispiece and Vignette. 5s.t

186. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, enlaid and adapted to the Use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Elus A- Davidson, Author of " Drawing for Carpenters," &c. With two new Coloured Diagrams and numerous Engravings on Wood. 3s.

Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics,

Etc.

32. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, a Treatise on; in which

their Construction and the Methods of Testing, Adjusting, and Using them

are concisely Explained. By J. F. Heather, M.A., of the Royal Military

Academy, Woolwich. Original Edition, in z vol.. Illustrated, zs. 6d.

In ordering the above becarefuHo say Original Edition,* or give the number

in the Series (32) to distinguish it from the Enlarged Edition in 3 vols.

{Nos. Z68-9-70.)

60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING, a Treatise on; with all the Modem Improvements. Arranged for the Use of Schools and Private Students ; also for Practical Land Surveyors and Engineers. By T. Baker. C.E. New Edition, revised by Edward Nugent, C.E. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. 2s.t READY RECKONER FOR THE ADMEASUREMENT OF LAND. By Abraham Arman, Schoolmaster, Thurleigh, Beds. To which is added a Table showing the Price of Work, from 2s. 6a. tO;r per acre, and ' Tables for the Valuation of Land, from zs. to ;i,ooo per acre, and from one pole to two thousand acres in extent, &c., &c. zs. 6d. '6. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, an Elementary Treatise on; with a Theory of Shadows and of Perspective, extracted from the French of G. M0N6B. To which is added, a description of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection ; the whole being intended as an introduction to the Application of Descriptive Geometry to various branches of the Arts. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated with 14 Plates. 2s.

178. PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY: giving the Simplest

Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plane and Geometrical Con* struction of the Ground. By J. F. Heather, M.A. With 2 zs Woodcuts. 2s.

179. PROJECTION : Orthographic, Topographic, and Perspective:

giving the various Modes of Delineating Solid Forms by Constructions on a Single Plane Surface. By J. F. Heather, M.A. preparation.

The above three volumes will form a Complete Elementary Course of

Mathematical Drawing.

The X indicates thai these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra. 7, stationers' HALL COURT, LXJDGATE HILL, E.G.

10 wealb's rudimentary series.

Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics, etc., continued,

83. COMMERCIAL BOOK-KEEPING. With Commercial Phrases

and Forms in English, French, Italian, and Grerman. By James Haddon, M.A., Arithmetical Master of King's College School, London, is. 6d.

84. ARITHMETIC, 2i Rudimentary Treatise on: with full Explana-

tions of its Theoretical Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. For the Use of Schools and for Self- Instruction. By J. R. Young, late Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. New Edition, with Index, is. 6d.

84*. A Key to the above, containing Solutions in full to the Exercises, together with Comments, Explanations, and Improved Processes, for the Use of Teachers and Unassisted Learners. By J. R. Young, is. 6d.

85. EQUATIONAL ARITHMETIC, appUed to Questions of Interest, 83*, Annuities, Life Assurance, and General Commerce ; with various Tables by

which all Calculations may be greatly facilitated. By W. Hipslby. 2s.

86. ALGEBRA, the Elements of. By James Haddon, M.A.,

Second Mathematical Master of King's College School. With Appendix, containing miscellaneous Investigations, and a Collection of Problems in various parts of Algebra. 2S.

86*. A Key and Companion to the above Book, forming an extensive repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Illustration of the various Expedients necessary in Algebraical Operations. Especially adapted for Self-Instruction. By J. R. Young, is. 6d.

88. EUCLID, The Elements of : with many additional Propositions

89. and Explanatory Notes : to which is prefixed, an Introductozy Essay on Logic. By Henry Law, C.E. 2s. 6d4

Sold also separately,

88. EucuD, The First Three Books. By Henry Law, C.E. is. '

89. EucuD, Books 4, 5, 6, 11, 12. By Henry Law, C.E. is. 6d.

90. Analytical Geometry And Conic Sections,

a Rudimentary Treatise on. By James Hann, late Mathematical Master of King's College School, London. A New Edition, re-written and enlarged by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics at Belfast College. 2s.t

91. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James

Hann, formerly Mathematical Master of King's College, London, is.

92. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, the Elements of. By James

Hann. Revised by Charles H. Dowling, C.E. is. Or with " The Elements 0/ Plane Trigonometry" in One Volume, 2s.

93. MENSURATION AND MEASURING, for Students and Prac-

tical Use. With the Mensuration and Levelling ot Land for the Purposes of Modem Engineering. By T. Baker, C.E. New Edition, with Corr:tions and Additions by £. Nugent, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d.

lOi*. MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS OF ALL NA- TIONS, and an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars. By W. S. B. Woolhouse, F.R.A.S., &c. is. 6d.

102. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Rudimentary Treatise on the. By

Hombrsham Cox, B.A. Illustrated, is.

103. INTEGRAL CALCULUS, Examples on the. By James Hann,

late of King's College, London. Illustrated, is.

loi. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, Elements of the. By W. S. B. "Woolhouse, F.R.A.S., &c. is. 6d.

105. MNEMONICAL LESSONS, — Gkouetry, Algebra, and

Trigonometry, in Easy Mnemonical Lessons. By the Rev. Thomas Penyngton Kirkman, M.A. is. 6d.

136. ARITHMETIC, Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and Self- Instruction. By Jambs Haddon, M.A. Revised by Abraham Arman. IS. 6d.

137. A Key to Haddon's Rudimentary Arithmetic. By A. Arman. is. 6d. Jhe t indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at td. extra.

London : Crosby Lockwood And Co.,

WBALE'S rudimentary series. II

Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics, etc., continued,

158. THE SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT; containing fiill, easy, and simple Instructions to perform all Business Calculations with unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By Charles Hoarb, C.£. With a Slide Rule in tuck of cover. 3S.t

i(>Z. DRAWING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, Including—I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical Drawing, and in the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps and Plans. II. Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate Measurement, and for Arithmetical Computations. By J. F. Heather; M.A late of tne Royal Military Academy. Woolwich, Author of " Descriptive Geometry," &c., &c. Illustrated, zs. 6a.

169. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. Including (more especially) Tele-

scopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for producing copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, zs. od.

170. Surveying And Astronomical Instruments,

Including — I. Instruments Used for Determining the Geometrical Features of a portion of Ground. II. Instruments Employ in Astronomical Observations. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated, zs. 6d.

Tke above three volumes form an enlargement of the Author's original work, Mathematical Instruments: their Construction Adjustment Testing andUse the Eleventh Edition of which is on sale price is. 6d. {See No. 32 in the Series.)

6S.i MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, By J. F. Heather,

Z69. r M.A. Enlarged Edition, for the most part entirely re- written. The 3 Parts as Z70. above, in One thick Volume. With numerous Illustrations. 4s. 6d4

185. THE COMPLETE MEASURER ; setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, &c., &c. ; Unequal -sided, Square-sided, Octagonalsided, Round Timber and Stone, and Standing limber. With a Table showing the solidity of hewn or eight-sided timber, or of any octagonalsided column. Compiled for Timber-growers, Merchants, and Surveyors, Stonemasons, Architects, and others. By Richard Horton. Third Edition, with valuable additions. 4s. ; strongly bound in leather, 5s.

196. THEORY OF COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUI- TIES ; with Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c. By FKooR Thoman, of the Soci6t6 Credit Mobilier, Paris. 4s .f

199. INTUITIVE CALCULATIONS ; or, Easy and Compendious Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Transactions ; together with Full Explanations of Decimals and Duodecimals, several Useful Tables, and an Examination and Discussion of the best Schemes for a Decimal Coinage. By Daniel O'GoRMAN. Twenty-fifth Edition, corrected and enlarged by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. 3S.t

204. MATHEMATICAL T-Z.S', for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By Henry Law, C.E. Together with a Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics in Belfast College. New Edition. 3s. 6d.:t ust published.

Miscellaneous Volumes.

36. A DICTIONARY OF TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ENGINEERING, MINING, ME TALL URGY, ARCHE- OLOGY, the FINE ARTS, By John Weals. Fifth Edition. Revised by Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records. Numerous Illustrations, ss. cloth limp ; 6s. cloth boards.

50. THE LAW OF CONTRACTS FOR WORKS AND SER- VICES. By David Gibbons. Third Edition, revised and considerably enlarged. 3S.t

The X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra, 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, E.G.

12 Wxalx'S Educational And Classical Series.

Miscellaneous Volumes, continued, 112. MANUAL OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE, By R. Gooding,

B.A. M.D. Intended as a Family Guide in all Cases of Accident and Emergency. 3s4

112*. MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH, A Manual of Home and Personal Hyipene. By the Rer. Jambs Baird, B.A. is.

150. LOGIC, Pure and Applied. By S. H. Emmens. is. 6d.

152. PRACTICAL HINTS FOR INVESTING MONEY. With an Explanation oi the Mode of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. By Francis Playford, Sworn Broker, xs. 6d.

J SI' SELECTIONS FROM LOCKE'S ESSAYS ON THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING, With Notes by S. H. Emmons. 2s.

154. GENERAL HINTS TO EMIGRANTS, Containing Notices of the various Fields for Emigration. With Hints on Preparation for Emigrating, Outfits, &c., &c. With Directions and Recipes useful to the Emigrant. With a Map of the World. 2s.

157. THE EMIGRANTS GUIDE TO NATAL. By Robert James Mann, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Second Edition, carefully corrected to the present Date. Map. 2s.

193. HANDBOOK OF FIELD FORTIFICATION, intended for the

Guidance of Officers Preparing for Promotion, and especially adapted to the requirements of Beginners. By Major W. W. KNOLLYS, F.R.G.S., 93rd Sutherland Highlanders, &c. With 163 Woodcuts, js.

194. THE HOUSE MANAGER: Being a Guide to Housekeeping.

Practical Cookery, Pickling and Preserving, Household Work. Dairy

Management, the Table and Dessert, Cellarage of Wines, Home-brewing

'and Wine-making the Boudoir and Dressing-room, Travelling, Stable

Economy, Gardenmg Operations, &c. . By An Old Housekeeper. 3s. 6d.t

194. HOUSE BOOK {The), Comprising :— I. The House Manager. 112. By an Old HousBKBBFSR. II. Domestic Medicine. By Ralph Gooding. M.T>, III. Management of Health. By Jambs Baird. In One Vol., strongly half-bound. 6s. 112*.

Educational And Classical Series.

History.

1. England, Outlines of the History of; more especially with

xeterence to the Origin and Progress of the English Constitution. A Text Book for Schools and Colleges. By William Douglas Hamilton, F.S.A.. oi Her Majesty's Public Record Office. Fourth Edition, revised. Maps and Woodcuts. 5s. ; cloth boards, 6s.

5. Greece, Outlines of the History of ; in connection with the

Rise of the Arts and Civilization in Europe. By W. Douglas Hamilton. oi University CoUep-e. London, and Edward Lbvibn, MJ., of Balliol College, Oxford. 2s. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d.

7. Rome, Outlines of the History of: from the Earliest Period

to the Christian Era and the Commencement of the Decline of the Empire. B; Edward Levien, of Balliol College, Oxford. Map, 2s. 6d. ; cl.bds. 3s.6d.

9. Chronology of History, Art, Literature and Progress,

from the Creation of the World to the Conclusion of the Franco-German War. The Continuation by W. D. Hamilton, F.S.A., of Her Majesty'i Record Office. 3s. ; cloth boards, 3s. 6d.

50. Dates and Events in English History, for the use of

Candidates in Public and Private Examinations. By the Rev. E. Rand. is. TA X indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6d. extra.

/nONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.

weale's educational and classical series. 13

English Language And Miscel- Laneous.

11. Grammar of the English Tongue, Spoken and Written.

With an Introduction to the Study of Comparative Philology. By Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. Third Edition, is. 6d.

II*. Philology : Handbook of the Comparative Philology of English, Anrfo-Saxon, Frisian, Flemish or Dutch, Low or Piatt Dutch, High Dutch or German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese Tongues. By Hyde Clarke, D.C.L. is.

12. Dictionary of the English Language, as Spoken and

Written. Containing above 100,000 Words. By Hyde Clarke, D.C.T*. 3s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 4s. 6d. ; complete with the Grammar, cloth bds., 5s. 6d.

48. Composition and Punctuation, familiarly Explained for

those who have neglected the Study of Grammar. By Justin Brenan. i6th Edition, is.

49. Derivative Spelling-Book: Giving the Origin of Every Word

from the Greek, Latin, Saxon, German, Teutonic, Dutch, French, Spanish, and other Languages ; with their present Acceptation and Pronunciation. By J. RowBOTHAM, F.R.A.S. Improved Edition, is. 6d.

51. The Art of Extempore Speaking: Hints for the Pulpit, the

Senate, and the Bar. By M. Bautain, Vicar-General and Professor at the Sorbonne. Translated from the French. Sixth Edition, carefully corrected. 2s. 6d.

52. Mining and Quarrying, with the Sciences connected there-

with. First Book of, for Schools. By J. H. Collins, F.G.S., Lecturer to the Miners' Association of Cornwall and Devon, is.

53. Places and Facts in Political and Physical Geography,

for Candidates in Public and Private Examinations. By the Rev. Edgar Rand, B.A. is.

54. Analytical Chemistry, Qualitative and Quantitative, a Course

of. To which is pre&ced, a Brief Treatise upon Modem Chemical Nomenclature and Notation. By Wm. W. Pink, Practical Chemist, &c., and George £. Webster, Lecturer on Metallurgy and the Applied Sciences, Nottingham. 2Si

The School Managers' Series Of Reading

Books,

Adapted to the Requirements of the New Code. Edited by the Rev. A. R. Grant, Rector of Hitcham, and Honorary Canon of Ely ; formerly H.M. Inspector of Schools.

Introductory Primer, zd.

s, d.

First Standard . .06 Second „ . . o 10

Third „ ..10

Fourth Standard . . i 2

Fifth „ . . x 6

Sixth „ ...16

Lessons from the Bible. Part I. Old Testament, is.

Lessons prom the Bible. Part II. New Testament, to which is added

The Geography of the Bible, for very young Children. By Rev. C.

Thornton Forster. is. 2d. Or Uie Two Parts in One Volume. 2s.

24. French Grammar. With Complete and Concise Rules on the

Genders of French Nouns. By G. L. Strauss, Ph.D. is. 6d.

25. French-English Dictionary. Comprising a large number of

New Terms used in Engineering, Mining, on Railways, &c. By Alfred Elwbs. is. 6d.

26. English-French Dictionary. By Alfred Elwks. 2s. 25,26. French Dictionary (as above). Complete, in One Vol., 3s. ;

cloth boards, 3s. 6d. Or with the Grammar, cloth boards, 4s. 6d.

stationers' HALL COURT| LXJDGATE HILL, E.C*

14 weale's educational and classical series.

German.

Heyse s Theoretical and Practical Grammar, by Dr. G. L. Strauss, is.

40. German Reader : A Series of Extracts, carefiiUy culled from the

41. German Triglot Dictionary. By Nicholas Esterhazy,

S. a. Hamilton. Part I. English-Gennan-French is

42. German Triglot Dictionary. Part IL Gennan-French-

±<nglisn. xs.

43. German Triglot Dictionary. Part HI. French-German-

isnglish. IS.

4i-43.German Triglot Dictionary (as above), in One Vol., 3s. ; cloth boards, 4s. V Or with the German Grammar, cloth boards, ss.

Italian-

27. Italian Grammar, arranged in Twenty Lessons, with a Course

of Exercises. By Alfred Elwbs. is.

28. Italian Triglot Dictionary, where the Genders of all the

Italian and French Nouns are carefully noted down. By Alfred Elwks. Vol. 1. Italian-English-French. 2s.

30. Italian Triglot Dictionary. By A. Elwes. Vol. 2.

English-French-Italian. 2s.

32. Italian Triglot Dictionary. By Alfred Elwes. Vol. 3.

French- Italian -English. 2s.

28,30, Italian Triglot Dictionary (as above). In One Vol., 6s.

32. cloth boards, 75. 6d.

Spanish And Portuguese.

34. Spanish Grammar, in a Simple and Practical Form. With

a Course of Exercises. By Alfred Elwbs. is. 6d.

35. Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary.

Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineering, cc. with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By Alfred Elwes 4s. ; cloth boards, 5s. Or with the Grammar, cloth boards, 6s.

55. Portuguese Grammar, in a Simple and Practical Form.

With a Course of Exercises. By Alfred Elwes, Author of " A Spanish Grammar," &c. is. 6d.

HEBREW. 46*. Hebrew Grammar. By Dr. Bresslau. is. 6d. 44. Hebrew and English Dictionary, BibHcal and Rabbinical ;

containing Uie Hebrew and Chaldee Roots of the Old Testament Post- Rabbinical . By Dr. Bresslau. 6s. V Or with the Grammar, 7s.

40. English and Hebrew Dictionary. By Dr. Bresslau. 3s.

LONDON : CROSBY tOCKWOOD AND CO..

weale's educational and classical series. 15

Latin.

19. Latin Grammar, Containing the Inflections and Elementary

Principles of Translation and Construction. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwin, M.A., Head Master of the Greenwich Proprietary School, zs.

20. Latin-English Dictionary. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwin,

M.A. 2S.

22. English-Latin Dictionary; together with an Appendix of

French and Italian Words which have their origin from the Latin. By the Rev. Thomas Goodwin, M.A. is. 6d. 20,22. Latin Dictionary (as above). Complete in One Vol., 3s. 6d.;

cloth boards, 4a. 6d. Or with the Grambiar, cloth boards, ss. 6d.

LATIN CLASSICS. With Explanatory Notes in English.

1. Latin Delectus. Containing Extracts £rom Classical Authors, - with Genealogical Vocabularies and Explanatory Notes, by H. Young, is.

2. Caesaris Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Notes, and a Geographical

Register for the Use of Schools, by H. Young. 2s.

12. Ciceronis Oratio pro Sexto Roscio Amerino. Edited, with an

Introduction, Analysis, and Notes Explanatory and Critical, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. is.

13. Ciceronis Orationes in Catilinam, Verrem, et pro Archia.

With, Introduction, Analysis, and Notes Explanatory and Critical, by Rev. T. H. L. Lkary, D.C.L. formerly Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford. IS. 6d. usi published.

14. Ciceronis Cato Major, Lselius, Brutus, sive de Senectute, de Ami-

citia, de Claris Oratoribus Dialogi. With Notes by W. Brownrigg Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S. 2s.

3. Cornelius N epos. With Notes. By H. Young, is.

6. Horace; Odes, Epode, and Carmen Sseculare. Notes by H.

Young, is. 6d.

7. Horace; Satires, Epistles, and ArsPoetica. NotesbyW. Brown-

rigg Smith, MA., F.R.G.S. is. 6d.

21. Juvenalis Satirae. With Prolegomena and Notes by T. H. S.

EscoTT, B.A., Lecturer on Logic at King's College, London. 2s.

16. Livy : History of Rome. Notes by H. Young and W. B. Smith,

MA. Part i. Books i., ii., is. 6d. i6. Part 2. Books iii., iv., v.s is. 6d.

17, - Part 3 Books xxi., xxii., is. 6d.

8. Sallustii Crispi Catalina et Bellum Jugurthinum. Notes Critical

and Explanatory, by W. M. Donnb, B.A., Trin. Coll., Cam. is. 6d.

10. Terentii Adelphi, Hecyra, Phormio. Edited, witli Notes, Critical

and Explanatory, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. 2s.

9. Terentii Andria et Heautontimorumenos. With Notes, Critical

and Explanatory, by the Rev. Jambs Davies, M.A. is. 6d.

11. Terentii Eunuchus, Comoedia. Notes, by Rev. J. Davies, M.A.

IS. 6d.

4. Virgilii Maronis Bucolica et Georgica. With Notes on the Buco-

lics by W. RusHTON, M.A., and on the Georgics by H. Young, is. 6d.

5. Virgilii Maronis -neis. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory,

by H. Young. New Edition, revised and improved. With copious Additional Notes by Rey. T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L., ionnerly Scholar of Brasenose

College, Oxford. 3s. Part I. Books i.— vi., is. 6d.

tisi published, ust published, usi Published.

— — Pali 2. Books vii. — xii., 2s.

19. Latin Verse Selections, from Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius,

and Ovid. Notes by W. B. Donnb, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. 2s.

20. X4atin Prose Selections, from Varro, Columella, Vitruvius,

Seneca, Quintilian, Floras, Velleius Paterculus, Valerius Maximus Suetonius, Apmeius, &c. Notes by W. B. Donnb, M.A. 2s.

7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill, E.C

1 6 weale's educational and classical series.

Greek.

14. Greek. Grammar, in accordance with the Principles and Philological Researches of the most eminent Scholars of our own day. By Hans Clauds Hamilton, is. 6d.

15,17. Greek Lexicon. Containing all the Words in General Use, with

their Significations, Inflections, and Doubtful Quantities. By Henry R. Hamilton. Vol. i. Greek-English, 2s. ; Vol. 2. English-Greek, 2s. Or the Two Vols, in O&s, 4s. : cloth boards, 5s.

14.15. Greek Lexicon (as above). Complete, with the Grammar, in

17. One Vol., cloth boards, 6s. GREEK CLASSICS. With Explanatory Notes in English. I. Greek Delectus. Containing Extracts from Classical Authors,

with Genealogical Vocabularies and Explanatory Notes, by H. Young. New Edition, with an improved and enlarged Supplementary Vocabulary, by John Hutchison, M.A., of he High School, Glasgow, is. 6d. 30. -iEschylus : Prometheus Vinctus : The Prometheus Bound. From the Text of Dindorf. Edited, with English Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by the Kev. Jambs Davibs, M.A. is.

32. -schylus : Septem Contra Thebes : The Seven against Thebes. From the Text of Dindorf. Edited, with English Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by the Rev. Jambs Davibs, M.A. is.

40. Aristophanes : Achamians. Chiefly from the Text of C. H. Weisb. With Notes, by C. S. T. Townshbnd, M.A. is. 6d.

26. Euripides : Alcestis. Chiefly from the Text of Dindorf. With

Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by John Milnbr, B.A. is. 6d.

23. Euripides : Hecuba and Medea. Chiefly from the Text of Dindorf. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory, 'by W. Brownrigg Smith, M.A., F.R.G.S. IS. 6d. 4. 17. Herodotus, The History of, chiefly after the Text of Gaisford. With Preliminary Observations and Appendices, and Notes, Critical and Explanatory, by T. H. L. Leary, M.A., D.C.L.

Part I. Books i., ii. (The Clio and Euterpe), 28. Part 2. Books iii., iv. (The Thalia and Melpomene), 2S. Part 3. Books v.-vii. (The Terosichore, Erato, and Polymnia), 2s. Part 4. Books viii., ix. (The Urania and Calliope) and Index, is. 6d. 5-12. Homer, The Works of. According to the Text of Barumlejn. With Notes, Critical and Explanatory, drawn from the best and latest Authorities, with Preliminary Observations and Appendices, by T. H. L. Leary, M.A., D.C.L. The Iliad : Part i. Books i. to vi.j is.6d. Part 3. Books xiii. to xviii., is. 6d. Part 2. Books vii. to xii., xs. 6d. Part 4. Books xix. to xxiv., is. 6d. The Odyssey: Part i. Books i. to vi., is. 6d Part 3. Books xiii. to xviii., is. 6d. Part 2. Books vii. to xii., IS. 6d. Part 4. Books xix. to xxiv., and

Hymns, 2s.

4. Lucian's Select Dialogues. The Text carefully revised, with

Grammatical and Explanatory Notes, by H. Young, is. 6d. 13. Plato's Dialogues: The Apology of Socrates, the Crito, and

the Phaedo. From the Text of C. F. Hermann. Edited with Notes, Critical

and Explanatory, by the Rev. James Davies, M.A. 2s. 18. Sophocles: CEdipus Tyrannus. Notes by H. Young, is. 20. Sophocles: Antigone. From the Text of Dindorf. Notes,

Critical and Explanatory, by the Rev. John Milnbr, B.A. 2s.

41. Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War. Notes by If.

Young. Book 1. is. ,„ -i rw 1

2, 3. Xenophon's Anabasis ; or, The Retreat of the Ten Thousand.

Notes and a Geographical Register, by H. YeuNO. Part 1. Books i. to iii., IS. Part 2. Books iv. to vii., is.

42. Xenophon*s Panegyric on Agesilaus. Notes and Introduction by Ll. F. W. Jewitt. is. 6d.

43. Demosthenes. The Oration on the Crown and the Philippics. With English Notes. By Rev. T. H. L. Leary, D.C.L., formerly Scholar of Brasenose College, Oxford, is. 6d. Published.

Crosby Lockwood And Co., 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.C

RETURN TO the circulation desl of any

University of California Library

or to the

NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698

ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling

1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books

to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days

prior to due date

Due As Stamped Below

Dl) 9 1986

Mak 2 6 1986

Circulation Deft,

WtM.

Cekeral Unry'U.C. Kiikeley

B000Sb3111