Potash salts and other salines in the Great Basin region

Young, George J. (George Joseph) · 1914 · Historical

United States Geological Survey a bore has been sunk in the Carson Sink area to a Coatribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief.

This 1914 document, Potash salts and other salines in the Great Basin region, is preserved in the Mountain Man Mining Library for research and reference. Original source: archive.org.

Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

Bulletin Of The

Sp Usdepariment Ofaiculire &

No. 61

Coatribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief. June 30, 1914.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Greatzbasin Region.

By G. J. Youne. GEOCHEMICAL CONDITIONS. , INTRODUCTION.

The area under consideration in this bulletin embraces practically the entire State of Nevada, the southern part of Oregon, the western part of Utah, and certain sections of eastern and southeastern California. It is confined on the north by the watershed of the Columbia, Snake, and Klamath Rivers, on the south and southeast by the Colorado River, on the west by the Sierra Nevada, on the east by the Wasatch Mountains, and on the southwest by the mountains bordering on the Mojave Desert. It includes the drainage of the Humboldt, Truckee, Carson, Walker, Quinn, Bear, Weber, Jordan, Salt, Sevier, Beaver, Amargosa, Mojave, and Owens Rivers and their tributaries, besides numerous smaller creeksand streams. It is considered as a unit because it has no surface drainage to the sea. Climatologically, it is a part of the arid region of the West.

The total area is estimated at between 208,500 and 210,000 square miles. The term "Great Basin" has received such widespread use and acceptance that we may consider the designation fixed, although it must not be considered as a single basin, but rather as a series of individual basins separated by mountain ranges. These basins are roughly of north-and-south trend. Five major systems may be separated and designatea as the Bonneville; the Lahontan; the Amargosa and Death Valley; the Owens, Searles, and Panamint system; and the Oregon Lake system. Of the other lake basins not included in these systems the following may be named: Rhodes Marsh, Teels Marsh, Columbus and Fish Lake Valley, Clayton Valley, Alkali Lake (Paradise Valley, Cal, ), Big Smoky Valley, White River, Mono, Saline Valley, Ivanpah, Bristol, Cadiz, and Danby. A complete list of the individual basins making up the Great Basin has been prepared by HE. E. Free, and the following table is taken from his paper (The Present and Past Topography 'of the Undrained Areas of the United States):

Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description. Area.

Square Square miles. miles. AMOS Aes Seton ees OS ood See 47,600 Humboldt-Carson..|} Part of Lahontan...| 27,575 Black Rock. seal) JER ON Alo MeN S SA OSG) Intends @ oka ss ososlloseae Oho eeeere ste ce 215 MCC TTTN Ape ee esd Gow ee pers 2 445 Allan Springs GO esas 235 Granite Spring ] dow, eee 890 Sand Springs 6 Koyo Srna, a 200 TTC N OS SO APS alee eae GOs eee ye 340 Buena Vista Part of Humboldt 4, 000 Hot SpLrneseios Sales. Coe Sea ne) 270 drainage. Honey Lake GOP Soe ei see 2,660 Buffalo Springs Goes Sasa 500 INTO a ot ee eee eee GOES eee 21 Oba Ga bsOn weet ea ee: GO a eae 1, 150 Lemmon Valley GO eke cart rere 90 Clover (Snow water) COS eee 1,075 Warm Springs Gosze iy aie Es 205) Wrallkerst. 452. 38 op Part of Lahontan. 3,850

1 This bulletin embodies the results of investigations carried on in cooperation with the United States Geological Survey and the Mackay School of Mines, Reno, Nev., with a view to determining the existence or nonexistence of sources of potash salts in the basin region.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Basing

Ruby Butte Valley

MGrrayse ene soe alae

White Valley Rush Valley Sevier Christmas Lake. ... Silver Lake

Chewaucan

Summer Lake

Alvord White Horse. Thousand Creek Madeline

WAIVICWee. aoe Edward's Creek Gabbs Valley Acme

ee ce ecco eecoee

Monte Cristo. Cohumnbus=ssi522--2 Clay tonsa. ee eae Big Smoky

Smiths Creek

Railroad Valley. Kawicheesso sea oe

The areas given in this table are understood to be approximate.

ee ee ces ccc eeceslt tees

Description.

Once tributary to Columbia River. Part of Bonneville. -

Osa seems Probably landlocked Part of Christmas Lake Basin. Landlocked (Abert Lake). Part of Chewaucan Basin. Landlocked BS Oo. Tributary to Columbia River. Probably tributary to Harney. Probably tributary to Catlow. LandJocked (maximum area). Probably tributary to Surprise. Tributary to Sur-prise

. Probably landlocked) yo to Alvord.) OLBISES Se Probably landlocked| Tributary to Pitt River. Tributary to Klamath River.

Probably tributary to Walker. Probably tributary to Rhodes. Probably landlocked} (maximum area). Probably landlocked Landlocked

Landlocked (including Big Smoky). Landlocked Probably tributary to Columbus. Probably tributary to Big Smoky. Tributary to Big Smoky. epee: landlocked) pee ) Landlocked (maximum area). Probably tributary to Railroad.

Area.

miles.

Poo pesos

Basin. Area.

Description. Square : miles. Penoyer. 2... 522625 Probably tributary 1, 000 to Railroad. Gold Plats: Probably landlocked 640 eMeTAN Gees cee Probably landlocked} 1,000 (maximum area). WilCCA bao ge eee Probably tributary 300 to Frenchman Flat. Frenchman Flat Probably landlocked 740 Indian Spring Tributary to Colo- 650 rado River. BING Water seas sees CO eae eeieceeee 730 ee: Canyons. as22)|e-ee dos. ee 300 Sheep Range Probably landlockec 300 Spring Valley. Doubtiunk S 1, 550 Gannetts.< acs. 6a Tributary to Colo- 150 rado River. Opal Mountain Probably landlockec 580 RONG! Re a keSeee Landlocked 770 AAROTS Soo eee ase Part of Mono 100 OWeNSEe so seen Once tributary to 2, 825 Searles. Seanless ere se ee Almostalwaysland-|} 4,850 locked (maximum area). Panamint. <2... Landlocked (area; 1,950 does not include Searles or Owens). Saline Valley Landlocked 825 Eureka Valley Probably landlocked 530 Deep Springs Landlocked 190 PNAS teat he Pe Probably landlocked) 900 Willard=s es. eae doi. eS 250 Granite Mountains G0 tea ee es 150 Ole ee ee ee dosha. se ee 60 Death Valley Landlocked (includ-}| 23,160 ing Mojave and 1 - Amargosa). gltealstones-ss8s saan Part of Amargosa 1, 750 i! drainage. Stonewall Platz 4. dO=e eee eee 343 Sarcobatus Flat. GO: 23st 755 Pahrump Valley. Tributary to Amar- 1, 400 gosa (maximum ; area). : Mesquite Valley ) Probably tributary 350 to the Amargosa. Soda Lake Part of Mojave drainage. Rodriguez Lake Oss: 62. SEL Ree Harpentwake=-s5- 5 Ca nn eee oeeeer se os Ss Coyote Lake [eseee eee e a Cronese Lake joecee dot. 2+. a ees Langford ake sos) 2. 20: S242 sae eee lhvanpahees—e er or Juandlocked see Bristol Lake Probably tributary to Colorado River. Cadiz Lake Tributary either to Danby Lake or to the "Colorado River. Danby Lake Probably tributary 4,150 to Colorado River (maximum area). Mesquite Lake Tributary to Coloyrado River. Dalevtakes: asc aae do. bec Se eee

For a description

of the basins given the reader is referred to the bulletin already cited.

Recent interest in the development of the potash resources of the United States has directed considerable attention to the possibilities of the Great Basin as a source of thiscompound. The Bureau of Soils and the United States Geological Survey have

maintained investigators in this region for some time.

Under the direction of the

United States Geological Survey a bore has been sunk in the Carson Sink area to a

depth of 985 feet.

bores.

Many of the smaller basins have also been explored by shallow Through the Bureau of Soils a study of the general conditions in these basins,

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 8

and particularly dealing with the geochemical features, has been made. In order to widen out the field and stimulate prospectors and others to direct their attention to this mineral, the Bureau of Soils, the United States Geological Survey, and the Mackay School of Mines established a joint laboratory for the examination of mineral and other naturally occurring substances suspected to contain potash. The results of the United States Geological Survey investigators have been presented from time to time in bulletins.!

The results of the work of the Bureau of Soils are, in part, presented in a paper by EK. E. Free (The Present and Past Topography of the Undrained Areas of the United States).2 The purpose of the present paper is to present a review of the information now available on the subject of the occurrence and origin of the salines of the Great Basin region, as well as the chemical data which have been accumulated by the Bureau of Soils and the Cooperative Laboratory. Naturally a review of the geochemical features of a region of this extent will not be complete, but it is believed that such a review will be of value at this time and will indicate quite clearly the lines along which future investigation should be directed.

For an adequate conception of the geochemistry of a region it is necessary to know the principal facts concerning climatology, topography, geology, the surface and underground waters, the evaporation from ground and surface waters, and the distribution and chemical character of the rocks. These subjects will be treated in the order stated. 2

Climatology.

The Great Basin is spoken of as an arid region, and just what is the significance of this term may be gathered from the tables in the Appendix. These tables have been compiled from Weather Bureau reports on precipitation and temperature. They are grouped in four divisions: Weather stations in Nevada, weather stations in western Utah, weather stations in the part of the basin region included in Oregon, and weather stations in that part of the basin region included in California. The altitude and mean annual rainfall of each station isgiven. (See Appendix, TableI.) Theaverage (arithmetical mean) annual rainfall of the stations in each group is, for the Oregon group, 13.59 inches; for the Utah group, 12.8 inches; for the Nevada group, 10.34 inches; and for the California group, 4.43 inches. The mean annual precipitation for the entire basin region is 10.31 inches. In arriving at this average the mean for each of the above groups and the area occupied by each group were taken into consideration. The variation of the mean annual rainfall with latitude in the basin region may be approximated from Table II. (See Appendix.) Latitude is less a factor in controlling precipitation than altitude. The basins of the Great Basin in general are characterized by a small rainfall. The higher mountains receive a much greater rainfall. An area of high aridity may be marked out, and this includes the Mojave Desert, the Amargosa Basin, the Owens, Walker, Mono, Pyramid, Carson, and Black Rock Desert regions. In this area the mean annual precipitation is less than 6 inches.

An inspection of the weather reports for the basin region shows that some precipitation takes place in each month of the year. December, January, February, and March are the usual months of maximum precipitation; while June, July, August, and September are the months of minimum precipitation. There is, however, much irregularity in the monthly distribution of the rainfall, and the weather charts do not give an entirely clear conception of the situation. Rainfall may be divided into two classes—the normal winter precipitation and the precipitation which usually occurs in August and September. The latter is in the nature of torrential rains and cloudbursts and is conspicuous in the more arid portions of the region. The normal winter precipitation contributes but little run-off in the arid portions, but the August and September precipitations often result in heavy local run-offs which are important agents in the movement of detrital material from the mountains to the plains. As might be expected, precipitation of this nature is very irregular. Several years may elapse without sufficient rain to even moisten the desert watercourses. Then a period of heavy rains results in turning such watercourses into torrents. Stream flows of this nature are of short duration, but the local work of erosion and transportation may be very great. Were it not for these rains, erosion and deposition in the more arid portions of the basin region would be somewhat inconspicuous and limited principally to the action of wind. The influence of these torrential rains extends over the whole arid region described above. But little study has been made of these

1 Bul. No. 523, Nitrate Deposits. Bul. No. 530-A, The Search for Potash in the United States; Potash Salts—Summary for 1911. Bul. No. 51i, Potash Salts—Their Uses and Occurrence in the United States; Alunite. Bul. No. 530-R, Exploration of Salines in Silver Peak Marsh, Nevada; Press Notice No. 97, Feb. 10, 1913; Prospecting for Potash in Death Valley.

2 Circ. No. 61, Bureau of Soils, An Investigation of the Otere Basin, New Mexico, for Potash Salts; Cire. No. 62, Bureau of Soils, Report of a Reconnoissance of the Lyon Nitrate Deposit near Queen, New Mexico.

4 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

storms, their distribution, and frequency of occurrence. As might be inferred, the weather reports would not reflect this phase of the precipitation to any marked extent.

The mean annual temperature and the highest and lowest temperatures are given in Table III (See Appendix). It is worthy of note that the temperature range in the basin region is great. Extreme cold often prevails in the northern part and extends well down to the south. Extreme summer heats are characteristic of the southern portions and extend well up to the north. Asa consequence of this, rock disintegration would be a not inconspicuous feature of the higher mountains.

Topography.

The dominant bounding ranges of the basin region are the Sierra Nevadas on the west and the Wasatch on the east. The area between these ranges may be considered as a plain intersected by mountain ranges of a predominantly north and south trend. The plain, which is really a great system of more or less connected intermountain valleys, maintains its elevation of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet altitude over practically the entire northern half of the region. The northern hali contains three of the main drainage basins—the Bonneville, the Lahontan, and the Oregon Lake basins. These basins are all close to or within the 4,000-foot contour. The south-central half of the plain slopes gradually to the south, reaching two poinis of maximum depression—Death Valley on the southwest and Las Vegas Valley on the southeast. If we consider the Salton Lake area as a portion of the Great Basin, we have another point of low depression in the Salton Sink. The principal river within the basin is the Humboldt. This river flows across Nevada and feeds Humboldt Lake, in the Lahontan basin. Of minor importance are the Quinn, Amargosa, Reese, and White Rivers. From the Sierras and the Wasatch Mountains many important streams feed the lakes lying in the Bonneville and Lahontan basins and along the base of the Sierras. Many minor streams flow from the short, steep canyons of the higher mountain ranges of the basin.

The mountains of the basin region are in many instances characterized by steep scarps on either or both sides. Short, steep canyons cut to the summits are the rule. Only in a few instances are gently rising slopes to the higher summits to be found. The topography of the mountains belongs to an intermediate rather than a mature or juvenile type. ;

The valleys are wide and often of great north and south extent. Fringing the valleys are alluvial fans or cones. They are less noticeable in the north, but become conspicuous in the south, where they reach enormous proportions in the Death Valley region.

An attempt has been made to determine the proportion of mountain and intermountain area. The Sierra Valley, Reno, Wadsworth, and Carson topographical sheets were measured and the areas occupied by mountain, outwash slope, silt, playa, and lake determined by planimeter measurements. A more or less arbitrary division was made between mountain and outwash areas, and between outwash and silt areas. Outwash areas include the alluvial fans or cones fringing the steep slopes of the mountains. Where the contours indicated a 2° to 4° slope, the beginning of the silt area was assumed, while the blue dotted line upon the topographic sheets surrounding the lowest area of an intermountain space was taken as the playa area. Similar measurements were made upon the topographic sheets of the Amargosa River. The results of these measurements, as well as those made in the Owens River Valley, are given in Table IV (Appendix). Figure 1 graphically illustrates the comparison of the areas measured, with the exception of the Owens Valley area. The measurements given may be taken to represent a close approximation to the conditions within the basin region. The mean of the measurements of the Carson and the Amargosa region is: Mountain area, 48.3; outwash slopes, 19.1; silt area, 26.8; playa and water area, 5.5 per cent. The mean may be taken to represent approximately the basin region. The figures may be interpreted to mean that over approximately one-half of the basin region erosion is active, while on the remaining half deposition is taking place, greatest in amount on the outwash slopes and least in the playa and flat portions of the intermountain areas. The material constituting the outwash slopes is, in the main, coarse and angular. It is itself more or less subject to erosion. The fine silt and sand coming from the mountain areas, as well as the eroded material of the outwash slopes, finds its way into the playa areas.

Geology.

: An extensive review of the geology of the basin region would ke out of place here. 3briefly, all of the geological divisions, with the exception of the pre-Cambrian, Permian, and Cretaceous, are to be found. For our purpose we may consider these geological time divisions in three groups—pre-Tertiary, Tertiary, and post-Tertiary.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 5

Pre-Tertiary rocks embrace a comparatively large area of the basin region. The chief formations are: Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic, and Jurassic. Pre-Cambrian formations have been described by King, Spurr, and Ball, but are relatively unimportant. The eastern and southeastern part of Nevada is characterized by Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks. These rocks are quartz-

Tain ; Yaoun Tain

Carson

NAAT OU7-WASH APLEA ee

Playa An. Water Area

Amargosa Region

Fig. 1.—Diagrams showing the proportion of mountain and intermountain area in the several districts.

ites, slates, limestones, and sandstones. 'Triassic and Jurassic formations are reiatively less abundant and occur in widely distributed patches in the west-central and southwest portions of the basin region. They consist of limestones, slates, shales, and thin beds of quartzite. In the Triassic are also found beds of gypsum. Post-Jurassic orogenic movement, accompanied by granitic intrusions, ushered in @ period of land elevation and erosion, which continued throughout Cretaceous time.

6 &#x27; Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

The conspicuous absence of Cretaceous formations in the basin region, excepting in the Wasatch Mountains and the Iron Spring district of southern Utah,! has been noted by many geologists and confirms the conclusion that the basin region was a land mass in Cretaceous time.

The pre-Tertiary was ended and the Tertiary begun by orogenic movement, accomanied

by volcanic eruptions. Evidence is not conclusive as to the exact geologic Hiciaton: but opinion seems to predominate that the beginning of the Eocene marked the beginning of Tertiary volcanic activity, which extended through the Tertiary and into the Quaternary. Following the early volcanic activity of this period, and, no doubt, preceded by crustal movements, was the Tertiary lake period (Miocene)— King's Pahute Lake. During this period the western half of the basin region was occupied by one or more lakes of great extent and irregular outline. Some parts of this lake were, no doubt, of great depth, and the lake period was of long duration, as is shown by the great thickness of sediments exposed in many places (notable examples: Furnace Creek and the Silver Peak quadrangle). The period of lake formation was also a period of vulcanism.

A period of great orogenic movement succeeded the late Tertiary, and during this

eriod the basin ranges were formed and the present topography took its main outlines. The Miocene lakes disappeared. The late-Tertiary is obscure and has yet to be worked out in detail for the region. King was of the opinion that the Miocene lake period was succeeded by another lake period, Pliocene, but Russell has shown that, in so far as the Pliocene sediments (Humboldt formation) mapped by King are concerned, they belong to the Lahontan Lake period. Russell's conclusion is confined to the western portion (Map 5, Geological Atlas, Fortieth Parallel Survey) and does not necessarily include the eastern half of the basin region. Succeeding the late-Tertiary was a

eriod of erosion and continued uplift. The Pleistocene fresh-water lakes were ormed. The detailed study of these lakes has shown during this time at least two eriods of flooding and an intermediate desiccation. Fluctuations of the Pleistocene ake elevations have been noted also as a conspicuous feature in the history of these lakes. Glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Mountains coincide with the pened of the Pleistocene lakes. In recent time desiccation of the Pleistocene lakes as taken place and minor crustal movements have continued.

Our inquiry has for its object the study of saline segregates—their nature, occurrence, extent, genesis, and probable commercial utilization.. The basin region has always been considered a favorable place in which to look for saline deposits. The

prevalence of volcanic and eruptive rocks indicates a source from which salines might be expected to come. The decomposition of these rocks, the solution of the salts resulting, and the fact that this region possesses no outside drainage have caused geologists to conclude that saline segregates would be found in many of the basins. There is much evidence, which will be discussed in a later part of this paper, to justify this conclusion.

Turrentine has summarized the geological formations and principal localities in which saline segregates have been found. The following table indicates these:

Geological formations and principal localities in which saline segregates have been. found."

Geologic period. Locality. ReCen bi nee ssa ee ee Kirghiz steppes; Arabia; South America; Dead Sea; Great Salt Lake, and numerous other ancient lakes in western United States. f NOMA GY ae eit gn Oe bie USA Cardona, Spain; Wieliczka and Bochnia, Galicia; Siebenbiirgen; Asia Minor; Armenia; Rimini, Italy; Petit Anse, La.; California, Utah, and Nevada. CretacdGus iss: hae ee Ne Westphalia brines; Algiers. SUba . 2 arses Maes eee Ee Rodenberg on the Deister; Bex in Canton of Waadt, Switzerland. IRiGUu PSI asso Lorraine; Hall, Tyrol; Hallein and Berchtesgaden (near Salzburg). Trias {Musehelal Roe er ve Wurttemberg; in Thuringia, Ernstthall, Stottenheim. Buntersandstein Hanover, Schoeningen near Brunswick, Salzderhelden; Cheshire, England; Kansas and Texas. ORMIANNS Moi wee ae Gera, Artern (Thuringia); Staasfurt, Halle, Sperenberg; Segeberg (Hol- ; stein); Kirghiz steppes on the River Ileck; Kansas. Carboniferous Kanawha and New River, W. Va.; Durham and Bristol, England. Devonian. Se ese es Se Ree Winchell, Mich. Wp perro iuTans mss sah co ekee New York; West Virginia; Saginaw, Mich.; Goderich, Canada.

1 Bul. No. 338, U. S. Geological Survey, Iron Spring District of Southern Utah.

2? Turrentine, J. W. The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States, Bul. No. $4, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1913.

Haworth, Geol. Survey, Kansas; Ann. Bul., 1897, p. 56. Harris, La. Geol. Survey, Bul. 7, p. 94.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 7

In pre-Tertiary formations salines have been reported from the upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. These formations, excepting Permian and Cretaceous, are represented to a greater or less extent in the Great Basin. In spite of extensive search on the part of geologists and

rospectors, no beds of salines of commercial importance other than gypsum have fea discovered. Louderback! notes the occurrence of gypsum beds in the Triassic at Mound House and Lovelock. Spurr? notes the occurrence of massive gypsum in lenticular masses in the upper Carboniferous at Cottonwood Springs. Rowe ? notes shales and gypsum beds overlying the upper Carboniferous in the hills north of Cottonwood Springs. A review of the literature leads one to conclude that in the pre- Tertiary formations, excepting the gypsum deposits and minor occurrences of saliniferous layers, the prospects of finding salines of commercial importance are not good.

In the Tertiary formations of the basin region saline segregates have been found. The most important occur in Miocene lake beds. Borates, gypsum, and salt are the important minerals that have been noted. Of these, the borates have been commercially exploited and produce the borax supply of the United States. Up to the present there has been little utilization of the gypsum beds. Concerning the salt beds our information is scanty. G.E. Bailey describes a bed of rock salt 12 to 16 feet thick in the Saratoga district, San Bernardino County, Cal. He also describes saline beds occurring on the north slope of Avawatz Mountains in the same county. These beds are, without much doubt, in the Tertiary lake series. So far as known no potash salts, at least in commercial quantities, have been reported from the Tertiary. The Tertiary beds are not looked upon by the writer as of any great importance as a source of supply for potash salts. It must be said, however, that comparatively little systematic work has been done upon them. The Tertiary lake beds, as a whole, have contributed by their erosion a large amount of salt and other salines to their tributary basins.

The Quaternary lake beds and the lakes accompanying the Quaternary lake basins hold the most important supplies of salines and are the most promising fields for prospecting. Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary formations have supplied the salts which we find as accumulations in the recent drainage basins and lakes.

Quaternary and recent geologic history has been studied in detail in several of the - more important lake basins, and we have in the monographs of Russell and Gilbert ample information of the changes in conditions which have resulted in the formation of saline deposits in these basins. The complete list of the Quaternary lake basins has perhaps not yet been made. From the literature and from personal notes I have compiled the following table:

Inst of Quaternary lakes.

Name. Elevation. Remarks. Bonneville: 5 Present lakes— Feet.

Great Salt Lake 4,200 Maximum depth 1,050 feet.

Wit ahneea ker eee ee Ee a Overflowed.

Present lakes 4,405 to 4,414 Honey and Eagle 3,949 326 feet deep. Lakes.

Pyramid Lake 3,880 886 feet deep; 525 feet above 1882 level.

Walker Lake 4,083 435 feet deep.

Winnemucca Lake 3,875 530 feet deep.

'Humboldt Lake 3,929 500 feet deep.

Carson Sink. 3,900 526 feet deep.

'South Carson Lake 3,916 510 feet deep. Owens Wake 2 ieee Bee 3,569 Old beach 190 feet above present level. SCAR eS Sawai eters Sigs ee 2 des 1,700 Shore line 600 feet above flat. eave TIA NGO eee See ae 1,046 1,000 feet above valley floor are wave-cut terraces. SNAGQTIO WON sie aa re 6,426 Quaternary area 316 square miles; beach 670 feet above

lake level.

1 Bul. No. 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, Gypsum Beds of the United States, p. 118,

2U.S. Geological Surveys West of 100th Meridian, vol. 3, p. 166; and Bul. No. 208, U. S. Geol. Survey, Geology of Nevada south of fortieth parallel survey.

3 Bul. No. 208, U.S. Geol. Survey, Geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel, p. 170.

4 Bul. No. 24, California State Mining Bureau, p. 126.

Monograph I, Lake Bonneville. Gilbert.

'6 11th Annual Report, Lake Lahontan. Russell.

7 Bul. No. 24, Cal. State Mining Bureau.

810th Annual Report, Cal. State Mineralogist.

® Bul. No. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey. Campbell.

80 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey.

8 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

List of Quaternary lakes—Continued.

Name. Elevation. Remarks. Feet.

Columbus lo las ee ee 4,559 Shallow lake 50 to 60 feet deep. Railroad Valley 2 4,700 Highest shore line 300 feet above flat. Diixieze ks ee ees k ee oe 3,500 Highest beach line 150 feet above floor. Surprise Valley: 3 '

Upper, lower, and middle 5,190 Highest beach line 550 feet above present level. Two

alkali lakes. high-water lines. Weaker Alvin disse 3s eornsee 4,200 Hips beach line 100 feet. Four well-marked and 2 faint ines.

Catlowavialleyieteceeecre en oce 4,600 Highest beach 75 feet. Three well-marked beach lines. WiammerWakes 155 2. Pears 4,600 Highest beach line 225 feet. Abert Lake: 3

Chewaucan Marsh 4,400 Beach line 260 feet above Chewaucan Marsh.

Summenwakenssaseceeee: 4,300 Beach line 300 feet above Summer Lake. Jumper Wake sae nsec seeteee 4,400 Two shore lines 30 and 60 feet above present lake. WonewValley asaya. soso see 5,945 Shore line 250 feet above present level. SilversWake fats sss hee yar ee 4,340 Beach line 100 feet above present level. Whristmas TE ake ees eae eee ein ee reer Reena Madeline Plains 5,400 Overflowed.

Ruby and Franklin Lakes, Nev.; Danby and Bristol Lakes, Cal.; and Diamond Valley, Nev., doubtful. Tahoe Lake reported by Diller to show old shore lines above the present lake level.

2h. EK. Free.

8 4th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey. Russell.

4 Water Supply Paper 231.

Ratios of basin area to lake area, and of Quaternary lake area to present lake area.

Ratio of Ratio of

: Quater-asin area Quater- Lake. - vot ans to Quater-ees nary area

; eel nary lake to pres-

x area. ent area.

Bonneville: 2%. seems atelier ae eee AER a eA 52,000 19, 750 2.63 2,498 7.9 Tah ombamrchs fhe ele Des Meal aly ak an te Eengi Beyee a 47,600 8, 422 5. 65 734. 6 11.4 Mo Gall ee re Se Sn ca eae ae rane a it 99, 600 28,172 32530) Sa2o250 8. 71

Total present area of all the lakes in the Great Basin, 4,196 square miles. Total area of all the Quaternary lakes, estimated, 36,547 square miles.

Ratio of total area of Great Basin to total Quaternary lake area, oe =5.74; to total present lake area ai mes 4196 90:

The present lakes, occupying in many instances the lowest depressions in the Quaternary lake basins, are given in the next section. The chemical data concerning both the Quaternary and the recent lakes and their basins will be given in another section of this report.

Surface Waters.

Complete data are not available for the determination of the total run-off in the basin region. From the Water Supply Papers of the United States Geological Survey it is possible to secure data for the principal streams, but many small streams of local importance are to be found in the mountains of the Great Basin, and for these we have practically no data. These streams contribute to the underground-water supply, but seldom do their waters reach the surface of the playas except in periods of unusual rainfall. The ponds and shallow lakes resulting are quickly evaporated.

The principal streams are: In western Utah, the Weber, Bear, Logan, Spanish Fork, Sevier, and Provo; in Nevada, the Humboldt, Truckee, Carson, Walker, Reese, Quinn, and Amargosa; in California, Susan River, Owens River and tributaries, Leevining Creek, Mill Creek, and Mojave River; in Oregon, small creeks and streams which contribute to the lakes in southern Oregon. Such data as are available for the above streams are given in Tables V, VI, VII (Appendix).

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 9

Basin river streams may be divided into three types:

(1) Streams characteristic of the higher mountains. These are short streams which take care of the winter precipitation and carry their waters to the outwash slopes to be distributed by the porous detrital fans.

(2) Streams, such as the Amargosa, Reese, and Quinn Rivers, which reach main basins but do not carry sufficient water to make a continuous flow, or which reach basins of such magnitude that they can not form permanent lakes. ;

(3) Streams which supply permanent lakes. The drainage of the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Mountains supplies practically all of these lakes. Owens, Mono, Carson, Walker, Pyramid, Honey, and the lakes of southern Oregon are typical examples of such lakes in the west; while Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake are in the east and are supplied by the drainage of the Wasatch Mountains.

A list of these lakes, together with elevations and drainage area of basins, is given in Table VIII (Appendix).

The proportion of the annual precipitation which appears as run-off varies in different basins. The length of the stream and the character of the watershed, as well as local climatic conditions, determine this factor. The following table summarizes the run-off factor for the Carson, Walker, Truckee, and Humboldt Rivers.

Proportion of rainfall distributed in the run-off.

eae Run-off in ' ' rainfa percentage River basin. mean Bun-off- oF average annual. rainfall.

Inches. Inches. 11.5 6. 25

IASHAROEK VWakeree ste ee ee ee AO EN BEES SES ST 11.5 2.63 92.8 itickcase weet Gs tn Ale eer idet sn ae elas Farr 23. 82 9.18 38.9 TB ESNTTLDN Ck cet a ee Se EE aE Syl SHY ae Mapp eee 8.12 0.25 3.07 - O 1 1 Wiholetbasia: resigns: Stes tne ee an chases eke ae eI: 10.31 3 o i 2 c: es

1 By calculation based upon the total mean annual stream flow, plus an additional amount estimated at one-half the known amount for the flow of the streams upon which no data are available. By peoieeieon based on an assumed rate of evaporation of the water from the lakes into which the rivers flow.

In addition, an attempt has been made to calculate the probable total run-off for the whole basin region. The first calculation is based upon the total mean annual stream flow plus an arbitrary amount for the flow of the streams upon which no data are available. The additional amount has been estimated as one-half of the known amount. This gives a run-off equivalent to 0.71 inch, or 6.8 per cent of the total precipitation. The second calculation is based on an assumed rate of evaporation of the water from the lakes. The total area of lake surface is 4,196 square miles. Assuming an annual evaporation of 60 inches gives an annual run-off of 1.19 inches, or 11.5 per cent of the average annual precipitation. The latter figure is undoubtedly high, as in the southern half of the Great Basin the run-off is practically zero. For instance, the Amargosa River is a typical desert stream and flows only at rare intervals and during periods of excessive precipitation. At other times water occasionally rises in springs from the dry bed, flows a short distance, and then sinks. .The run-off for this whole southern area must be less than 1 per cent.

As more than 50 per cent of the area of the Great Basin is flat, or characterized by slopes of low angles (0 to 5°), it may be assumed that for areas of this nature, 'receiving 10 inches or less mean annual rainfall, the run-off is practically zero. For the basin ranges themselves the run-off can not be in excess of 50 per cent, and it is probably much less. Much of this run-off is absorbed by the outwash slopes. We may take the Humboldt River as an example to illustrate this point. This stream rises in the Ruby Range, upon which there is considerable precipitation. At Oreana the mean annual flow gives a run-off of 0.25 inch (drainage area, 13.800 square miles), or 3.07 per cent of a mean annual rainfall of 8.12 inches. This means that most of the rainfall in the mountains along the course of the Humboldt is absorbed before it can reach the main river.

The basin region may be divided into mountain area, outwash area, and combined silt and playa areas. These approximate 50, 20, and 30 per cent, respectively, of the total area. An inspection of the precipitation tables given on a preceding page shows

10 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

that the lowest part of a basin often receives less than 5 inches of annual rainfall and the surrounding mountains a much larger amount. The disposal of the rainfall is illustrated in the following summary:

Distribution of rainfall.

f !

P L Percent- — ereoneiee gi ; ageof annua Region. whole -precipitapyanoraarea. tion. ree Seepage. Run-ofi. Moniamn area 2 22.) a st eee 50 13 50 10 40 Giimiiiaei. oo en ae 20 10 50 49 10 Silpand playxarenk. (223-5242 ee 30. 5 DOD: on. eee

Of the run-off from the mountain area given in the above table probably more than one-hali is lost by seepage in the outwash area. This would leave only 20 per cent of the mountain rainfall as run-off, and of the 10 per cent run-off of the outwash area we might well say that all is lost by seepage. Twenty per cent of 13 inches is 2.6 inches. This comes from one-half of the entire area and would be equivalent to 1.3 inches over the whole area. A large part of the seepage water is brought to the sur- - face by capillarity and lost by evaporation. It is admitted that the proportions estimated for evaporation and seepage in the above table are more or less arbitrary. Still, we may qualify some of these figures by comparison. The run-off factors for streams in the Sierra Nevada Mountains vary considerably. The average for the Kings, Merced, Tuolumne, Tule, Kern, Carson, Walker, and Truckee is 42.7 per cent. This would justify the 50 per cent run-off figure estimated. For the outwash slopes a percolation figure of 80 per cent is not unreasonable and for the silt areas 100 per cent.

From three lines of inquiry are obtained 0.71, 1.19, and 1.30 inches as the run-off for the basin region. The mean of these is 1.06 inches, or 10.3 per cent of the mean annual precipitation of the Great Basin.

It should be noted, however, that the southern portion of the basin region is characterized by a scanty and irregular run-off, only a fraction of that indicated above, while the run-off for the area contiguous to the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Mountains is, no doubt, much higher than the above.

Evaporation.

Practically all of the rainfall of the basin region is lost by-evaporation. During periods of excessive precipitation there is undoubtedly an increase and during periods oi aridity a decrease in the amount of ground water. Evaporation from the surface of lakes, from the surface of the ground, and the transpiration of plants are the three ways by which the water is taken back into the atmosphere. How important each of these factors is in the basin region is the subject of our inquiry.

Many experiments to determine the amount of evaporation from surface waters have been made and variable results have been obtained. Some of these results, such as more particularly apply to this region, are given in the following table:

Evaporation from water surfaces.

Locality. Conditions. evapora-

Inches. Owens Valley region, Cal.t Evaporation from pan in water, 1909 and 1910

Owens Valley region, Cal., Owens Lake.| Deep tank in soil, 1910

ee pmRa ae Seas been ee Pan in irrigation @iteh "4 2 - te eee UT TALS (Cy ee ae See OST 4-inch pan floating In canal... - 2... <2ne--b- cikegh ane Onl fo) Sh OF Er 4inch pan 2 inches above water Rabtiter em, Gals e525 SEs Go tNe 4inch pan 7,500 feet from sea 1 Pyramid Lake, Nev.? 2.2 Estimated from mean flow of Truckee

Ssihbsssrs Sserrssles

1 Bul. No. 294, Water-Supply Papers. Bul. No. 52, Nevada Exp. Sta. 2 American Civil Engineering Pocket Book. 4U.S. Geol. Survey Report No. 11.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 11

Evaporation from water surfaces varies with the seasons. It is greatest in the summer and fall months. In the Owens River region 73 per cent of the annual evaporation takes place in the six summer and fall months, and the remaining 27 per cent in the winter and spring months. We have not sufficient data to strike an average for the whole basin region, but it is believed that an annual evaporation of 60 inches would fairly represent that which takes place from the surface of the lakes in the basin region.

From an intensive study made of conditions in the Owens River basin ! the following

figures for the evaporation of water from ground surfaces are taken. The annual ground-surface evaporation depends largely upon the depth of ground water. Where the ground water exceeds 10 feet in depth practically no water is lost from the surface. Where ground water and ground surface coincide the maximum of 42.3 inches per year isfound; with ground water at a depth of 1.34 feet from the surface 39.95 inches isfound; and with ground water 4.98 feet below the surface 7.9 inches is found. Of the annual evaporation the summer and fall months account for 79 per cent of the total. . Observations in the same locality established the fact that even in a wet season percolating water does not penetrate to depths exceeding 24 feet unless more than 1 inch falls within a short period on moist soil. Even then it does not appear to reach depths greater than 4 feet. We would conclude from these observations that on detrital fills, on levels, or on low slopes, much of the rainfall is retained close to the surface and seldom penetrates to depths reaching 10 feet. It can not, therefore, form any permanent addition to the ground water, but must be lost by capillarity and evaporation. On steeper slopes the water penetrates slowly downward and in the lower portions of such slopes may be expected to accumulate sufficiently to reach the 10-foot level, and thus a part escapes loss by joining the permanent ground water. Streams debouching upon outwash slopes raise a ridge in the ground-water level and contribute a part of their seepage loss to permanent ground water. We would also conclude that ground water 10 feet or more from the surface would be permanent, and that ground water reaching the 10-foot level or less would be reduced in amount by evaporation. It should be noted that this limit of 10 feet can not be applied to all conditions, for in very fine silts capillarity would no doubt extend to a greater depth than 10 feet. It does, however, establish a limit under what we might term average conditions within which capillarity becomes effective. We would expect in all regions of the basin where ground water reached within the 10-foot level that a slow 'upward movement of moisture would follow. In this manner soluble salts would be brought to the surface or close to it and would appear as incrustations or be deposited within the surface soil. We should be safe in concluding that where surface incrustations are found in quantity ground-water levels are apt to be within the 10-foot limit. This is, of course, not an entirely accurate criterion, for surface waters may penetrate to depths of several feet and be returned by capillarity, carrying with them dissolved salts to the surface, where they would crystallize and form efflorescences.

Still another fact should not escape our attention. If we assume a soil void space of 25 per cent of volume, a depth of 30 inches of water would be necessary in order to saturate the soil to a depth of 10 feet. In a loose coarse soil but a small fraction of these 30 inches would be required for water to penetrate and reach to a depth of 10 feet. Ina mixed soil with much fine silt and clay probably a large proportion of this would be retained, if it penetrated at all, in the upper 10 feet. The low average rainfall of the desert region, together with the observed facts concerning the penetrations of soil by rainfall in the Owens region and the fact noted above, would lead us to conclude that were it not for the concentration of part of the rainfall into stream flows the ground water of the basin region would be a negligible quantity and would be present only in those places where subterranean supplies could act as feeders or in places occupying the lowest depressions of the surface. While these conclusions may be accurate for present climatic conditions it must be keptin mind that the basin region has been subjected to many climatic changes. Humid periods have alternated with arid. We may be not greatly in error when we say that the underground water supply of the basin region is perhaps consequent upon the greater rainfall of the Quaternary period and not upon present climatic conditions.

The surface of the Great Basin is covered with sparse vegetation. One is apt to get the idea from reading maps that vegetation is extremely scarce in the basin region, but we find some kind of vegetation over the whole area, with the exception of the playas and areas occupied by alkali incrustations. Many of the mountain ranges of the basin are thickly covered with grass, and sagebrush dominates over vast areas of

lain and mountain slope. We have no accurate determinations of the transpiration oss of desert plants. Such work as has been done on this question has concerned

1 WatereSupply Paper No. 294.

12 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

itself usually with farm crops. On the whole this question has no very important bearing upon our problem and may consequently be dropped.

In the section on surface waters it is shown that approximately 10 per cent of the mean annual rainfall occurs as run-off in the basin region. The evaporation from lakes, rivers, and transient ponds would be measured by this run-off. The remaining 90 per cent of the mean annual precipitation would be a measure of the evaporation from the surface of the ground, by transpiration of plants, and additions by seepage to permamanent ground water. It is believed that the addition to permanent ground water is relatively small.

Ground Water.

A comprehensive study of ground-water conditions in the Great Basin has yet to be made. Some important information pertinent to our subject is available. I have summarized the data under the following heads: Ground water in valleys and sinks; in outwash slopes; deep supplies of water; artesian water; springs; and fissure and rock water.

Valleys And Sinks.

Ground water is encountered in the Lovelock Valley at depths of 15 to 25 feet.! In this valley, after a considerable period of irrigation, ground water has been found at depths of 3 to 6 feet. The figures given in the first statement would represent original conditions, before irrigation took place. This valley is a silt-filled valley on the lower stretches of the Humboldt River.

In the Truckee meadows ground water is found at 10 to 12 feet from the surface in the vicinity of Reno, and on the eastern edge of the Truckee Meadows it stands practically at the surface. In south-central Oregon and the Harney Basin much detailed information is available. In Christmas and Silver Lake Valleys 46 wells and bores have been reported.? Most of these wells are located in the valley and lake silts. The depth to ground water varies from 5 to 49 feet. The average depth of water in all the wells reported is 18 feet. In the Harney Basin 46 wells have been reported. The average depth of water in these wells is 21 feet. .

In the Owens River Valley, Cal., a survey of underground waters was made by the United States Geological Survey,* and these were found to stand at 2 to 3 feet below the surface over considerable areas. Over the comparatively level valley floor west of Owens River and included within the 8-foot contour above the river (67 square miles of surface) ''the average depth to ground water between 4 and 8 feet extended over 40 per cent of this area, and between 3 and 4 feet over 28 per cent. It extends 8 feet in depth over 14 per cent of the area and is 3 feet or less over 18 per cent."

In the Silver Peak Marsh borings showed ground water at 2 to 12 feet depth and, in the case of many of the bores, water was encountered at 4 feet.° In the sink in Death Valley water is found a few inches below the salt crust and potholes in the rough salt areas indicate that ground water stands within 1 or 2 feet of the surface over a considerable area. On Searles Marsh Dolbear® reports the brine (over the salt area) to be within one-half inch of the surface.

At Millers, Nev., wells have been sunk in the desert sands of Big Smoky Valley and water sufficient to supply 160 stamps has been tapped at a depth of 65feet. The ground water in Big Smoky Valley undoubtedly comes much closer to the surface in the . playa southwest of Millers.

Mina is situated in the valley which forms the south extension of the basin occupied by Walker Lake. It isa typical desert valley. Two wells struck water at 112 and 118 feet from the surface.

Other examples could be cited, but these are sufficient to show that in the playa areas and the low areas generally we may expect to find ground water at no inconsiderable depth from the surface. The area within which the ground water would collect would depend upon the extent of the tributary basin and the rainfall within the basin.

Outwash Slopes.

The ground-water conditions in the outwash slopes may best be illustrated by the following quotation' describing the conditions in the Owens River Valley:

"'The ground-water surface as it approaches the valley floor from the west has an average slope of 90 feet to the mile. The corresponding slope of the ground surface

1 Bul. No. 52, Agr. Expt. Sta., University of Nevada.

2 Water-Supply Paper No. 220, U.S. Geol. Survey.

8 Water-Supply Paper No. 231, U.S. Geol. Survey.

4 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, U.S. Geol. Survey.

§ Bul. No. 530R, U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 7-11.

6 Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260. 7 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, p. 76.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 13

is steeper, varying from 150 to 110 feet to the mile. At the upper edge of the grass- Jand the two surfaces are about 8 feet apart and a short distance beneath they intersect in the spring belt. From this belt to Owens River the distance to ground water varies from 4 to 12 feet beneath the gently sloping or level valley floor. This sudden break in the slope of the ground-water surface at the spring belt is caused by the change from coarse to fine material in the region of the late lake. The fine material acts somewhat like a dam, raising a portion of the ground water to the suriace in springs and retarding the lateral movement of the remainder."'

The above quotation indicates a condition which must be common in basins characterized by surrounding alluvial cones. The ground-water level assumes a sloping surface, and, as we ascend the cone from the valley, we find this ground-water surface at greaterand greater depths. Wewould expect that in every case at the toe of the alluvial fan the ground-water level would be closest to the surface and deepest in the vicinity of the bordering mountains. The amount of seepage water that would collect from the contiguous watersheds, together with the rainfall, would determine whether the upper surface of this ground water would be close to or at considerable depth from the surface.

Deep Supplies Of Water And Artesian Water.

The bore hole put down by the United States Geological Survey in the Carson Sink region encountered suriace waters at a depth of 4 feet, and at depths greater than 150 feet a number of artesian flows were encountered. The well which was put down some 985 feet flowed water.

The Railroad Valley Saline Co. sunk a 1,200-foot bore in Railroad Valley. They discovered many flows of artesian water from the 128-foot depth downward. Twentynine separate flows are noted in the log of their well within the first thousand feet. At greater depth the formations were dry.

Artesian areas are known in Smith Valley, Nev.; the Truckee Meadows south of Reno; the Carson Valley, Nev.; the Las Vegas Valley, Nev.; the Salt Lake Valley, Utah; and in southern Oregon. These instances lead us to. conclude that waterbearing strata exist in many of the inclosed basins and at depth, and in many cases that they are capable of supplying artesian water.

Many springs exist in the Great Basin region. A complete list of these springs can not be given at thistime. Russell, in his study of the Quaternary lakes of western Nevada, mapped the springs occurring in this area. He shows $3 springs in an area of approximately 38,000 square miles. Of these 23 are hot springs. Outside of this area hot springs are encountered in many places. South of Beowawe some 6 miles are a number of hot springs and geysers. Just west of Elko isa large hot spring. Sixty miles north of Elko is an area in which several hot springs of considerable size occur. At Rhyolite, Nev., several small hot springs are to be found. Some 12 miles northwest of Goldfield is a hot spring of moderate size. In Railroad Valley a large hot spring has been found. The prevalence of hot springs in the basin region may be assumed to indicate the presence of deep-seated waters. Hydrothermal activity has long been noted as an important feature of the basin region. In earlier geological periods undoubtedly much greater activity existed than at the present.

Fissure And Rock Water.

That much water may be expected in fissure and brecciated zones in the mountain ranges is shown by the volumes of water encountered in mining operations. Virginia City is perhaps the most conspicuous example. In these mines hot springs have been encountered at depths below 1,000 feet, and a water flow approximating 8,000 gallons per minute represents the drainage from the rock masses of Mount Davidson within the area tapped by the mines. In the Eureka district in central Nevada water was encountered in the mines. In many of the other mining districts water in greater or less amounts has been encountered with depth.

Extent, Distribution, And Character Of The Rocks Of The Basin Region.

Volcanic rocks distinguish the basin region from other regions of the West. In order to get some idea of the distribution of the different rocks in the basin region, measurements were made upon the geological map of the Truckee folio, upon maps Nos. 4and 5 of the Fortieth Parallel Survey atlas, and upon Ball's map of southwestern

14 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

' Nevada and eastern California. The areas represented by each formation were measured by a planimeter and the proportion of the whole area determined. The results of these measurements are givenin TableIX. (See Appendix.) In the following summary the various volcanic and Plutonic rocks have been grouped: Rhyolites and granites; andesite basalts, diabases, and diorites; metamorphics, limestones, and sedimentary and water areas.

Areal distribution of rocks in the Great Basin region.

Fortieth Parallel Survey Atlas. ive

Truckee

Rock. quad-nies A rangle. diene

Nos. 4 ern Cali-and

5. fornia. ihyoliterandieranite ns s-ere esteem tae aoe ee eae eee elias ; : 122.5 21.5 Basalt, diabase, and diorite 5. 25. 5 11.5 Metamorphic: so 22 onan ao eee anes eee ee ee eee ee Be te) RS eaeae Manse amiss secce occ DJMESCONC 22 easels. Tae Rae aes eine ae ae Sass Se a eS ole ele telf ee ees eee er WPT Sedimentarysandiwatens pact e-store eee eee eee eee 26.8 67.0 53 54.9

1 Assuming area of rhyolite and trachyte is one-half rhyolite and one-half andesite.

The total areas occupied by igneous rocks are as follows: For the Truckee sheet, 67 per cent; for map No. 5 of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, 33 per cent; for maps Nos. 4 and 5 together, 48 per cent; for Ball's map, 33 per cent. The Truckee sheet may be considered as descriptive of an area in which igneous rocks dominate. This area would not be a fair representation of the whole basin region. The results obtained from the other three measurements indicate a range of 33 to 48 per cent. Which of these two measurements could be taken as representative of the basin region as a whole is a matter of doubt. Probably 40 per cent would be a fair figure to indicate areal distribution of igneous rocks in the basin region. This would leave 60 per cent for sedimentary and alluvial formations. On this basis some 84,000 square miles of the basin region is occupied by igneous rocks. We may assume that acid rocks take somewhat less than one-half of this area and basic rocks somewhat more than one-half.

The chemical composition of the rocks of the basin region has been determined by averaging the reported analyses of the various rocks. Table X (Appendix) gives the results of this study.

Sources Of Salines.

The salines of the basin region consist of mixtures of chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates, and borates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Lithium, alumina, ferric oxide, silica, bromine, iodine, phosphoric and arsenious acids have been detected in small amounts in the brines and waters of the basin. Alumina, ferric oxide, and silica are almost invariably found in small amount in river and lake waters and associated with saline crusts. Spectroscopic examination shows lithium in small quantity to be widely associated with saline material.

Salines result from the disintegration and decomposition of igneous and sedimentary rocks, from the decomposition of alluvial and detrital fills, and from the waters of springs of deep-seated origin. During Quaternary times the basin region was the scene of numerous volcanic eruptions. How important these were as contributors to the salines can not now be told, but they must have been not unimportant sources of saline material.

Igneous Rocks.

In a previous section it has been shown that approximately 40 per cent of the basin area is covered by igneous rocks, and that somewhat less than one-half of this area is represented by rocks of an acid type, while somewhat more than one-half is represented by rocks of a basic type. The composition of the more important types of igneous rocks is given in Table X (Appendix). From the figures in this table the following table has been calculated:

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 15

Chemical composition of the more important basic and acidic rocks.

5; . Type, Type, F Type, Type, Constituents. acid. basic. Constituents. acid! ae

Base: Per cent. Percent. Acid: Per cent. Per cent. Me @meteor. Sea ise 2o [eee 05 EBD lee), Sie as see see eee eee 023701 2,910) 0.086 CHONG Sirs Rete ares egos a TER lent) Sane See a ers ee rieO1 Se .068 INaOmet ee eee eee 3.35 3.29 COs eee Sanaa ert .160 326 1G Oe a aS ee cee a Se 4.10 2.09 SOs Ls eee hee eee ae OS Ot Seren ee el PeOgee ee ee eee 145 240 MO taker. 2 oN ee Va 10.65 16.23 —— DO tale tees eo eae ison 700

- The table gives the average percentage composition of acid and basic divisions of the igneous rocks. Only those constituents have been included which might be expected to contribute to the bases and acids of salines.

Hydration and carbonation are the two important processes by which igneous rocks are decomposed. The rate at which decomposition proceeds is dependent upon the rate of disintegration, as well as upon the intensity of hydration and carbonation. Hydration and carbonation are dependent for their intensity upon climatic conditions. Disintegration depends upon extremes of temperature, the physical nature of the rock, the activity of erosion, and the rate of decomposition of the rock constituents. Disintegration and decomposition proceed simultaneously. Under arid climatic conditions, such as pertain in the basin region, disintegration is dominant and decomposition is measurably less than under humid climatic conditions. This fact has been pointed out by a number of investigators—Van Hise, Merrill, Hilgard, Clarke. Further confirmation of this fact may be easily obtained by petrographic examination of the alluvial material taken from the aprons bordering the basin ranges. Comparatively fresh particles of feldspar may be found even in the finer silts of the central parts of the basin.

The extent to which the igneous rocks of the basin region have been decomposed, and the constituents and proportion of each which might be expected to form accessions to the salines, have not been made the subject of special study. In a general way it might be said that the amount of rock decomposition in this region is nominal. Pre-Tertiary igneous rocks (in the main granites and diorites), where exposed, are noticeably decomposed. The older Tertiary volcanics (andesites) are also decomosed

to a considerable extent. This is particularly noticeable in the areas in which

ydrothermal activity was once dominant. In such areas decomposition extends locally to comparatively great depths and the rock alteration is in many cases profound. In the basin region there are some 350 mining districts. Each of these may be considered to have been in the past the locus of more or less hydrothermal action. The aggregate altered rock area of these districts is not known, but it must constitute an extremely small part of the total basin area and be therefore relatively unimportant as a source of saline material. Late Tertiary rhyolites and Quaternary igneous rocks are often only superficially decomposed, except in those regions where hot springs have continued their activities to comparatively recent times.

Humid conditions exist only on the highest mountain ranges and consequently the areas exposed to weathering under the most favorable conditions for decomposition must constitute a relatively small part of the total. Over a large part of the area exposed to weathering influences the conditions in the Great Basin are such as to produce decomposition at a comparatively slow rate at the present time. That this was not always the case has been shown by the investigations of Gilbert and Russell. It is to be particularly noted that in Quaternary times climatic changes were numerous and humid conditions alternated with arid conditions. During the period of Quaternary lake development the rock decomposition must have proceeded at a very much more rapid rate than under present conditions. Consequently a greater amount of saline material must have been contributed and have been deposited in the basins.

The minerals constituting igneous rocks are attacked at differentrates. Clarke states:

"The pyroxenes and amphiboles yield most readily to waters; then follow the plagioclase feldspars, then orthoclase and the micas, with muscevite the most resistant of all. Even quartz is not quite insoluble, and the corrosion of quartz pebbles in conglomerates has been noted by several observers. Among the common accessories, apatite and pyrite are most easily decomposed, magnetite is less attacked, and such minerals as zircon, corundum, chromite, ilmenite, etc., tend to accumulate with little alteration in the sandy rock residues."

This conclusion no doubt applies to conditions more nearly approaching humid than arid. We should expect under arid conditions, that the more insoluble minerals

16 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

would be relatively less affected than the more soluble. Orthoclase and muscovite are the two chief potash-bearing minerals. They are also the most resistant to weathering. This, together with the fact that the acid rocks which contain these minerals are relatively less abundant than the basic rocks which contain the plagioclase feldspars, would lead one to conclude that potash would be found in the salines in much smaller quantities than soda. Van Hise, in discussing the decomposition of orthoclase, shows that this mineral may be altered into kaolin with the liberation of all of the potash in the form of potassium carbonate, or into muscovite with the liberation of only two-thirds of the total potash as potassium carbonate. His reactions are:

2K AlSi,0,+2H,0+CO,=H,ALSi,0,+48i0,+ K,COs. 2K AlSi,0,+H,0+C0,=KH,Al,8i,0,.+68i0,+K,CO3.

The relative importance of these two reactions can not, for obvious reasons, be stated. Both take place in nature. Probably in regions of hydrothermal activity the alteration to kaolin is more often found, while in regions of simple weathering the reverse is more often the case.

From the foregoing table it is seen that the soda content of basic is only slightly less than for acidic rocks. While the potash content of basic is about one-half that of the acidic rocks, the greater susceptibility to weathering of the basic rocks would lead us to conclude that the larger proportion of soda would be liberated from these rocks rather than from acidic rocks.

Lime and magnesia are liberated by decomposition but tend to pass into insoluble compounds more quickly than either potash or soda; consequently, we should expect to find them less abundant in salines.

The acid constituents of igneous rocks are relatively less abundant than the basic. Weathering would liberate these, and the abundance of oxygen present in the zone of weathering would convert the sulphur into sulphuric anhydride. This is also indicated by the comparative absence of reducing substances shown by the scanty vegetation of the basin. The chlorine, carbonic acid, and sulphuric acid would combine with whatever bases were present to form chlorides, carbonates, and sulphates.

The phosphoric acid, if liberated as soluble phosphate, would quickly pass into one of the many insoluble phosphates. Phosphoric acid is found in the salines only in small quantities and can not be considered as an important constituent of these substances.

Merrill, in discussing the decomposition of igneous rocks, presents the results of a number of studies and has endeavored to show what proportion of the original rock has been lost in the form of soluble compounds. It is evident that a mere comparison of analyses of weathered versus fresh rocks is inadequate. While it is generally true that the percentage of alkalies present in material resulting from weathering is less than the percentage in the undecomposed rock, still we have many examples where apparently the percentage composition has been unchanged, or the percentage of the alkalies has been increased. This is due to the fact that as the rock weathers its volume and weight change. If it were possible to determine the weight of fresh rock and the weight of residual material (soil) resulting from weathering, we could determine the proportionate loss of the constituents. This, for obvious reasons, can not be done. By assuming one constituent as constant, and that the most insoluble one, Merrill! has calculated the proportional loss of constituents due to weathering. From 10 examples of igneous rocks given by this author I have calculated the average percentage losses. The following table gives these for alumina, ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, potash, and soda:

Percentage loss of constituents from igneous rocks caused by decomposition.

Mean loss Estimated - - Constituent. humid for arid Roe region.2 regions.3 5 Per cent. Per cent. AsO physi, IN Ss Sew Es Ns Sr 14.17 7.8 1.8 1 OYEE KO rt ie eae a Se eon epee Wore dN Foie R ONE TY ays 32. 84 18.2 1.8 CEO GES See a ie tee a ge MONIT Ouletnee Merny Myson GAS 66.9 5.3 12.6 MOR alae ye rr PRESSES PUI ap TRIS AS rey UNG tab 64.7 10.4 6.2 RG Oya ane eer hE a: ote Ue SEE Oe AS Sa nae 62.1 19.0 Se ITNT hg (©) Bae ers 2 ay UE ale Rn ad i ae 72.0 24.8 2.9

1 Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 188. Merrill. # Calculated averages from examples of igneous rock decomposition given by Merrill. Merrill's examples include granites, phonolftes, syenite, diabases, basalts, diorites, and andesites. Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, pp. 185-208, Merrill.

' Calculated by dividing percentages of first column by ratios given in last column.

4 Calculated from data given by Clarke of average analyses of soils of humid and arid regions (Bul. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 467). Ratio is percentage of constituent in acid-soluble portion of soils from arid region divided by percentage of constituents in acid-soluble portion of soils from humid regions.

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. te

The results given are for humid conditions. We have no examples of a similar nature for arid conditions. A rough approximation may be made from the comparison of soils of arid regions with those of humid. Clarke! givesaverage analyses of a number of soils for both climatic conditions. From these we can obtain the ratio of one constituent in the average of soils from arid regions to the same constituent in average of soils from humid regions. These ratios are given in the foregoing table. Ii we assume that the proportional loss of a constituent from rocks in arid regions is the product of the proportional loss in humid regions and the reciprocal of the ratio, the results in second column of above table are obtained. No high degree of accuracy can be vouched for these results.

The following table has been calculated from the tables immediately preceding, and gives, perhaps, a better idea of the measure of igneous rock decomposition and the liberation of soluble constituents. The unit is taken as 100 pounds and only the more important bases and acids have been calculated. The acid constituents, with the exception of phosphoric acid, have been assumed to be entirely liberated.

Contribution from 100 pounds of original rock.

j Acid type. Basic type. Acid type. Basic type.

Pounds Pounds Pounds| Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds constitcontrib- constitcontrib- constitcontrib- constitcontribuent jutedby} uent uted by ; uent |utedby| uent uted by pounds.| ering. |pounds.| ering. pounds ering. pounds. ering. MgO 10.50 0. 156 4,52 OF47OileSesseeceseess 0.370 0.370 0. 066 0. 066 MAOM ENE 2a 114 6. 33 SRY (OSS ccicasesac .015 015 . 068 . 068 INas@ 22 eo. 3.35 831 3. 29 SIGH COs aces eee 160 . 160 - 326 326 A ae aei: 4.10 779 2. 09° 397 SO a ss4| 035 S030 -4-cseelkeaecmeles IPO hessases oe 12 Gye (Se ameeeeiess DAD nee tee Total. 10. 65 1. 880 16. 23 2.018 Total... 725 SOS0F os secs 460

Sedimentary Rocks.

The pre-Tertiary sedimentaries of the basin region are not important sources of saline material. Limestones are abundant and contribute to the lime compounds associated with salines. The gypsum deposits of the Triassic are and have been an important source of this compound. From Table X (Appendix), giving the average analyses of Great Basin rocks, it is seen that limestones contain 0.51 per cent alkalies. Merrill? shows that for weathering under humid conditions a limestone loses 63 per cent of the alkalies. If we take one-third of this as representing the conditions for an arid climate, we would have 21 per cent of 0.51, or about one-tenth of a pound of alkali per 100 pounds of fresh rock. The slates and quartzites contain small quantities of alkalies, but weather much less rapidly than either igneous or calcareous rocks. By their decomposition small amounts of bases are contributed to salines, but, on the whole, we must consider them far less important as a source of salines than other rocks.

The Tertiary lake beds constitute one of the most important sources of saline materials outside of the igneous rocks. They consist of limestones, shales, diatomaceous beds, slates, and sandstones. Interbedded and oiten commingled are salines of which common salt, sodium sulphate, gypsum, and boric minerals predominate. The disintegration of these beds liberates saline material, while the decomposition of the residual portion contributes an additional amount. As these beds are comparatively

soit, they would erode rapidly, and, no doubt, in late Tertiary and Quaternary times they contributed a large proportion of the detrital filling of the present basins. The table following, showing partial analyses of lake-bed material, will give some idea of its chemical nature.

1 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 467. 2 Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, Merrill, pp. 217-19; Mean of Percentages for K2O and Na2O.

18 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Analyses! of material from lake beds northeast of Mina.

Sample No.— i Hasek Bo 4 a 1-8 9 12 Ee Ee at , (CeCgs3| esa Per ct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Perct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. TD ee SOR a See sks 17.24 45.80) 38.42 4.55 2. 33 1.95 29.92 26. 67 we ss dat Sst esa 508 ) Seva aay -40; 2.55 SEO ET? SAG eee. OF 54 GOV bal) a2 ae se sae ee ie ie -38 - .46 1.81 3.08 1.91 - 90 1.46 sos 5 ee Pe cane Pa Fee 1.23) 1.28 2.50 3.00 5.47 2.05 1.54

ele es en ee Seo as prs cigs gg Aeag Ar ash Bees 14

i Alkalies determined by Cullen; others determined by Young. All except sample No. 1 contain traces of P; all contain acid-soluble AlzO3 and FeeQ3.

The samples were taken from different beds. My examination failed to show water-soluble carbonates and sulphates, and I found only traces of water-soluble potash. The principal soluble salt was sodium chloride. Other analyses of these lake beds have been reported and sodium chloride noted. The material other than that of a calcareous nature consisted of volcanic glass and tuffaceous particles of a volcanic nature. Microscopic examination showed much volcanic glass. The examination also indicated that most of the material, excepting calcium and magnesium carbonates, was oi a wind-blown nature and had been deposited in shallow, brackish lakes in which calcium and magnesium carbonates were being laid down.

The Quaternary lake beds are oi considerably less importance than the Tertiary. They contribute some saline material to the present drainage system, but as these beds are in the main sands and slits with little visible saline material, they may be regarded as of minor importance. Russell! reports lactistral material containing as 'much as 1.17 per cent sodium chloride. In this connection it should be noted that the material obtained from the 985-foot bore, sunk by the Geological Survey in Carson Sink through recent and Lahontan formations, failed to show any brines or solutions of marked saline content. Petrographic examination of Lahontan Lake bed sedimentaries shows comparatively little decomposition of the feldspars,

Alluvial And Detrital Material.

The heterogeneous material constituting the valley fills comprises more than 50 per cent of the whole basin area. As this material is in a more or less finely divided condition and is subject to .the action of percolating waters, decomposition must be more or less active and a not unimportant amount of salines contributed to the present stream systems through the agency of underground and surface waters.

As has been shown in a previous chapter, numerous hot springs occur in the basin region. No very complete studies of these have been made, and comparatively iew analyses have been reported. In the table which follows, I have summarized the analyses oi some 16 such springs.

Analyses of hot spring waters.

Constituent. AG B. C. D. E. F.

Per cent. Percent. Percent. Per cent. Percent. Percent. i? cele ot ee eee 58.84 56.72 58.79 35.00 38.79 20.27 SO Re oe artic eas tite 1.41 2.87 94 7 14.25 34.19 oe ef een ee eee ns ave eemeG, TN. Bi SY i omer ee ee TNO EO oe 2 oe a ORS SS ES CN aie gle ees mien ie: 90 1.05 61 5.08 None. 'Trace. Bg. a ee a es en ee NE, A Sa 8.91 4. te eae cu Eee ee SEs See eee mete 33.15 34.7. 30.38 30.35 31.04 29.78 tempter any. tens Sa cee hie we 3.19 3 3.76 3.79 2.69 $2 ee oe ter ee er i eS a aE Trace Soe ae er nF inn oe Fes 1.99 91 4.90 25 1.23 1.18 "2 SS a er ieee O4 7 "40 01 04 04 Rs Se a Ge a eel Be Sai a ee jg Penn Bee re. 2 Aree ose es et Glee enn ee 82 01 1045/3342 eee Bip et ee ee 28 17 20 11.41 141.92 213.62 106.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total solids on evaporation (parts per 100,000) 3, 067 2, 443 2,330 285 249.5 102.1

1 Quaternary History of Mono Valley, 8th Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 307. 2 Calculated as SiO,.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 19

Analyses of hot spring waters—Continued.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

CON Li ey Fa ca ea eer fen 20.25 10.98 2.63 9.74 Trace. 47.93 47.53 SO eae eee ite seers ceed 32.97 15.13 4.04 6. 96 8.21 11. 25 8.15 Cie ns ee ees Trace: D797 a 93.84 18.08:} D5: 6 esa SG7albeens 1.36 IBS O ASB oc es NS Ei acs oe to hc EE aS LM apes Ne at cae Ime eee aes Re SESE S ial fe ae ee a Se GA AE 4 Mast Settee ire eh ae yen Pe 30.03 29. 56 12.83 10.67 DADA 32.63 31.92 Rees, Urey Sore Sess Ts 1.61 3.05 2-12 5.33 sa U5 2.70 2.80 ANTI aren ee cee hn ne aM FTP ACO erate esses Sie havat ese ol ea eee eel a asec egies oN ear ae Ser (Cann tae tee rien apes 2 3S Bia oak 3.10 2.84 5.96 5.34 TSE 2.48 2.10 Miogeegie : Wyman. £9). thei St 29 2.92 2.02 2.55 Trace Trace Tracs. TNS Eee Fee a Pt ek are ie te yarn ns TN Fe era mrarae Stove eocee oe ctatetes ome oe [arene ep [leant RCo at SRE NAPE ey Serene rae PART SO) oye e mene Facey sees tien tay as OAT Bee sal COS Vil eae ies EU Pe UR a aCe wa oy Ie a RT Sg Le SiO piucalecee ee ee eentnedladas Ela Meslay ns ed Ce lect ee io8 Nise ree Shane ROME EE Attia Fell cA 100-000!) 100.00) aee epee a Ieee cleat a ete bean erg os

Total solids on evaporation ie

@parts per 100000) p22 ee: 118.3 206.9 99.2 43.2 62.0 44.40 428. 0

1 Analyses not complete. Percentages based on solids on evaporation. 2 Calculated as SiQOs. A. Water from hot salt spring near bathhouse, Silver Peak, Nev. R. Dole, Bul. No. 530, U.S. Geol. Sur-vey

, p. 16. : B. Water from hot salt spring at northeast end of marsh, Silver Peak, Nev. R. Dole, Bul. No. 530, U. 8S.

Geol. Survey, p. 16. : C. Utah Hot Springs, 8 miles north of Ogden, Utah. Analysis by F. W. Clarke. Clarke, Bul. No. 491,

U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 172. D. Steamboat Springs, Nev. Analysis by W. H. Melville Clarke. Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey,

Dial,

E. Hot Springs, Hot Spring Station, Central Pacific Railway. Analysis by T. M. Chatard, Ru ssell, Monograph U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 11, p. 49.

F. Schaffer's Spring, Honey Lake, Nev. Analysis by T. M. Chartard, Russell, Monograph No. 11, U.S.

Geol. Survey, p. 51. ; G. Hot spring, near Granite Mountain, Nev. Analysis by T. M. Chatard, Russell, Monograph No. 11,

U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 53.

. H. Warm spring, Mono Lake. Analysis by T. M. Chatard, Russell, 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. urvey, p. 288. I. Paradise Valley Spring, Ney. Analysisby J. A.Cullen. Thisspring contains hydrogen sulphide. J. X Lspring, Oregon Lake Region. Analysis by J. A. Cullen. K. Hot springs, in Thousand Springs Valley, 30 miles northeast of Wells, Nev. Analysis by J. A. Cullen. L. Boiling spring, 0.75 mile northwest of Gerlach, Nev. Sample by W.S. Palmer. Analysisby J. A.

Cullen. M. Mean analyses of 4 spring waters taken one-fourth mile northeast of Gerlach, Nev. Temperature of waters from 61° to 90° F. Samples by W.S. Palmer. Analyses by 8. C. Dinsmore.

In three of these spring waters the total solids exceed 1,000 parts per 100,000 of water, or over 1 per cent. The highest of these contains some 3 per cent total solids. The remainder contain from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent total solids. In seven of these waters chlorides predominate, while in the others chlorides and sulphates are about equally divided. In three of the waters only are carbonates conspicuous. Bicarbonates are present in seven cases. The average ratio of sodium to potassium is 10.9. In three cases the sodium-potassium ratio is notably low. The lime, magnesia, and silica are generally low. In the case of the Utah Hot Springs and the warm springs of the Silver Peak district the lime content is high, while in the case of the Steamboat Springs and hot springs of the Central Pacific Railroad the silica is high. In only one case has boric anhydride been noted.

Hot springs contribute to the salines of the basin, but it is believed that their total contribution must be small, as the flow from such springs is in the aggregate not very large, while the saline content is usually quite small. Perhaps all the hot springs of the basin would not contribute an amount of saline material equal to that from a fair-sized stream. How important the contributions to saline material in past geological ages from this source were we can not conjecture.

Quaternary And Recent Volcanic Activity.

Extinct craters are not uncommon in the basin region. The centers in which these cones are to be found are Lassen County, in the vicinity of Mono Lake, and in the vicinity of Great Salt Lake. In these three localities many cones have been described. In the Carson Sink, Big and Little Alkali Lakes have been determined to be the craters of extinct volcanoes. Northeast of Blair, in the Silver Peak district, Nev., is a large cone. East of milepost 48 on the road between Goldfield and Rhyolite are two cones, while southeast of Rhyolite in Crater Flat is another. In Death Valley are evidences which point to the possible existence of recent vents. In Owens River Valley is also a cone. In addition to the volcanic cones many recent ©

20 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

(late Quaternary) lava flows, which undoubtedly originated from fissures, are to be noted.

While we have no evidence at present as to the amount and kind of saline material in the ejecta of these cones and fissures, from our knowledge of volcanic eruptions at present taking place we must conclude that a considerable part at least of the saline material at present in the basin came from volcanic sources. Chlorine, sulphuric acid, chlorides, and sulphur compounds are conspicuous in the gaseous and solid ejecta of volcanoes. Much of the chlorine that we find compounded with sodium undoubtedly originated from volcanic activity.

Atmosphere.

From the atmosphere, important contributions of carbonic acid gas and, to some extent, chlorine, chlorides, and nitrogen compounds are being made. Wind erosion is undoubtedly responsible for the return of some of the saline material from the playas to the mountain ranges.

Reactions In The Zone Of Weathering. Reactions Of Solution.

The products of disintegration and decomposition in the zone of weathering may be divided into three groups—undecomposed rock fragments, partially decomposed rock fragments, and products of complete' rock decomposition. The last group may be divided into soluble and insoluble products. Of these the former would consist of alkalies and alkaline earths, together with acid radicals, chlorine, sulphuric anhydride, carbonic and bicarbonic, nitric, boric, and phosphoric; the latter would consist of kaolinite, muscovite, quartz, talc, zeolitic minerals, limonite, calcite, and chlorite. Between the alkalies and alkaline earths and the acid radicals certain important reactions would take place. The relative abundance and kind of bases and acid material would determine these reactions. The solubilities of the more important constituents are given in the following table:

Solubility of important constituents of decomposition product.

Basic element. Chloride.| Sulphate. Carbonate. Bicap on- Nitrate. Borate. Phosphate. Sodiumepseeeseeece sees Soluble Soluble...| Soluble...) Soluble.../ Soluble Soluble Soluble. OLASSIUM Ns Seen see ere PAC Koy Ary lh ACG Koy Bee ie Eee CONS ae SPAS Vaya ae BL GOfs as seadoxee Do. Caleiums nee eee ...do Insoluble..| Insoluble..| Soluble to |...do Slightly Insoluble.

slight soluextent. ble. Magnesium Pd Ox ESOlMDICss aise OMe eae Beak yea Babe ote Do. e

It is evident that in a system consisting of all chlorides and nitrates of the bases named all of the compounds would be soluble and only in the case of their concentrated solution would any salts separate out. It is apparent that the latter condition would rarely be present in the zone of weathering.' In system of chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates, borates, and phosphates of sodium and potassium no reactions resulting in insoluble compounds could take place. In a system of chlorides and sulphates, lime would be the only base precipitated as a sulphate. This is indicated by the fact that gypsum is not an infrequent mineral in the zone of weathering, and its presence is no doubt due in part to reactions of this nature. The most common system that we find includes the chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. In this system calcium and magnesium would be thrown down as comparatively insoluble carbonates and calcium also as gypsum. We would expect the solution resulting to contain chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium. In a system in which calcium and magnesium predominate we would expect to find mainly soluble chlorides, as all carbonic acid and sulphuric acid, except that required to saturate the system, would be thrown down by calcium and magnesium.

The analyses of waters coming from the zone of weathering invariably show small quantities of silica, ferric oxide, calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and alumina.

1 The word ''complete"' is used in a restricted sense.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 21]

These are all compounds of very low solubility, and, as practically all are present abundantly in the zone of weathering, we may consider the solution as being saturated, or nearly saturated, with respect to these compounds. With the more soluble compounds it is unusual, except very locally, to have conditions in the zone of weathering which would lead to saturation.

Wind and water are the two agents concerned in the movement of the products of the zone of weathering. Even though the basin region has a scanty rainfall, water is by far the more important agent. Water dissolves the soluble constituents and carries away in suspension the finely comminuted products of disintegration and decomposition. Heavy rainstorms and cloudbursts carry down from the mountains quantities of comparatively coarse material to be deposited upon apron slopes or even in the central portions of the playas. One has but to walk over the detrital fans in Death Valley to appreciate the prodigious erosion that has been accomplished by cloudbursts. Ravines and gullies are choked with coarse débris, which spreads out in fan-like masses at their mouths and resembles more than anything else the piles of débris resulting from hydraulic mining. One has but to experience a dust storm in Death Valley, or any portion of the basin region for that matter, to appreciate the importance of wind as an agent of erosion and deposition.

Absorption Phenomena.

In a previous section has been pointed out the importance of the seepage water and the fact that only a small part of the rainfall is collected in streams and reaches the sinks and lakes. This fact would indicate that under present climatic conditions only a fraction of the soluble salts is collected by the run-off, while the greater part is carried away by the seepage water to be in part permanently retained by the soil and in part to be removed by underground waters. Certain reactions take place within the soil and alluvial material and the soluble salts which are carried into the seepage zone by percolating waters. These reactions are to a greater extent chemical and to a less extent physicalin nature. The net result is to withdraw a portion of the saline material permanently.' The reacting substances are silicates and the colloidal material of soils, and in the solution, soluble salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. A solution of salts carrying more or less suspended material percolates into alluvial material. The suspended material is quickly removed and is concentrated in the upper layers of the soil. The phenomena attending the reaction between soil constituents and solutions are much more complex. Cameron! shows that absorption accounts for the removal of a part, at least, of the soluble salts. He groups under the term absorption the mechanical inclusion of solutions, the formation of new compounds by double decomposition, and the condensation of dissolved substances on or about the surface of the absorbing medium. 'To the last the term absorption is given. KE. C. Sullivan has summarized the literature dealing with adsorption, and from this summary the facts of special interest to this inquiry are taken.

The principal conclusions are embodied in the following quotations:

"So far as the evidence goes the action of silicates, clay, and other constituents of the earth's crust in solutions of such salts as do not dissolve in water with alkaline reaction consists in an equivalent exchange of bases. The salt is uniformly distributed between the water of colloid silica and silicates and the water of the solution. Any absorption of the salt as a whole by the solids mentioned is so slight as to have escaped positive detection. As bearing upon the latter point, 1t should be said that certain colloid substances, analogues to which are present in the earth's crust, do take from solution both the acid and base of the salts mentioned. Ferric and aluminum oxides and metastannic and stannic acids, for instance, take potassium sulphate from solution, while hydrated manganese dioxide takes up sulphate, chloride, or nitrate of potassium.?

"It may be observed that the base enters into reaction to approximately the same extent, whether it is combined as sulphate, chloride, or nitrate. So far as there isa difference, more of the base is removed from sulphate solution than from the others. On comparing chemically equivalent quantities, it is seen that ammonium is taken from solution in greatest degree, followed in order by potassium, magnesium, sodium, and calcium. As to the bases dissolved from the soil, Kiillenberg's conclusion is that for the absorbed base nearly equivalent quantities of other bases, already present in the soil, have been carried over into the solution.?

''When the solution is alkaline in reaction, containing a soluble hydroxide dissolved as such or a salt made up of a strong base and a weak acid (as the carbonates, silicates, and phosphates of sodium and potassium), which is hydrolyzed by water with resulting formation of free alkali, its behavior with clay, soils, etc., is due largely

1 The Soil Solution: Cameron, p. 59. 2 Bul. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 27. 3 Tbid., p. 16.

22 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

to the presence of colloid silica or alumino-silicate, and consists primarily in the direct addition of alkali to these solids, without substitution, insoluble silicates or aluminosilicates being formed.'

"The loss of an acid radical of a dissolved salt to clay, soil, etc., appears, like the loss {the base, to be due usually to the formation of an ordinary insoluble salt, such

Zone Of Pe Tained Weatheaing By Plants

Ground Carayed Down

And Dovsthibuted&#x27;

DRAINAGE FFROIA (AIOUN TAIN TO SINAC FUN - OFE SLEPAGE RETURNED BY WIND FEE TAINED By PLANES BROUGHT BY CAPILLARITIC TO SURFACE RETURNED 4 va) rw ABSORPTION BY SS aye CLAKS-—SILTS WELLS~SPEINGS PETAINED BY PLANTS RETAINED BY ABSORPTION IN CLAKS- SILTS

WiND - OI

BAINES QLEPOS17/0N See

Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the factors of loss during the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering zone to the sink.

as the phosphate, carbonate, or silicate of calcium, iron, etc. Such precipitation takes place primarily from alkaline solution, because the acids that have the greatest tendency to form insoluble compounds are weak acids, whose salts are hydrolyzed by water."

"Sodium silicates and alumino-silicates are less stable in contact with water solutions than the corresponding potassium compounds. Evidence of this is

1 Bul. 312, U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 28. 2Tbid., p. 30.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 23

found not only in the laboratory, but also under natural conditions. The replacement of sodium in silicates by the potassium of a dissolved salt takes place far more readily than the reverse reaction. A similar reaction, although perhaps not quite so marked, exists between magnesium and calcium silicates. The transformation of a magnesium silicate by calcium chloride into calcium silicate is more difficult than the reverse change.'' ?

The most significant fact of absorption phenomenon is the greater susceptibility of potassium to be absorbed than any of the bases and the greater resistance of potasstum compounds to the action of percolating waters. The acid radicals, with the exception of carbonic, bicarbonic, and phosphoric, are unaffected in quantity.

The restricted and irregular rainfall of the basin region would result in more concentrated solutions being received by the seepage zone, and would result, therefore, in a greater relative amount of absorption than with the less concentrated solutions of humid regions.

A further fact must be kept in mind, and that is that a considerable part of the basin area receives such a scanty rainfall that only on comparatively steep slopes do the percolating waters reach ground-water levels and add their quota of soluble material to underground circulating waters. The greater part of the intermountain area acts like a sponge and receives and retains the waters and their dissolved salts. Capillarity raises a part of the water, together with such soluble material as escapes absorption.

Vegetation also plays an important part. It isa well-known fact that plants absorb potassium salts from the soil and seepage water. The amount of potassium removed annually in this way from ground waters must be large.

We are justified in the conclusions that in the basin region a large part of the soluble salts is retained in the interstitial or pore spaces of the soil; a part of the soluble material is changed to insoluble, and potassium is more likely to be retained and in greater relative amount than any of the other bases; a precipitation of the more insoluble carbonates, such as lime and magnesia, takes place in the upper part of the soil; that the stronger acids, such as chlorine, sulphuric anhydride, nitric, and boric (excepting sulphuric and boric in the presence of soluble lime salts) are practically undiminished by absorption phenomena. Combined with various bases they either remain in the soil or are leached away in the ground water.

Soluble salts reach the sinks or lowest parts of the intermountain areas in two ways— by underground waters which gravitate to the low points and by the run-off waters which accumulate in the same places. It is evident that in the passage of the seepage water to the sink absorption continuesand only a final residuum, which may be only a small part of the original total of soluble salts, reaches the sink. The run-off waters are diminished on their way to the sink by seepage waters with consequent loss of a part of the dissolved salts. Figure 2 illustrates the various losses which we may expect in the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering zone to the sink. I have taken potassium as the base to best illustrate the point. The quantitative side of the problem can not be determined and consequently the figure does not involve this feature.

The case for sodium would be simpler than for potassium. Little or none of this base would be retained by plants or by chemical absorption, and the only loss would be that portion retained and brought by capillarity to the surface or retained simply by the soil. The greater part of the sodium, either as sulphate or chloride, would eventually reach the sink.

The case for ime and magnesia isalsoa simple one. Only that portion in the run-off waters would reach the sink. The remainder would be found distributed from and within the zone of weathering to the sink. The greatest part would be nearest the belt of weathering. A nominal amount would reach the sink through the agency of ground waters."

1 Bul. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 22.

2 Calcareous hardpans aren't infrequently found in the Great Basin. In the vicinity of Las Vegas, Nev., there is an especially good illustration of the development of a thick layer of calcareous material. This in some places forms the surface and in other places is covered by a thin soil. The rocks of the neighboring mountains are sandstones and limestones. An analysis of this hardpan shows the following (analysis by J. A. Cullen, Bureau of Soils):

Per cent. VSASO) all ONS ass Sis ie eae eae ZT Sat ire Ne cies ee TU crite Me A eleameee euineeaacss MRO evra sZt Germ a 7.6 eerie Cncioka ean le ote dink segue eer ters meee pagum Nh PA eT Re cine GORA. Vine OE asic RMN S . 46 PIE Tn Ome rn eens Me eee eee TE eels os Rl MS ma ihe lies nh uO monn Ne Wd VK inieh wy aeum SIR BAY Moby aya 37. 20 AVIS Sel einer eter ys al NG 2 OH es tea tg eM Oc eMeR ENaC bier) gy ene OO SW SABRI 12. 65 BIR ENIGO bers tiem t tree ape eal ee ees Yee Medora pasa aye ate Ohl, FoR aN cts MEL yee tMe . 30 BIRGER Gl epeee pene Rr ape aire ef aie LY te tyro Uren CN CAN. Spur men etehaBh ie eal ile Wee MPa, SURNAM ATO aa .39 MANO MTGE ana CC al lna a ash eel artes teeta Boat aos Lalas wire Sera ile ae ona Nal ae or aa il be eR AiR 03

I have also noted many instances where the material of gulch dumps in the basin mountains has been cemented together by calcium carbonate. - : ;

In the alluvial fans it is not uncommon to find the material removed by the burrowing of smallanimals to be coated by calcium carbonate. :

24 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

The factors influencing absorption are the rate of movement of underground waters, the concentration of solutions, the chemical nature of salines and salts, the distances to be traversed to outlet if spring, or to sink if there is no surface outlet. In the case of saline solutions retained locally the time factor is greatly increased and, consequently, absorption may proceed to practical completion. The conditions in any one case are so variable and the difficulty of definitely determining the quantities involved so great that we can not determine the extent of absorption. Evidence goes to show that potassium in some cases is almost completely retained. The com-arison

of underground waters with surface waters and the comparison of soils from Fanta and arid regions can, in a measure, be relied upon to show the character of the changes. The two succeeding sections deal with these subjects.

Underground And Surface Waters.

In Table XI (Appendix) are given a number of analyses of well and spring waters from the Nevada experiment station records, obtained through the courtesy of S. C. Dinsmore. Accompanying are two tables, Nos. XII and XIII (Appendix), giving analyses of waters in Death Valley and Amargosa regions. The average ratios of sodium to potassium are as follows:

Ratio Well and spring waters in western Nevada 43.1 Waters from Death: Valleys...4 see en oe ee eee 47.4 Waters from the Amarcosas: 48-4. se ee ee ee ee J. The Truckee, Humboldt, and Weber Rivers 3. 6 hesbasin-lakes:-27 3- 4st se ee eee nctegeel SN AEE Te: Ne ae 20. 0

Seepage originates in part from run-off waters. The absorption of potassium would be indicated by a greater ratio of sodium to potassium in underground waters as com-ared

to the run-off waters. This is indicated by the above ratios. The ratio for the

asin lakes is intermediate between these for ground and surface waters. This is to be expected, since the lakes receive seepage as well as run-off waters.

Soils Of Humid And Arid Regions.

Clarke' gives the average analyses of a number of soils from humid and arid regions. From these analyses the sodium-potassium ratio has been obtained and for purposes of comparison the same ratio for the igneous rocks of the basin is given.

Ratio of sodium to potassium in soils and rocks.

Ratio of potassium in—

Humid "soils oo. oe a oe aes ee eer ey ee 0. 39 ATIC. SOUS So on cae ee eae ee 31 ACId TOCKS. cc Naar ee ee et cee nt fa ae srk eg ect 78 Basic TOCKS. e522 oe ie eer ee eee 1. 50 Mean. acid: and: basic: 2 2 eye Meee eat oem cee eee eee 1.14

The figures obtained do not give a fair basis for comparison. In the case of the soils the sodium and potassium are determined in the solutions obtained by decomposition with hydrochloric acid. In the case of the analyses of the rocks the sodium and potassium represent the total percentage of each in the rock. If we assume that the insoluble residue obtained from the humid or arid soil would be of practically the same constitution the ratios would be of some value in indicating absorption. The arid soils show a greater proportion of potassium than the humid. If our assumption is correct, this is due to absorption. It may also be due to differences in the degree of decomposition. Comparing the soils with the rocks indicates the removal of sodium at a much greater rate in the weathering process than potassium. If we compare the percentage composition of the mean arid with the mean humid soil, we find the following interesting ratios:

Ratio arid to humid percentages of constituents soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Acid soluble:

Solublé SiO;:2 35. 23. IS ee ee oh ALOR LE Sho Yeo 28s sale PO ee eee 1.8 MesOjet tsi eet tet nee ee eee 1.8 MeQe as. ope sek oe 6. 2 — ee oe ——$ f

1 Bul. No. 491 U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 467.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 25

Acid soluble—Continued.

Pid eau eSiiey ese hee 8 Meese ea eerie Sab oases Sass aoe 12. 6 IN an Ob Wy Oe refers ce is Sie i oe sia eke gece pee nck a ook Soe DU ARS O SO COO SS SECON SIG SOOO OID SO OIRO OE OIG DRO SS OS SO OO oO oir ig 0 SYD OS SIO OS OC IO ICONIC IC CHO EES OO OCIS OOP CS ° 8

Total acid soluble: Aids (MET:CeNb) ie ee Sat ee hs eR ees yn 29. 5 FBLA G GICTACEI Eee acto evolm a i nia oh Shee eae Snes a 16. 0

These ratios indicate a much greater proportion of soluble material on the whole in the arid than in the humid soils. The greater proportion of soluble silica and acid soluble alumina would indicate more favorable conditions for the absorption of alkalies in the case of arid soils. The greater proportion of alkalies and alkaline earths indicates that absorption either by chemical reaction or by simple retention of soluble salts is a marked feature of arid soils.

While absorption by chemical reaction is of undoubted importance, absorption by retention of soluble salts is of much greater importance and is characteristic of the soils of the basin region. Whitney and Means state! that the soluble salts for soils of a sandy nature approximate 50 pounds per acre-foot (0.0015 per cent), for heavy soils from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per acre-foot (0.09 to 0.12 per cent), and the average amount for soils of humid areas somewhat less than 1,000 pounds per acre-foot (0.03 per cent). Hilgard ? states that very few of the upland soils in the arid regions of California contain less than 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of soluble salt per acre in the first 4 feet. In the soils of the lowlands the content of soluble salt must be considerably greater. No general numerical statement can be made for the soils of the basin region, but we know that in many cases the amount of soluble salts must be many times greater than that contained in the soilsof humid regions. Table XIV (Appendix) gives the content and chemical composition of the soluble salts for a number of soils in the basin region. I have taken most of these from three widely separated localities. The first set are from soils in the vicinity of Fallon, Nev.; the second from soils in the vicinity of Salt Lake, Utah; and the third from southern Oregon. The average content of soluble salts for the Fallon soils is 1.23 per cent and for the Utah soils 1.8 per cent. It should be noted that the examples given are undoubtedly from localities more or less heavily impregnated with soluble salts. The average for the Fallon area can be obtained from figures presented in the advance sheets of the field operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1909.2 The content of alkali and the acres affected in each instance are given:

82,624 acres contain less than 0.2 per cent alkali. 38,784 acres contain from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent alkali. 8,768 acres contain from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent alkali. 8,128 acres contain from 0.6 to 1.0 per cent alkali. 12,096 acres contain over 1 per cent. The average content for 150,400 acres is 0.4 per cent.

While the results for the Fallon section can not be taken as representative of the basin region, still it can be said that they show the results for one important area. The conditions in other portions of the basin, and particularly south of the Fallon area, can not be much different. In fact, as we proceed south the evidences of soluble salts become more and more common. Many of the flat valleys which characterize southern and central Nevada show that the conditions are very favorable for the retention of the soluble salts. The physical conditions influencing the retention of salts by and their movement in soils merit some discussion and the succeeding section covers this subject.

Retention And Movement Of Soluble Salts By Soils Of Arid Regions.

The factors controlling the retention of soluble salts are underground drainage character of the soil, slope of soil surface, and rainfall. With good underground drainage, even under arid conditions, there is a gradual movement downward of the soluble salts. Underground drainage is dependent upon the character of the soil and the slope of the soil surface. With compact, heavy soils much seepage water is retained and drains away very slowly, or not at all. Capillarity acts in fine-textured soils to return the ground water, in some cases back to the surface, or in others to some intermediate level. With porous, open, and coarse-textured soils capillarity may act to a small

1 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 22. 2 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13. 3 Soil Survey of the Fallon Area, Nevada, p. 43.

26 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

extent, but only very locally, and the seepage water drains speedily away. Where impervious layers occur, ground water may be retained and by evaporation leave its burden of salts within the soil at varying depths. Where soil surfaces are sloped, underground drainage is facilitated, and, if the soils are not too coarse textured, or capillarity not an important factor, the soluble salts are drained away and deposited in the level portions of the valleys.

With moderate rainfall salines are distributed in sandy soils with the least proportion at the surface and greater amounts or accumulations at intermediate points. Under arid conditions these accumulations would be nearer the surface, and in regions of extreme aridity would be very close to and even at the surface. With heavy soils (slow movement of ground water) the accumulations of salines would be nearer the surface for moderate rainfalls and much closer to the surface for small rainfalls than for the porous soils.

Means ! discusses the conditions under which alkali salts move within the soil and his conclusions are pertinent here. He states that—

(1) ''Movement of alkali salts is caused by diffusion of the salt mixture;

(2) ''By the foree of gravity in moving the salt mixture downward;

(3) ''By surface tension or capillary action which moves the salt mixture in any direction."'

Means considers that the effects of the diffusion are practicably negligible. The second and third causes may best be placed in his words:

(2) '' Force of gravity.—When water is applied to the surface of the soil the force of gravity, assisted by surface tension, pulls the water down into the capillary spaces. Soils will hold a certain percentage of water by capillary forces alone, and any excess over this percentage will drain away. This excess is called gravity water. When the surface of the ground is flooded, both surface tension and gravity act in pulling the water downward. Since the rate of flow of water through capillary spaces depends upon the size of the space, the flow through the large capillary spaces, root holes, worm borings, and animal burrows is very much greater than that through the true capillary spaces. When water is applied, the downward movement by gravity is almost entirely through the larger noncapillary spaces, while the true capillary spaces are filled by surface tension from the noncapillary spaces. In this way the salt which is dissolved by the descending water is probably to some extent drawn back into the capillary spaces, where there is very little downward movement, and remains there, only escaping out into the channels of downward movement by diffusion. The amount of salt which is washed downward by a heavy flooding is therefore not so great as would be expected.

(3) ''The greatest movement of alkali salts is due to capillarity which operates through surface tension. When water moves by surface tension, the films around the soil grains move. As soon as the gravity water has drained away, the movements become entirely by surface tension. A loss of water due to evaporation changes the curvature of the water films and starts a capillary movement toward the point where the evaporation takes place. But when water moves by capillary action it is the water in the smaller spaces that moves, and not the water which is in the larger noncapillary spaces. Therefore the water which was drawn back into the capillary spaces and which carried some of the alkali salts as it flowed down into the soil starts upward and carries with it the salts in solution. The evaporation of an inch of water on the surface of the soil accumulates on the surface all alkali salts which were contained in that inch of water, while, on the other hand, the same volume of water leached down through the soil would probably not leach out an equal amount of the salts. From this it will be seen that the tendency of the alkali salts under irrigation is to move upward perhaps more rapidly than downward.

'From the above discussion it appears that surface tension or capillary attraction, as it is commonly called, is the most important agent in the movement of alkali salts toward the surface of the soil. Therefore, a soil which would permit the most rapid movements would be the most likely to accumulate alkali salts upon the surface. If two soils with different capillary powers were placed side by side, with the level of standing water the same, the soil which raised the water to the surface the more rapidly would the sooner accumulate an alkali crust.''

The Position Of Maximum Soluble Salt Contained In The Soil.

The following table summarizes certain observations which have been made concerning the depth at which soluble salts form accumulations.

1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

Depth of accumulations of soluble salts in souls.

3-inch rainfall, Imperial Valley, Cal.

In virgin soils greater part of soluble salts at a depth of 18 inches.1!

8-inch rainfall, Fresno district.

Sandy loams 3 to 4 feet; coarse sands 4 to 8 feet.1

12-inch rainfall, Yellowstone Park.

Ventura County,

Cal

20-inch rainfall, Grand Falls, N. Dak.

Heavy soils 4 to 6 feet; sandy soils 7 to 11 feet.2

Bulk of soluble salts at 5 feet.!

Greater part of soluble salts below 3 feet.1

1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 15.

2 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 27.

Two important actions take place in the movement of saline material in soils. Rainfall penetrates the surface soil and percolates down to certain depths. In its passage downward it dissolves a portion of whatever soluble salts may be present and thus leaches the material at the immediate surface. The extent to which this leaching would take place would be determined by the proportion of gravity water to water of capillarity and the penetration of the water. This is determined largely by the texture of the soil. With a porous soil this leaching action would be especially noticeable. In the leaching of a soil in the manner described above, it is evident that the more soluble constituents would be first dissolved and carried to the greatest depths. Underground water soon reaches a position of equilibrium which may be within the permanent ground-water level or within the zone close to the surface. Capillarity begins to act. The ground water moves toward the point at which evaporation takes place. It should be noted that when this water reaches its equilibrium position it has dissolved a large amount of salt. When the solution is returned by capillarity these salts are carried with it and deposited at the point where evaporation takes place. Capillarity may not return these salts to the surface, for evaporation may take place below the immediate surface, and the capillary water column may terminate at varying distances from the surface. The height to which the water is raised by capillarity would determine the position of accumulated salts. It has been shown in another place that where ground waters are deeper than 10 feet from the surface little or no evaporation from them takes place. This would indicate that ground waters at depths greater than 10 feet could not be concentrated by evaporation, and consequently there would be little or no opportunity for the separation of salines under such conditions.

Nature Of Salines In Soils,

Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium are the bases almost invariably present. Sodium in almost every instance is the dominating base, while calcium and magnesium are usually the smallest in amount. Potassium is much less than sodium. In the Fallon soils sodium is 12.6 times potassium, while in the Utah soils it is 5.6 times. The acid radicals of chlorine, sulphur, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorus are invariably present. Chlorides and sulphates usually predominate, although in some soils carbonates and bicarbonates are in greater abundance. The Fallon soils contain sulphates in greatest amount, while in the Utah soils chlorides are in greatest amount. - Bicarbonates are usually present in greater amounts than carbonates. Phosphates and nitrates are present in most cases in traces, although in some exceptional cases nitrates may be present in appreciable 'amounts. Two Fallon soils showed over 2 per cent nitrate in the total solids. The basin soils would present many variations from the examples given. Borates, for instance, are common in many playas.

Collection Of Salines By Surface Waters.

River And Lake Waters.

Rivers being the main collecting agents for gathering salines from a given area and transferring them to the lakes and lake basins, the content and nature of the salines as well as the amount collected can be determined from the analyses of the river waters. It should be noted that the rivers receive a certain proportion of seepage water and consequently the chemical analysis reflects not only the nature of the salts collected from the weathering zone, but also the salts received from underground waters. It is to be regretted that analyses of composite samples taken from basin rivers over long intervals of time are not available. What analyses are given represent single samples. The results must be used with caution.

The lake waters represent the saline accumulations during present times. It should be noted that certain compounds are precipitating out continuously and consequently the composition of the waters represents an approach to equilibrium conditions for the particular time. Variation in climatic conditions results in the raising and lowering of lake levels. The fluctuation in lake levels, together with the continual acces-

28 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

sion of saline material, accounts for the variation in the analytical results often noted in the reports of analyses of lake waters of the basin. The fluctuations of lake levels would also produce a change in concentration and, consequently, the equilibrium conditions would be changed also. The more soluble salts are accumulating in these lakes while the more insoluble are precipitating out. The principal data concerning the chemical content of river and lake waters of the basin are given in Table XV (Appendix).

Much detailed chemical work has been done upon the California rivers by Van Winkle and Eaton,! and on account of the close proximity of this State to the basin region the results of their analyses are of importance. They are given in the table which follows: :

Mean analyses, California rivers.

[Per cent of anhydrous residue.]

Humid (22 Semiarid (16 Constituent. rivers); rain-rivers); rainfall, 15+ inches. fall, 15— inches.

Per cent. Per cent.

eae ae Neri d ahve ay ug tt iret aE hk Spee hdc RG ep Ne RE eae pS é : SK Gp ae epee et eee eta ett eyk Me er Tea eS Oe Oa le cometce 14.91 37.02 COLO fy Si a le aah et ante eee pS cells SU We Wc cart tas aad ae ate Leas 31.27 18. 87 INE Cas ee eee eerie cee heer ts emcee eer Ata ae hai) Se eet tase de Akl ries et es at 12.53 12.34 (Oh eng aghast Cote ReE Cen ee ae ESE ers PE Ss BOSS aa Gh AS oOneSeEee 15. 52 12. 83 1h es See EE Ne SON Ne en a eee at Teen os ae OCco Skee & 5.37 5. 76 ESS aie sa ye gp aap i NA) Ct a le ares 0.12 0. 02 STO oe rah ects Se SAIS EL SER Daa SR Ata apo a ee em ee la emer Ey ee na 11.33 5. 27

From the study of the results the following conclusions are of importance to the present inquiry: The total soluble salts in a river water under normal conditions varies with the stream flow. They are a minimum for a maximum flow and a maximum for a minimum flow. Normal conditions may be assumed to be those for a humid region. The components of the total salts also follow-the above rule. If we take the Yuba River as an example and apply this rule to the various soluble constituents, we find that chlorine, the sulphate radical, carbonic acid, sodium, and calcium follow this rule. "Potassium fluctuates; magnesium shows little fluctuation; silica, remains practically constant. In an arid or semiarid region soluble salts tend to accumulate during periods of low water. When the first floods come the river water gains in total solids and sometimes to a very marked extent, due to the washing out of these accumulated salts. Certain rivers, such as the Santa Ynez and the Owens River, maintain the amount of total salts at practically a constant figure. Concerning the comparison of the mineral content of waters in semiarid and humid regions Van Winkle and Eaton state:

First. "The average mineral content of waters in semiarid regions is, roughly, four times that of waters in humid regions.

Second. "Difference in percentage composition of the anhydrous residues shows that the waters in semiarid regions contain about two-thirds the proportionate amount of silica, less calcium; four-fifths as much carbonates, and twice as much sulphates as the waters of the humid regions. Their constituents are similar in amount. In regions of abundant rainfall disintegration of rock material can not keep pace with solution, erosion, and chemical decomposition. The more soluble constituents of the rocks are rapidly removed as they become exposed to the action of water, and their total amount in a given quantity of the solvent water is seldom great. In arid or semiarid regions, however, chemical action is frequently less marked than physical disintegration. The soluble materials of the disintegrated rock masses accumulate through periods of drought, allowing the water from subsequent rainfalls to take into solution a greater relative amount than is found in waters from more humid regions.

"Tn the waters studied the average amount of mineral in streams from the semiarid regions was 627 parts per million; in rivers of the humid regions it was 165 parts per million. The greatest average mineral content, 2,412 parts per million, occurred in Santa Maria River, which flows through a sandstone country receiving barely 10 inches of rain a year. The smallest amount of mineral matter was found in Merced River, 65 parts per million, or about one-fortieth of the amount for Santa Maria River.

"As the silica content is apparently unaffected by the amount of the other dissolved constituents, it may be expected that the percentage of silica in rivers of high dis-

' Water-Supply Paper 237, U. S. Geol.' Survey.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 29

solved solids will be correspondingly low. This is true in California waters, the average silica for the humid-region rivers being 13.4 per cent and for the semiaridregion waters 8 per cent of the total mineral matter in solution. The principal effect, then, of climatic condition on silica content is a negative one and it is apparently due merely to change in total mineral content.

"By the decay of the abundant organic material in humid regions carbonic acid is set free, being dissolved in the surface waters or entering the air as carbonic dioxide. This carbonic acid, uniting with the carbonic acid of the alkaline-earth carbonates, produces the bicarbonates which are readily dissolved, so that surface waters in regions of abundant rainfall carry large amounts of the bicarbonate radical and of the alkaline earths. In regions of deficient rainfall, on the other hand, carbonic rocks are attacked to less extent and the gypsum and alkaline sulphates that are present are brought more largely into solution."'

The conclusions of Van Winkle and Eaton may be applied to basin conditions. A somewhat different grouping of the basin rivers is desirable, and I have attempted - this in the following. This grouping is not accurate, for the reason that some of the basin streams rise in the higher mountains and under conditions similar to many of the streams upon the western slope of the Sierras, while the lower courses of these cue are in the valleys and under semiarid or arid conditions. Three groups are made:

(1) Streams which have watersheds under humid conditions. These are Mill Creek, Leevining Creek, Rush Creek, the mountain streams tributary to Owens River, and the short streams of the higher ranges of the basin.

(2) Streams which have watersheds partly under humid conditions and partly under arid. These are the Truckee, Carson, Walker, streams tributary to Great Salt Lake, and streams tributary to the southern Oregon lakes.

(3) Streams which have watersheds under arid conditions. These are the Quinn, Armagosa, Humboldt, Reese, and Owens Rivers.

Streams of the first group are comparable to such rivers as the Yuba and the Tuolumne, and the California streams for humid conditions generally. Streams of the second group are comparable with the California streams under semiarid conditions. Streams of the third group are in a class by themselves, and, in the absence of detailed studies, can not be properly characterized.

The streams tributary to Great Salt Lake are characterized by high chlorine content, while the streams of the Lahontan Basin have a high sulphate content. Owens River is the only stream in which a noticeable amount of nitrates has been reported.

Lake waters are similar in composition to the river waters. There are some differences, and in order to show this I have worked out certain ratios which are given in the accompanying table.

Ratios between certain soluble constituents in lake and river waters.

f ' Na Ca Cl H CO3+COs3 ource of sample. K Me SO, C1480, Rivers: Ontlenme maken ees oon isons ouesaeednw eee 2d 2.7 2.6 4.12 1.16 VAY EE STP Shes RE SR es a aes err eee a 205| 2.8 1.50 1.74 FES Co peers eae mene pes me ae Rs gt Pe he Pe ee 2.1 3.97 -93 UOGAMN Soe oA ak oR OS BS Re AES RE EEE See ee eer er ee 8.1 Deel 13 34 Pe eerste by FERUIMDO iipea ete et ee ies ee ee 4.6 3.9 15 2.45 UAT LOS Aap EA ee Sw Se Feast a oe noche mace oe eens VASO Fess ae). O02 -30 VTC reer ee ae eee gan eter cA oe eae he EE a 2 ae 6.0 elu 1. 28 "RPG YS ga Pe 5 sl Re es ca rl EC 2h? 3.2 58 le s ee Nh 2.6 61 2. 42 Lakes: GREE S al ter a et ek re ee a ee 6.6 .14 9:29: 5a eee Warnnenmccaseas-s 5 o8 Fee See Leis cue oe 18.9 1.10 12. 73 Se ESV ROIS epee ee eels FAR, Wicca eeeen Se aon 16.0 .10 7.81 .30 ELEN) O) Giese erin ee hoe ns Je cans sete egos foustes 4.5 .70 9.73 . 61 NAV SUSE SS 28 Sy is et i an pag ance (REE .56 ila .38 WAGIDO ., fan ee As Se eae ee a ete Se 20. 4 40 1.81 . 64 CON ETS SB a oe ieee a eS ye tee en ee es 23.6 2.00 2.50 70 HEIELEMIC VAN eee ee een ee eee Wi Ae ey TSIGu ese. see 3.50 73 DETTE Sg SSS A a Pa a ACE 7 (a lial es AO et 18.9 54 SENEOE. 2 SE SECS So aS SET enn cp RT ee nr ee rene eae 04 As Syn ey te cea py oe a CALIFORNIA RIVERS. MeaAnuGlrVversan: semiarid region 2 s-2.--22.2e02-ele eases 2.51 0. 21 0. 83 Bee seGhVEL Sel shaniG-CeCiON ...). 2. s+ ssd2--2. +2 fee se-ce- 2. 88 . 60 2. 64

30 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

The sodium-potassium ratio has been discussed in another section. The calciummagnesium ratio shows a marked decrease for the lake waters as compared with river waters. This can be explained by the fact that calcium readily precipitates as carbonate or sulphate, or may be removed by the agency of vegetable organisms. The removal of calcium would leave the magnesium in greater relative amount. There is no doubt that magnesium is also precipitated as a carbonate, but is not eliminated at as great a rate as calcium. Chlorides are more abundant than sulphates in the lake waters as compared with river waters. This is undoubtedly due to the precipitation of the sulphate radical by lime. Carbonates and bicarbonates are in less relative proportion in lake waters than in river waters. This is accounted for by the precipitation of calcium and magnesium as insoluble carbonates.

Borates are conspicuous in Owens, Mono, and the lakes of southern Oregon. The waters of Owens Lake are noteworthy on account of the content of nitrates and arsenic compounds.

Certain regional characteristics become noticeable in a comparison of the chemical content of lake waters. The lakes of the Bonneville Basin are conspicuous for their lack of carbonates and bicarbonates and their high content of chlorides. Sulphates are present, but in moderate amount. The high content of these lakes in salines is to be noted also. The regional rocks of the Bonneville Basin are, for the greater part, sedimentaries. Limestones are common.

The lakes of the Lahontan Basin have a much lower saline content, and contain chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates. Chlorides usually dominate, but in Pyramid, Winnemucca, and Humboldt Lakes carbonates are somewhat greater In amount than chlorides. The regional rocks are characterized by a greater area of igneous rocks than the Bonneville Basin.

Owens and Mono Lakes contain chlorides and carbonates in greatest amount. Chlorides are greater In amount than carbonates and sulphates are least. These lakes are characterized by a high saline content. The regional rocks are predominatingly igneous. The southern Oregon lakes are low in sulphates and have about equal amounts of chlorides and carbonates. In the case of only one lake are the chlorides exceeded by the sulphates. The regional rocks are igneous.

Annual Saline Content Of River Discharges.

- The rate at which salines are accumulating at present in the basin lakes can be calculated approximately from the mean annual flow of the principal rivers and their saline content. As has been mentioned before, the chemical data are insufficient, and, consequently, the conclusions give only approximate results. It is believed that the figures are conservative and rather under than overestimates. In Table XVI (Appendix) are given the tons of salines discharged by the Owens, Humboldt, Truckee, Walker, and Bear Rivers. The total salines discharged by these five rivers into their lake basins is 1,692,153 tons per annum.

An approximate determination has been made for four basins and is given in the accompanying table:

Discharge of salines into four important lake basins.

otal Men Ratio of Gomines Total run-o : . annual total runalines Basin. per pavers typical ofrun-| 'How of off to uispliarEeS discharged annum DEES these flow of a rivers, Per annum for basin. rivers. rivers. y Tivers. into basin. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Tons. Tons. Bonneville seeks te a 355835 Bearwe. acs cones 1, 860 1.9 1,259,235 2,392,546 aAtiontan¢. 8h s ie 2,406 Walker, Humbolt, 1,504 1.6 286, 019 457, 630 and Truckee. OWENS eae ket ewe 3067 |sO wens ee eee 306 1.0 102, 228 102, 228 Southern Oregon lakes WAS OTrickeacie ase s cee 1,030 ay 155, 335 108, 734

1Bul. No. 108, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 94.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 31

The total salines collected by the rivers of these four basins approximate 3,061,138 tons perannum. The contribution per square mile is given in the following table:

Quantity of salines collected by rivers tributary to four important lake basins.

: Quantity Basin. Area. per square mile.

Sq. miles. Pounds.

Bonneville sasirec pass ea als! es Fpl eet oe Le ep Paral ene ee! Seah eds bet Uh rae 49,500 96, 600 DG MILO TG IN ee ae ESN oe OE Berar RU ana hey ay cect yaya lee aS beeps Reaver Ore a 40, 000 22, 880 (ON ASIB SYS es a a asad 6 ae Yah bse im ICH NA CN ra in Cee a ees Se Cena 3, 200 63, 800 Southern' Oregon lakes 2s. 250 ho ese ie eel eS ses a Sea eo 1 2,000 108, 720 IASHCT ASC OB OUT AD ASINS Seer aiey ce peeeee pace pay oes eG ele UU RUIN pS sel as ee a pas yap nae nee 64, 800

1 Estimated.

These figures represent the most active basins, excepting the one in which Mono Lake is situated. They may be taken as representing the northern and western parts of the Great Basin. The southern half of the basin must contribute a very much smaller amount of saline material to the sinks.

While the above figures appear large and may be large, still when compared with estimates from humid regions they do not appear unreasonable. Wan Hise quotes the estimate of T. Mellard Reade! for the amount of salts per square mile per annum for the whole globe as follows:

Total, 192,000 pounds. Of this total, calcium carbonate is 10,000 pounds; calcium sulphate, 40,000; sodium chloride, 16,000; silica, 14,000; magnesium carbonate, 8,000; iron oxide, 2,000. Clarke? quotes the figures of Dole and Stabler? for chemical denudation in the United States as 87 tons per annum per square mile. This would be 174,000 pounds and would apply to humid conditions. The figures given show that the chemical denudation in the more active parts of the basin region is equivalent to 37 per cent of this figure.

Table XVII (Appendix) gives the salines in pounds for each square mile of watershed for the Truckee, Walker, Humboldt, and Owens Rivers. For purposes of comparison, I have added the figures for five rivers in California. The figures show the close relation between run-off and salines removed per square mile. While the saline content of the waters of a river in the semiarid region may be much higher than for a river under humid conditions, the total salines collected in a given time from a unit area is usually much less. This is easily explained by the fact that the greater proportion of the surface waters is absorbed by alluvial material and their salts are retained. The low yield of the Humboldt River is noteworthy. The very small run-off is sufficient explanation. In general, the figures presented show that the greater the run-off the greater the ''crop" of salines from a unit area. Exception of the Kern River and the San Ysabel Creek may be made. The character of the watershed and the rate of decomposition of the regional rocks enter as a factor. The greater relative ''crop" of these two streams is undoubtedly due to a greater rate oi decomposition of the rocks, or a greater amount of salines in the disintegrated rock upon their watersheds. The water-duty factor, pounds of salines per square mile per second-foot per annum, gives a better basis of comparison between rivers under arid and rivers under humid conditions. Omitting the Kern and San Ysabel, since these streams have exceptional conditions upon their watersheds, the streams of the basin region show a much higher duty than those of the humid region in the near neighborhood. To put it in another way, the same quantity of water on the Owens River watershed would gather 4.5 times as much saline material as upon the Tuolumne, and 3.2 times as much as upon the Truckee.

The figures given can not be taken as the annual rate of chemical denudation for the basin, for it must be kept in mind that the basin streams gather only a part of the run-off waters, the remainder being absorbed in the sinks and basins. Expressed as an equation—Pounds of salines liberated per square mile=pounds of salines retained in soil and sinks+pounds gathered by rivers and discharged into lakes. No data upon the amount of salts absorbed are available and, consequently, the second number of this equation can not be quantitatively stated. The third number

1 Treatise on Metamorphism, p. 486. x 2 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 103.

32 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

of the equation is the only one which admits of approximate quantitative statement, and figures for this have already been given.

Of the ions, sodium and potassium are of most interest. These constitute 19.4 per cent of the saline material. Potassium may be taken as 20 per cent of the combined weicht of sodium and potassium. Applying these proportions to the 3,061,138 tons of salines for the four basins gives 593,860 tons of sodium and potassium, and 118,772 tons of potassium as the annual "crop" for approximately 95,000 square miles of the basin. 2

The figures given in the preceding represent the rate of accumulation under present conditions. The humid conditions of the Quaternary must have produced a much greater rate of accumulation than at present. The greater area of lake suriace during Quarternary times would give less land surface for chemical denudation. For the Lahontan and Bonneville Basins it has been shown that for one unit of lake area there were 3.5 units of basin area. For the 95,000 square miles under consideration this ratio would give 74,027 square miles of land and 20,973 square miles of lake suriace. lf we assume that the rate of accumulation equaled the present rate for the Tuolumne River watershed, the above area of land surface would yield a "'crop" of 13,650,000 tons per annum, or about jour times the present rate of accumulation. While these results are no doubt crude, they at least give us some idea of the enormous amounts of salines that must have been discharged by the rivers of Quaternary times into the Quaternary lakes.

Saline Deposits.

To avoid repetition, this subject is presented under the following heads: Nitrates; Borates; Alum; Alunite; Crusts and Efflorescences; Playa Deposits; Deposits Resulting irom Desiccation of Lakes; Buried Deposits of Salines; Salines in Present Lakes; Caleareous Deposits about the Shores of Present Lakes; Potash-rich Minerals; and Gypsum.

Nitrates.

Gale? has summarized the occurrence of nitrates in the Great Basin region. From his work I give below some of the principal facts.

Nitrates have been reported in Utah, in the vicinity of Marysvale, Monroe, and Greenwich Canyon, and Grass Valley; in Nevada, in the vicinity of Lovelock, in north- - western Washoe County near Leadville, and in the canyons bordering the west side of Railroad Valley; in California, in the vicinity of the Calico Mountains, in the region northeast oi Salton, along the Amargosa River near Tecopa, and in the vicinity of Death Valley, Searles Lake, and Danby Lake. The compounds reported are potassium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium nitrates. Potassium nitrate is the compound most often found. The deposits are of three types—cave, playa, and as efflorescences. Most of the Nevada deposits are of the cave type. They occur as veins, stalactites, and crusts in deposits protected from the action of surface waters. In playas, the nitrates are mixed with other salines. Occasional efflorescences of nitrates are found. The deposit occurring south of Tecopa, Cal., and along the Amargosa is of this type. The nitrates of the basin region are either leached from the soils or originate from the decaying organic matter accumulating in the caves. Gale is of the opinion that probably a majority of the nitrate deposits result from the decomposition of bat or similar guano in caves, or crevices in the rocks.

Nitrates have been reported in small amounts in river and lake waters. Van Winkle and Eaton report the nitrate radical in 18 river waters out of some 30 examined in California. Theaverage content for the Owens River is 1.7 parts per million. This is equivalent to 0.5 per cent of the anhydrous residue. A more extended search for this radical would, no doubt, show it present in small amounts in most of the river waters of the basin. The origin of nitrate in river water is due to the leaching action of rain water on soils. Owens Lake contains 948 parts per million of nitrate radical.* J. G. Smith reports traces of nitrates in all the waters from the southern Oregon lakes which he examined. I have no doubt that this radical, in small amounts, could be found in other basin lakes. In the analysis of the soluble material of basin soils

! The mean annual run-off for the basin region was approximately determined to be 1.06 inches of rainfall If we assume the saline content to be 62.7 parts per 100,000 (the mean saline content of California rivers for semiarid conditions), the saline content in the run-off from 1 square mile is 96,251 pounds. This approximates the figure obtained for the Bonneville basin. On this basis the annual crop of salines for the whole basin would be 10,105,200 tons. The playa, silt and lake area is about 30 per cent of the basin area or 63,000 square miles. The concentration of the annual crop of salines on this area would give 164 toms per square mile or a surface crust 0.0012 of an inch thick.

3 Bul. No. 523, U. S. Geol. Survey.

8 Water-Supply Paper No. 237, p. 122.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE

Fia. 2.—DEATH VALLEY, CAL. EROSION OF TERTIARY BEDS SOUTH OF FURNACE CREEK AND EAST OF THE VALLEY. BLACK MOUNTAINS.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE Il.

FIG. 1.—ROUGH SALT AREA, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

FiG. 2.—SMOOTH SALT AREA, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 33

nitrate from traces to appreciable amounts has been shown. No deposits of economic importance have as yet been discovered in the basin region and the outlook for any important discovery in the future is not promising.

Borates.

Borates occur in many localities in the basin region; in fact, they may be said to be found in the western half of the basin region from Oregon to the Mojave Desert. There is a conspicuous lack of borates in the eastern half of the basin, although traces of boric acid have been reported in the analyses of the waters of Great Salt Lake.! While the borate radical has not been reported in river waters, there is no doubt that it exists in most of the basin streams in minute quantities. The borate radical has been reported in Harney, Mono, Large Soda, Summer, Fossil, Christmas, North Alkali, Middle Alkali, South Alkali, and Abert Lakes. In most of these lakes it is present in very small amounts, but in Mono, Owens, and Large Soda Lakes it is present in quantities ranging from 16.37 in Mono to 29.91 parts per hundred thousand in Owens Lake. It has been reported in the waters of hot springs. The water of Steamboat Springs, Nev., contains 21.7 parts per hundred thousand boric anhydride. A more detailed examination of the waters of hot springs in the basin region would undoubtedly show many other examples of the presence of borate minerals. Borates are discharged into lakes by river and seepage waters.

The workable deposits of borax are of two types—the marsh, playa, or dry-lake type, and the bedded deposits. The former occur in Rhodes, Teels, and Columbus Marshes, Nev.;in basins along the Amargosa River, in Death Valley, Saline Valley, and Searles Lake, Cal.; at Sand Springs and Fish Lake Valley, Nev.; and in the district immediately south of Alvord Lake, Harney County, Oreg. The latter occurs at Furnace Creek, Ryan, and at Borate, in the vicinity of Dagget, Cal. The bedded deposits are found in Tertiary lake beds.

The playa deposits have many featuresin common. They occur usually as peripheral deposits about the sink of an inclosed basin. They are formed by the action of drainage waters dissolving the borate minerals from the alluvial material surrounding the sink. Where the drainage water strikes the more or less impervious silts of the central part of the basin, it is deflected toward the surface and if it accumulates sufficiently to reach the zone of surface capillarity it is drawn to the surface and by evaporation leaves the soluble salts as surface incrustations and efflorescences. These salts accumulate and in time form workable deposits. The crusts are scraped up and hauled to treatment plants in which the crude borax is separated from mechanical impurities and associated salts. The deposits are slowly renewed. This fact is well illustrated by a series of analyses of crusts taken from Searles Marsh and given in the following table:

Analyses of renewed efflorescences of borax at Searles Lake.

Constituents. 6 months.| 2 years. 3 years. 4 years.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. SHG n saat SSH RSS eE SE eae ine er nen nn 58.0 Dos 52.4 53.3 NAD ee ra pe ie ee a eS oe ete Desde ced ueesebuas 5.2 5.0 8.1 8.0 INGHSI GY Seis ster Se a Enea sae ee eee ee ee gee ier 6.7 16.6 16.0 INAXG) 8 SSS se eS ee sn te nee eee 10.9 10.0 ibleT 11.8 LEY ER SCS Fs el pa aa ee i ce Rn 14.2 12.9 11.8 10.9

110th Annual Report, Cal. State Mineralogist. Analyses by C. W. Hake.

Deposits of this character derive their borate minerals from alluvial material. The disintegration and erosion of the Tertiary lake beds account for a part, at least, of the borate in the alluvial material of a number of the deposits mentioned above. The general prevalence of volcanic rocks and evidences of late volcanic activity may well account for the remainder.

Recent deposits of borax at depth are shown by the borings in Searles Marsh. The borate minerals are associated with other salines. They have been found not only in the marginal portions of the sink, but also in the central part. OC. E. Dolbear? presents analyses of the material taken from two borings—the first, within the central

1 Bul. No. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 144. 2 Eng. and Min. Jour., Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260.

34 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

area of the sink; the second, on the outside margin. In the first boring borax is shown in percentages ranging from 1 to 5.5, and at depths extending from 18 to 50 feet. Below this depth traces of borax occur, while in the material extending from the surface to 18 feet practically no borax, or only a trace, was found. In the second, borax was reported in percentages ranging from 5.56 to 6.57 and extending from a depth of 30 to 45 feet. Above and below these depths only traces of borax were reported. The results of these borings would indicate that in some of the playas, at least, might be expected concentration of borax minerals at depth.

The minerals reported from deposits of the playa type are borax (sodium borate), ulexite (sodium calcium borate), and colemanite (calcium borate). The content of the crude material ranges from 5 to 20 per cent boric acid. Deposits of this type are no longer of economic importance.

Deposits of the second type are the important sources of borate minerals. In the basin region they are worked at Ryan and in the vicinity of Furnace Creek (Mount Blanco). For a description of these deposits the reader is referred to Campbell? and to Keyes."

These deposits are of importance in that they account for the source of.a part, and perhaps the principal part, of the borate material in certain playa deposits, notably those in Death Valley and along the Amargosa River. Of the bedded deposits Keyes describes two general types. The one is illustrated by the mines northwest of Dagget, Cal. In this locality the borate minerals are found in a finely divided state in beds of blue clay. The workable beds contain from 10 to 12 per cent boric acid. The other type is characterized by nodules and masses of almost pure colemanite in clays and shales of Tertiary age. Respecting the origin of these deposits, Charles Laurence Baker,? after discussing the possible formation of the deposits by the evaporation of a body of water of considerable depth, presents the following:

''The alternative hypothesis that these minerals had their immediate origin in hot springs and solfataras opening directly into shallow lakes, perhaps only of seasonal

uration, or in playas, has much to commend it, especially when considered in connection with the numerous evidences of shallow water deposition. These evidences comprise ripple marks, sun cracks, and rain prints, which are found on the finer as well as the coarser beds, and the layers of finer breccia and conglomerates interbedded with the fine shales and tuffs. Shallow lakes or ponds probably existed at times during the deposition of the fossiliferous tuff member, for they seem to be necessary to account for the presence of the gasteropods. The paucity or absence of fossils in the borate and the fine ashy and shaly tuff members, as well as the presence of the colemanite, limestone, and gypsum layers, apparently indicates the salinity of the waters.

'"There was great volcanic activity before and during the deposition of the Rosamond. The larger fragments of lava were most probably derived from flows subject to erosion somewhere in the area tributary to the basin of deposition. Interbedded flows of both acidic and basic lavas make up a part of the Rosamond. But the fine volcanic ash was probably blown in by the wind or settled during explosive volcanic outbursts and need not have come from the immediate vicinity. The common view of the origin of calcium borate from solfataras and hot springs associated with the abundant contemporaneous vulcanism is likely to prove to be the correct explanation for the borax beds in this region.''

I am in accord with the main points in Baker's view. It must be noted, however, that in the colemanite deposits of the type exemplified by Mount Blanco a considerable amount of secondary action is noticeable. There are many distinct veins of colemanite associated with the layer beds. One gets the impression that these are anything but bedded deposits. I am inclined to the view that the Mount Blanco deposits represent the solution of the borate minerals from beds and their concentration in more or less open fissures in close proximity as veins.

Alum.

Spurr reports a deposit of alum and sulphur 10 miles north of Silver Peak, Nev. The area in which this mineral occurs is about 200 feet in diameter. The alum is associated with sulphur in rhyolite. It forms a network of small veins in the broken rhyolite. The rhyolite is intrusive in Tertiary sedimentaries. The mineral is a pure potash alum, kalinite. Spurr considers that the alum results from the action of steam and sulphuric acid emitted from solfataras. The acid attacks the potash and alumina of the rhyolite and forms kalinite.

1 Bul. No. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey. ;

? Borax deposits of the U. S., Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 40, p. 674. 8 Bulletin of the Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Cal., 6, p. 358.

4 Professional Paper No. 55, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 157.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 35

G. I. Adams' describes a similar deposit at the Rabbit Hole Sulphur Mines, Nevada. Instead of kalinite, alunite is the mineral formed in association with sulphur. Solfataric action is considered the cause of the formation.

Several samples were submitted to the cooperative laboratory from what was called a hot-spring deposit occurring 30 miles northeast of Wells, Nev., in Thousand Springs Valley. The mineral contained crystals of kalinite, sulphur, and gypsum. The two samples showed the following analyses:

Number. E894 Ca SO.. S. Na2SO.| NaCl. Insol. H:0. patie: uiweeh e2at ieee SCAT intel, sede sca penile 40. 06 18.20 Tr. Present. Tr. Tr 8.94 33.50 RRQa oe area PUP ASS os. 2.35 15.74 Tr. Present. Tr. Tr. 75.28 5.10

The determination was made upon the water-soluble material in both samples. A test for alunite gave negative results. The richer material contains 57.14 per cent kalinite. The sample of water from the hot springs in the near vicinity gave the following results:

Analysis of water from hot spring.

Per cent. Per cent Og. Se ee Ben nena eae cE Mu hat Mi etarta sal sitions 8.2 Josh, 2 a es i aA Re Trees? HOO," vols. SIS SSSR Se 52. 2 RO ee a Nan Pune 5.1 Total solids on evaporation (parts Naw ie ee Mawes S10) cper 100,000) i245. 1 ates cae

The evaporation of a water of this composition would account for the potassium and alum in the surface deposit of the spring.

Undoubtedly there are other occurrences of alum. No attempt has been made to exploit deposits of this nature. Systematic sampling to determine the average alum content and the total tonnage available has not been made in any one case and, consequently, the value of such deposits is an open question.

Alunite.

Gale has described the occurrence of alunite in the Great Basin, and for a detailed presentation the reader is referred to his bulletin.?_ This mineral has been reported from the following localities:

Goldfield, Nev.; associated in soft, massive form in ores, and occurs also as a constituent of altered volcanic rocks. Kalinite is conspicuously associated with it.?

Cactus Range, south of the Goldfield-Cactus Road; associated with silicified rhyolite.*

Cuprite, 12 miles south of Goldfield; associated with an altered rhyolite pumice.®

Rabbit Hole Sulphur Mines, 35 miles northwest of Humboldt House, Nev.; associated with sulphur in Tertiary sedimentaries. The rocks are much silicified in the neighborhood of the sulphur deposits. ®

Camp Alunite, 22 miles southeast of Las Vegas, Nev.; associated with altered andesites and monzonites.'

Las Vegas, locality 15 miles south of Las Vegas, Nev.; sample of alunite submitted by J. A. Delameter, who reports no name for the district, and states that there is apparently a considerable quantity of the mineral. The mineral submitted is massive alunite and contains 8.98 per cent potash.®

Marysvale, Utah, Little Cottonwood Canyon, 7 miles southwest of Marysvale. The alunite occurs in veins. The main vein has been traced for a distance of 3,000 to 3,500 feet, and reaches a thickness of 20 feet in the widest portion. The potash content is from 10 to 12 per cent. A parallel vein 6 feet wide occurs close to the main vein.

A review of the conclusions of Ransome, Butler, Adams, and Hill concerning the genesis of this mineral has resulted in the following summation: The occurrences of alunite may be grouped in two general types—those in which alunite was formed from the action of solfataric waters or vapors carrying sulphuric acid upon igneous rocks

1 Bul. No. 225, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 497.

2 Bul. No. 511, U. S. Geol. Survey.

3 Professional Paper No. 66, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 108, Ransome.

4 Bul. No. 308, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 48, Ball.

5 Professional Paper No. 66, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Ransome.

6 Bul. No. 225, U.S. Geol. Survey, Contributions to Economic Geology, p. 500. 7Eng.and Mng. Jour., Des. 19, 1998, p. 1298.

8 Records of the Cooperative Laboratory, Reno, Nev.

36 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

rich in potash, and those in which solutions rich in sulphates and coming from deepseated sources rose through fissures and deposited their mineral content where temerature

and pressure conditions favored deposition. In the first type the alunite Re been deposited more or less in situ. In the second, the alunite originated at depth and was deposited close to the surface. Deposits of the first class are disseminated, while in the case of the second type the deposits are concentrated. To the first type belong the Goldfield, Camp Alunite, Rabbit Hole Spring, Cactus Range, and Cuprite occurrences. To the second belong the Marysvale occurrences. Alunite is a possible source of potash.' Of the known occurrences of this mineral in the basin region, the Marysvale deposit is the only one which shows possibilities of commercial exploitation. The results of work upon this deposit will be looked forward to with interest. In view of the widespread solfataric action, in past as well as present geologic periods, it is not improbable that other deposits of alunite will be discovered in this region.

Alkali Crusts And Efflorescences.

It is difficult to draw a sharp line between deposits of this type, playa deposits, and deposits resulting from the desiccation of lakes. I have included under this head, however, all surface deposits which have originated during present times and which are of inconsequential thickness. These deposits have their origin in the evaporation of shallow bodies of rain water, or in the action of seepage waters in bringing dissolved salts to the surface, either by springs or capillarity. Hot springs are also responsible for crusts in their immediate vicinity.

These occurrences are usually characteristic of the playas or sinks. In Table XVIII (Appendix) are presented analyses of crusts taken from a number of localities. The average of these analyses shows the ions in the following order: Na, 30.23; Ca, 2.29; K, 1.68; Mg, 1.38; and the acid radicals SO,, 30.39; Cl, 21.64; HCO,, 6.22; CO,, 6.13. The average analysis shows the predominance of sodium. The ratio of sodium to potassium is 19.1 to1. The sulphate radical is in excess of the chlorine. Carbonates and bicarbonates are usually present and in a few cases are in large excess of chlorides and sulphates. Sodium chloride and sulphate are the two compounds most abundant. Potassium is usually small in amount, although in a few of the Utah crusts this element is present in percentages ranging from 3 to 6.

In Table XIX (Appendix) are given a number of analyses of salt crusts and waters from Railroad Valley, Nev. The samples were taken by E. E. Free and J. Hance. They were analyzed by A. R. Merz for the percentages of soluble salts and the potash content of the soluble salts. The samples represent a general survey of this area. They show, on the whole, a high content of potash. Six crusts and one brine were analyzed by J. A. Cullen, and his results are given in Table XX (Appendix). They show that sodium chloride is the compound most abundant, with potassium chloride usually next, followed in order of abundance by sodium sulphate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate. The average ratio of sodium to potassium is 5.7 tol. The presence of potassium compounds in these crusts first attracted attention to this area and led to the exploratory work done by the Railroad Valley Saline Co.

The origin of salines of this nature is simple. They may be said to be derived from the weathering of rocks and the liberation of contained salines in the drainage area' of the tributary basin. Through the agency of surface and underground waters they are collected in low places.

Such deposits, excepting the borates, which have been discussed previously, have no commercial value. The complex mixture of salts and the superficial nature of the deposits are the reasons for nonexploitation. In a few local cases salt has been gathered from crusts of this nature and marketed. No serious proposal has been made, as far as I am aware, for the exploitation of alkaline crusts rich in potash, although the aggregate amount of potash in an area like that of Railroad Valley must be very large. The chief interest in these deposits lies in the insight which they give into the chemical nature of the salines at present accumulating in the arid basins of the Great Basin.

Playa Deposits.

Perhaps one of the most common topographical features is the desert basin. The basin may be circular, elliptical, or greatly elongated on one axis, forming a long, narrow valley. Such basins usually have in their lowest part a level area devoid of vegetation, sometimes covered with saline crusts, but more often simply consisting of a rain-puddled sheet of clay. To this central portion the term ''sink" or ''playa"

1 For the conditions under which potash is made available in alunite see Cir. No. 70, Alunite as a source of Potash, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agr. For use of alunite as a fertilizer see Cir. No. 76, Alunite and Kelp as Potash Fertilizers, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 37

isapplied. The sink serves asa reservoir for the basin which it occupies. Naturally, it also serves to receive whatever soluble material is brought to it by surface or underground waters. As a consequence, playas may be looked upon as favorable places for the accumulation of salines. In order to present more clearly the nature of playa deposits, I have sketched the structural development of a desert basin.

Structural Development Of A Desert Basin.

The adjustment of the fault blocks of the Great Basin initiated a period of erosion, with its consequent deposition of detrital material in the intermountain areas. Flanking the mountains first appeared steep sloping aprons, or talus slopes. The finer sands and gravels were deposited in a wider zone at the foot of the apron area, and in the central portions the finest silts and clays were deposited. During this period shallow lakes no doubt occupied many of the basins. As erosion proceeded finer material was brought down and the mountain aprons assumed a less taluslike appearance. The sand and gravel aprons extended out and encroached upon the silt area and sufficient silt was brought down to fill the central basin and in some cases to obliterate the shallow lakes occupying them. Were lateral streams the only agents of transport, we should have a very definite structure revealed by the basin. A cross section of such an ideal basin would show a wide, level, and relatively thin body of fine silts and clays, flanked on either side with masses of detrital material rising in long, sweeping grades to the steeper slopes of the mountains. A gradation from fine sands to coarse 'angular débris mixed with material of all sizes would be noticed in passing from the central portions of the playa to the steeper mountain slopes. Figure 3 illustrates the section described. Under the conditions indicated above we should expect the central mass A to be characterized by little movement of ground water, while the flanking masses B and B would be zones in which oround waters could

Sa Zn Se

Ann Ts 7S Tals Wam Tents Shu

Fic. 3.—Ideal cross section of a desert basin.

actively circulate. With the progress of time, we should expect the apron slopes to flatten and the silt and clay area to extend laterally until a shallow, panlike basin would result. Surface waters would accumulate and shallow lakes 'would form in the rainy season. The impervious bottom of this lake would protect the waters from loss by seepage. The evaporation of these lakes would leave surface accumulations of salts which would receive fresh accessions each year until deposits of appreciable thickness would make their appearance.

Water is not the only agent which acts. Wind erosion and deposition also plays an important part. Under the influence of this agent the central portion A of the basin would not be composed of a homogeneous mass of clay and silts, but we should expect to find its homogeneity disturbed by layers of sand, voleanic ash, or other wind-blown material. Such beds would be continuous in a lar ge measure over basin areas occupied by shallow lakes, but in the case of the ordinary playas conditions would not be favorable for the deposition of wind-blown material in thin beds. Upon the dry playas we should expect to find the fine silts of the central portion more or less eroded by the wind and deposited over the outwash slopes, or in certain portions of the basin as dunes. It is not an uncommon thing to find in a playa area one or more portions occupied by sand dunes of considerable extent. Another point should be mentioned, and that is that in periods of excessive rainfall or during cloud-bursts the streams would be so increased in volume as to carry out upon the central silt area sand and gravel. In this way tongues of coarse material would be formed in the silt portions and would form beds in which eround water could circulate. A perennial stream entering one end of a basin would effect a somewhat similar structure, but on a much greater scale.

The width of the intermountain spaces and the height of the inclosing mountain ranges would determine the proportion between the silt and detrital masses. With narrow valleys and high mountain ranges we should expect the outwash slopes to meet or even overlap at the center. As the valley filled a mass of silt of triangular section would be formed in the central part. Figure 4 illustrates this structure.

a

38 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Some basins are characterized by having the silt area on one side of the intermountain space. This is caused by a difference in elevation of the mountain ranges and a difference in climatic conditions. The higher mountain ranges command a greater rainfall. We would therefore expect that greater erosion would result from the higher mountains than from the lower. This would result in apron slopes of greater extent from the sides of the higher mountains than from the lower. This would place the © silt area close to the lower mountain range. Figure 5 illustrates the structure.

The ground-water conditions in basins of the types illustrated are worthy of further comment. In the case of figure 3, and assuming a region of inconsiderable rainfall, we should expect that the ground-water accumulations in B portions would be smaller and found at relatively great depths. The silt mass would retain its moisture close to the surface and lose it by evaporation. Capillarity would draw up the moisture together with any soluble salts for a depth of 10 or possibly more feet from the surface. At the central mass, built up by silt, or wind deposition, we would expect the soluble

Fig. 4.—Cross section of a basin occupying a narrow valley between high mountains.

salts to be drawn upward and to remain as a conspicuous surface feature. Only on the edges of the silt portions would we expect to find any buried salt crusts-and these would be distributed irregularly and be comparatively thin. In the case of a moderate rainfall we should expect an accumulation of ground water in B portions and the level of this ground water would reach the suriace on the periphery of the silt mass. It would . appear as spring water in the coarser material and as seepage water in the finer and more compact marginal portions. Under conditions of this kind we should expect the marginal portions of the silt mass, if not the entire silt mass, to be saturated with moisture. If the amount of this water, plus the rainfall on the playa area, would be sufficient to replace the evaporation losses, a lake might be expected to form and to remain as a more or less permanent feature. If insufficient, we should expect a lake to form during part of the year, and in the summer months the standing water would evaporate, leaving a mud flat. Another case might be mentioned, and that is where the ground water plus the rainfall would be insufficient to form standing water and only just sufficient to maintain a mud flat during a part of the year.

Fic. 5.—Cross section of a basin having higher mountains on one side than on the side opposite.

In the case of figure 4 ground water would be present beneath the entire basin and this would be in some cases artesian water. If the silt portion A maintained its homogeneity ground-water accessions could come only from the marginal portions of the playa area. That this is not an ideal condition may be concluded from the fact that a spring, or springs, is not infrequently found in the central portion of the playa. In some cases this spring is sufficient to supply a small pond ae in others the water flows out and evaporates. An excellent example of this kind is found in Rhodes Marsh. In almost the center a spring makes its appearance and a flow of some magnitude runs out and meanders on the flat to be lost by seepage and evaporation. During some years the rainfall plus this flow is sufficient to form a shallow lake.

A conspicuous feature of many of the playas is the marginal rim of mud about the relatively dry central portion. Silver Peak, Rhodes, Death Valley, and Teels Marsh are examples.

Another condition merits mention here. Often a playa will be in the focus of some dominant surface drainage or ground-water drainage. These combined are sufficient

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 39

to feed a stream for a portion of the year and the basin receives sufficient water to form a permanent lake. The Jakes occupying the Quaternary basins are of this character.

Respecting the movement of salines in solution, it will not be out of place to mention the following: Assuming the ideal basin, and considering such a basin supplied by rainfall and not receiving the discharge of any stream, the run-off ground water reaches the central playa and brings with it more or less soluble salts. The ground water which seeps in from the margins brings in considerable salts. This is shown by the crusts and efflorescences which are continually forming on the marginal portions. The water which comes from springs in the central part of the playa is comparatively free from salts. We would expect that the deeper water would be comparatively free from salines and only in the case where it flowed up through saline beds would we expect to find much evidence of soluble salts. A not unimportant conclusion may be drawn here and that is that artesian flows in the central portion of a playa, if free from more than nominal amounts of soluble salts, indicate the absence of deposits of salt at depth.

Playas.

Desert basins not occupied by perennial lakes may be divided into two groups— mud playas and marshes. The former are playas which are dry and without any great accumulation of underground waters; the marshes are playas noteworthy on account of the accumulation of considerable bodies of underground water and in which the water can be found comparatively close to the surface. For convenience in presentation, I have divided the marshes into two types—marshes in which there is no evidence to show of the existence of a former lake having a level higher than the present surface of the playa, and marshes in which there is evidence of a former lake with surface higher than the present level of the playa. Examples of these are as follows:

Playas.—Most of the smaller desert basins having small drainage area, fall into this class. The small playas north of Reno; the Alkali Flat in Gabbs Valley; Sarcobatus Flat, Amargosa region; Big Smoky playa; and the playas near Mina and Luning.

Marshes (first type).—Rhodes, Teels, Silver Peak, Saline Valley, Fish Lake Valley, Death Valley.

Marshes (second type).—Columbus, Panamint, Sand Springs Flat, Searles, Railroad Valley, Black Rock Desert, Dixie Valley, Alvord Marsh.

The list is not complete and it is evident that the line of demarcation is not a sharp one. Changing climatic conditions might be expected to alter the classification.

Mud Playas.

Playas of this type can not be looked upon as the locus of important accumulations of salines. The small drainage area and the arid climatic conditions would result in little accumulation of ground water and that would be at considerable depth, well without the zone of possible concentration by evaporation. For example, the playa just east of Mina, Nev., contains two wells close to the western edge of the silt area. One well shows water at 112 feet and the other at 114 feet. The water from these wells is used for railroad and town purposes. This example is, perhaps, not as good a one to illustrate the point as could be desired on account of the fact that the underground water ae drains into Rhodes Marsh some 6 miles south and 152 feet lower. Ground water may be looked for at varying depths in almost all playas of this type. What salines are present are, however, at the surface, in thin crusts and efflorescences or concentrated within the upper portion of the silt area in much the same way as was described under the subject of the accumulations of salts in soils.

Desiccation products at depth in playas of this type are more than otherwise apt to be of slight thickness and dubious value. While it can not be said that lakes did not occupy the playas under the humid conditions of the Quaternary, still it can be said that such lakes must have been very shallow and their saline content left by evaporation consequently small in amount. The absence of beach lines and their accumulation of gravel about the playa is, in my judgment, sufficient to warrant the assumption that a lake was either not present or was a shallow one of periodic occurrence.

Marshes.

The conditions which pertain to marshes of the first type can best be described by examples. R.B. Dole! examined the Silver Peak Marsh, Nev. From his account I have taken the main facts. The area is due east of Blair, Nev. The marsh is 32 square miles in extent and isin a basin having an area of 550 square miles. Tertiary volcanics and sedimentaries, limestones, slates, and quartzites of Paleozoic age, and

1 Bul, No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey.

40 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

granite and Quaternary and recent alluvium surround the marsh.! The climatic conditions are arid. As a result of the examination of the material obtained from bores placed at a number of points on the marsh, Dole describes the structure in the following words:

''Brown mud 5 to 20 feet deep forms the upper layer of the marsh. Because of the intense heat the surface of this mud is usually baked dry and hard enough to support the weight of teams. Small scattered tracts have become dry enough to be pulverulent for a depth of 1 to 2 feet, but over the greater part of the playa 4-foot holes are sufficiently deep to strike soft mud. As this layer is composed of very small particles and contains a large proportion of clay, the strong salt waters in it circulate very slowly. The mud contains a great quantity of salt, though the crystals are small. The brines obtained from it are very strong, and the surface is generally covered toa depth of one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch by a white crust of salt that has crystallized from solutions drawn to the surface by capillarity.

''The upper mud along the west shore of the playa, particularly west of the 'islands,' contains nodules of calcareous tufa, which apparently have been formed by deposition of calcium carbonate from the hard waters percolating into the marsh from Mineral Ridge. The record of boring No. 13 shows that clay under the mud west of the 'islands' is underlain by white tufaceous materials, but no salt occurs at a depth less than 41 feet except that in the abundant weak brines.

''Well-defined beds of clay containing crystals of gypsum were penetrated east of Goat 'Island' in borings Nos. 3 and 6, and these are underlain by beds of crystallized salt containing saturated brine. Very stiff black, blue, red, gray, and brown clays - underlie the beds of salt or mixed salt and clay in boring No. 3 to a depth of 55 feet,

but in boring No. 6 the clays are interrupted by a stratum of gypsum-bearing clay below the salt and a 6-inch stratum of salt at 47 feet, below which clay was again encountered.

'"'Except a shallow bed of light-gray calcareous materia! at 16 feet nothing but clay containing weak brine was struck to a depth of 40 feet in boring No. 14, at the south end of the playa.

''Borings Nos. 11 and 12 indicate that the beds of salt in the northeastern part of the marsh are denser than those farther south. The mud is underlain by clay and that in turn by crystallized salt so hard that it has to be drilled. A much harder formation, propably calcareous tufa, was struck below the salt in both borings at a depth of about 36 Teet.

'"The data afforded by the six deeper borings lead to the conclusion that the northeastern two-thirds of the playa is underlain at a depth of about 20 feet by beds of crystallized salt, 5 to 15 feet thick, mixed with more or less clay. It is doubtful if deposits of so great extent occur west of Goat 'Island' or south of Alcatraz 'Island.' Besides these beds practically all other strata to a depth of 50 feet contain appreciable proportions of salt that readily dissolves in water percolating through them."

It is to be regretted that a greater number of borings were not made and the structure of the marsh more accurately determined at greater depths over the northern half of the basin. Ina crude way the structure indicates the following cycle of events:

1. The formation of a lake of unknown depth, but with a surface level below the present level of the marsh. Salines accumulated in this lake, and a general silting up took place. The area of this lake could not have extended much over two-thirds of the area of the present. marsh.

2. A period of desiccation in which a thin bed of salt was deposited at a depth of about 48 feet below the present surface. Complete desiccation may not have taken place but concentration sufficient to produce a saturated solution and the crystallization of some of the sodium chloride (bore hole No. 6 shows one-half foot .of crystals of salt at 47.5 feet depth). Silts and clays were deposited and covered the layer of salt crystals. Increased rainfall prevented further deposition of salt by diluting the lake waters. :

3. The silting up of the lake continued to a level within 38 feet of the present surface. Through the latter part of this period desiccation and consequent concentration of the lake water proceeded simultaneously with the silting up.

4. At this time the concentration of the lake was sufficient to precipitate gypsum (bore hole No. 6, 38 feet, shows gray clay containing gypsum crystals). A period of desiccation followed, and a salt bed was gradually built up reaching a position from 29 to 31 feet below the present level and a thickness of 6 to7 feet. A period of interruption followed, and then further deposition of salt took place, the extent and thickness of the salt bed increasing. This second layer of salt reached a thickness of 6.5 to 7.5 feet, forming, with the lower layer, a bed in the lowest part of the basin

1 For areal Geology see Professional Paper No. 55, Ore Deposits of the Silver Peak Quadrangle, J. E. Spurr.

, POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. Al

about 12 feet thick and thinning out on the edges to 6.5 feet. Almost complete desiccation must have marked the end of the period.

5. A greater rainfall changed conditions, and a shallow lake formed. More or less silting and deposition of clay sealed over the salt beds. Desiccation succeeded this comparatively brief interval, and the lake shrunk and deposited a thin layer of salt over a restricted area (2.5 feet of salt in boring No. 12) at a depth of 18 feet from the present surface.

6. A greater rainfall produced a shallow lake, perhaps not more than 10 or 15 feet deep. This lake gradually silted up and slowly evaporated until the present condition was reached.

The lake is dry for perhaps the greater part of the year, and only in the wettest years is water present on the surface. The silting up of the lake must have been accomplished in a large degree by eeolian action. The presence of a recent volcanic cone on the western edge of the marsh indicates one of the sources, at least, of the material which filled the lake. The mass of silts and muds filling the lake basin contains a saturated brine.

A chemical examination of the brine indicates the nature of the salines accumulated in this lake bed. From the work previously cited the following table is taken:

Analyses of composite samples of brines—Silver Peak Marsh. [Parts per 100,000.]

Constituent. 1 2 3 4 9 10 CH Pee SY Sc aane. Ie we FE ESTES 59.37 59. 01 57.35 60. 11 59.16 58. 32 SO gn 23 Re NCE DSS rae Rep hase S Rhee 8 1.70 1.30 . 99 1.09 1.61 OKO calle Sa IS I cpap et tr UT AESNu ye eg ee rete, em? 01 01 . 83 -O1 69 INE SH Be aE SRS SEIS Certs Oe ine a eee 36. 12 36. 64 32. 87 34. 65 34, 38 34.37 Ee ee oer aie ene eee veins 2. 71 2. 26 3.12 2.95 3. 69 3.11 Carey AS AEE EE 1s pi eS Ss ee ey E tet 67 36 1.92 1.:25 84 1. 29 JN ES pot SETS SIS aT tert a oe SON ee 24 11 2. 49 .04 48 50 UN SSeS SSS Seda Ba Bae SESE Se eG Se ONG (i) ape Oa a ce ee pe eager ee WAS AES ERR S|! a RSET D NS Bs O01 ME EDS be oo seers -07 Siti) Si@ geet ee ners OE Sk eet Bah cet tog : 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Total solids on evaporation, parts per OOOOONatis Se SEES oer eee Sheer 278. 76 264. 03 48. 82 233. 44 57. 60 39.33

1W. B: Van Winkle, analyst. Table recalculated from Bul No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey.

. Composite of samples from boring No. 3 at 15.5 feet and from No. 6 at 21 and 40 feet.

. Composite of samples from boring No. 11 at 27 and 35 feet and from No. 12 at 10, 20, and 27 feet. . Composite of samples from boring No. 13 at 16, 31.5, and 40 feet.

. Composite of samples from boring No. 14 at 11 and 17 feet.

. Water from boring No. 1 at 6 feet, collected June 1, 1912.

. Water from boring No. 1 at 27 feet, collected June 4, 1912.

Coo R Whf

The order of the ions is:

Naesaese hye Stacie feet Aen tient ya laces waite taminas i. duh nasty 58. 86 eee oily Greif: 2.94 SOnud lnk series cep eae 1.26 Ce ee ees 1.05 CON Six Siren at phe Tee 30 Niele tie besten on 64 Si Oksana alle? oat ae 06

Carbonates and sulphates are inconspicuous in amount. The brines consist almost wholly of sodium and potassium chlorides. They are practically saturated. The ratio of sodium to potassium is 11.9. The brines at depth show a somewhat smaller content of potassium than the composite samples. The average is 0.69 per cent of the total solids.' Dole gives the analyses of four spring waters tributary to the basin; two are from hot springs and two from cold. These waters have a chemical content very much the same as the brines. They are slightly higher in sulphate radical and average slightly higher in potash content. The sodium-potassium ratio is 10.8.

Certain interesting observations were made upon the brines. In boring No. 12 the brine encountered at 8.5 to 10 feet rose to 1.8 feet (head of 7.45 feet); those at 18 to 20.5 feet rose to 7.5 feet (head of 11.75 feet); those at 22 to 35 feet rose to 8 feet (head of 20.5 feet). A similar condition was noted in bore No. 11 and most of the other bores which penetrated the brine body. These observations indicate the effect of pressure no doubt caused by the elevation of the water plane in the ground water outside the main silt area.

The source of the salines has been discussed by Spurr.?, He reaches the conclusion that the weak brines discharged by springs around the marsh are the source. Dole

1 Bul. No. 530R, U.S. Geological Survey, p. 14. 2 Professional Paper No. 55, U. S. Geological Survey.

42 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

suggests that these springs may derive their salines from the marsh itself. Both Dole and Spurr state that the leaching of the Tertiary stratified rocks which are present in the basin in extensive areas accounts for much of the saline residue. If Dole's estimate of the quantity of salt, 15,000,000 tons, be taken, and the area of the basin considered, 1.9 pounds per square foot of the basin suriace would account for this quantity. It would not be unreasonable to expect this to be derived from the erosion of the Tertiary sedimentaries and volcanics, especially when we consider the great amount of erosion which has taken place in Clayton Valley. Spurr points out, however, the conspicuous absence of borates in the salines of the Silver Peak Marsh and their presence in the neighboring playa to the west—Fish Lake Valley. In both localities Tertiary sediments are common. He rightly reasons that if these sedimentaries were responsible for the salines, borates would also be present in the Silver Peak salines. His conclusion that the salines of the Silver Peak Marsh are derived from hot springs at the edge of the playa would not account for the absence of borates at depth. Three possible hypotheses st guest themselves: The absence of the "'borate member" in the Tertiary sedimentaries of the Silver Peak Basin and its presence in the Tertiary sedimentaries tributary to Fish Lake Valley; deeper borings in the Silver Peak Marsh might reveal borates; the volcanic activity 1n the Silver Peak Marsh was not characterized by emanations of boric compounds.

The source of the borate compounds in Tertiary sedimentaries is generally conceded to be due to contemporaneous vulcanism. This must have been local and would result in localization of boraciferous strata in the Tertiary series. This leads me to favor the first hypothesis. I do not, however, consider the question settled, and further data must be obtained before it can be.

I am inclined to the view that the major part of the salines were derived from the erosion of the rocks of the basin; that possibly recent volcanic activity was responsible for a part also; and that much of the present surface accumulation is due to the springs and seepage water.

Dole estimates the quantity of salt in the Silver Peak Marsh as 15,000,000 tons within the first 40 feet. The deposit has commercial possibilities for the production of salt. The average of the analyses upon the four brine composites shows 2.76 per cent potassium in the anhydrous residue. This is equivalent to 5.2 per cent potassium chloride. It is doubtful whether this is high enough to warrant the attempt to separate the potassium salt. The association of the brine with compact muds would prevent it from freely flowing to a bore hole. There would be, therefore, some difficulty in obtaining sufficient brine from a few bore holes to supply evaporating vats. The small amount of carbonate and sulphate would render the problem of the separation of the sodium and potassium chlorides comparatively simple. The production of sodium chloride with a by-product rich in potassium chloride is not beyond the possibilities of commercial exploitation.

Conditions in Rhodes, Teels (Pl. I, fig. 1), Fish Lake Valley, and Saline Valley are very much the same as in Silver Peak Marsh. Undoubtedly shallow lakes occupied each of these basins, and the filling-in process and the desiccation of the lakes must have been similar. Unfortunately the results of systematic boring are not obtainable. No doubt each of these presents individual characteristics and differs in some gaits from the example described. The most marked difference is in the presence oI borates.

In Fish Lake Valley, Turner states that there are four playa deposits, all of which have been worked for borax. Analyses by G. Steiger show in one case chloride, sulphate, carbonate, and borate of sodium. In another, sulphates and borates of calcium and sodium. No mention is made of potassium in the analyses.!

The conditions at Rhodes Marsh have been described by LeConte.? His observations are summarized below.

The central area is occupied by asalt crust consisting of almost pure sodium chloride. About the salt area and below the surface soil isa comparatively thick bed of sodium sulphate. Sodium carbonate occurs in soft crusts 2 or 3 inches thick, but is not general. Borax and ulexite alsooccur. The ulexite is in the form of nodules imbedded in wet, stiff clay in the semicircular area surrounding the central salt area on the north, northwest, and northeast. The borax occurs on the west, southwest, and southeast of the central saltarea. It isina moist, stiff clay which is fullof the transparent crystals. It also occurs as a crust from 1 to3 inches thick. Thiscrust renewsitself. The localization of the salts is attributed to the action of springs, and the concentration of the pure sodium chloride in the lowest part of the playa is attributed to the leaching of this compound by surface waters. It is evident from the description that the salines in the marsh are much more complex than those in the Silver Peak area. The regional rocks are similar to those about Silver Peak. The playa is of special interest in that

1 Professional Paper No. 55, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 158, 159, Spurr. 2 Third Annual Report State Mineralogist of California, 1883.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 43

it more nearly approximates the ideal type described before than any other. Itisa circular basin of 232 square miles area, occupied by a playa of 3.2 square miles area. The ratio of basin area to playa area is 72.5. It receives its principal underground waters from the Sodaville-Mina Valley. Undoubtedly its history is similar "to the Silver Peak Marsh. The central area is occupied by a reddish-brown mud, locally covered by efflorescences. In places the mud is dried to a brown, pulv erulent soil, containing more or less sodium chloride and small amounts of other salines. The present movement of the salines from the deeper beds is taking place, first, by slow upward movement of the water contained in the muds (caused by capillarity), and, second, in the marginal portions by a slow movement upward caused by capillarity and by the banking up of the water plane where it strikes the more or less impervious mud bodies of the central playa. The water of the central area is saturated with salines and deposits them as crusts at the surface. In the marginal portions the underground water becomes more or less saturated as it passes through the beds and carries saline material to the surface, where it crystallizes out. LeConte's idea in a large measure is correct. His term "'springs" would include seepage water in all its phases of upward movement. Occasional heavy rainfalls produce. sufficient run-off to form a shallow lake. Such waters dissolve salines and concentrate them in the central depression. Salt is the principal compound concentrated in this manner.

A number of analyses were made upon samples of salines from this marsh, but potassium in small amounts only was found. A sample of moist sand and salt from the central part of the playa shows the following:

Analysis of salt in sand from playa, Sample No. 15. [Analysis by. J. A. Cullen.]

Per cent. Per cent. Chule Acne eS ae Mas SOme en ea ee 47. 68 i [aes os ah aa ager page el a ie C1 es ee he ae ee 14.17 ass cee, Pio CF it ie Sea, Sala AP gat ai gs Rho tac 8 RR ih Bias aah" Se eae Es 3. 09 IN cre ear e ty ee pt a 2 Total soluble salts in sand 12.15

The analysis shows sodium sulphate and chloride in greatest amount. Minor amounts of sodium carbonates and some potassium chloride are shown. The sodiumpotassium ratio is 10. No analyses oi the brines are available. Excepting for the borax and salt, this marsh isa very doubtful source of commercial salines. The potash content is too low and its separation would be complicated by the presence of sulphates and carbonates.

SALINE VALLEY, INyo County, CAL.

This is an inclosed basin. The central portion, of about 12,000 acres extent, is covered by a salt crust 2 inches thick and beneath are muds saturated with brines. When the crust is scraped off it renews itself in about 15 days. At almost any place over the salt area at a depth of 2 feet salt brine can be obtained. In warm weather the salt crystallizing out is pure; in cold, it contains small amounts of soda. The salt deposits are being worked and preparations are being made on a large scale for its shipment by the Saline Valley Salt Co. The regional rocks about this basin are granites, limestones, and volcanics. Marsh borax was worked at one time in the valley.

A single sample of the salt crust from this valley was submitted and found to contain 40.98 per cent soluble salts, and thesoluble salts contained 4.2 per cent potassium. Three brines and one spring water were also submitted. The analyses follow:

Analyses of brines and spring water from Saline Valley. [Per cent of total solids.]

Total solids

e on evapo- No. Ca. Mg. Na. Ke. CO3. HCO3. CE SOx. 'ration, parts

per 100,000. 3! SA ee eee ES LOSO 3. 08 13. 84 Er: Er 7. 64 24. 62 28. 46 130 TS aa OOS ie ee eat ee . 18 ol 36. 31 ASE, . 07 . 03 48.78 12. 85 35, 506 er enn Re 155 .19 34.38 13 Tre ES 48. 70 13.37 8, 237 3 ie Ag as oe at ee 2. 97 Eyles 32. 57 71 Tr: . 28 45. 45 17. 30 4, 238

—

No. 1. Spring water. - No. 2. Brine from center of flat.

No. 3. Brine from pothole on south edge of flat.

No. 4. Brine from pothole one-half mile east of No. 3.

Analyses by J. A. Cullen, Bureau of Soils.

44 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Sufficient data are not available properly to characterize this area. It is not unlike the Silver Peak Marsh. The potassium content of No. 2 brine, the highest, is less than for the average of the Silver Peak brines. The high content in the single sample of the crust material is not considered significant, since samples of this material occasionally run high in potassium.

Death Valley.

Death Valley receives the drainage of the Amargosa River. The drainage area is given as 23,160 square miles by Free's table of basin areas. The area of the playa is approximately 160 square miles, not including Mesquite Valley in the northern end. The ratio of basin to playa is 144 to 1.

The valley lies between the Panamint Range on the west and the Amargosa Range on theeast. It hasa length of 120 miles and a width varying from 3 to 10 miles. Much of the valley area les below the sea level. The lowest point on the topographic sheet is —280 feet. Ball states that some 15 miles farther south from this point the depression is 125 feet deeper. The Panamint Range reaches its maximum elevation at Telescope Peak, 11,045 feet, an air-line distance of about 12 miles from the —200-foot contour of Death Valley. The Amargosa Range reaches an elevation of 6,397 feet at Funeral Peak, a distance of 6 miles from the —200-foot contour; 6,725 feet at Pyramid Peak, a distance of about 12 miles from the —200-foot contour; and 5,420 feet at Chloride Cliff Peak, a distance of 10 miles from the —200-foot contour in Death Valley. The Panamint Range averages from 7,000 to 9,000 feet altitude and the Amargosa from 6,000 to 7,000 feet. The maximum grade on the west from Telescope Peak to the valley is 920 feet per mile (9.8°), and on the east, measured from Funeral Peak, 1,066 feet per mile (11.4°). The canyons leading to the valley do not approximate these grades, except in their upper ends, but the average grade is very steep. In consequence of these steep grades and the torrential character of the occasional rain storms, alluvial fans and mountain aprons have been developed on a vast scale. The narrowness of the valley has resulted in the development of a structure similar to eh shown in figure 4. Undoubtedly many of the fans overlap beneath the central

asin.

The floor of the valiey is level, but on the flanks are low hills, some of Tertiary sediments (Pl. I, fig. 2), and some of alluvial material representing the residual portions of alluvial fans attacked by recent erosion. Mesauite Flat, in the northern end of the valley, is covered with sand dunes. There are no positive evidences of a lake during Quaternary times. Some evidences of a shallow, recent lake in the area east of Bennetts Wells are discernible in faint shore lines, which indicate a depth of 6 to 12 feet.

An enormous deposit of salt occupies the lowest depression. The salt area begins south of Salt Creek, 6 miles northwest of United States land monument No. 34, and extends to a point south of Mesquite Spring. The length of the salt area is from 30 to 32 miles, and its width ranges from 2 to 4 miles. Over a large part of this area the salt appears as a crust composed of pinnacles and fantastic, twisted masses. (PI. II, fig. 1.) It is said that some of the rough salt pinnacles reach a height of 6 feet. The average height of those I saw would be from 14 to 2 feet. The thickness of the rough salt varies. Campbell! states that it can not be less than 1 foot thick. Free states that the thickness of the upper crusts is 18 inches. Below this is 3 feet of mud, then 18 inches of salt, and then mud to 10 feet at the place where he tested.

In the so-called sink east of Bennetts Wells and about 18 miles south of Furnace Creek Ranch is an area of smooth salt. (Pl. IJ, fig. 2.) On the eastern edge of the valley this is separated by a narrow rim of mud and rough salt from the alluvial wash of the Amargosa Range. On the north thearea is bounded by rough salt which extends across the floor of the valley. The first foot of the smooth salt area is composed of layers of crystalline salt 2 or 3 inches thick, separated by thin seams of mud and sand. Brine comes to within a fraction of an inch of the surface. A slight scraping of the surface is followed by the flowing in of the brine. The surface of the salt is divided into small polygonal areas by thin cracks through which the underlying brine has been drawn and in crystallizing has left low welts oi crystallized salt cementing the cracks together. As far as I have been able to ascertain, no measurements of the thickness of this salt have been made. B. K. Brockington estimates that the total area of incrustation is approximately 150 square miles. Of this about one-third, or 50 square miles, is smooth salt, the greater part of this being in the sink east of Bennetts Wells.

In the rough salt area, holes show a brine to be within 1 or 2 feet of the surface. Within this area also occur potholes, circular openings from 2 to 4 feet in diameter

1 Bul. No. 200, U.S. Geol. S irvey, p. 18.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 45

and of varying depth and filled with brine. (PI. III, fig. 1.) The interior of the holes is lined with salt crystals. About the edges, surface tension has drawn the brine up and, the margin of the hole is crusted with efflorescences of salt. Near the "land'' edge of the rough salt area many holes are to be seen, some more or less arched over by salt crusts and dry mud, and always containing water. Areas of soft red mud also occur between the rough crusts and the outer margin. These are often difficult and dangerous to cross. The formation of the rough salt crusts may often be seen upon these mud areas. The explanation appears to be as follows: The surface mud ' dries, forming cracks, and in shrinking leaves narrow channels, bottomed by soft mud, between the cracks. Through these channels the brine solution slowly passes up and crystallizes, forming veins of salt. As the mud cakes dry, they curl upward on the edges, opening the channels wider and allowing more brine to work upward. This crystallizes in part and in part is drawn by surface tension over the surface already crystallized, forming thicker crusts. The brine in the soft mud below is steadily supplied, and the crusts build up until they practically seal the brine over. More or less evaporation must continue beneath the crusts, and as the salt crystals form they must crowd the mud and crusts up, forming the characteristic windrows of mud and salt on the marginal portions. The slow consolidation of the mud, as well as the banking up of the ground water on the periphery against the mud mass, would account for the upward movement of the brines.. Rain water would dissolve the salt from the crusts thus formed, and it would collect in small puddles between the roughened masses, where it would be evaporated to a brine. Surface tension would draw this brine up upon the rough masses of salt and, evaporating there, would thicken and build up the irregularities of the salt. The evaporation of a salt solution in a beaker and the climbing of the salt up the sides is a familiar laboratory phenomenon.

The smooth brea of salt is built up by fresh accessions of brine coming from the action of rain water upon the neighboring rough salt areas. Shallow channels (sloughs) meander through the rough salt and collect part of the brine formed by the occasional rains, discharging it upon the smooth salt, where it is speedily evaporated. Windblown material collects in the thin sheets of brine and mingles with the salt crystals. The general admixture of soil impurities in the rough salt is also explained in this way. It is evident that the smooth salt area would eventually reach a level that would permit little or no drainage to collect, and the salt bed would no longer be built up. Slow consolidation of the silts and clays in the lowest depressions would extend the differentiation of level over a long period: Differential consolidation would be expected in an area like Death Valley. The finest clays and silts in the lowest depression or sink would consolidate at a greater rate than the sand and alluvial material forming the greater part of the Death Valley filling. The consolidation of the clays and muds would be expected to force the solution upward and even outward. The brines forced outward would be diluted by mingling with the underground waters coming from the neighboring watersheds. We would expect the marginal water to be lower in saline content than that in the smooth salt area, and samples and analyses show this to be the case. Reference is made to the results of samples Nos. 339, 341, and 342. The sample No. 339 was taken on the west side of the valley, due west of Furnace Creek Ranch; No. 341 was taken one-fourth mile east of No. 339, and No. 342 one-quarter mile east of No. 341. They show, respectively, 2.77, 15.12, and 34.18 grams total solids per 100 cubic centimeters.

Campbell states that Death Valley is one of the best watered areas within the Amargosa region and that the water is, for the most part, good. An inspection of the topographic sheet shows many of the water holes to be close to the edge of the central playa. At Bennett's wells the water is within 14 feet of the surface. Most of the wells are shallow. The explanation of this has been given under the structural development of a playa.

Chemical Data For Death Valley.

Four sets of analyses are given in Tables XXI, XXII, XXIII, and XXIV (Appendix). The composition of the brines in Table X XI gives perhaps the best conception of the character of the salines present in Death Valley. The average percentage of ions based upon the percentage of total solids in the order of their magnitude is Na, 36.12; K, 2.63; Mg. 0.3; Ca, 0.2; Cl, 53.7; SO,, 5.62; CO,, 0.18. Sodium and chlorine are the dominating ions. Carbonates are-insignificant in amount. The sulphates are in greater amount than in the Silver Peak brines. Potassium isin smaller amount than the Silver Peak brines. The sodium-potassium ratio is 13.7; in the Silver Peak brines itis 11.9. These ratios indicate parallel conditions in both places. Calcium and magnesium are insignificant in amount. It should be noted that there is comparative agreement between the results obtained upon samples taken by different persons. —

46 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

B. K. Brockington submitted several brines to the Cooperative Laboratory from this locality, and the results upon these closely corroborate the samples taken by Free and Jones.

It should be noted also that borate compounds are found in Death Valley; just north of Bennett's Wells is the Eagle Borax Works, now abandoned. — Surface crusts were gathered at this place and refined. North of Furnace Creek Ranch is an old borax mill. The playa in the vicinity was the source of the borate minerals. This deposit is practically at the mouth of Furnace Creek. The well-known deposits of colemanite in Furnace Creek Canyon were undoubtedly the source from which the marsh borax in the valley came.

The borax deposits in Death Valley-.are no longer worked. No salt has been produced on account of difficulty oi access and climatic conditions. The potassium content of the brine is probably too low to warrant attempts at separation. Until deeper borings are made in the smooth salt area and the composition of the brines at depth determined, Death Valley must still be looked upon as a possible source of potassium salts. It is, however, a matter of reasonable doubt whether a greater content of potassium will be found at depth. Death Valley is of interest in that it indicates a transition stage in the formation of a saline deposit at depth. It would not takea very real uictease in rainfall to bring down débris sufficient to cover and seal the present salt deposit.

Sines. the foregoing was written the results of borings and analyses upon the brines obtained therefrom by the United States Geological Survey became available and are given below.

Log of United States Geological Survey boring No. 3, Death Valley, Cal.

Salt (14 inches thick on surface). Feet. Mud, light brown, containing coarse salt crystals 1.5 Salt layer 2 inches thick with flow of brine at bottom.

Maral. Soft (bTOWM - 5. 202 ofc tie ihe eS SE ee ee 29.0

(Small flow of warm water at depth of 30 feet.)

Mud, yielding seepage. Of Waler ss aj andj ee i ee eee Ga te 2.5 Clay or.mud: and _erystals-of salt... 5... 2.2 Shue tee et 15 Salta cists agen Sem Gees os acl ae fei creme ae gs ee a) Mud. black and crystalsiol salt- 2-2 je oa ee 1.5 RUG oR 8s cer eae SS oe eee asa sas sy Se na ig oe a) Mud: black, iand crystals.of.salt25... 25 ee ee ee ee 15. 0 a (Water all shut off and auger cut without seepage.)

PBs ie os ee Keaterm bpm pice one aptreqehonSiie wae ioe ahaa he eee a ae ee .3 Clay, black, with occasional. thim salt layers 4424522 a eee 3.7 Salt, crystalline, hard, containing layers of black clay mixed with salt crystals

1 to 4 inches in thickness at intervals of about 2 feet 8.5 Maid 2 4.55. 3. 63556 ice Sen je ps Ee See eee 5 malt, crystalline, apparently. solid... 2525.3 e8 a8 a ee eee 13.0 IMG S28 oo 52) coin 2 Beye oj a eos Ee oe oe ee eee 2.2 Salt crystalline. .2uc asccwnus sando elaine Bee Cee Sa eee eee 3. 8 Glay, black. 2... 2s.25.22% 520d wee ee ee eee 1.0 palt.crystalline. Joe4 etek i he ee 2.0 Clay, black, containing. salt crystals. 22 seot bye ee soe ee 10.5

(No water encountered in the lower part of the well.)

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 47

Analyses of potash in natural brines from Death Valley, Cal.

[W. B. Hicks and R. K. Bailey, analysts.]

Total salts S [KCI A Depth in feet (ignited resi-otas 20) express + ae F due) expressed expressed as as percent- Diese Isom ot ssp ie a en as ee Beene of age er original P age of original ignited residue.| solution. solution

Ground water in the salt crust at the OSS) Wi es ars eet care 0.5 28.19 3.43 1.53 eer in open "'pothole"' :..2.2..2. a) 27.47 1. 20 -o2 Se Nee tas See eee ioe Sees 9.5 27.48 1.18 -ol (Uf eS Ged Survey well No.1. 6 27.87 2. 85 iL Wz Sn Le eee ae Tien Skater eee 24 28. 64 2.22 1.01 Do EEA ANAe seer USER, set Mes SO SER 29 28. 96 2.35 1.09 Beane tere cine pine Say ONS Ga heed co 52 28. 66 2.01 -91 U.S. Gea Survey well No. 2 32 28.33 1.54 . 69 HEBD EE ROS EOS ASSES ee eae 38 29.16 1.78 . 82 Pa ee Mat ye nme rine axe Soeese 70 29. 96 2. 48 1.18 U. S. Geol, Survey well No. 3 1 27.7 2.05 90 se hs ce Roe ee a 30 27.91 1.68 74 U.S. Geol. Survey well No. 4 32 28.77 2.23 1.02 SS Sear Sree ae 38 28. 73 2.12 97 PANY CTA CMe ee Napster ree seh rival| Sate ioe oes 28. 42 2.08 94

Gale comments upon these results as follows:

"'No shore markings or other evidence of former deep submergence of Death Valley have yet been discovered. It appears that the deposits laid down in this valley have been chiefly the results of temporary shallow submergences and alternate desiccations. Thus the deposits that make up the floor of this valley are supposed to have been built up layer by layer, the salts having crystallized from the water evaporated from the temporary shallow lakes and having been occasionally buried in mixtures of sand and silt, including more or less saline material swept in by occasional floods. This is the process that is going on at the present day.

''A vast amount of saline material is accumulated in the bottom of this valley, but the mode of its deposition probably is not favorable to selective crystallization on a large scale. Segregation of potash or any other portion of the soluble constituents of the waters may have taken place to slight extent in the individual salt crust layers, but under the conditions described any such differentiation is likely to have been restricted to the individual layers as units, and therefore has occurred on a scale so small as to be of doubtful practical importance. It seems evident that unless a vast body of saline material has been deposited at one time during a single period of desiccation that there would be little chance for the various dissolv ed constituents to become segregated one from another on a large scale. There is no record of the drying up of a single large lake of saline waters in Death Valley. Although it is possible that the shores of such a lake might have been completely buried, the assumption that this may have happened must be purely a matter of speculation."

The potassium content of the saline residues from the brines obtained from the United States Geological Survey bores is lower than the average for the brines obtained from the surface potholes, the figures being, respectively, 1.73 and 2.63 per cent. There is practical agreement in the results since some concentration of the potassium salts might well be looked for in the surface brines.

While the results of the Survey's work in Death Valley are disappointing, they are of considerable importance, as they give much information concerning deposits of this character. The conditions at depths greater than 100 feet are unknown, but it is fair to presume that they are not unlike those within the first 100 feet. Salines in vast quantity have collected in Death Valley, but concentration of the most valuable salines has not taken place on anything more than a very local scale. For the concentration of these salines extreme conditions of aridity must be looked upon as unfavorable. A deep lake, existing for some considerable time and then quickly drying up, appears to be the condition necessary for the concentration of the most soluble salines.

Marshes Of The Second Type.

Marshes of the second type have a special interest in that the presence of a former lake indicates a much greater run-off, and consequently a greater amount of saline accumulations. The desiccation of such a lake would be more apt to produce worke

48 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

able beds of salines than marshes of the first type. Descriptions of Searles and Columbus Marshes, Railroad and Dixie Valleys, Sand Springs Flat, and Sevier Lake follow. -

Searles Marsh,

Searles Marsh lies in the northwestern part of San Bernardino County, Cal., about 30 miles northeast of Randsburg. It lies in a drainage basin of 4,850 square miles area. ©. E. Dolbear states that the area of the central depression is about 62.5 square miles. This would give a ratio of 77.6 square miles of basin area to 1 square mile of central depression area. The lowest part of the depression is 12 square miles in area, and is occupied by a smooth, hard floor of salt (Pl. III, fig. 2). Portions of the area are covered by débris; other portions by efflorescences and crusts from a fraction of an inch to several feet in thickness; and other portions are covered with clay muds which are in part dried out and firm and in part are soft. Plate IV, figure 1, shows a trona reef in the northeastern part of the marsh. De Groot! reports results of a boring and shows a section of the marsh. Dolbear? quotes the results of two bores, one in the central salt area and the other in the marginal area outside of the salt bed.

Depth. AaCeb? 3. Salt and thenardite. 4teet.-- 2. Clay and volcanic sand with some hanksite. paeets +228. Volcanic sand and black clay with bunches of trona. Bieet.ce 2s Volcanic sand containing glauberite, thenardite, and a few crystals of hanksite. 20 feet Mud smelling of hydrogen sulphide and containing layers of glauberite, soda, and hanksite. . 28 feet Solid trona overlain by a thin layer of very hard material. 230+feet Clay, mixed with volcanic sand and permeated with hydrogen sulphide. Analyses of samples from borings in Searles Lake. [Analyses by Dolbear.]

Depth. Insol. Na€l. NagSO,. NagCO3. |NaHCOs3. "NasB,O:. H;0. (a SS Lee 218 0.2 - 79.7 7:6 biz 2332 0.05}: Tr: 3.3 18-25 1.4 44,0 30.5 14.8 7 ete a 5.8 25-30 1.4 A753 ° oes 10.6 AT 3 gett 10.6 30-35 BMT 32 4 DEF 17,8 iPS rae] cossigad repay 10.2 35-50 1.4 43.5 22.3 95 25 5.5 15.3 50-65 Tes uae 10.6 - 3.2 eo Tr 2.6 65-79 Sl feces a ae aes 18.5 5 14.4

Analyses of samples from borings outside of salt-bed area. [Analyses by Dolbear.]}

Feet [bags Ect P.ct. P.ct P.ct d LY, Se ee 0-13 Mud: "7. 2) 022 20) 8 ee ee eee Eble Dp 13-20 8.3 66.8 Oo} S37 5.0 0.4 68 20-25 Tr. 98. 4 b& dca Sash 0 Odd 0 25-30 1.4 15.3 47 Stes Ay ee Tr. 15.5 30-35 15.0 39.6 AE ae (aie AEe ee 3.4 5.56 12.74 35-40 33.4 17.5 3.9 14.85 4.7 5.6 20.05 40-45 36.0 9.8 2.9. HIS 4 6.57 26.28 45-50 32.5 9.0 oN Fis hegre ea 3.8 0 30.9 50-53 30.7 8.3 Set. Bas 7.6 Tr. 27.8 53-55 31.0 9.0 PSN BD 10.9 0 25.1 55-60 26.9 5.8 1.9 96.5 14.3 Tr. 24.6 60-65 3.2 4.5 38.0 28.6 10.1 Tr. 10.6 65-70 6.8 5.1 6.8 43.5 21.0 Tr. 16.8 70-75 7.6 4.0 ya Pad Vans a 16.0 0 16.6

110th Annual Report, California State Mining Bureau, p. 535. 2 Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill.

Fic. 1.—PoT HOLE, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS.

Fic. 2.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. MAIN SALINE DEPositT.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. TRONA REEF IN NORTHEAST CORNER.

Fic. 2.—RAILROAD VALLEY, NEV. SALT PAN AT NORTH END.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

fey NC EY era oe

Fic. 2.—ABERT LAKE, OREG. SHORE AT SOUTHEAST CORNER.

Plate Vi.

Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

'AMV Yaddf] JO VAWId '93YHO 'ASTIVA

cer

nee ootrads

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 49

Through the kindness of Dennis Searles, E. E. Free obtained the samples from a bore put down over 600 feet in the area northwest of the central salt area and near the road leading from the plant of the California Trona Co. southeast of the salt area. The exact location of this deep bore is not known. The series of samples is not complete, and the notes accompanying them are also somewhat incomplete. The results of analyses upon these samples are given in the accompanying tables. Table XXV (Appendix) gives the total sodium and potassium, soluble sodium and potassium, - aad insoluble sodium and potassium. Table X XVI (Appendix) gives the ratios of soluble sodium to potassium, of insoluble sodium to potassium, and of total sodium to - potassium. Tables X XVII (Appendix) and XXVIII (Appendix) show respectively the percentage composition of the samples, and of the water-soluble material contained in the samples. Accompanying is a brief description of a petrographic study (Table XXX, Appendix) upon the samples of the deep bore by J. C. Jones. It is unfortunate that the record is incomplete, but incomplete as it is, the results of our examinations are of sufficient interest to warrant presentation. .

Before discussing the foregoing data, it is necessary to establish certain criteria by which we may determine the nature of the events which took place during the history of this lake.

The progressive or fractional crystallization of brines and salt solutions has been thoroughly discussed by Turrentine.! On account of the similarity of conditions, I have deemed it best to take the results which T. M. Chatard obtained in his experiments. upon the waters of Owensand Mono Lakes. These results are shown graphically , in figure 6.2 The waters from both lakes are similar in composition. "Mono Lake water has a slightly higher percentage of sodium sulphate than Owens. The water in both cases contains carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and borates; also sodium, potassium, and minor amounts of silica, calcium, magnesium, alumina, and ferric oxide. The temperature conditions in the evaporations range from 18.3° C. to 37.8° C. The two sets of experiments indicate similar results. The following are the criteria from these experiments:

1. At initial stages of evaporation calcium carbonate, mixed with more or less ferric oxide, would be precipitated.

2. Saturation would be indicated by a crystalline deposit in which carbonates would predominate. Sulphates would be least and chlorides would be present in moderate amount only. Potassium chloride would be less than 1 per cent of the saline deposit. The ratio between sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in the deposited salines would approach unity.

3. Succeeding stages would be marked by decreasing amounts of carbonates and increasing amounts of sulphates and chlorides. The ratio between sodium carbonate and bicarbonate would rapidly increase. At an intermediate stage sulphates would reach a maximum. Sodium chloride would remain in about the same proportion, or would be slightly increased.

4. Approach to final desiccation would be indicated by the separation of a large proporige of sodium chloride and a small increase in the proportion of potassium chloride. :

5. Final desiccation would yield relatively small amounts of sulphates and a larger proportion of chlorides and carbonates. Some borates would be present. The sodiumcarbonate and bicarbonate ratio would reach a maximum value, and relatively large proportions of potassium salts would characterize this state.

feu terms may be designated to indicate the progressive stages, and in their natural order are:

(1) The trona period—sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in about equal amounts preponderate; (2) The sulphate period—separation of sodium sulphate; (3) The sodium chloride period—maximum proportions of sodium chloride; (4) The complete desiccation period—maximum percentage of potassium chloride and presence of borates.

In the case of the uninterrupted desiccation of a saline lake the successive stages mentioned above would grade insensibly one into the other. The actual case. would be further complicated by temperature variations, seasonal and periodical, by interruptions caused by the dilution of lake waters, by rainfall and stream discharge, and by silt, mud, and zxolian deposition. Wind and wave action would tend to thicken the shore deposits. The thinning out of the lake waters at the margin would set up there more favorable conditions for crystallization than in the deeper portions. In

1 The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States. Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agr. ? Data for this figure were taken from Bul. No. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 59-65.

50 ° Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

the marginal portions silt deposits would be greatest, and the salines deposited here would be characterized by a large proportion of insoluble material. In a single large basin the lake during evaporation might be divided into several smaller lakes, and each would have its individual conditions and in each case would form saline deposits differing from the others. Lastly, the nature of the salines would be expected to differ in different lake basins. The proportions between chlorides, sulphates, carbonates,

y

Ws Ww NN IN IS Xt NY ly Vs

We ees SE 8S RS ie HY SH 3B XS dileas

oscar V2 be

Coz

Ne

SUCCESSIVE CROPS OF CRYSTALS Gy

Vi, N yy ACL

N

Q

Qo /0 ZO GO 4O 50 60 7O GO 90 /00 FLECPIGEIN Ta

Fig. 6.—Order of deposition of salts in Owens Lake and Mono Lake.

bicarbonates, and the basic ions present would vary somewhat from the two samples chosen for establishing our criteria.

Another condition requires discussion. Salines are deposited upon and in lake bottoms. The lake sediments would include saline waters and, as desiccation proceeded, the lake sediments would include waters containing gradually increasing amounts of saline material. When saturation is reached not only would brine be expected but individual erystals of the different salts would also be so included. If crystallization

proceeded faster than sedimentation, the lake sediments would contain larger and arger proportions of saline material. If sedimentation proceeded faster than crystallization, smaller proportions of saline material would be expected. It is evident

POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 5lL

that crystallization must proceed at a comparatively slow rate under natural conditions at the beginning of desiccation, and, as desiccation proceeds, the rate of crystallization must increase to a maximum. Final desiccation of the mother liquors must be a long drawn-out process, if at all completed. It is not impossible to expect that at this stage of desiccation sedimentation by exolian action might proceed rapidly enough to absorb the final mother liquor. The crystalline mass formed during the final stages of desiccation would also absorb portions of the mother liquor at the end.

The saline content of a mud, assuming that it has absorbed a brine which is saturated and at point of crystallization, has been calculated in the:following: A wet mud with a specific gravity of 2 and composed of mineral particles 2.6 would have a void space of 37.4 per cent by volume. li 1 cubic foot were filled with a brine of specific gravity 1.25, the brine would weigh 29.3 pounds. Chatard's experiments on the Owens Lake water showed a brine of 1.26 specific gravity at incipient crystallization; and this contained 30.56 per cent by weight of salines. The brine filling 1 cubic foot of the mud would contain approximately 9 pounds of salines. This would be equivalent to 8.1 per cent of the weight of the dry mud.1. Dry mud samples containing an excess of 8.1 per cent of saline material would indicate saturated solution conditions with some crystallization and deposits of salines; less than 8 per cent it would be concluded that the mud had captured an unsaturated brine.

If it is assumed that the mass of saline crystals would contain a void space of 30 per cent of its volume and the resulting mother liquor had a specific gravity of 1.3, the weight of the brine solution contained in 1 cubic foot would be 24.4 pounds. If we assume the specific gravity of the salines to be 1.9, the weight of the brine absorbed would be 29.0 per cent of the weight of the dry saline material, or 22.4 per cent of weight of brine and salt. This would not be sufficient to absorb all of the mother liquors at the final stages of crystallization.

Interpreting the chemical data obtained by the deep bore and the three surface bores, and using the criteria which have been established, I have reached the conclusion below.

The initial stages of Searles Lake. were similar to Lake Lahontan. The lake at this period might have been over 1,200 feet in depth, and there is no reason to suppose that it was other than fresh. The drying up of the lake must have extended over a great length of time. The first part of the record, 600 to 627 feet, indicates that the lake had reached saturation and had begun to deposit salines. The brines at this stage deposited salines low in carbonates, high in chlorides and sulphates, and noticeably high in potassium. Either sedimentation proceeded at a rapid rate or crystallization must' have been slow. The latter is more likely the case. At a depth of 586 to 596 feet the brine was diluted sufficiently to stop crystallization. The saline content of this brine figures out as follows:

Per cent.

Grasse nbOnlG estar ae re ek ee ne Ommaney a rae Ste ene 5. 48 Soumimmrehilortger es kaeo een tg nr eme h ame ee Fe 59. 15 Neauimms ales NT ee As fees OT Pane ee 8 29. 04 SOM CMMIRIE ROG At Chae a es are een eee Oe Pham eee eal STC HUUERE [ATI OYSTER REN ie eagle ene nc ee Cea re 2. 44

During this stage carbonates were accumulating in the lake waters. Concentration of the water followed and salines were again deposited (575 to 580 feet; samples Nos. 223 and 224). From 427 to 540 feet salines were steadily deposited and inclosed by the sediments. The brine at this stage must have approximated in composition evaporated Owens Lake water, for carbonates are found in increasing amounts. The conditions must have approximated the trona period. During this period the rate of crystallization exceeded sedimentation. The content of potassium is high. From 227 to 427 feet the record is lacking. At 227 feet conditions approaching the sulphate period are indicated. The salines are low in carbonates and high in sulphates and chlorides. Potassium still remains high and amounts to 3.72 per cent of the saline residue (sample 211). , From 80 to 227 feet the record is lacking.

The central bore of the Dolbear series indicates that at 65 to 79 feet depth the trona period occurred, followed at 50 to 65 feet by the sodium chloride period, and this was followed by a sulphate period at 35 to 50 feet. An interruption is indicated here. More than likely a humid period diluted the lake and stopped crystalli-

1 From experiments upon slime cakes formed by vacuum filtration, I have found that the densest portion of a slime cake, formed under a pressure of 11 pounds per square inch, has a speCific gravity of 1.84, and a water content of 27.9percent. Using these figures and assuming a brine of 1.3 specific gravity and a Saline content of 30 per cent by weight would give a saline content for the dried cake of 13 per cent. This

re can be used comparatively with the one obtained by calculation. Iam inclined to use the figure obtained by the previous calculation, since the slime experiment does not take into account the time element nor the greater pressures to which mud in the bottom of a lake would be subjected.

52 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

zation. From 18 to 35 feet a sulphate period followed, and thisin turn was closed by the chloride period. Two periods of desiccation are indicated in the closing stages— the present one and one (recent geologically) at some unknown time before.

The marginal bore also indicates an interruption in the desiccation. A passage from the trona to the sulphate period was followed by a trona period. The last trona period passes gradually into the chloride period, with possible indications of another

interruption at 25 to 30 feet depth. More or less sedimentation marked this portion

of the deposit. The final capping with a mud layer 13 feet thick closed the cycle of events at this point. 5 é

The important question of what became of the residual mother liquor which must have covered the saline bed at the close of the last desiccation period has not been discussed. The suggestion by J. Walther, quoted by Clarke,' that residual bitterns might be absorbed by wind-blown sands, and by capillarity brought to the surface, wind eroded, and carried away, occurs as a plausible explanation. Undoubtedly some such action took place locally, but it could not have been on a sufficient scale to account for the removal of all of the mother liquors, The fact that the upper portion of the central bed contains a large proportion of sodium chloride and a brine lower in potassium content than the brine beneath suggests that the closing stages of desiccation must have closely paralleled present conditionsin Death Valley. Searles Lake, in passing through the last stages of desiccation, must have deposited sodium chloride, as well as other salts, over a much larger area than that occupied by the present central bed. The shallow lake of mother liquor occupying the central depression must have received periodic accessions of saline material from these marginal deposits. Continued over a long time the effect would be to build up a bed of saline material in which the content of potassium salts would not be conspicuous and which would contain the diluted original mother liquor absorbed in its interstices. Continual accession of salines from the margins would result in a top bed of saline material comparatively poor in potassium salts. This explanation appears to me to be the most reasonable.

The central salt bed over practically the whole area of 12 square miles contains in its interstices a brine which, below the top bed of sodium chloride, is characterized by a relatively high content of potassium. According to Dolbear, the brine containing the high content of potassium salts is confined to a vertical horizon of some A7 feet. Below this horizon the brines contain relatively less potassium salts. The following is an analysis of the rich brine taken from bore hole A7 on the N-S center line and just south of the center of the salt area:

Analysis of brine from Searles Lake, expressed in percentages of the anhydrous residue.

{Sample collected by E. EH. Free; analysis by W. H. Ross, of (23 Bur311 of Soils]

Constituent. Per cent. Constituent. Per cent. Constituent. Per cent. IS OR baa ane bea BEROYE ibis es aera es None. |-ico 2 oe eee eee 0. 004 Lee CORSE Eee ae eae GS OG ai MOUs es ayes aes INOne HS Ogee ec cee eee eee 12.96 1 See AA AR Aaa aan 1S ATS © sea ee pie OLD COs. 22) Ree eee 6.70 1 5 OPS RIS ar PR Me Sh Mua ah en None MesO 3k ee a eee oes $003: WaROgsiAe See 30 (OPES eae Seri Ee eeeaee None SiQo ee een $023) NtsINi@ acti See ae ce None IN Ge se ton fais Sie None Tees eaten hs teeel eye 37. 02 INGO gohan 0 Pete are ote DrACess|| BR aie Wes See ee PLQOQA SB Oye, see eae eae 3.00

This is of the nature of a residual mother liquor. It consists of chlorides in greatest amount, sulphates, carbonates, practically no bicarbonates, and borates. It is conspicuous by the presence of bromine, iodine, and arsenious oxide. The sodiumotassium

ratio in this brine is 5.5. The average of 14 of the samples from the deep

oring, omitting results upon crystals and Nos. 217 and 25, is 15.5. This would indicate that the water collected in the early stages of Searles was not unlike that of the present lakes in which the sodium-potassium ratio is 20.

Supplementary analyses by A. R. Merz upon samples collected by E. E. Free are given in Table X XIX (Appendix).

The brine body is contained in a mass of coarsely crystalline material, more or less honeycombed. The portion occupying the central mass of salt is richest in potassium

salts and borates below the upper salt crust of 18 feet thickness and above the 65-foot level.

1 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 224.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 53

Dolbear! presents the following estimate of quantities for the 47-foot bed of brine and crystallized salts: .

In brine: Tons. HOLAaStIMAe MOTD ORs et ge Gs oe oe et ee 6, 455, 600 Anhydrous borax ie A Ga te na par ea ape 1, 900, 000 Sodium carbonate SB eS oe et oog EE a ED -6, 630, 000

In saline material: bay, Potassmchloridiessteesi mesa jos 5 2 eee 23, 900, 000 PAenilnyidinotissborascyes ete eee fae on es 15, 200, 000 SS GclataMNAK CATO OTA Coes 9 9 ciesees esse 5 sisi cp ase a 108, 500, 000 Sodium bicarbonate. 2 sisal ee eet See ee 42, 700, 000

Weichtrol brine sit). ce aes Pe a ee 144, 000, 000 seWeIcht Ol saltgnss. 22 eee ee ee eae ae 656, 000, 000

The figures given are conservative. Dolbear states that the brine contains 4.49 per cent of potassium chloride. The result upon the Bureau of Soils samples is less than this, 3.51 per cent being obtained by their analyses.

Comparison of saline residues.

[Per cent of anhydrous residue.]

Death Valley .002 0.003 36.12 2.63 53.70 OnO2ul) 1S See es eae anee Present Silver Peak 1, 05 OAT ee doe dale) 2a 4a OG. OO! ace a moi LEPAD ee scaeealesauc aan Trace, Owens! 2, .02 SORES 385094)" 1.62: 124.82) 52-2 ste cn 9.93 |24.55 11 05 14 Great Salt Lake?.) .33 2.22 33.31 1.92 55.36 6. 53 OFF Se SSeS trons Pyramid 2.0550... 20 112028 Slrpesee 2:00) AlC04 eee yes tse 5.25 {14.28 . Winnemucca? ) .55 AO eal eSONO8ps 94s 47 880i ee SCONE CER SsscdaleSescccn| sadcn50ces Wiatker 2. 5.22.) 390) b06 1-34.83 2.2 72 (el Baeees PS BHee 21.29 |17.34 [ee sec aaen les sree

"1 Owens Lake, nitrate=0.45 per cent. 2 Clarke, Bul. No. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 144-146.

Comparison of the saline residues from residual brines, from lake waters in which concentration has proceeded to a considerable extent and from lake waters in which concentration is in initial stages is shown in the accompanying table. Regional differences are, of course, apparent, and must be considered. With the exception of the calcium and magnesium content, the saline residue oi the Death Valley brine closely approximates that from Great Salt Lake. Silver Peak is lower in sulphates but more nearly approximates Death Valley. Mono and Owens Lake closely compare and, save for the higher proportion of carbonate, approximate the Searles brine. The residues of Pyramid and Winnemucca are relatively higher in chlorides and lower in sulphates than Mono and Owens. The residue of Walker Lake is high in sulphates and carbonates and lower in chlorides than Pyramid or Winnemucca. Little concentration of potassium is indicated in the last two groups, but decided concentration is shown in the first group, and borates are progressively concentrated from the third to the first group. Nitrate is concentrated from the third to the second group. Great Salt Lake is the only water in the second and third groups in which precipitation of aap is taking place. This residue can be considered intermediate between groups land 2.

Columbus Marsh.

Columbus Marsh is near Coaldale, Esmeralda County, Nev. The area is 32.5 square miles. It receives the drainage of Fish Lake Valley from the south and the basin immediately surrounding the marsh. Two shore lines are present, one about 60 feet. above the flat and the other, reported by E. E. Free, at 104 feet. The lake could not have been of much greater extent than the marsh. The comparative shallowness would indicate a relatively small amount of salines. The present surface is a broad. plain roughened by very small, more or less rounded, hummocks. There is very little. salt in the form of crusts. The surface is dry enough at most times to support a road

1 Eng. and Mining Jour. cited before.

54 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

across the central part. The marsh has some of the characteristics of Rhodes Marsh. No chemical data are available, except those published by the United States Geological Survey in the press bulletin noted below.' In this report Gale describes the discovery of a mud at depths from 18 to 38 feet, containing a small percentage of soluble salts, and a high content of potash in the soluble salts. The analyses follow:

Analyses of samples from Columbus Marsh, Nev. [W. B. Hicks, analyst.1

Percentage of total soluble salts.

Total No. ofsample. Depth. soluble salts. K. K20. KCl. cd Feet. Percent. Det ee Se eee, Ae see Se ee eens 1 17.20 1.67 2.01 3.18 Dee Salas cee is BEeae Se cee Stee ete Ee eee 3 9.07 2.35 3.07 4.85 Bee oe ete eee eins eS ch cloniatsa: SeReEenaes 43 8.88 2.48 2.99 4.73 ha oS SGU EEE OS ROS eo ee ee Ieee Se es ee 9 10.15 2.95 3.39 5.42 5h is SARE re ae eS Ero rg es ane a 12 1.93 (1) (2) () a ist id ee on ts SES ae esos ase eee EE 18 5.17 16.64 20.05 31.72 Dp ea ee Bae een ie Tajo oe cine lode oaet se eee sae 27 6.30 20.90 25.18 39.83 a aN rae ea Raia yaa ieee ome ere Se 30 6.17 13.69 16.49 26.09 at tao nae ae ee 33-38 6.22 17.12 20.63 32.64

1 Not determined.

The results are unlike anything as yet reported and their full significance can not 'be determined without further investigation. The low saline content, 6 per cent, together with the average potassium content, 17.09 per cent (average of results from 18 to 38 feet), would give a potassium content of 1 per cent on the original material dried. The conditions very much suggest that in this occurrence we have a sample of the absorption of a residual mother liquor by wind-blown desert material. It isa matter of doubt whether this mud and brine could be utilized. The removal of a brine from a mud would be attended with greater difficulties than would be the case with the Searles brines. In the latter case the brines are contained in a coarsely crystalline mass and there is comparatively free movement of the brines. In the former case (a more or less compact mud) there would be slow movement of the brines. The most significant thing is not so much the workability of the muds as their high potassium content and the possibility of a larger brine deposit equally rich in potassium at depth. The results of further work in this locality will be awaited with interest. Marsh deposits of borax were worked at Columbus, but at present nothing is being done. These deposits do not show any points of special interest.

Dixie Valley.

Dixie Valley, called Osobb, or Sait Valley, in the Fortieth Parallel Survey Report, lies just east of the Sweetwater range in Churchill County, Nev. It was occupied by a shallow lake which at its maximum covered the present valley to a depth of 150 feet. The Railroad Valley Co. explored this area for potash salts by a number of bores, some extending to 100 feet in depth. The bores showed in the central depression a bed of salt 11 feet thick, mixed with mud, and below this a bed of black mud, 33 feet thick, containing a few crystals of gaylussite. The brine body underlying the salt contains salines composed of 92 per cent sodium chloride, 4 per cent sodium carbonate, and from traces to 0.5 per cent potash. The saline efflorescences consist of sodium carbonate and sulphate, but no potash. The highest content of potash found was 1 per cent of the soluble salts.

Through the courtesy of the Railroad Valley Co. and E. E. Free the results of several bores and the chemical examination of the brines from the bores are presented in the following table:

Record of drill hole No. 1, Dixie Valley.

{Located slightly northeast of the center of sec. 30, T. 23 N., R.36 E., being the southwest corner of claim No. 42.]

Feet. aps ote Voi ademas id Paes niece eee Ne On hous L Peake BA TOU c2)- fits dee, de eX chaseteecis aiVSe Se ee Ae ee te OOF ae

1 Press Bul., U. S. Geol. Survey, Feb. 12, 1913.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 59

Feet. black mudewath seatteredisaltierystals 205-222-2225 oe cee 3.5 to 5 EL Es cl APRN Oo te eg le Aen SS J 5 to 7 Black: mudkwaithiseatteredsaltverystals!22 222 eer ee ce a eielace Se T to 78 Bilieckisalty mua.withouterystals j. 55 ses ese os act wis oe 8 toll Gray cny with occasional layers containing small salt crystals: ..-:.-- ito 15 Blache la yvemern te he we 8 Eh eee 2 eee NL eee. os 15 tol6 GEA gC 1A Vee ee Mee Sel Gate oe TNs oh a Ra oi ree tae eet ae aces 16 to 22 Dry, es clay, occasionally-shehtly gritty... —..2 25.22. 22: :- 22 to 26.5 Gra Vee los eee eee as led ec are oa MO cual 6 anc oe erage 26.5 to 29 blinekselannanee muds 12. Sis cae AB fee cite idie cara etes 6 Mencia ceateycievers 29. t0:33..0 Black mud with many layers containing small crystals of gaylussite... 33.5 to 49 sBlackemudsandiclay, without crystals,..).- 25-2 2208-eee sss ec. 49 to 98

Record of drill hole No. 2, Dixie Valley.

[Located slightly southeast of the center of the west line of sec. 19, T. 23 N., R. 36 E., being the northe east corner of claim No. 5.]

Feet. oe Geese re AS & Vee en dhs oe ay SNe nie eee Mee eo oe NR O=tonal! Ae Kean ticles pee ee ee eet She Ps ee a oe 2 Uae gee sar heal. 2 1 "to 22 Black mud with imaimy salt crystals... 0 2a025ci6 5253 S82. sea. es 2 to 3 al eee eae a ean sae ote Uren ee Mm) in) SS ci RP as ee as oe 3 to 4.2 Ski aWwitsomel black mugs ee Hea cess es eames Nek eee SU eye Soe 4.2to 6.5 Grayish 'clayswith some salt crystals... 0.0.0. 22005522002 5ese0eeee 6.5to 8 Yellow clay containing some salt crystals in the upper portions. Lower

portions dry and tough 2 2--+2+e 22222 eerste eee 8 tol9 AOUGH Oka veClayCee ester et TSS e PEL ae cee ee ae eee cen es 19 to 22

Black mud and clay becoming tough and dry in the lower portions 22 to 94.5 Record of drill hole No. 3, Dixie Valley.

[Located slightly northeast of the center of sec. 13, T. 23 N., R. 35 E., being the southwest corner of claim No. 46.]

Feet.

DBR eee ee ee Pe age oe Ra Deere emits 2 0. .to.0525 EU ee eal sate pg ere ssc pe Nas coe eben te nar auen 18h aes Sagole 1a a ial Pere aap 0.25 to 1.2 SHEA RI AIS Cares beg ee oy eect t anne eC Bg eM OURO og pen cere I 2 tore Pete eee sree ie A ea a ee re ae Lee ee Di gtOneeeo SG aWiE ME COEN CHEM Ges sets ps a18. 5 ohn stays 0) Secccue cd acer SicpeBitys transit Stems Snead 2.5 to 6 STIRS & 55 SS Sis a ee eC HORI YS 6.4) 10:,.6..5 iBlaekomud:withycallt chystalssts iia aces ae igs See ce ae cae 6.5 to 10.5 Be eae lene ea a letter Gasol hese timeaik [nique cia acrSe Saieraibe ere 10.5 to 14.5 Thin layer of salt with some flow of water 14.5 to 14.7 Yellow clay somewhat gritty in upper portion 14.7 to18 (SUED LES VS BE SeAE Sits 22 SRE AO ha aN RO ST 18 to 25 Black mud becoming dry and tough in lower portion 25 to. 83

Analyses of brines from drilled holes.

Conventional combinations, grams per 100 c. c. Total

solids on K20, per evaporacent of

Sample. Depth. Total by tion, total NaCl. NagSO4. NasCO3. KCl. sadaiien, grams per| solids. 100 ¢. ¢. Hole Nee ts Feet. Ree n et 28 SAS, Surface. 27-01 5. 02 3. 83 0. 41 36. 27 37.62 0. 69 3 oe Seah Geen eee 4 26. 37 4.39 4.12 . 46 35. 34 38. 70 ays) lke eee ines ee ee 26 26.91 4.03 2. 65 .19 33. 78 35.10 34 XD SA ae eae aera ae 64 25.08 4.37 3.30 28 33. 03 32. 80 54 DAEs yee eee enaeea 72 Peete ee ne rman CA epee a NL. ea 34. 48 38 DAS Ses cay SAS ee aia ani Ceara We i al TS a a nr er 34. 64 42 peta ane Sesehs ss 91 23.71 3.73 3.48 24 31.16 31.57 48 Hee ah ne es Se OR Ne scare Nea Weis Sosa neat eee ters Sep ere aN Ue a ay SOE S 31.70 41 Hole No. 2 EG Re Savaes Sens epee aaa PAO) (ESM SSO DS Cel FAC rah eS NMS 36. 48 .04 ere ee ae ee GUS eevee ei lea sre eel ie teers alte Ae Ome. Re Zoe sre! 35. 82 47 No S506 5 8 eee INE al eee, reap |PReee a ag ei rapa cpa Lee ste BS Sune 35. 63 43 Gt no dato eee PN SiS aa a FP sh ate UE eee at ae egy 35.19 33 CAE) cape els ie eee eA sees ena ie Messi oe a teenage -ooe| nce ae. oe, Sia hea nv ace ae 35.50 40

56 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Analyses of brines from drilled holes—Continued.

Conventional combinations, grams per100c.¢. Total solids on K;0, per Ss a Sample. Depth. Ber Reaitayg fee a Ke}, Total by tion, ee Es Maes Pe SS ] Hole No. 2: ae teens Plena eek eee Be) essccsecce besce seers teccecees: (eSccssre ae 33.24 0 Sheet eee 55 28. 02 4.69 3.25 0.31 36.27 36.29 ina aaa neem! Ty ee Pe Wie iets, supine? 25 PegPa oe 4 oh coca) 35.66 pee ss GEL: ne 5 1S potas a he see ja eee 36.47 G4- SD Gen adases5) Secs see eciccsess 22222525 22255ec25 34.34 Gita eS CT alee ee Bie 7 ae eg et 4 eS ES 36.02 Hole No. 3: Ee ee eee ee je a Et [15 sist Sea 6. OS poseet SE ho. tena 34.99 Girne eee ae ee 2.5 28.99 3.63 a 77 4 15 34.56 34. 81 Te Sees esta toh eee Pee ceaneae Se Se [erases oa 35.00 Te: See Sa ! ae Se eee Eee 2 Eee Se 35.60 Ge eee er oe [oi apes Lar eineens REE BS od [eae [ee caer 33.92 a ee Dis as mas foes cee. [eas nee [eosee 35.79 pe oS eee ees ae eae fees 3 pe Seeceneet 34.65 Fo eae Saree EG girl pare aseopcar ae ace [eee Reais 2a 35.97 [DS SS Re are $3) 4 pose Secene| seaccetess eececsosee Ear edet ett ee 35.01 ape So Zips es oe ee [nce esa te Sree 28.70

S5essee

The section shown by the borings indicates very much the same conditions and history as were described in the Silver Peak Marsh. We have here the case of a shallow lake passing through alternate periods of desiccation. At times desiccation proceeded to such a point as to cause concentration of the lake waters and deposits of salt. More than likely each salt bed was marked by the evaporation of the lake and the formation of a salt playa.

Railroad Valley.

Railroad Valley is in the northeastern part of Nye County, Nev., about 130 miles northeast of Tonopah and 80 miles southwest of Ely. It is 10 to 20 miles wide from east to west and somewhat over 100 miles long north to south. The flat, central portion of the valley has an area of about 200 square miles. The drainage basin is about 6,000 square miles. Free states that shore-line indications show a lake level varying from 50 to 300 feet above the present bed of the dry lake. A number of playas, covered by thin salt crusts, occupy the bed of the present dry lake. (Plate IV, fig. 2.) Analyses of these crusts and the accompanying brines have been given in a previous section, and many of them show a high potassium content. The Railroad Valley Co. put down a bore 1,204 feet deep on the east-west half-section line of sec. ys eg R.56E. The bore is about one-fourth mile west of the west north-south line of sec. i same T. The log of the bore is herewith presented.

Log of potash drill hole No. 1 , Railroad Valley, Nye County, Nev.

[Drilling commenced Mar. 17, 1912; ceased Aug. 27, 1912. All operations in charge of D. H. Walker.]

Feet.

Mixed clay and sand, mostly sand (fresh water, not artesian) 1— 32 Quicksand (fresh water) SESS ee Re ce oe 32-103 Winite clays: . jf 8 oo 23 2 a ee eee 103-104 Alternations of quicksand and clay. Some fine gravel among the quicksand

(artesian waters in sands, especially at 128 feet). 104-136 awe a IS ee Ro ee a 136-178 Very fine quicksand (artesian water, especially at top of division)... .-- 178-214 OS Se i ree ure ale - 214-220 Quicksand with fine gravel (artesian water) .~.2_.:_-2_¢45_. #2 oe 220-222 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clays (artesian water in most of

ime piaeeespecially at 250 feet). 2: .<22 5). 25 a eee 222-255-eds dS ae en eee Me tee Ue 255-260

Tris o a, a rrr ee 260-264

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 57

Feet. Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay 264-275 MMLC LA yin tte eet ae Se Oot la ot Sas ete en RN TLL Sa 275-285 Sand with coarse and fine gravel, including pebbles # inch in diameter

CAILESIAMWALCE hens seat Se Ee eee hen wk och ea Mek Cem Rene Sie 285-290 Rienyaune brownish sand. : cee. ee set cen eae oe sa emer ee 290-305 Muah tees feet eeemio eae ohne s dommes 305-336 Rapid alternations of clay and quicksand, the latter containing a little

HMeVaTAW.Ee lt (ALLESIANWALCL) s.n:-2 020 OO. ake cee he oe due eee ere neat 386-340 Hrroht-COlORCCICLAY: 5-4 Pea e oi tei ee ee elas tS HMRC ee ARE NE 340-350 Quicksand, probably with occasional thin layers of clay 350-375 Moun Craveclayaas esse b eed ws ches tins Peo ON, A 375-390 @micksand: (small astestan flow) ctr. -eiefore ne Shree restore ero ee 390-391 Moushyoravecla yest eee a arene t. Bea olen Aeletias SGtenet te oe eee Le 391-418 @ureksand (smallartestan: flow) s-225. 2.208 99 Sas ARE I hs 418-419 BO WANE LANE men a pe tee, ys npn 5 a helt erotic Sia epg ie sara eeaacla ta 5 ara pO 419-429 amcgusimall AaTLESIAN HOW.) sa. m% © <oicysiazn ere Seber e toree coerce ene a sfoteione 429-430 Hard brown clay with occasional very thin sand streaks. 430-445 CSERTINT © YE AR aS ea nan ice eT ye ese ener OM Sop we 2 Cae SN HEREC as 445-459 Ronyesoit, yellowish Clay. a5 a ito eek ncionix enone Re eee ein ies wre 459-461 rrcksand: (artesian water) so. csde.135 5GUt OA Ae See 20 ia 461-462 "RUTTEN TREE) SQ TAO Fr V2 a OR ee ee Or rae Spe tee ments eee eee 462-463 PSIG TOTCCIN CANE re coe lic: arin fare elas atc carnenhe eyes Come ee mee Iate 463-470 Mente quicksand (artesian. water) . 2... is 2c ccna ee cee ene gee 470-471 EAA eCOLOKE Cla Nem cs ntratastvae oe 6 ed ae cee eres eM AEE 20 Beers 471-478 Pee ayes © SAT Ge ape 5h ere wae oie we oc aes ict rea eta acre carer vad cnimtononsinvoieaees 478-479 BS Ie- OTECH CLAW 2. 8 oe ete eC Gk ce Breit e ore cre creroneran ie RISER EY 479-480 PRS CNC ise tee ee etn ci pes ES Seuear mation Sutldh tape ae Sperry ts 480-490 'Blue-green clay with occasional thin sand streaks 490-493 MTA CLAN ys oe erties td peta cider BN or Sra 493-500 Blue-green clay, with occasional thin streaks of coarse sand 500-504 White clay, fragments showing jointed structure 504-511 A OueH es bIUC OTECM Clay ea iz soc We cpr e Sioe oi ahem wie eec fC ree ied EE 511-519 Quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) 519-520 SLEDY. CEN Soe ge See aa es eG is Seep ae in ee gt 520-523 Gray clay with occasional thin strata of sand (artesian waters in all sands.

Waters smell of sulphuretted hydrogen) 523-529 LEEDS SEN cosa a ng ka ee an a a 529-533 Very fie, quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) . 533-534 aR -OFCEN Cla ce Oe Sate FI RP Rate CI eee ieee ee? 534-539 Quicksand with some rather coarse eravel (strong artesian flow. Water

Garries no sulphuretted:hydrogell).2.< 2.2620. seb coke NL Eee 539-541 urteobnyee LO WASH CIA: sacle. oo Lecties cia wrcre bc seine es wiaitye nee eS 541-549 SU RBS N ROMER UGC ae ere chee eo oe carat ove tare ae nos apres pone Stove minicios ehnaw IS Sees 549-554 BE APMC ANS oie oe UE eens aie nied See ee aS 554-556 RSET MSW CCL CLAN ce 5) So rasays are sratereieiny ini siege e atpinie once ein eae Vad eee 556-560 DAN ATA ease oe st, eS A eee At beef hry hs pois SE 560-561 SLE ERG CVSS oe a a ea ile i eg ee ae ec Sere amg Oe ech 561-583 LN CLAWS 5 mt a ee ene ile Oe oo ew me ee Sere ete eae 583-586 OW): so ciioo.c cine ceca oe tier ee eee ee nie ee 586-587 eee ae a oh) bet ree tL US Ree A ed oe Se teal oe Audie 587-596 Alternations of clay and black sand (small artesian flows in sands, especially

at 605 feet) - LEANED Ty SAN EE RRO 50 Me ie a eke bi 596-609 LEG WTS 6) 5 RS vi a air emer ens tt ROU AAA See MER AE cer) 609-620 BE EN as is 5. Boeke Dee Gish t roy Lan iggang eee 620-637 EE Lise 2 cbg foe ea core teen oe ne Sie IM VET iro Sey 637-638 ES SLC Tay GL cesta a cetera Pog 638-655 Setit-eolored preeniah Clay?.2. 22.00 5).90 2 60.0 eae ole ene 655-657 Very ponmemibnglnbe layers 2 2. 52-52-22 a 2 SSO. Sake elt Yael 657-676 flow )...2.2) 202.00 062. 0eSl lone gee ene 676-677 Rapid alternations of clay and sand (very little water) 677-680 Renata emery sses 367 OR A YS ee a llge B) matemi rc see oa C. 680-691 Eapid alternations of clay and sand:.2.:-./..02.¢...2.5.0020. 0 6020552 691-700 Ramana Mn lnyeetee es 2 TS Oilers ee ste) ONS. fet? ayo les Rae 700-719. Sand (very anal Ambentancnow ato: yn. ena Deere Wes ig) 719-720 Sunn MmE Lene renee sir ie kn ise Sr allt bk Wii ay eae nan 720-738

Rapid alternations of quicksand and clay, the former carrying a little eosrse eravel (small artesian flows)...: s--e-e-e--- 738-746

58 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Feet.

Very tough brownish clay aghe See aeeul hes eee eee 746-759 Rapid alternations of sand with brownish clay (small artesian flows in

the sands).<o0sa20cl 3s 20230 3 ea ae ee cae 759-771 Hardsbrownish clay:... 225 .- 22 .cedesieeee. se seere: ae eee 771-785 Qnigksand-(artesian Water)... -222 e0: esccn-eeeo + ee Pee eee 785-786. Maye oe ee ns a oe Fn ee 786-790 Sand (small artesian flow) s.c:: ac.2 fesse eee ee ne ee 790-791 rownish Clay. .2.. 2. 0.bsckes. 2 See ees oto eens ee 791-798 Rapid alternations of sand and clay. EA Ue a ae Oe 798-805 Feirdsbrown clay... .. 22 i. 9s ee ee ae ee eee 805-816 @uicksand and gravel. (artesian water): 2.09.0 52+ oes) se 816-822 iHerdiawhite: clay: 2-23. ..08cecesee coe cases oc oe ote ee eee eee 822-894 Rapid alternations of brownish quicksands and clays. Some gravel

2 inch in diameter in the sands (very strong artesian flows in sands.

dhemperatiire-al water 22° "C.) oe. .: eeencct vee eee soe e ee eee eee 824-846 Browmish: Clays s.cccons see cen en cece ee oe rae eee a eee 846-850 Sandiand gravel. 2... 2... -.-22 80828 Hee Bigs eee Lee ae ee ee 850-855 Hapidealternations: of sand and: clay cee. 5003-2 oe pee ee 855-858 Meryatine sand a... 255. ooh eee ree cae ceee Cede foc ee oe ee 858-862 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay 862-865 IREAYOLAY co oi. join atic eee ec eb ote coed eek eeeee eee oe eee 865-876 @Woarseloravel. (artesian .water)-¢ 252.5 -o.20-ose epee ce ee eee py: 876-878 Wierrys 1G: SAN io cease nate ere ee Seo ce eens se eee EEE" eee 878-882 Rapid'alternations. of clay.and. sand - -ee - eee oe 882-886 (SIN CE aR eee een er een Me iC tai ore cement Sis Sen Poodle 5 5 - 886-889 (artesiam-water)<:. is. o- eeewe oie ebiieee Hee ee ee ee 889-892 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay : 2 892-899 GTA ClAY 62. ss oc ec one ace eo ORR ee ee eee eee eee 899-908 Sand and coarse gravel (very strong artesian flows) 908-910 Mery fine sand - .:...1,2°.:-. feels eS ee ee ee ee 910-922 Sand and coarse gravel (small artesian flow). 922-924 Pneht-eray clay... cock so oc ee octet ee hoe Cee ee 924-934 EME FSA cnsparw ce cee ee sora. beddetuduelies Ty eerie Ree i coke age erga 934-941 GRAYMCIBY eto Sc ose ae ete: - + SESE ee 941-945 Sand. os. Hs id Ae es Li fee ee 38 Sree len a aay pe aed ee ple em eae 945-947 WMellow-clay.s)..22 2.25 coe etk sess: ce, ee eee ee 947-953 SGT AVECIAY Sy Soe oe os oe ce eee Se te ee ee ae ees 953-967 Sand. and eravel\(smalliartesiam flow): i ee eseee See se ee eee 967-969 Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of sand 969-980 Brown clay. soj042 .220S0. oe Siotus Se eee, Beem aay Bars epee eae 980-1, 002 rhine sand: (dry)-.2no2. ono bie clan yee See ee 1, 002-1, 003 lard throw Clayel ass. kc. oa ee ay ee ee 1, 003-1, 049 DANG CGIEY ) eo eee. eis BES est dip ee eae Seine 1, 049-1, 050 Browmeclay ate Set. 2ke te ee) eee eee eee eee eee 1, 050-1, 078 Quicksand (probably. dry) 2292 3 ea eee 1, 078-1, 079 Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of sand. *1, 079-1, 085 shouginbrown: cla yen. s2ccgolseces aoee eeee ee eeeeene ee eee 1, 085-1, 131 Wery cbim.sand streak. (Gry) ..05!..3c.. tn cacao ee ae 1,131 BOWS layne. joel cewicMiS aioe Sie dk 2 ne Des Le 1, 131-1, 140 Sand cemented by calcium carbonate, believed to be lake tufa 1, 140-1, 144 sticky gray clayes.22 sve hse oe Dae S eee ee eee 1, 144-1, 165 Rapidualternations of clay and) sand. 2 0 eee ocr ee eee eee 1, 165-1, 175 chime-cemented sand. Probably. lake tufa.. . 22.0 322 eee 1, 175-1, 190 Reddish clay with occasional very thin sand streaks (dry). 1, 190-1, 204 Bine sand: "probably -quick2cne sccedsascd ee eee eee eee 1, 204

The casing having stuck hopelessly in the cemented sand between 1,175 and 1,190, it was impossible to carry the hole deeper.

The bore does not show either beds of salines or brines. The material obtained consists of muds, silts, clays, and quicksands. Artesian water was encountered at many points. The nonpenetration of saline beds by a single bore hole is not surprising when one considers the area of the central depression. The fact that artesian flows were encountered would argue that the bore was considerably without the central mud area, or the area of lowest depression. The former lake in evaporating may have separated into several parts, and thus we might have several saline beds of moderate thickness in the central area. The general silting of the whole area would render it —

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 59

extremely difficult to locate these beds. Until proved otherwise by a number of bores, Railroad Valley must be looked upon as a possible source of buried salines. The question as to whether these salines will be characterized by a high potassium content is an open one. The finding of surface crusts and brines of relatively high potassium content proves nothing as far as we know at present about the buried salines and brines. A possible explanation of the high potassium content in the surface salines and brines may be found in the fact that there are a number of hot springs in this area, and these may have been responsible for the surface salines. Until analyses of the waters of these springs are available this is only conjecture.

Sand Springs Flat.

Sand Springs Flat areas described on the United States Topographic Sheet as '' Eightmile Flat" and '"'Fourmile Flat.'' It was called '' Alkali Valley" in Russell's Monograph on Lahontan Lake. It lies 11 miles southeast of Fallon, in Churchill County, Nev. The area is about 37 square miles. It has a peculiar interest in that a bay of Lake Lahontan once occupied the area. The highest level of Lake Lahontan was 439 feet above the present flat, elevation 3,961. The desiccation of Lake Lahontan would have left.a shallow lake upon the flat, and this, on evaporation, would have leit a bed of salines. Russell states that the salt bed is from 3 to 5 inches thick near the margin and in the central portion is not less than 3 feet thick. Rain water has collected the salines in the southeast end of the flat. Russell! states that after rains a shallow brine lake of several inches depth and about 15 square miles in area occupies this ponent: No notable amounts of potassium have been reported from the salines of this area.

Sevier Lake.

Sevier Lake is in west-central Utah, Millard County. It is of some interest in that it was formerly a part of Lake Bonneville and for a long time was occupied by a shallow lake, which in recent times has dried up. Gilbert? describes the history of this lake. From his account I take the following:

Sections of the saline beds in the central and marginal portions of the dried lake.

Central. Marginal.

1. Top. Sodium sulphate, 2 inches 1. Top. Sodium chloride crust, 4 inch. 2. Sodium sulphate with some sodium chloride, 1 2. Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate and maginch. nesium sulphate—free crystals mingled with water,

ii inch. 3. Sodium sulphate, 2 inches

3. Sodium sulphate with sodium chloride, a crust of coherent crystals, 4 inch.

4, Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate; incoherent crystals mingled with water, 14 inches.

5. Fine sand containing fresh water shells, 6 5. Sodium chloride, with sodium sulphate, chemically

4, Gray clay containing woody fiber, 2 inches

inches identical with No. 2, but fine-grained and with the consistence of an ooze; color white above, with occasional passages of pink and green beneath, 4 inch.

Foo SER EN ase 5 as er 6. Dark-gray mud, 2 feet.

The analyses upon these from the same reference are given in the succeeding table:

Constituent. Center. Margin. Brine.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

SVE PRICED) SSBU NEY PS Pa Te A Se ray Ct, a A Ar 84.6 14.3 15.5 Sodium carbonate es spas eaters aiae bie jou ceed Antec aaa SSS 41 ES ee ee

SONG ENTER OPIN OYE Ye (Sirs og ae gw cl ree eS On| 80.42 72.1

DOPIGUTEPY SUPERS LEVEN Rare ciel ha i AS Fa ee i OE ee en eG een ees oe 5) niu SERS WOE SIE EDY FIs ta Reon ea pay Oe eg RR doy ne ae RR ee mee Pa FR el eS eee SSS

"es EE CEPOVEST CECT FIER PTET YS VOSS SVG wig Td RES A CO ark te Uy ORES SIG acai yal [a BN ent (eles a 11.9 LEDIPDSCSETED SEL SVL Sates ag ce a cee ee an lle pe pues aire Geka sede: Sheree Bey (hi eee ae eee UM QUES ore SEAS Se ieee ieee a SO Re oe ee aM DAE A aL As Ad Cle SEG Pi ea ata SD IUE GS st oS ea ey 2 ae ee a eS ey eee a We ae eae ek ee 100.00 100.00 100.00

1 Monograph No. 11, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 234.

2 Monograph No. 1, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 244.

60 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

The accumulation of sodium sulphate in the center is of interest. The absence of potassium compounds in the brine and the low content in the marginal deposits are conspicuous. The accumulations in Sevier Lake are undoubtedly due to comparative recent action. Deeper bores would have revealed more of the history of the basin and perhaps beds of salines characteristic of the Bonneville period would have been discovered.

Black Rock Desert, Nevada.

The Black Rock and Smoke Creek Deserts are of notable extent. The northern extension of Lake Lahontan occupied this area, but no surface deposits of salines have been discovered. Some saline crusts can be found, but these are of little importance. A 500-foot well was put down at Sulphur, on the line of the Western Pacific Railroad and on the edge of the mud flat, but neither oil nor salines were found. West of Gerlach, salt is produced in small quantities by the evaporation of brines obtained from shallow wells.

But few data of a chemical nature are available for this area. In the vicinity of Gerlach samples of mud were obtained from a shallow auger hole. From the same vicinity water samples were also obtained. The analytical results are given below. The muds show-a high content cf salines, and these consist of chlorides and sulphates, together with small quantities of carbonates. The potassium content is about what would be expected. The mud isa tenacious clay. The waters are somewhat similar in composition to the salines contained in the clays.

Analyses of saline crust and muds from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada.

Percentage of total soluble salts.

Sie our Se eT a ees MN eS Sample and depth. ble salts.

PCta R2Cts tbe Chav Ob Cb-| ee aCe dhe Clem ee Cle aCe Pct:

Muds:! Mee Ofer ae ee ee file O030 S6509 ule 25060 euler: .66 7.84 52.57 23.19

1 Average ratio Na to Kin muds is 16.

Analyses of waters from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada.

Percentage of total solids on evaporation.

Solids on Sample. TELIESTE Gol Ln ee

Parts per

D FARK of FAN Ie) EA Be Al Eo ie J 2nhin IER GME. Gil IP Os 100,000.

{Saline clays and crust from point 1.5 miles northeast of Gerlach, Nev. Water from surface trench from same place. Samples by W.S. Palmer; analyses by J. A. Cullen.]}

The waters from the four springs averaged were taken 0.25 mile from Gerlach. The temperature of these springs ranged from 16.1° to 3®%2° C. Samples by W.S. Palmer: analyses by S. C. Dinsmore. : ue pons spring was three-fourths mile northwest of Gerlach. Sample by W. S. Palmer: analyses

y J. A. Culien.

Buried Deposits Of Salines.

The deposits resulting from the desiccation of Searles Lake are exposed on the surface and their discovery was a simple matter. Geological reasoning indicates that the conditions exemplified by Searles must have been repeated at other places in the Great Basin. Evidences of Quaternary lakes are to be found in a number of places, but not in all places do we find the expected saline deposits. The largest Quaternary lake basin, excepting Bonneville, is Lahontan, and it is now occupied by Pyramid, Walker, Humboldt, Carson, and Winnemucca Lakes. Unlike Mono,

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 61

Owens, and Great Salt Lakes, the waters of these lakes are comparatively fresh. Geological evidence goes to show that Lahontan Basin must have been the locus for an accumulation of salines for a, long period. The inconsequential surface accumulations of salines in this basin, coupled with the anomalous condition of the present lakes, led Russell! to propose the following hypothesis:

'"'After the last great rise of Lake Lahontan there was a long-continued episode during which its basin was more arid than at present. Evaporation during that time is thought to have been equal to precipitation, and the residual lakes were reduced to the playa condition—that is, the remnants of the great lake gathered in the lowest depressions of its basin were annually or occasionally evaporated to dryness, and their contained salts were precipitated and either absorbed by the clays, etc., deposited at the same time, or buried beneath such mechanical deposits. This process may be observed in action in many of the valleys of Nevada in which ephemeral lakes occur. The broad naked playas of Black Rock, Smoke Creek, and Carson Deserts, as well as the level floors of the basins occupied by Pyramid, Winnemucca, and Walker Lakes, are in support of this hypothesis. Should the lakes just mentioned be evaporated to dryness, playas would be left similar to those in neighboring valleys of less depth.

"Tt is beneath the level floors of these valleys and lake basins that the more soluble salts once dissolved in the waters of Lake Lahontan are buried. Borings at certain localities might reveal the presence of strata of various salts, but in most cases they are probably disseminated through great thicknesses of clay, sand, and other mechanical sediments."'

Russell's? admirable discussion of the freshening of lakes by desiccation, together with the later review in the reference cited above, leaves little to be added. Under. the discussion of the present and past rate of accumulation of saline material it was: hown that over somé 95,000 square miles area a present accumulation of approximately 3,000,000 tons of salines per annum is taking place, and that in the humid period of the Quaternary this rate might have been more than four-times as large. No even approximate estimate of Quaternary time for the basin has been made, and consequently no estimate of the probable quantity of salines can be made.* That it was large goes without saying. While absolute proof of Russell's hypothesis has not been made, its probability is almost beyond question. If we admit it, the pertinent questions arise: Where are these deposits, and what is their probable value as a source of salines? The answer to the first question has been given by Russell. The answer to the second is given in part by the chemical studies of the deposits in Searles and Columbus Marshes, Death and Dixie Valleys, and the partially concentrated solutions of Mono, Owens, and Great Salt Lakes.

Gilbert shows that Lake Bonneville overflowed and discharged its waters, together with their salines, into river waters which eventually found their way to the ocean. On account of the prevalence of older sedimentaries in the Bonneville basin and the low content of potassium in the brines of Great Salt Lake, together with the above fact, the Bonneville basin is not looked upon as a very favorable place for the discovery of the more valuable salines. On the other hand, Lake Lahontan and the Quaternary basins of the west, central, and southwest parts of the Great Basin have never reached an outlet. The regional rocks are largely volcanic, and consequently these Quaternary areas have been looked upon favorab!y as a possible source of valuable salines.

Ii we consider that the present topography of the Lahotan Basin is, in a measure, a 'counterpart of the topography at the end of the final desiccation period, then we must conclude that the present lakes are holding within their shores the former areas of maximum depression, and, consequently, a part of the saline accumulations is buried in the sediments and beneath the waters of the present lakes. The remainder must be sought for in the mud playas and basins contiguous to the present lake basins.

An examination of Russell's map of Lake Lahontan at its highest water stage indicates a division of the lake into five major lakes, Carson Lake, Black Rock Desert, Pyramid, Winnemucca, Walker, and Honey Lakes, given in the order of their mag-

1 Bul. No. 530 A, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 16.

211th Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 244.

3 Russell estimates the duration of the post-Lahontan period to be less than 300 years. Gilbert estimates that at the present rate of accession some 34,000 years would be necessary to account for the sodium chloride in Great Salt Lake. I have calculated the following: At present rates of accession it would take 18,576 years for the chlorine accumulation in Owens Lake; 9,028 years for the chlorine accumulation in Mono Lake (assuming the same per square mile annual rate of accumulation that was determined for the Truckee Basin); 4,529 years for the chlorine accumulation in Pyramid Lake: 840 years for the chlorine accumulation in Walker Lake, and 6,452 years for the nitrate accumulation in Owens Lake. The impose sibility of determining the average rate of accumulation renders such determinations of little value.

# Eleventh Annual Report, U. S. Geot. Survey pl. 5, p. 32, and the U. S. Geol. Survey topographie sheets, Granite Range, Nev.; Disaster, Nev.; and oney Lake, Cal. rs

62 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

nitude. Each of these lakes on evaporation must have left deposits of salines. It is not improbable that in some cases several separate deposits were left. The Black Rock Desert is at present a comparatively level plain. As far as known, no notable

uantities of salines have been discovered. That they exist in some places beneath the desert sand or absorbed within the muds is probable. The great area of this desert (1,600 square miles approximately within the 4,000-foot contour) and its extreme flatness would render the search for these deposits difficult. Pyramid Lake, the deepest of the present lakes, is 360 feet deep. This basin must have been

TRUCKEE FP. PYRALH/O Nv. ae

Soil Eg

WALAER FP. WALAEP s. 5 ,

Truckee Pr. Winnelifucca N.

ee SS ROO a SS Se

VOEIULLES 2 BENS oi

Fic. 7.—Profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono, and Walker Lakes.

the deepest of the Quaternary basins. It is an open question whether the waters of Black Rock Desert or those of Carson Lake drained into this basin. Present topographic conditions would indicate no particular drainage from either place. In fact, if we consider that Pyramid Lake receives the largest stream we would conclude that the overflow from this lake during the intermediate stages of evaporation would have been into the Black Rock Desert and into the Carson. Topographic conditions seem to indicate that Walker Lake did not drain in the direction of Carson Lake. The lowest pass between Carson and Pyramid Lakes is at Ragtown, and at an elevation of 4,100 feet. If we assume that the Carson and Truckee Rivers had flows relatively the same as at present, we should expect Pyramid Lake to discharge some of its contents into the Carson. There are no present evidences as to the direction of flow from

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 63

one lake to the other, and perhaps the assumption that there was no considerable flow from one lake into the other is the nearest to the fact. This would lead us to conclude that in each of these basins we might expect salines at depth.

The present depth of Pyramid and Walker Lakes, needless to say, would preclude exploration work in these localities. The profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono, and Walker Lakes are shown in figure 7. These profiles show the deepest portions of the lakes to be in the central part or away from shores or inlet streams. Topographic evidence goes to show that the saline deposits in Black Rock Desert must have been spread over a great area and must have been relatively thin. The difficulty of prospecting or exploring has been commented upon.

Carson Lake is comparatively shallow and would not offer serious obstacles to exploratory work. The fact that the Carson Sink receives the drainage of both the Humboldt and the Carson Rivers, each of which drains relatively large areas, as well as the extent of the Quaternary lake, makes this basin comparatively attractive for exploration. The greater area of the Carson Desert and the difficulty of securing accurate information from surface studies as to the probable structure of this basin would render a search for salines almost as difficult as in the Black Rock Desert. [J

The U. S. Geological Survey put down a bore in the Carson Desert at what was hypothetically assumed to be the axis of the deepest depression in the Quaternary lake basin. The site of the bore is close to the north end of Timber Lake in sec. 30, T. 21 N., R. 30 E. The bore was sunk to a depth of about 985 feet and failed to penetrate either saline beds or brines. The log of the bore to a depth of 320 feet is

ary udh aoe oa TE —

&quot; (Cg) After Closure By Sults And Seomtents

Fic. 8.—Cross sections showing probable conditions existing in Carson Lake at different stages of desiccation.

published in the bulletin noted below.! Sand, clay, and quicksand were the principal sediments penetrated to this depth. Artesian water was encountéred at a number of different levels. Examination of these waters showed them to be of low saline content. Certain samples showed from 0.10 to 0.22 per cent potassium." Other water samples showed from traces to 0.1 per cent. At greater depths than that established by the record it is said that no notable quantity of saline material was found. A study of the Carson topographic sheet, together with the information shown by this bore, indicates that the bore was put down in the delta material deposited by the Carson River. That this delta deposit is of great thickness and outside of the area of possible occurrence of saline beds is not an unwarranted conclusion. We would expect sedimentation to be most active at the mouth of the Carson. Examination of older and more recent maps indicates changes in the position of the Carson River where it enters Carson Lake. The delta formed by the Carson during the Quaternary lake period must have been eroded in part and must have supplied the alluvial material of the present delta. The probable changes which took place during the evaporation of Carson Lake in this delta material and in the deeper portions of the basin are represented by figure 8. Three stages are indicated. In the first stage, or the beginning of desiccation, a deep lake is represented, in one end of which is a considerable delta deposit. The finer sediments and silts carried into the lake are represented as a thick bed upon the bottom. As the leke evaporated, erosion began in the former delta deposit and a new delta began to form from the débris of the old. This new delta would be expected to reach out as the lake evaporated and, as it were, push the lake farther and farther down its bed. The end of the desiccation period is represented in the 6 sketch. On the resumption of greater rainfall we would expect silts and sediments to be brought down from the erosion of the remnants of the older delta. Under certain conditions the saline beds would be closed over by this material. The bottom diagram, figure 8, shows the conditions at the end of the third period. An examination of c section would indicate that the saline deposits would be removed at some considerable distance from the remnants of the old delta. The flatness of the Carson Desert and its extent, particularly to the east, needs to be seen to be appreciated.

1Bul. No. 530A, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 18. on to'al soli's.

64 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

The shore lines in the bottom of the basin, which appear with great distinctness, indicate the slow recession and evaporation of the waters. Sufficient time is indicated for the development of a structure similar to that shown in sketch 6. Wind erosion, no doubt, played an important part in the closure of the saline beds. The soft character of the Lahontan sediments and the fact that the prevailing winds are from the west would indicate favorable conditions for seolian action. The east end of the Carson Desert, and particularly that portion along the flanks of the Sweetwater Range, is conspicuous for the large sand dunes which have resulted from the wind action of the present.

The general features involved in the search for the buried salines of the Carson Sink may well be considered. A study of the probable structural relations attending the - formation and closure of a saline deposit such as might have taken place in the Carson Sink has shown that the most favorable area is removed from the delta area, either old ornew. In the particular case of the Carson Desert a line might be drawn at the present mouth of the Carson and extending southeast and northwest. Southwest of this line is the delta area. Northeast is the area considered as most favorable for the search of a saline deposit. The area between the line established above and the lowest contour—3,900 feet—inclosing the present lake is about 350 square miles. The main deposit of Searles Lake occupies an area having a ratio of 1 to 404, as compared with the area of the whole present basin including the salt deposit. The drainage area of the Carson and Humboldt Rivers is 27,575 square miles. Using the above ratio would give a probable area of saline deposit of 68 square miles. The extent of a saline deposit would be determined by its thickness. Consequently the above area might be larger or smaller. Again, the deposit might be divided, which is not at all unlikely in the present case. The prospecting problem would be to locate by boring an area greater or less than 68 square miles in an area of 350 square miles.

The nature of the saline bed, if it were discovered, might be similar to that in Searles, or the salines might be distributed in a relatively thick bed of eolian sediments. Respecting the probability of potassium little can be said. Gale's discovery in Columbus Marsh opens up possibilities which in my judgment would warrant exploration in this area.

The only other instance of exploration for buried salines is in Railroad Valley, Nev., where a 1,200-foot bore was sunk, but without results. The valley is unlike the Carson Sink in that no large stream discharges into it, and there is no lake of consequence. The results of the bore have been discussed.

Salines In Present Lakes.

The composition of the waters of the more important lakes of the basin region are given in Table XV (Appendix). The three most important lakes from the standpoint of concentration and amount of salines are Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes. The computed quantities of the more important salines in these lakes are given in the table which follows:

Quantities of salts in Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes.

Lake. NaCl. NaeSOu. KCl. NaeCOs. Na2B407. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Gresticalt l=. scoot t ee cent 400, 000;000°|°* "30,000,000. })2. 222 -|S Se eee Wenis 22 toss. Sopa Fes IGS AEE 20, 000, 0 22,000,000 2,140,000 22,000,000 Monga: Aobh ts seeks Jecheee t 86,099,600 47,586, 400 10,538,000 92, 101, 100 945, 100

1 Monograph 1, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 253. 28th Annual Report. Quaternary History of Mono Valley, Cal., pp. 295-296. Potassium sulphate has been recalculated to potassium chloride in the case of Owens Lake.

Salt is separated from the brines of Great Salt Lake and at Owens Lake sodium carbonate and bicarbonate have been separated by solar evaporation and crystallization for a number of years. At Large Soda Lake, Nev., soda was also separated. Outside of this, there has been no other commercial utilization of the waters of the basin lakes. Only two other lakes in the basin approach the three mentioned above in degree of salinity—South and Middle Alkali Lakes, Oreg. (PI. V, fig. 1.) The saline content of the remaining lakes is of little present importance. No important concentration of potassium salts has taken place in the present lakes, excepting inconsequential cases which have been mentioned before. Later investigations have not supported the earlier estimates of notable concentrations of potash salts in Abert Lake and the Surprise Valley. (PI. V, fig. 2, and Pl. VI.)

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 65

Calcareous Deposits About The Shores.

Tufa deposits have been found about the shore lines of many of the Quaternary lake basins. They are not so conspicuous in Bonneville as at Lahontan or Mono. They have been reported from Searles and Owens Lakes. The origin of this tufa, its composition and mineralogy, have been discussed by Russell and Gilbert,' and it is not important that they be repeated here. The significant feature of these deposits is their potassium content. Gilbert quotes analyses from the Fortieth Parallel Survey which show 0.22 per cent potassium. This is significant, as it indicates one way in which potassium compounds separate out irom lake waters. The deposits are of no commercial interest. They have been an important means of interpreting the events of the Quaternary history.

Potash-Rich Minerals.

Of the soluble potash-rich minerals kalinite and niter are the only two known as mineral species in the basin region. Undoubtedly potassium chloride and sulphate are associated with the bedded 'salines, but no distinct mineral species has been reported.

The insoluble potash minerals, "with the pec puions noted below, are associated with other rock-forming minerals in igneous eae Rocks containing notable quantities of potash-rich minerals are inconspicusu Ransome? reports a leucite basanite from the Bullfrog district, Nevada, but this ee contains a very low percentage of potash.

The occurrence of alunite has been discussed already. Jarosite contains from 6 to 9 per cent potash. This mineral is not uncommon and has been reported from Tonopah, Goldfield, and Bullfrog, Nev. Itisassociated with quartz and, in the occurrence at Goldfield. it ig found in an altered tuff. !t does not occur in quantity and is of no economic importance. Orthoclase has been reported, but, so far as known, no notable amounts of this mineral are available. Adularia has been reported from Jarbridge, Nev. Theanalyses show a potash content ranging from 11.84 to 15.12 per cent. The mineral occurs associated with quartz in veins. With the exception of the alunite deposit noted in a previous section, the possibility of finding workable deposits of potash-rich minerals or rocks is not good.

Gypsum.

Three types of gypsum deposits are found in the basin region—rock gypsum, gypsite, and lake gypsum. Rock gypsum occurs in Nevada at Mound House, Gerlach; Lovelock, Table Mountain, the Ludwig mine in Mason Valley, and at Arden, Clark County. At Mound House and Lovelock the gypsum is associated with limestone. At Mound House, Gerlach, and the Ludwig mine the surface gypsum passes into anhydrite at depth. Probably in all cases the rock gypsum is associated with rocks of Triassic age.*

At Mound House gypsite occurs in thin beds upon a number of low, crescent-shaped terraces which are a part of the alluvial slope between the rock gypsum deposit and the Carson River. It has undoubtedly been derived from the erosion and partial solution of the rock gypsum deposits above. Seepage and surface waters have caused the concentration of the gypsum in beds varying from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The material is of a pulverulent nature. Analyses taken from severai of these beds and at a number of different points are given in the following table:

Analyses of samples from gypsum deposits.

[Samples collected and analyses made by G. J. Young.]

Sample No.— Constituent. il 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Gypsumls 2s 2 59. 79 68. 20 79.51 53. 94 50. 43 82.75 79.81 72.37 Gernin carbonate. . 14. 01 12. 83 8.72 12.58 13.58 6.35 8. 82 SEPAL Imsoluble 26.13 8.72 TAS 33. 48 35. 98 10. 80 11.33 22.39

af peenostaph 12. 167, Gilbert; 11th Annual Report, p. 187, Russell; Bul. No. 108, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. uss 2 Bul. No. 407, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 5 3 Professional "Paper No. 66, U.S. ore "Survey, P. 108. 4 Bul. No. 497, U. S. Geol. Survey, p.5 >See G. D. Louderback, Bul. No. 223, w. S. Geol. Survey, p. 118.

66 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

F. L. Hess! describes the occurrence of gypsum in recent lake beds in the Mojave Desert, Cal. The beds occur in a periodic lake in the vicinity of Amboy, Cal. Bristol Lake is the name given to the area. The gypsum occurs in the lake bottom close to the shores of the lake. The bed is of variable thickness and its maximum thickness has not been determined. In one place gypsum was found to a depth of 9.5 feet, the

upper layers being more or less mixed with dirt. A brine is reached in the lake bed ;

at a depth varying from 8 to 10 feet. Prospect holes show the deposit to be confined from within one-hali toi mile of the oldshore line. Thegypsum is of a granular nature. Hess ascribes the localization of a deposit of this kind as being due to the greater evaporation rate of the lake waters near the shore. Capillarity in the marginal material also undoubtedly has contributed to the local concentration of the gypsum.

Rock gypsum is being mined at Mound House, Arden, and Ludwig. The deposits are of considerable commercial importance. The gypsite deposits at Mound House were worked for a time, but have been idle for some years. They are of doubtful value. The gypsum at Bristol Lake is reported by Hess as being exploited by the Pacific Cement Plaster Co.

Conclusion.

Repeated reference has been made to the Stassiurt deposits of Germany in connection with the search for potash salts in the United States. While this has served a useful purpose in stimulating the search for salines, it perhaps has resulted in the opinion that similar deposits might be expected in the Great Basin. Such a view can not now be held. The German deposits are in the Triassic and they, as well as the associated sedimentaries, have been folded and tilted. They represent complete desiccation and more or less secondary action before, during, and aiter tectonic disturbance. Omitting from present consideration the deposits of the Jurassic and Tertiary, the saliniferous deposits of the Great Basin may be said to represent comparatively recent geologic activity. They are confined to the Quaternary lake and desert basins. The older deposits were formed in earlier periods of desiccation, but desiccation did not reach extreme conditions. The present deposits are in precess oi formation. Very little disturbance of the Quaternary and recent sedimentaries has taken place. More or less secondary action, such as solution, recrystallization, and movement of brines, is taking place. It may be said that the basin deposits already discovered represent the initial stages of what in time might result in deposits rather remotely similar to Stassfurt, but of much less magnitude.

The influence of regional rocks has been commented upon and the prevalence of volcanics in the Great Basin has caused geologists to turn to this region as a place in which to look for potassium salts. Regional differences, caused by the prevalence of different types of rocks, are manifest in the presence of alkali carbonates and borates in the western part of the Great Basin and the presence of chlorides in the eastern portion where sedimentaries predominate. In the case of potassium, no such marked difference is shown. The potassium content in the saline residue of the water of Great Salt Lake is not much less than that of Mono, Owens, and Pyramid Lakes. Humboldt Lake, North, Middle and South Alkali Lakes, it is true, show a higher content of potassium, but these are relatively unimportant. The resistance to weathering of the potash-rich minerals and the ease with which this element is absorbed and removed from surface and underground waters might well account for the low content of potash in all of the lakes.

Vith the exception of the crusts and efflorescences about hot springs and in soils, no notably high potassium content has been reported from salines taken from beds. The potassium content in material of this nature ranges from less than 1 to 2 per cent. It is not in the salts which have crystallized out, but in the residual brines or mother liquors that concentration of potassium has taken place, and it is to these that we must look for potassium salts. As desiccation approaches completion, so will the residual brines increase in proportion of potassium. A near approach to complete desiccation would give a brine high in potash. The fortuitous absorption and sealing over oi such a brine would protect it from further changes, except those produced by circulating underground waters. It is evident that the above action might occur at different stages of desiccation, and brines varying in degree of potash content would be absorbed and sealed in the same way. Sealing would not necessarily have to be caused by the formation of impervious layers, although this would be more effective than a layer ofsand. A layer of sand, subsequently flooded with water, would deplete by diffusion the partially concentrated brine beneath and, in time, a much weaker brine would result. It should be noted that the absorption of saline waters which

1 Bul. No. 413, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 125.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 67

have not reached concentration sufficient to produce crystallization of some of the compounds would give little or no concentration of potassium. The absorption of such a solution by desert sands would give a weak and valueless brine. Doubtless further investigation will show many of the variations indicated above.

Two general types in the desiccation phenomena may be distinguished, the Searles type, in which a large, deep lake was evaporated, and the comparatively thick body of saline material, restricted in area and saturated with residual brine, was formed; and a second type, which is best illustrated by Death Valley, in which case we have the building up of a mass of muds and silts with interbedded salines, by the repeated formation and desiccation of a shallow lake. To the latter type belong most of the desert, dry lakes, or playas. The line between the two types 1s not a sharp one.

The possibility of deposits at depth is still not completely disproved. The geological evidence goes to show that several periods of desiccation occurred. Each period might have been characterized by deposits of the kind described above. Such evidence as we have, and it is meager, does not indicate deposits of this nature. The evidence goes to show that the larger Quaternary lakes existed for a long time and desiccation was a feature of their final stages. This would place the period of saline formation at the end rather than at an intermediate time, and would argue for deposits at shallow depths rather than otherwise. On the other hand, the geological evidence is not necessarily complete. The obliteration by erosion of older lake lines than the present onesisnotimprobable. Only by systematic deep boring could such a question be settled. As the larger Quaternary lake basins are, in almost every instance, occupied by lakes of considerabie size and in some instances of considerable depth, the difficulties of such work are apparent.

The question of deep deposits being uncertain, the field becomes narrowed to the deposits which might have resulted from the desiccation periods of the most recent Quaternary lakes. Only in Searles have we surface deposits of this nature. In all other basins, if older deposits than those at present forming exist, they must be sought for at depth. The size of such a deposit would depend upon the area of the drainage basin and the area and depth of the Quaternary lake occupying it. Desert basins showing no signs of former lakes might well be placed in a separate and unimportant class. Such basins can not be said not to have saline beds at depth, but the existence of such beds and their value are doubtful. Upon the criteria stated above I have grouped the desert basins in the following manner:

Grovur |.—Basins formerly occupied by Quaternary lakes.

A. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was over 300 feet in depth: (in

order of magnitude on the basis of area): Square miles. Corson ame damm DOLCE. saa ces is eh ee oe ne 27, 575 Blackdoek-andsmoky Creek Deserts. ...%..222 5:-0252 Ae 3.2222 set 10, 500 Owens) sie 5: sei cfs 2. Sa wele tees ots SetS deri cs cee 4, 850 LPOG WOOLEN he, a5. ae aes se ae EA A Mea, rg oe ne eg ey 1, 950

B. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was 300 feet or less in depth: ERO CaN ON ae ane Be yn ee Meee ie toe tis el od eau oe 6, 340 Columbus Marsh Gneluding Big Smoky Valley) 2 5, 225 Buena; Caronland: Humboldt). <...:22.s2242:-:.2o2 4,000 iE SEIB NaN Laie ae SO a Ne ES i ea epee Dene MT nea gs 2, 660 C. Basins which are now occupied by lakes:

2 ESIC SPI XB Pav tas ese ea TE iN SE 54, 000 Walker Ney 22225222. - es OS SO Sek SEE Pe tna Oe RN NT len le 3, 850 EAU SEMEL OD Meietorte si, ants ees ene Re ee ee Ua cig wei S ane aun a oe eee 3, 200 PeraMl ee CN Pere eos ae ose oe Aes ook eue oe Nets Sean 2,975 (SJ TREES fo! Cy Ls 8 ees A sa el Ec Re 9 Ul Ate eee ea ad oe 2, 825 25) TDG Gy trey Cha Sia ep i eee mre eee eS i ee RR eee 2, 660 ele AN Men mea las named Oem ie nae coe ee cs Oe ad Sole aac 2, 350 EARIO go GINBIED sea alls SA tel icc ins ll. Bee ON ae ae Amiel ens Aa 2, 000 PBIBIVSIES Qe S10a 5 Se a eg ae RIN PATS Rae GPa 2, 000 mock sonewacan: and Summer, Oreg 5 222-5251. + 5-222 del soe eee 1, 500 LLOVEIBICNIN®. PISO) GW he sg OU eel estes eC ap Meee eE R Pa 900 CHEE WB ULISS TE CIN CESS STA ne ee Ege See NUR. hale pene R 775 LVEDD (CEU a: 23h KONO CR I Se Re (EU EE a Ne Pasa BSA 770 SEU BIE, (COS se ah le a ea Eta aR aan eee me oo 500

D. Doubtful basins: Diamond Valley, Nev. 2 Danby and Bristol Lakes, Cal. Franklin and Ruby Lakes, Nev.

68 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Group II.—Basins in which there are no evidences of Quaternary lakes.

Square miles.

A. Death Valley, includes Amargosa drainage and basin 23, 160 Be sPL Ver Pea et tne os ne ee eee 550 Ribodes Marsh... 2: sii. 225-250 ese Se ee ee ee eee 540 iMG) SESS e ee beac ee se Be ae so hs Se Sa Ses 3S Soe sas eseccecse: 320

All other basins in which the playa contains notable quantities of brine and in which the brines are close to, or at, the surface. ©. All other desert basins and playas not included in the above groups.

The order given in each main group is the order of relative importance. In each subgroup the order given is the order of areal importance. Groups A and B of each main group are believed to be the most favorable areas for exploration work. Group II is of very much less importance than Group I. :

Of the basins enumerated above, Searles is the only one in which the investigation has shown sufficient concentration of potassium salts in the residual brines to be of probable commercial importance. The salines associated with the potassium salts and the possibility of producing several products predict success in the exploitation of this area. The chemical problem of separating the several salines is a difficult one, and upon its solution hinges the success of the enterprise. The presence of brines of moderate concentration is shown in Death Vailey and Silver Peak.! It is a matter of some doubt whether these brines can be worked. The investigation of the Carson Sink, Railroad Valley, and Columbus Marsh is inconclusive. Until the possibilities of the areas considered most favorable have been exhaustively studied, it is inadvisable to attempt exploration of the other areas.

1 The potassium in the surface brines of the smooth salt area of Death Valley is equivalent to 1.72 per cent potassium chloride; in the brines from the Survey's bores in Death Valley it is equivalent to 0.94 per cent and in the brines of Silver Peak Marsh 1.50 per cent. But comparatively little concentration would be required in these brines to produce a brine of the same content of potassium chloride as the Searles brine. The Death Valley surface brine would have to be concentrated one-half, the deeper brines one-fourth, and the Silver Peak brine somewhat less than one-half. In Death Valley the summer evaporation rate for a brine is said to be from 24 to 30 inches per month. The cost of evaporating a brine under such conditions would be almost nothing. The amount of brine available for pumping and the practicability of constructing vats upon the smooth salt area would have to be determined by detailed examination and experimentation. In my opinion the experiment of producing potassium salts by evaporating the Death Valley brine is well worth carrying out, presupposing that the detailed examination shows a sufficient quantity of

rine.

Appendix. Mineralogy Of The Salines.

A number of minerals have been reported in the salines of the basin. In addition to distinct mineral species mention must be made of the mixtures of chlorides, sulphates, borates, and carbonates which are of common occurrence.

List of minerals.

[Compiled from Dana, Clark, Eakle, and records of Cooperative Laboratory and State Mining Laboratory of the University of Nevada.]

Name. Chemical symbol. Name. Chemical symbol. Soluble minerals: Insoluble or almost in- Thermonatrite.?...| NasCO3.H.O. soluble minerals: IND tron eee Hees NaeCO3.10H2O0. Anhydrite soe. CaSO. TOMA heels Bane NaeCO3.NaHCQO3.2H20. GayipSuime ees CaS04.2H.0. Marapiliten =-ccsce- NaeSO4.10H20. G@elestites ashen ess=- BrSO4. Thenardite NaoSO4. Calcite ere reeaee CaCOs3. LATE aes ea! NaCl. A Dolomitess.cs-2 HS ORAM ee Soci. NaoB407.10820. VCHIte gs. ees 2MgCO3.2Na2CO3.NaeSO. Sodammitenseee.sece NaNOs. Colemanite Pan- CaeBbOn.5H2O. INGE) oe Oe es Sean KNOs3. dermite (var.). INitrocalcites 4-2: ie AUD ae eee ees NaCa2B;09.8H.0. Nitromagnesite Flowers serra H5Ca2BsSiOw. HeMiksitenene oe NageK Boracite Gace soca Me7CloBigOz0. Galnmibes ayes eee Neocolmanite Same composition as cole- Partly or slightly solumanite. ble minerals: Sulphniee aaee S. Glauberite NaS O4.CaSO.. IPATSSOMIULGS yen Sulphohalite 3NaeSO04.2NaCl. Gaylussite Northupite MgCOz.NasCO3.NaCl.

In addition to the above, potassium chloride and sulphate, and magnesium chloride and sulphate, are to be found in mixtures but have not been reported as minerals. Hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, iodine, bromine, and arsenious oxide have heen reported in analyses. Marsh gas has been reported from a bore near Falion, Nev.

Certain temperature observations have been made in connection with the synthetic studies of saline compounds and these have been summarized below:

Temperature controlling formation of saline minerals.

°C. IGE rs ... Pandermite formed from solution of sodium and potassium chlorides.! HOW eee Se: Anhydrite formed from action of sulphuric acid on calcium carbonate. Tychite and northupite formed at temperature of steam bath.? TA) le aetna Colemanite formed from ulexite in salt solution.!

34 and above. Thenardite formed from sodium sulphate solution.*

34 and below. Mirabilite formed from sodium sulphate solution.?

BO GOLSSe . Trona, borax, ulexite, gaylussite, natron, gypsum, hanksite, halite, sulphohalite; deposited from solution. Anhydrite forms from saturated salt solution.

1 Clarke, Bul. No. 491, Data of Geochemistry, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 216.

2 Am. Jour. of Sci., 4th Series, v. 20, p. 217.

3 The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States, Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Department of Agriculture. %

70 Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

Soluble minerals are deposited from solution by simple evaporation. The presence of,one or more soluble minerals in an evaporating solution would result in the partial separation of a mixture of the several compounds present, and the proportion of each in the "solid phase" would depend upon the solubility and proportion of each originally present. Under certain conditions, as, for instance, the preponderance of one compound, when the solution reached a concentration exceeding the solubility of this compound, it would separate out alone until the residual! solution reached a constant condition, when another compound or compounds would separate out of the 'constant solution.'' The evaporation of a solution containing a number of soluble salines might be expected to deposit, in sequence, first a single compound and then always a mixture of compounds, the sequential mixtures varying with the composition of the original solution. Just what mixture would be deposited would depend -upon the composition of the "constant solution" formed at the several stages. Turrentine / has very fully discussed van't Hoff's work upon the separation of saline compounds from solution, and it is unnecessary to repeat it here.

Experimental data for the interpretation of results which might be expected from the evaporation of saline solutions occurring in the western half of the Great Basin are not complete. Chatard published the results of his work upon the saline solutions of Owens and Mono Lakes, and these have been presented in another place. They indicate, for a system composed of chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, and borates, the initial separation of calcium carbonate and ferric oxide, followed in order by trona and then mixtures of carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates. The last brine contained sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium borate, and nitrates. Apparent separation of potassium chloride or sodium borate in the first crops of crystals was due to the inclosure of the brine by the separated salts. The nonseparation of potassium and boron compounds was due to the small proportion of these compounds originally present. The carrying of Chatard's experiments several steps further would have undoubtedly resulted in additional crops of crystals, which would have contained potassium and boron compounds.

Instances of the deposition of soluble minerals by evaporation of solutions are, of course, common.- Halite, trona, mirabilite, natron, and hanksite are deposited from lake waters. Of the soluble minerals named, with the exception of mirabilite. as far as our present information goes, none would be affected by the climatic temperature range. Mirabilite alters to thenardite at ordinary temperatures and when in solution thenardite is deposited at a temperature of 34° C., orabove. This temperature is not uncommon in the Great Basin.

Of the partly soluble and almost insoluble minerals our information concerning temperature conditions of formation is scanty. Most of them are formed by direct precipitation under normal temperature conditions. Pandermite, colemanite, tychite, and northupite would appear to require higher temperatures than would be afforded by the climatic temperature range. The absence of colemanite in most marsh deposits (reported only in Searles Marsh), and its presence in veins and as amyegdaloids in basalt, would favor the supposition that this mineral only formed in the presence of heated solutions. Tychite and northupite are comparatively rare, and we might well conclude that some local conditions—such as the presence of a hot spring—favored their formation. The occurrence of howlite in association with colemanite would lead to the supposition that this mineral forms under similar temperature conditions."

Secondary changes in deposited salines have not been made the subject of special study. Examples of the reduction of sulphates by organic matter and the formation of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur; the reduction of nitrates and the formation of ammonia have been reported. Reactions of this kind are characteristic of the more deeply buried beds. The formation of ulexite in nodules in the marshes would indicate this mineral to be of secondary nature. Anhydrite slowly changes over into gypsum. Mirabilite alters to thenardite. Glauberite alters to calcite (Dana). Ulexite alters to gypsum (Dana).

Minerals typically occurring in veins and veinlets are kalinite, alunite, niter, nitrocalcite, nitromagnesite, colemanite, and howlite. All others occur in playa beds, in crusts and efflorescences. Glauberite has been found associated with thenardite and mirabilite. Sulphohalite has been found implanted on crystals of hanksite (Dana). Hanksite is found with halite, thenardite, glauberite, trona, and borax. It has also been found inclosed in borax crystals (Dana).

1 Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils. The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States. 2 Bul. Dept. of Geology, University of California, vol. 6, No. 9, p. 187.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. &#x27;1

Tables.

TaBLE I.—Showing mean annual precipitation.

Basin Region—Utah.

Station. Altitude. Feet.

Tiba pala ens fee oo tee aociste 7, 50 ESPISCOR MSS a sooner omen: 7,318 WOOT eee aneeee cee eee 6, 500 Mead owvilleteeeenere oe cece 6, 200 Many svallesee sa saer ee ecu 6, 180 IBCAVCLE er ece eno saree 6, 000 1eIGOS Os Rae Ser aR ere oc Bee 5, 606 INariG ese eee eee eee oes 5,575 WHO Ne 5 Se See Se en eee 5,479 ichtield@peers ssc. ae 5,350 Government Creek SON SCIPIO Me ae re eee ee 5, 260 VT ONe tere eee see 5,100 Minerswaillefeaass sence epee 5,070 Whe vam eee co te oe esi 5,010 IZRO INNO pAnoodonsabouoaee 4,913

IBodienCales sass sas soc se 8, 248 HS CLIT ONG eens er ko ge 8, 000 ELOIMMGOM Meee ee 7,977 sium, CHa: eeeeebenosese 7,017 TP OLCS asec teers yaaa wae eas 6, 990 PANUIS GIVE eon Re rere een ne ee 6, 594 HMUITO Ka sere etek ae See ae 6, 500 eal CLtLOnme: cee eera ee oes 6, 500 HVA Oe Sorssieiek ers ean RS 6, 500 Wewers Raneh 2.. sss... 6, 282 Candelania= satay ese 6,180 Hien el ON eaa Sess See 6,128 IOC ieee ener eee oe 6, 100 ONO pale eee ys sme ee 6, 090 CloviermVialleyets nc ae ae 6, 000 RubyaVialley:..s—) ssecencsece: 6, 000 BR OAM Apter sheers jae ieee ce 5,975 FRGUCKCC 52 Sess es eee: 5, 818 QU CCK as ee 5, 631 WVVICTIS Root ions tect we ee 57 5, 628 ES OC Arete nee ie ee nn 5, 535 Crane7stkhanch: 2--e 5,350 TBH) eee eee acne alee 5,342 Warlinmeersseae eae ae oe 5, 232 WASTE Utes Dei a een gar ie 4, 895

IBIS WO DEM a eee es tae ee 4, 450 Independence 3, 907 WON GR RINGH Ate ee. oc eS 8 3, 661 HKG T Cres ce G8 we 3, 620 MONA Vestn es ots es Zeit

Mea Meat annua one : annua precipita- Station. Altitude. precipition. tation. Inches. Feet. Inches. 1QE3 7A PAL PIN els se jaoeee reenter. aeaeteets 4,900 19. 28 852155 RO OL ees ies 52a eye yee a Seat ae 4,900 16. 22 1OSO1s PBlackrocktea-eee seep ena 4, 872 10. 61 SAAS EMOUTILENG DOsaeeee ae ore 4,650 10. 53 PASAY ll Wil DYeNs2) Wey Bs os etl AN 4,541 8.04 LQTS (ail) SET OV Osea eee ie ae Sie 4,532 Sal GAGA ADO BAN es eet aye eitsa 4,507 15. 69 {POG walt Wake: Cityes-ee oe eee 4,366 16. 33 TRS OREO SO Cintra ele ee fos 4,310 14. 74 (9Ge| shaTIMInNStOMe es eee ee ee 4, 267 PA 7? TASS Sis COTM Cue ae aes oe 4, 240 P2e5) NO OOM Ces Sete ese sseenGoes 4,230 6.38 TAS 2 all COV OL ests e ce ee eee ene ere eee ence 8.21 st 45 GaTTIS OMe See ee tte ol epee a 6. 83 8. 23 BARAT Sa is Mie ae Ba ea ae 12.80 BASIN REGION—NEVADA (AND PORTION OF CALIFORNIA). 14.48 Quinn River Ranch 4, 850 6.55 8567 Battle Mountain 2 oeee. 4, 843 6. 71 16.80 McAfee's Ranch 4, 835 5. 46 Ale Sul Garanenvill ess ape mes ose eee 4, 830 12.12 CAG OP DISA Cae ae apnea ce Sereda he 4, 821 8.69 eZ MiG Dern Obs nee seen ene 4,700 11.94 TSI I Coleone. o se e552 ee eee 4,697 5.96 8553) COW AWeSss--ensese aoe ences 4,695 6.48 ONS 2) iC ars Meera eee see as See 4, 660 11.01 262963) eblawiblloTmers eye ea eee 4, 569 3.56 AS OSal\ EVCN OMe SE ree oe Cocos ee 4,497 8.65 OF 233s| (SMa Citys ee Ae ee ea eee 4,391 4.73 245 inOneROmMbsse meer eee eee ee 4,375 7.45 Coe dll Mivimovaveronhbleceys See ose eae se 4,344 8.65 UESOO: Il, 8kotaoolelisc.cocecceossances. 4,336 Spey MOS flys! Berne ype yn ss sce aye es Se 4,150 4.62 SSGn| BELO ts SEIN CS pene ee eee 4,072 3.37 ZOROOM IMbOWelOC kta nace eee 3,977 3.10 S52 9a Ol Oneness tee eee 3, 965 4.81 SAO Fal aMOWieret ese ye nee sees 3, 929 3.83 2OSS4 41D om eyavallesseser see ce eee 3, 800 6.47 AST UAC VIC RAS sassy ord pee al een 2,033 3-08 Sr Aad WO Sameera sectors eee ead 1, 700 6.04 Wea, 15.47 AV ETALO Gay lite stress ele neces oe 10.34 BASIN REGION—CALIFORNIA 5. 96 IB ATStCOW MMSE aes eet ee 2,150 3.61 bebe Bagdadia net eke 784 2.98 5. 28 ING all estat senate ere rere A477 4.30 5.00 IAVOTAS OR 2) tal eine Be lotr Pewee ene awe 4. 43 i BASIN REGION—OREGON. Wakevilewe ces. s222 20 oe 4, 825 17.85 Klamath Agency 4, 200 21.47 DU VOM WAKO! secede eee sees 4, 700 10540) BUT SAP eeee ce aoecie eee see 4,157 10. 87 WYRM OT Sse Amey a Fa 4,700 HEARS 0) |PEMV SC TS1 Ce ue ee eet ene ae eee 3, 000 9.76 PAIS OVesie= Rtee ore Gene oe als 4, 500 10. 90 Kiamathemallsie ss. 2228.2. 4, 250 12.54 BAN VIOTIAC Ci peewee nae ek enh al ele oe ees 13.59 Ep py Walley. .<02 2.20... -- 4, 200 185 718)

; 'goT POON JO WOLJdooxo YIM "UISEE }VOIH Ul OI' .1¢ GE OPNINYVE YAU Uy UO 018 setl]] say} BAOGS gUOT C19 PUB UISVE VEIN UT OL SOUT] MOTO "LE .Ge qy.ou UI JO TIM 4s8v9 07 EA Be eeoauecrd er PoCtee Joye Maes N i

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

66'S UT AD ce: name eae ee as Oost) 889 ORO spawns ao ae oe JOATY WA0Tf) 29°8 QOS Gatien: sence eee Cy ier @ Ms) Ie) GZ ST OOZNC bes noes ee ees o1d1og 70'S 1G Let 7 ee erocnem Sian ee -- "491080 £89 OSSapie (ae eras OST') £2 'GI TZU Oa area ee ne ie ee ALL Paqikten COTO SC Yames cd emai ee cee a ByoIn CLE LL FOGG. ECA ears Ss Spe eaie ulysny 18h QOG Oe alo tee een 69 °f PRON oe oeeem eee UAOMSPB MA G9°8 EGP pie RR eam See oud yy y seine A oes ata LP 0% IS SREfS Spe saree [Ress cee oe eae Boog QT", OOS apr Aten eer, qouy G9°2z OZSEGy ares eter tae ee sae ooYONLT, Peeper tar els ape cs GOVT SAS lil 6? es eerie qeus yt 00°SF NOES SSA tie ery anes en yruring OES os ee NS OBEN Catrale ow etic ed100) IS lliogtg) vegeta: eta eet SOOBTOE. 86% (ie Tee ae pepseg TL OO TO ze ie 0 eee, eoord ees, CSO) ae cea ne sel uoxueg ong &4 'el OG Pik ab iene AoyeA Adder 19° Ooh anes Mojysivet &S'8T OOF Oe ace es OVVOUTVT Bp 'PS PETA Orie: ease aunts cra uny pro 08 'rT OOS SRar ie lia. ae aie rte TOUTS Vy 00°¢ TQ, |77 7777777 tteawyon 87 78 Pie ier WOUSe S28TVOW 10 "6p ICpuGes ee ene ee KeyjOO) sleuMes C8 7 Melecre 90°¢ CORE Terayinaee roo yy 96S LOS WEY eas Se <"**doustd 96 5g Che Gime Igo aera sane umaqny po°sT (aR eT SHB WwULey yy 82'S TOD io oul UOT SP °9S OLA Ce eS sp "sz ChZe See eee 8T"0% ORG Nie de [as ee aL ee puelysy 6 G L406 g edule puedo puy 1G 2% CAP Re. oll ertira auigat S[[ByL poosopy 049 61 eh eis vent ce et OLUNTUB.LOBS 0% °ZE OSB sera Rr sate semen ssed spyuBly) sayouy Jaa "SOYyour EEN h "Sayour 100 "SaYyouy "00. -Idyooid "aor ohare -1d1oo1d "u0r} -(dioord uoL -1d pa ' enuae -eaoror jenuue -eAopny pone enue ereia achters ee pee sot ers uve, Uvoy, Ueoyl Uso, oL€ OF oS TION "988 01 LE OPNINYSL GION "OF 01 68 OPNILYRT G10 Ny "oSh 01 oS OPNINRE YION

'apnjuyn) 07 burpsooon pobunisn "UIsDg 121) ay) WL SUOYDIS YD UOYoNdwosd ponUUD UDa_— JT ATAV J,

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 173

TABLE III.—Statistics of temperature.

OTe POM se eae eee ieee ees Pik Lan BA aa COE HTC er aU Ea 9 a BS te ea nk eg

1 Highest annual temperature of each station. 2 Lowest annual temperature of each station. 3 Baker City, Oreg.

4 Independence, Cal.

Range

Mean Mean Mean maxi-temper

-maxi- minimum ature. mum.! mum.2 to minimum

.

es Oe ORS oro ye 47.4 103.6 —18.2 121.8 47.2 105.8 —17.4 113.2 46.8 106.1 —22 128.1 63. 8 PAG 10 102.5

Mean relative humidity

.

SLi

TaBLE IV.—Proportional area of mountains, outwash slopes, sili, playa, and water in the Great Basin region.

Sierra- Wads- Amar- Owens ville, oe worth, asa gosa, Valley,} 1,344 ee 1,344 Ne 8,307 3,300 square amilee square Eaaleg square square miles ; miles. ; miles. miles. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. A UBT TV A ee Oe Ge ee ai 75.4 61.4 41.3 55.3 35 COBH DIST OY GI KG OY ESI ics er RS es cs as fr a ISH 24. 46 ASN eas A ce ae Ng A Ue ee PBT 18.2 32. 4 39:9 18. 14 TET Eyes seh ey ots ee ws OOS i Rte gy URS get aN A eek .6 4 5.1 i 5 ATEN HE ad eas toeee Oe Ronee Pal a as ae -8 Bee) 5.6 ANSE rent O Na etec meee

1 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, U. 8. Geol. Survey. TaBLE V.—Run-off of the basin region. . Mean an- Run-offer| Depth on River. Daas nualrunsquare drainage Peneth ou ; off. mile. area. : Western Utah: Sq. miles. Second-feet.| Second-feet.| Inches. Years. IWC DETSRIVeRE a ane fer oi sh ha cS ta NSS See a IW 0 [eras ees f5 aap Pr En 2 PROB RIVOT sty. see epee ee ee os ek OO 6, 000 1, 860 0. 308 4.19 9 UO pane RV CTR steps Senet ere Ake 218 339 1.56 21.18 6 SNAMISN MORK ack aN eee ques ieee 670 157 . 234 3.18 4 DE VACTIEIVCT ees sos ee eis ter cee 2 3, 990 208 . 052 . 70 5 ROMOSECT VOR arenes fs ee ae Re 640 433 . 676 9.16 6 Nevada: Carsonbssesety oe asec nsisec eels see 988 454 . 461 6. 25 6 MTC Kec Capes eae eas eee ole 1,520 1, 030 .677 9.18 6 IETS GRELODKGVVOIKCR a2 nese eases 1,100 213 - 193 2. 63 3 HumboldtatOreanan so) s.s52 022 0-k ce 13, 800 261 019 ah 7 Humboldt at Palisade 5,010 448 . 089 1, 23 4 California: — OWEN SHECIVCR eee ee eye on kane Sw oo la cee One eee oN Vip ts Ste eS al LER Ras ded eR ISL. Mojave River at Victorville 400 78.1 . 195 2. 65 5 Susan River at Susanville. 256 151.9 ROGUE Heese cosas 2

1 Water-Supply Papers, Great Basin region.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

TaBLE VI.—Run-off of the basin region.

TRUCKEE. Tahoe Ce square} State line (955 Vista (1,519 Derby (1,740 Pyramid (2,130 miles). square miles). square miles). square miles). square miles). Year. Run- Run-off Run- Run-off Run- Run-off Run- Run-off Run- Run-off off. permile.| off. permile.; off. permile.| off. permile.| off. permile. Sec.ft.| Sec.-ft. Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. Sec.-fi.| Sec.-ft. 1903 ee 205 0. 40 753 0. 79 786 OD 2S ese er eee 859 0. 40- 1906 a 589 1.14] 1,420 1.48 1,610 W306: ccs Sad eistos coal ocean ee See eC ee Sbddlladdoanleds sdososclloouasesellbsocosocecidcosccodisdbostuads (3y-0 hal Peer eee ees are tS a ee 1900s eee 488 -92} 1,530 1.60: oosseeee eecemeeaas 1,550 ON 802 eos Sevan meee reeset HUMBOLDT. Elko (1,150 square Golconda (10,800 Oreana (13,800 miles). square miles). square miles). Year. ara Run-oft Run-oft Run-off Run-off. jer mile. Runoff. per mile. Run-off. per mile. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. TOGO aS cs oes aR ie nat oe ee Pea Se a le ome ciaric 171 0.0158 121 0. 009 ICR Sse eS Se eS ee eee eee 210 0. 183 373 . 034 303 . 022 TOOT ee elie tre ee ne ane SaeE ee DASE Re mere 998" eens (20°). cas TG 0) SR i ng A ia aces LOSS Seems 2295S see aces 11643: Saati TSO ES Si oP a He (an tg ie ce a ew et ngs ie ed re ol 235 . 03 287 .021 WALKER. Coleville (306 Yerington (1,100 Wabuska (2,420 square miles). square miles). square miles). Year. Run-oft Run-ofi Run-off Run-off. per mile. Run-off. per mile. Run-off. per mile. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. TITRE y near le Pe ae mee Wet MID AI PSC poe ad eae 170 0. 0704 GO GR eriereere rite ee eI e me see hike ree eeere 582 1.90 322 On 293 os Soke aie sane IOS Ses ot Rete ee Ne ae ERTS SAO rcp s ayr FSSC Ss S 390: Soseenss 4 Peele cterescerts CARSON. W oodfords (70 Empire (988 square square miles). miles). Hazen. Year. Run-off Run-off Run-off Run-off. per mile. RU2-Of-per mile. RUD: per mile. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. NOOB See Ace eS OER ean re ete err aed eter ieee Sateen Hr Pree 8) 429 OF43 oo. sss See reer USD oes 2ks ey eee arn se a aa i pedo eas el Nee: 231 Sa00) 798 S800 wl icons Stoel eee ets INTO se 5 OEE, wpe ee Se ae Ip ee yl a. hell Dae ce tate IR Re acct - DD Ye Sete al eee on eee ee LUST es ea es lt aaa aii NIN ne rs Co eg a OR Sree oo gl Pea a es Fane UE ey 678 . 686 645" sotto cies TaBLeE VII.—Run-off in the Oregon Lake region. Area of Flow per watershed. Mean flow. care mile. Sq. miles. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. RI OUI Ke tee a Sich Menger ye ek ye nts ely Loa ae Re Noe 865 364 0.37 Harioy balke,Silver Creek (Riley) 2.5 25) gsc 0 00 TE ee eee ee TERE ell Weer ak ele Sifvomitak ode asin Go 0c0 i, ce hem pie te om ce 221 55.2 J25 1M) pd DED) 91 3: Cy a ee cag oe RU i A Ree een enact BCT INH ae EE co os: 189 . 694

1 Water-Supply Paper No. 212, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

Taste VIII.—List of lakes, with elevations and drainage area of the basins.

eee Basin Lake Ratio basin . Lake. a end eaieieed Elevation. Depth.

Sq. miles. Sq. miles. Feet. Great Salt Lake (including Utah and 52, 000 2, 498 20.8 4,200 49 feet ay- Sevier Lake). erage. Brak fe cresminc cee cee eee sere ciccsee ts TION Seen eee ee co ee 1 1, 200 105 11.4 5, 950 RIA CIe a eae Ss Sn eee eas lane eRe Se May PATI Olepeyere ee ele nae See Seas 3,880 361 deep- 12,975 310 9.6 est. WAT THNCCA Stet tos sense te ome Se cee 3,875 87 deepest. PENI Ol ESS ae ee ere eae 3, 929 North Carsoneae. ca S25. Saeko a See ee ts 127, 575 195 141.4 3,900 Variable. Southi Carson en ssese onc ee becca se sae 3,916 4 feet, very shallow. Walle isa saerts cece era en eee OC cree t 3, 850 118 32.6 4,083 118 feet average. MTiO seas teehee eee Tem ee emg: 770 85.5 9.0 6,426 61.5 average. PUAN OC wiaisten aie ee Sel eae sae ale ae ee ee 519 111 4.6 6, 225 1,635 deepest. myers Sina Yalatsyateleh aieaninara ee eersce eee ae 2 3,300 100 33 3,569 40 average. OUECVesmiacinisicac cael eee et eso k see oes : : Ti eee amen: 1 2, 660 111.6 93 3,949 18 inches. BINT ed cee ae Ses ee Ree see ee Sie De eaters ae 700 125.6 Bas 4,088 10 feet. PV ONG yee ae csiasn ces aes oeaee scenes 13, 200 ' AQ 653 4, 200 BU OT. os eee oh rah eau WS RS ae tert 500 15 Sane 4,340 |+}Very shal- VEN oe) eee ae ee apy WOR S Bee Ue 2 2, 000 81 24.6 4,600 low. INSSTARSS Ss, Gye aaa Ae RN Sear See 900 60 15 4,400 |)None_ ex- SUMAN OR ay yaa ee Seis en a eT 550 60 9.1 4,300 ceed 25 SOCSB 55 Aes AOA Se ee ES RO 1, 065 190 5.6 4,800 feet. SUG PRISE RVG eye arse iene ene enn t 2,350 137 Aro 4,640 Square miles. ROCA KC HST AC Osea ee Se ee eee ele ere re I te IOP RE eet es ea 4,196 BUBMSTT ON CENT OND asc ss es a ee a yg eee ne oN eR SE ee (es 210, 000 DRS LOY, SS ees SM ee eS SES SN es ne er OS me Sag para 50 to 1 1 Free's table of basin areas. 2 Water Supply ae No. 294, U.S. Geol. Survey. TaBLeE 1X.—Distribution of different rocks in Great Basin region.

Map V, Clarence ae a ee parallel (17,612 Truckee folio (910 square miles). Square ers! Square IEG @uarnize 2) eee Granodiorite...) 180 Granodiorite Porphyry... .-- js129 Alluvial and iPDiabaschesssces andrhyolite..| 22 Granites]. sediment... .. 67.0 Porphyrite Basalt DAIOTILO 2255554 iB asalitpes eee INDISUGYS 2a Siaeee 18 Andesite be 2 WIGDASCEac!.. See 103.9 Andesite 14025) PR onpiiyiyes- - oe Diabases.- VEDIC este IDIOLItCL as Gabbroy se 6 Metamorphic... 6.15 Trachyte . Rhyolite 18.8 Rhyolites=22-e- 20 Sediment... .-- 14.3 ATIC CSIC So ee 336.6 Granite :.- AN GeSIfe ays il) VNU caeacsee e245 Prophylite iBaSalizeeee sae 54 WOUUC 2 oe Soe 1,810.0 Slatenea ches o52 asalise sc: 222s. 2,005.8 Cherie ee 4 Carboniferous Quarizites:=- and Archean 561.0 Metamorphic... ERPIASSIC= So -2 --ce..,- juratriasee=- 4s. 52 Tertiary, Hum- Shist slate pboldt and Neocene lake pinuckee= e . bedseee ea 5 Quaternary and Pleistocene. 125 iRiecenit .<2 Waterss. ee: 114

Maps IV and V, King (35,200 square miles) Per cent. ( CPA aN 2G ee CaS ak as Tk Ce ea oe ee ares ere a et nee Rell OR IOS RaW ee (aes eaee mee lls 10 HUlOlrberan dstrac iy LOE aeons ia sine te win wis ee SSIS & Sine EO CSE SEATS ER Se EE nee coe ene 23 TBSBESE US SNE LONER CEN es Se ce Sa re a a ee i emp a DRIED) 9 oer apie or 14 ZUR ATEN a6 NTS ON ed as ee oem est cee eet ere Gg Ue ee ide ee ar ars 2 er 53 Southwestern Nevada and eastern California (8,685 square miles): ENTRUST SS 55 PSR PS I cee Se Ra Un os ae Mm Pa RN RP Net oe EEE gt sree? 54.9 TEATPDESH ODS oe PE IS IO at ou OR RAE NES A Sicipet eo See UN wpe RU he eee ate eer Psi PAMAG OSI ESHATIC MIDAS EGS ors eee eal oe ete neta tay ermine ey Paste Gane ay orc wel FIR Pe eo eeu Sala el AOL 11.5 Dino Le strum eer LOS rameter a ei Mele me pn te eC MENACE Myc no UNS aay eAlerts oe OR ee 21.5

Constituent.

ee i is

TaBLE X.—Composition of rocks of basin region.}

3. 23 3.30 4.17 2.93 SbY . 63 B7Al 1. 42

eee oe -07 ease tae - 08 Sean eS - 56 Free eee ies SEN . 03

Dacite

Per ct.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

: Dia- Sand- Lime-

Diorite Basalt % Shales (av. of base (av. of stone stone (av. of 85 (ey of 110 Or of or of 16 analy-analy Te analy-

Per ct.' Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. Per ct. 58. 84 52. 04 51. 29 70. 55 8. 82 54. 32 16. 06 15. 89 15. 65 5. 80 89 14. 54 1.97 2.48 3.10 1.06 i Pe 28: 3.79 6. 84 5.98 P7353 1.01 2. 81 3.93 5. 95 8.37 1.16- 3.58 3.18 6. 27 8. 43 8. 78 5. 33 44.35 4.47 3.62 3. 20 2. 81 1.82 51 1.65 De i .98 1. 26 1.32 E 2.11 945) .47 .74 1.74 WSO 2A ere ee ee .67 1.06 1.01 ttl Merete eae oe . 62 -O1 . 00 SOL: cae ae ee are B22 . 23 ot mili oe cdl ff - 08 .16 SFO seal fe atte tl lar alna piss . 08

. 03 .01 ADA aes tli eae Rp hehe fa. 08 .09 By 8 lee ee 1.14 ney GE Scie ee 20S eee ARS too 8 eee 037 eee 5057 |cyo ass eee pisces aL Mehr eee 5 ee -49| 6.74 38.401 7.93 Le a a aoe 1722225; ee 134

1 Compiled from: Vol. I, Fortieth Parallel Survey, Bul. No. 419, U. S. Geol. Survey; Monographs I and

XI, U.S. Geol. Survey; Bul. No. 491, Data of Geol. Chemistry,

U.S. Geol. Survey.

fer

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

Be utsrasis / Qorgt BT "EZe #P'SS 18°06 18°81 Maoh Sppaa a ieee ee ee ee cede t ROR GO Oe 2h ee Beak aerate etree oak ter tceee CGEC7 al iaapemne as aaa fe teoeiina| el saw BOSNGL He eae pall Ee ae ae ae ea ec aan eee Porie ebpe lt ee o 0°9 8 °0G QT AL 9°LT See eee ae gee 0G°6r 68°22— 20°2 OL'S9T L0°9T SU Ope Golan osc OR oc Cet ane mae 00°Z0T 69°00T G8°CT 19 °6T 02 °6S Boca Goal ese UDetc [BINS aoc teal leak ere OG 21S LE°SES LOET SOKO 28°22 Betas Corse etchant mi) cir spriear nceinicin ince PE GOT 99°69 c6°92 TH'T8e 28°01 2 PODS GTS RES Sea egy lies pe tetas 0°69L ; 29°98 90°C L6°E 80°9 3 PSOE Oe (ated ace sas aan 00"'sg 92°99 06°8F 82°F 69°8 vesteeee OCROGTE as abel ROOMS GLA Olan eile sLmOL se OV. wee cecee OGRGO Ys aes ea les ee OPI lee saceGria |tCo Tie leeUaneeuulleace © wees GOMIRIN |itico ses aaa erase tes OC TGs SObscOCtn WLaGm. ROGrge eine QOL Prete ke ces "OATSSOOX HT) OTT OS '6IT 69 TL VOU G2 |Site ves |LOG ee ee i eae kt ee eee ke 00°9g 96°68 'T TO'PT PL°9OT'T) €&°6IT So eee 1Z0° BINT, 00°09 GL°L2E G8 OL €° LP Olt ee e0)" ¥Z0" 0°0% IL 82% GT OL G SPT 0 "86 Sialic terse ate ct=tt ¢)<=\oredctate state ooo in.n O°rG O8'ezg SESE OL°T6 bE? Yas at ] gegp eg-toe TO'Te 0¢°26 8g Senet eee 71: ret OLL St°688 Go'bF ze's29'2| Be TST 'T : Rares en Rag scarica erereen O'e 09 '°LE 86 OL 60 °€T GE 9 Se Seer sell gene wgteae 4°91 ¥'8oL 60LT meee 10° 9ET° (Oo YEA ol) G6 8°Shr 80°T ae ee ZrO" 9c0° 0°9 OF°LT "AL 09679 96°¢ oe ae eee 020° 700° 0°6% 8L°0S 9°LT SO°TTS Oils Sa ee ieee 940°0 POLO OTS 6hFIT 8°21 9'eTS 29°

se [eee eee -- [ee cee eee ee ee eee o6r O°8S8'T 8°AT 166 LTT

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gee "LL v3S 06 IIT

89) LZ Z PP €L68P GZ'c6 OS's 0S '2S 06 'ZSh ce-e6g 09°8 6° PS 69 °809 'T GZ°S9 S2°8 T'L8 08 'FLO 'T #G°S 0-9 0°67 LT 801 'T

61g ID 0°96 20 °6F8

1ST -o.S OL "89 OF 029 'Z

PGs 8° 2°29 OF LEL'S

0°9¢ Vs Z°0L C9 Esi &#x27;Z

Z'Se 8'F T'8¢ 9g¢°e99 'Z

0&#x27;L &quot;Ll T&#x27;L9 $S°Z9L

GaLese Ok our 9"ee 16 '122 '8

0°S¢ G's 9'FE LOS LPS

P'OPL FP rpg 98°28

vrs 8°01 Zc 01 °3F9

Z'GE8 8°89Z 0'Zr 06°68'

TOC aneerce L°FOT 609 6&8 'T

o'8F 6°S €'OZL 989°880 'T

T°€8z O'F P'8e 84L°000'T

e'Te CHG Z'18 PSS "her

0°89 19 BLOT 496 "O18 8°09 1 '9T a) Z'GGP 'PF EOuTV "g : , pros e UB 201 O89 ike OIS yeiog,

[orousutd "9 Aq soshtemy *000'000'T 10d sae]

'suajom burids pun yan fo sashjnuy— BIAVL

cate rach aan sr roper tt tyr 7 euLOT] MB AT Dah ee tpi Po ee ee OPK eee U RIOD RGR a eae Ge SSTTOAA ue ee cna ROWORT eta " Suridg |-aoljoung Been see eres SE Oe oa oe SS SOO So: (GL Soe aoe op cc cl" AOTTVA OUlpope Ree Se Beeson che ea NT OUANCS sees ameenee OXI Beis --Ajddns umoy °°" "opty Mey Lee Saat ag he, Ca ee TAA OTe oa eee Ses SeAUIICOKSp SOG 2 SOLO 4S syredg *1OVCM Tes yoowy ov M ig kO Deis "-""J9UVM Yooy [eysAIg cia O hae

WO]] e[{w Gz'o sulidg -- °° Op *Atddns IOIVM STTOM TeIshIg "OPIUM Seca eRe E IOVCM [JOM °° WOTTR uy. une ee Se STTON eee oe eee OUO NT re See HS OD ges seas wee op Sie ony "Ajddus 1oyeaa 0 Dias eo eee hoarse 0) sing ae a eens centige a 0)| Ooms Ge Sipe tapers ""10}@M [TOM PLPYPTOD ae ae "Ajddns JoywM - -yedouoL, Fiene ne eactan "]JoM UBIsoJIW ° 7°77 Oue A i RATE oY oval Ae "--syuvdg Reng eee SOOO HIG) Tog ail Ses SoS SAO TET Se gute ne arene sulidg ouyAved JUNO, Bee Dog hia te PT TONANG ener g iabae EL OLLB ONT Rae ea aw tte suyidg °° °°" ""W04suyIe X VR TRS eerie hy TOM "UPeyUNOY 07198 *SYIVUIO YY *AqITV90'T

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"G81 "~"086T ""PLer "*$LOL "GOST "6961 "8961

"Pol :9.10UISU

'ON Qo0ue10jo

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

TaBLe XII.—Analyses of waters from Amargosa Valley.

[Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

No. of

sample. code Ca Mg. IK Na. Cl. SO.. CO3. HCO3 OR See 105.6 6.9 6.0 5.8 10.4 8.5 27.9 1e% 22.0 23S ae eee es 1, 692. 2 Tr. aU 44.8 534.4. 285.0 544.3 96. 0 155. 6 Pat Se eae 101.6 6.7 3.0 4.3 18.3 17.0 30.7 et 20.7 290R cose 49.8 10.2 10.8 12.8 132.1 101.3 160.8 4.8 65.9 29623 etis.s 93. 2 Gye 323 3.9 17.0 8.5 30.0 2.4 25.6

237. Water Willow Creek at railroad bridge south of Morrison's.

238. Water Amargosa River, same locality.

284. Shoshone, Cal. Water from warm spring.

295. Well at Fairbank's house, Shoshone.

296. Water spring in railroad cut south of Tecopa, Cal.

TaBLeE XIII.—Analyses of water from Furnace Creek and Death Valley. [Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

SU eS eaeeree 64.8 2.4 1.4 1.0 14.5 14.2 10. 2.4 14.6 SZ ease 490.4 71.4 37.0 5.6 795.6 173.0 147. Er 17.8 Cee SO ee ee 65. 2 4.8 3.0 10 tet 19.2 4. 'Tr: 20.0 Ag ee PA L6G 3.6 323 9.0 321.1 646.0 29. Er, 19.5

305. Slough at first crossing, road from Furnace Creek to Bennett's Well. Water from surface.

307. Water from hole 18 inches deep 1 mile north of sink (saline pond northeast of Bennett's Well).

325. Water from main water hole at Bennett's Well. :

348. Water from Texas Spring, Furnace Creek Ranch.

349. Water from well in Furnace Creek Canyon, 13.5 miles east of Furnace Creek Ranch.

Note.—A trace of borax is found in all samples.

TaBLeE XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in soils.

Percentage of total soluble salts.

Totai Location and No. of solusample. ble salts. Ca. Mg. Na. Fallon, Nev., alkali soil: 1 |Per ct. Crust Nonos= ae 4.10 0.88 Tr. 30.66 First foot, No. 10 3.57 miUtsri abe Gale 2X0) Second foot, No. 11...}| 3.33 OGg seb rea aOscor Third foot, No. 12 1.70 Er) ee 29476 Fourth foot, No. 13...| .93 ibis of brent ATS: Fifth foot, No.14 leat Apes Bes PR IAVCTACE= a soe a 2. 40 pois) MES. ASE SIE Mallon soils. se se 41.34 .76 0.04 32.36 ab 1S peal Rees oe aca eat 32. 43 dba Roast Mee ete .18 31.83 dae. y Bree Fara eae ie pene, 32.04 1.81 52 Y Ga) bee are 31. 42 1.54 SO aes eae ap ee Pees a Reman Se BOL oe be On cai) ers cape 27.74 1 ACG 0) cp le Reg Se 28. 28 ree eee 31.30 Seis yg ee Sa ee 33.70 I oF: FeCl fe aco 30. 73 fede Giang hiss aioe eee 29.85 LAL SG5) apie coe ste eeee ONS pu WE =t0 ak) eee .66 30.87 A oe al el 29.84 SO Moleeern Ss sales Fee! IO DARA

1 Records of Bureau of Soils.

K. SO... Cl. |HCOs.| COs. 1.62 49.72 10.64 6.09 35 162+] 51.44) S82 07% teres Gu ese 6.22) 38.85) 9) G1 1832401 eee 3.20 45.97| 8.58 11.88 293 .30 56.23 9.53 . 76 02 1.27 42.82 12.76 10.22 50 1.13 44.07 10.27 11.96 56 1.07 48.55] 8.05 9.55 74 1298) eh4er734|- BOs ao" eas One ee 5050-53. 200° 28250 3k9R 1 ae eed 7.54 37.26 13.56 10.45 .97 2.12 15.38 6.63 39.7 4.78 3.58, |.32.08 8.792. 71a| eoabe 1.50 50.20| 8.85 7.53 39 2.43 38.95 5.99! 20.68! 1.71

NOs3.

Po

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

TaBLE XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in soils—Continued. ] eee oe Percentage of total soluble salts. Location and No. 0 solu-alton

soil. .2..2...222: Sak eo sores 31.92 1.18 52.59 10:30 3.48 ) eee Tr. Average {G23 oe 2:1 468; tot 2-60: S827 1OsBS 1S, soe ool) eee inh Pay [aeSGe MaO7 .321( 32 12 Se Het 7 AO aie rie). 6.44 1S oes ae INGA 7262 2ee Stee. 65 -592)| 92 1-27569:|- 6.46 1-44-16:|"9946420-32-1.--7.07 bose. [ease INO SERIO SS seen 2.7 PPI eet S40 41 9262) Ot erage ooeAy et Sia ee et oeat ver alley, Utah:! Utah: BN Os ES 70G" S22 55 SS EBS Nee 6U3 (4567 17.784 7584 6.701) 41-10) 17, eso lee gee Elsmore, Utah, 1 Redfield é ge Salt Lake City,! soil fel gt yr el eed kt PS RY ed (ee ay pe Ry reer (al me (0 ee ie aad ares Silver Lake, Oreg.,1 No. Harney County, Oreg.,? soils: SET ens eee .566 5.05 1.30 25.44 10.67 21.2 17.6 [Sab OS eee [SiG eee ee QAO sa SOF [tee [ae ee fie: Se $4.0 aos a oly hor ona te aero eee pia tenteee foe Sco [Sexy Se heme eee fee a 50.00 13.1 19.75] 8.44] 8.03 [iste 22 Os See ee a eer Ge eee Be See 2 partes 423 (ASE bel 16. 72 ee fae ae 4-5 ae side ame ReeOasa|= 8. 207 esos ceo DIS. lt ted4 [etOss ai 2253 Rae Ge fiieabsee asehce2 c=. eX RG4e| Reser see Pees 32360 5-55 Oye elzere 9: 23) se geet Aetiies north of Lawen:2 - H=Meous sa ao pe DOP 7eAD oe eae FSF A VOY Cae A Wane Ss lad GP oye a egg Seep fiers 1 3021s 0 ee area E2196 119-6. 3-97 [2.2 2 RT NP MABE eB [Th WE ey feet RO ips Lees O25 Tee iee a es 1i4-|96.3- 14.38 [2202-4 OSr6h lh SSS7T SG ese 5 eno ele iets ee Re ea Pesto Tae SeO0 tienen 26-6 Brno! 6225 [20,6 1B oe ee a eer sesee 20 2S +194 8.24 Phe 3 Pome nog4: (olive dos o0r3 ae 1s {4.So Lake County, Oreg.,soils: 1. Thousand Spring I ; ik ae ae Opes etal Shaan Sex Ih BSaSTs Erp at. 35.62 16.21 |.14.26| 1.00 jeoeoes 5 as Se Es Eg i eae Bac O0s emer ane S930) LOST 26s 75: ee eae Peeee TESTE BN [oe Ue ee a eee ee {nas zen SE TOMER A ABTS THAOS EERO aan [Eee esas 4, eee zee His eet A Se oak J 32.49 78a} C712 WOaBk aa ee Reeaeee (Noomes 5. North end of sink got ater Creek nee feceee. 31.82 26.29 10.08 90.97 8 eee cae 1 e south of Fos- . 3 mile east 0 post office EG Se es (SARs ieee) pene QE G1 pate 20s eee ets C2721 aaa he ee ee fee 8. Center of north al- 9. Western arm of aleo S556 Ore eee 20.17 24. 20

1 Records of Bureau of Soils. 2 Water-Supply Paper No. 231, p. 53.

3 Water-Supply Paper No. 220, p. 72.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

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Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

Sl

TaBLe XVI. Quantity of saline material carried annually by certain rivers of the Great

Basin. . Constituent. Owens.! Owens.2, Humboldt.; Truckee. Walker. Bear pier ' Fons. eee fons: Tons. Tons. Tons SiO oS S6ccnde Gane eeao Seen , 460 12,9 818 S BEY laos SSeR OSE ENR ee), 47.3 Gites Be salle oe ee pala ee 'CAG SSE nas eae OB eBeeasemeeecre 3,547 9, 348 13, 246 17, 053 4,890 127, 391 Mice Fee ea et cetece 1,017 3, 618 e 3,343 5,379 818 59, 938 TID AGS SS 2 Sa ee ae 9, 460 20, 807 15, 355 26, 797 6, 822 258, 634 HC O seis ese Stee eee eens 26, 253 63, 628 36, 781 51, 767 11,544 343, 833 S OMe nomen cee se tes foo e aes 7,095 16, 284 12,911 19, 895 6, 087 102, 647 INO pe sees cbs ec eeoaciace 284 D2 Vie oreo ae Bees aes ee rec ee ae eee rt a CERES reece Sek Soca 4,020 9,951 2, 032 11,774 2, 833 407,473

MoO bal SOLS Hays aac cence cede 44,701 102, 228 92, 851 155,335 37, 783 1, 259, 235 Discharged into Owens Owens Humboldt Pyramid Walker Great Salt Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake. Lake. Total solids, parts per million. 189 339 361 153 180 687 Mean annual flow, second- HOCUS: fren nies Salo new scle Saiee 240 306 261 1,030 213 1,860 1 Owens River at Round Valley. 2 Owens River at Charlie's Butte. TaBLE XVII.— Yvreld of salines per square mile of watershed per year. Constituent. 'Truckee.!| Walker.! b oldt.2 Owens. ieee. levee Kern. Rey. peliGreck:

Pounds.) Pounds.| Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. leeds Pounds.| Pounds. Pounds. SO naan Shosasuaeee 29.524) 6 972 128 16, 200: 54, 822| 113,580; 301,970) 17, 368 244, 006 NGS Haaser peace sel 2 4 48 82! 947 1, 703; 2,516) 67 942 Cae Sone eae 22,443) 7,063) 1,919 11, 680) 49, 838 105, 475) 301, 970) 23, 532 160, 855 IM gia ce bale sae Siac| 7,080) 1,182 484 4, 560) 21, 431) 34) 887| 70, 461) 7, 284 72,108 EN Bemis eles esewies rolf 1,834 4, 2 70,750) 340,400, 22, 244) Kae ee ek sOeG iy S02 7301} 20 oon 35 ,482, 10,385 28, 688 2) '09l} 23,206 COs ate eee BT I9S G3 502 aero Seep ees eee oops eee ee ee ee 7, 210 MEIC O30 wae eins Sas oe fe cee elena ese 79, 400) 204, 340, 389, 436 1, 191, i30 91, 333) 887, 500 Oe ae Soares" 26,183) 8,591 1,871 20, 200) 59, 807) 105, 475; 352, 307, 29, 696; 166, 407 INO Re ates a clbeso ses le teeerel et sacs 3 G40 52 oaks Shee Mee tonite ee 4,659 eee eco e oe see 10, 497 24, 092 294° 12, 32, 393 44, 603) 152, 60 21; 852) 210, 781 Totalsolids.../ 203,992 54,304, 11,288 127, e 368, 800 681, 516 2, 130, 600. 179,850 1,442,166 pS pUMGed Ma btChe ecer eee oases le tae eee: 338, 906 1,549,640 2, 734, 560, (9 503| eee Area, square miles... 1,520; 1,100; 13,800} 1,600) 1,500} 1,220 2,345 318 128 sRainiall ascent as Bee aes Sees Meera 15in.+| 15in.+| 15 in.+| Less than Less than 15 in. 15 in. Mean annual flow, 1,030 213) 261 306) 3,793} 5,023 1, 996 90.4 45.35 second-feet. Second-feet per 0.677; 0.193) 0.019} 0.191 2.52 3.56 0. 83 0. 284! 0.355 square mile. Pounds per square 301.908 280,751) 593,748} 633,520) 146, 746) 191, 565, 954 633, 274) 4,062, 411 1 Bul. No. 491, Data of Geochemistry, p. 147. 2 Thid., p. 148.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture,

CPT Tet aE gent tee oN ig SO Ee ep OO EEO Ames ea oR ane ne Bee SOBCIOAY

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ne TESS

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 83

TABLE XIX.—Analyses of salt and water samples taken in Railroad Valley, Nev.

No.

Description.

17 Sa a ORT a i a hol 3 a an ON a eM pe ME Be 0 18 Water from ditch in Hot Creek Canyon, 0.5 mile below source, Wager

mNWatentromawelab sWarpsses san .c se ae esas os heed ahaa ieak erro ae

PO Wiaterironiah uliwnackerns pri gs tees is a eer ne Sli AE eee

eWiAhereirOrm rn aincSOning ab dOCKCSE sa soe co aeeye sens) A keene ohne asa ote nets oat

Ran cheimreye yore So sabS Se hee as a 6st Ui re mga eee ea Le LP CS Wialeniron sprimgyimiunauilesnake Camyome as. ae) aos eee nee Water from stream in Tybo Canyon at junction of canyon,0.75 mile above

Store) . Bieta Risers Gi eee Se SE Se he SO ne ae Water from draw about 3 miles east of Warm Springs, Hot Creek Valley SEF CURL REN REO Keone El OURS To hay pete aes hee ok Se eC a ce ae ee Water from south ditch at west end of Twin Springs Pass SAligiEGmet 2 SOL theo tetas Cs GG lee eer eee anes Pe Op feet ree ee Watertromanorth ditehssam en ocalityes 2 aa eee eee Seo SALE CRUSE IROMNOLEn SiGe. Of unIs: OtL Gls 2 she ee ee ee ee eee eee A Water from spring at house in Twin Springs Pass Water from stream at east end of Twin Springs Pass SalChuStAromsed Zero mEhiseS tN ase tenses are eae eee mp rerun Saree Wiatertnom:MormoncWiellixa=s Sass Sent ba baa a ern eee bet ea aie alent cee ee Sula Gersallitx RUS GMO Te sai eek Coen Ree Sess ee avert apne er my oye tS eee srnye eta Salt crust from seepage below terrace at Sharps' Ranch Wiater irom maineispring Snanps ivanchs ss ssp ee a te ao eh ene aes ice NALGRUSt Omiya Lan aly GHAS SPIN Sees ee ee eee eres ee Ne Re cn ae ee

Wiaterirom sWillowes Dine -s a5 ee eae es Sa aes ee ee De ei a ee rea te Standing waiter from outflow of Willow Spring onto flat.

Outiow-trom, Bullwhacker'Springs onto flate : .. 2. 2.2 sae cee ee see Salt from playa below Willow Springs,-1 mile northwest Ontsamesplaya +0!omalemorthiorNo sod ss aoe et a ee eee aa Edge of main flat below Bullwhacker Springs She hae hy ok aes eae Saltiromemannnast.(O-2banlenyest: Ole NO=06s see 8s aaa oe ees ose eee see sees Sait crust from outflow fiat of Willow Springs. Salt.crustirom surface nears aconis pringssa- 4 sac) ne oe eee eee oa Water from Cold Spring, 1 mile north of Horton's Ranch Saliicristiromusuniaee meat nists PRIM Oe seas ie pk este oe Dee eer Water from draw 2 miles out of Allred,on Duckwater Road Salt crust from soil surface in Duckwater Hills, 0.5 mile east of Duck-

Wie LCT ie ae PES So yates ares Baga SARs Ae See ee we De wale sie

SahBerusi iromySurimce meat b DIS GpLinGe.e- eee. oo aac nee ae ee eee eee Water from spring on spring deposit well, 6 miles south of Lockes Salicrusianominear: bis!s prin ey 2-8 be ee 2 i en ih es bas ee Same SQ Onyands;southeast ei eee le ee See eee Sait crust from Graw, log 38 miles out of Lockes on road to R. R. V. Co. camp, CaS ET LCHKO LUT S aire Wake aes RGR eens a seine AS Oe eS a Sa Same draw. Salt from ridge between ditches +--- NAMe Raw Mh ROME W OS b:GitCMce an. as aa eee San se ae ree oe sen ee Salt from surface in dune lands, log 55, out of Lockes to camp alien CalenOadal GAG Op etree eo bao Re Se ee eine eae en wee SAlign can OaG: sl Of GOS Sere ky ge re OO hte ee ae First pan crossed byroad. Salt just west of west edge, nearroad Same pan, just east of west edge, near road., 28 oe Same pan, salt from center 200 feet south of road SAMespaAUecen ven. 00MeCCEMOLUN OL TOAGe.= 5-2 ate eee seein as te nee oe ae ee PaAlmespan huSE-West-O1easijed Ses Mean NOAG as 22 ooo ee nysecraye cin coe eee eee Sam Capane USL CASmHOLeasi ed SeyneaT nOAGsa. ie seep e tes BO Sa Se ny eS Salfiromessmall draw atsloo 7.0, west Cd 2@se San gt nn calcioe sie we ae beaks ain CrUma we CAS ine GS Cle os Sata ey Aes EE eS soe Gale ie

is me year ie ep a ae Se eee NaMmeranawedseN Ooo ssl ala Crain Age MMe leer mes Sey apy ae te aera From large pan on drainage line, the west side of which is at log 7.3, west REPEWUSTMORUUORLORC se seen is ees See ee ky ee hey tees paisa Same pan, one-third across from west side north ofroad Same naires St MOLEMVOLTOaAdsaL CUILVELG as os ane eae eres ree ere ere Samespanece xtLOMlG:CashieG SO TOR (Ava as sees oe N Ee Nae Spe eras Sea West edge of a drainage line just at head of salt flat (to south), log 7.7, MOLLONO eFOAGE ee ae eee aoa tek va See awacisis smada aise Seis tete sedan Sees SETS, TCU ER, CE RONEN ola Oa een le ce na en oI rei aca WaHTG SU MCE CAS LO LIN Os Les arn ears rcs ec ee ages are em nee Ae Oe NamMewatCulVverta oO 1e6eh CAS OL NOD LOS asc ne aces eens Nae esioae cece eeous aioe Ones eASt:O LN Osnl OS comme eens oem ae Or ee Ree Se aceon eee Same, extreme eastern edge, 125 feet east of No. 109

Total salts per 100c.c.

Grams.

en eccceced

eccee se sca

eer cevccce

eee cccceca

ec cceecoce

eer cc ee see

eee eeocces

were eteecca

eee cere ecg

ere reece en

Soe Sso

eee e mec sce

BO clea ore rad] OO Cony Tica No) Ps as 2 NOS) OD DO IWNORO GO ie OS HES Pt OD 09 Ge Ad OR

Owrontwo Atoonm Win Wiwhwom

WLIW G99 00b9

Bulletin 61, U. 8. Department Of Agriculture.

TABLE XI X.—Analyses of salt and water samples taken in Railroad Valley, Nev.—Con.

Potash in Mn Total salts Description. 3 total per 100c.c. Sorel Grams. Per cent. First salty drainage line west of R. R. V. Co. camp, about 60 feet from west edge and: 20) feetimorthy ot moa die scenes neers ccielo aloe tlre eerste 59. 62 6.11 Same, main drainage line, 125 feet east of No. 111 and 125 feet north of road 59.16 5. 45 Same, extreme eastern edge, 100 feet east of No. 112 (75 feetnorth ofroad) 56. 48 6. 20 Small salt spot 420 feet east of No. 113 and 30 feet south ofroad 72. 22, 4, 23 Surface sait at northeast end of salt flat, north of spring deposit hills, 6 miles Soul ofocke/sseR amc lien yea Sea mia ee cece ise tay spate in ps eer pape cA Ion ee ne etapa ae 41, 24 1.53 Same about O-Zommule Southwest OlsNo. lows. eee ese ee eee eee reer 10. 56 6. 02 Sait from seepage on north side of southern of these hills 5. 36 6.16 SaltiromubelowiSpLrineyomyclonrs ast be ry tall ese ae eae ener rere ee 79. 56 12.10 Main flat near camp. Salt from 97 feet west of southwest corner of Locke's CG KNIT a Ee SPS Sen a rate Re RGA a oy NR a Oe eee 68. 74 1.90 Same, 375 feet west of southwest corner Locke' Sica ccs oes caesar tie eens 45. 42 2.94 Same, 725 feet west of southwest corner Locke'claim 56. 90 5. 04 Same, 775 feet west of southwest corner Locke's claim 76. 40 3. 68 Same, 850 feet west of southwest corner Locke'claim 62.08 6. 65 Same, 1,075 feet south ofsouthwest corner Locke'claim 55. 22 Ps 183 Water from old hole 40 feet east of point 1,250 feet south of southwest corner EOC GAS: CLA LIN IS ey cs ae ON Se ea tty Foe te hy a RN re RUS ego AP ARR Ne 20. 87 8. 54 Salt 1,350 feet south of southwest corner Locke's claim 83. 40 4.53 Salt 1,250 feet south of southwest corner Locke's claim 40. 42 2.06 Water from old hole 150 feet east of point 1,150 feet south of southwest corner Locke'claim. From upper (surface) stratum of brine 12. 63 6.14 Waiter tromiconmenstratumal Sartell Ole ace ssc tem eyaene eye te tae er arn melee aes 13. 04 6. 23 Salers trom*rowreet Mort lagthas Ole es ajay Sea eee ene ete ae ea et 68. 64 3.39 Salt from 2,225 feet south of southwest corner Locke's claim 14.18 1.81 Water from old hole 50 feet east-southeast of southwest corner Fox claim .97 1.16 Salt, 900 feet northwest of southwest corner Fox claim 47.18 1.30 Salt, isfoteet northwest of southwest commen Hoxg el cuir sapere ee ieee es Speen ese area Water from augerholeianlocationvofiNos 140 s2ss see sce eee eee eee er eee ae 15. 74 5. 94 Sali olomee HM OVGWSas GOL INO eA ete see rie sree pepe ta a 82. 46 2. 66 iS ASIA lca spe ine MR Nese cee ie pC IR NOC ES SRR UB) 2 ee ai oie 41.34 2. 83 SAIICLAS INO MLA ie Se ee lie Si eat Na IOS A oer OWE asl at A EL Cem (ae ee 72. 06 2. 26 Salt from east side of first drainage line east of R.R.V.Co. camp 58. 22 9. 26 Salta OOmeetmor tot Nig sla Se ao 22 al a ea ME ALG A pe eR vey a len ay 44,22 6. 58 Salt 150 feet north of southeast corner Locke's claim 29. 80 4.83 Water from old hole 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke's claim, upper S GRATUIT O LG © ib LAT © peg pepe sara a teh ae ene ey eel chats rene pet 11. 62 11.92 WW ararincoran lone Saccbian, Toby ln 5 ose ee i ee sssboaroboucuc 10.09 11. 78 Salt from 580 feet southwest of point 675 feet north of southeast corner do 0) Kar hv Pie ee eget 2 eS EA A CN a Ce eine ne le econ 69 10.17 Wiater trom hotel00:teet northwest ofsNos lois sac. ya eee eee rere 7. 86 11. 46 WieiteriromMel Donal at sip rime ce ois sae an prar oe Ue yas acre cganintls Sipura (O76 Re Seaee Water from new hole 450 feet southeast of pene 1,620 feet southwest from Me omal disyorim esse 8 i SS sae) Sa oe es age A 12. 58 5. 03 SEVFORO HS Ke ROHN Ori aly INO Je osadn codboucasanooeosseusdtousuobedcsoces 67. 92 3.79 Salt 879 feet toward McDonald spring from No. 158 48. 92 1. 48 Water from lower brine stratum from oid hole 200 feet northwest and 80 LE CLES OLDGHIWES ETO TINO ail Sia ee ee ey Sey ee ee 13. 99 5. 49 Water from old hole 390 feet northeast of No. 163 13.97 5. 82 Salltamomposiee G Castro ls Ni@ ill GB eee aes te rege ett ey eee airy eS 64. 62 3. 26 Sutin ricouaal 5) very OWA CHINO Wo A Sea rodoooucon cuoboosece Se seeds cededauensoe 76. 58 3. 42 \Wehiere tirowaa, UL ENG IRI Ja No COs Cainnlyo) Se uO b econ kecos oe sdaccouoeoudedsuoos OTs See eet Salt from northwest corner of main flat, 0.25 mile southeast of road at log 4miles outof R.R. V.Co.camp toward Locke's ranch 41.10 ee Winter iromieb la ckevoCike Telli os ieee ee tn nt eae ee . . 04 1. 53 Water from Hot Creek at bridge at Barndt's house L0% eeeees Wiewia lao, SomboeeNE IBEIMOOhE RS aaa See De ee ee eel ccd senacecouduceac HOSS Reece eee Water from Hot Creek above Hot Springs at Barndt's. From high ditch SOB esa. c aes Wiaiter fromywWiarm Sprites ae 22 2 ei ee ee ee nay eae Rape ne LW oe ce TOS¢ tee ae Water from a warm spring about 0. 5 mile northeast of Locke's ranch. SOar Beat ena Water from well at Horton's house, Blue Fagle 6- JOS dlisee soe Water from cold spring at Blue Eagle, 100 yards northwest Horton's house. -05:\||-s5occ—ue Water from warm spring here, 50 yards west of Horton's house {OAS SSS sae

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region.

TaBLE XX.—Analyses of saline crusts found in Railroad Valley.

{Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.]

Total No. Ca. Mg. K,. Na. SO.4. Cl. COs. HCOQs3. solids. WOR S a sents ener ee 12 6 322 1, 509 987 640 600 732 4, 808 CDs Cater at aes ae 10 4 5,248 24,549 7,800 30,800 2,640 5, 856 76, 379 OO Gir aie re hice I 10 4) 5,473 23,799 4,443 34,020 1,800 3, 782 73, 331 IOs beeesd see sesereee 10 3! 4,105 21,817 3,785 33, 040 600 1, 342 64, 702 Te sae ee eee 40 12 987 39, 475 555 6,650 None. 31 12, 605 STAM Cw eter ean ace cr annie weve sc alae aura ce [eka Pa Ye: A 9h WAM ed gs Uehara EP NaN ea cies al sey Cee TE oe be Te a be 12 6 5,826 25,475 7,734 38, 360 180 427 78, 020

76. Salt crust near spring 6 miles south of Locke's claim. 92. Center salt pan at road crossing. 96. East edge draw. 102. Salt pan. 154. Water from lower stratum; water hole southeast corner Locke's claim. 155. Salt from 580 feet southwest of point 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke's claim. TaBLE X XI.—Analyses of Death Valley brines. [Parts per 100,000.] No Ca Mg K Na Cl SO. CO3. HCO; otal e P ° ° ° e . ° RY Be solids.

Sample No. la taken from hole about 5.5 miles northeast from Eagle Borax Works.

feet deep, 2.5 feet long, and 2 feet wide.)

Sample No. 2a taken about 6 miles northeast from HKagle Borax Works.

long, 3 feet deep, out on smooth salt 1,000 feet from rough salt.)

Sample No. 3a taken 0.5 mile east from sample 2a. Sample No. 4a taken 0.5 mile east of sample No. 3a.

Sample No. 5a taken 1 mile north from sample No. 4a.

Sample No. 6a taken 0.5 mile west of sample 5a.

(Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.) (Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

(Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

(Size of hole 2 feet by 2 feet by 3 feet.)

(Size of hole 2 feet wide, 2 feet

Sample No. 7 taken 1 mile north of sample No. 3a on smooth salt in hole 10 feet deep, 3 feet wide, 4 feet

long.

Sample No. 8 taken from pothole 0.5 mile north of sample No.7. Depthof hole unknown, but very deep. Four feet in diameter. Only 1 sample marked No. 8. Sample No. 8 taken on rim of rough salt.

Sample No. 9 taken 1 mile north from pothole No. 8 on rough salt. Depth of hole unknown.

Samples taken by J. H. Jones. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.

Bulletin 61, U. S. Department Of Agriculture.

TABLE XXII.—Analyses of waters and brines.

{Samples collected by E. E. Free. Analyses by A. R. Merz.]

Total K2O in No. Description. solidsper| total 100 c.c. solids. Per cent. 306 Slough at first crossing, road from Furnace Creek to Bennetts Wells 36.51 3. 42 307 Water from hole 18 feet deep, 1 mile north of sink (saline pond northeast of Bennetts Wells) ack eee Be on oe aera ue eens eee oan Manet oral pera ee esis eto 20.36 1.08 326 Surface water from near road from Furnace Creek to Bennetts Wells, 10 miles d ATOM HUTM ACE CLES KE: OA see aes coe ee ee a are eas een ene Rea re 10. 42 1.50 3827 Waterfrom 10-foot dug hole on this road, 9.7 miles west of Furnace Creek 36. 81 3.01 331 Water from 4-foot dug hole at U. S. Geologicai Survey, B. M.72,on road from Ranch to; Bennetts Wrellsest 22-321 cen eee Wee ce o ee 33. 80 . 96 338 Water from hole in mud flat northwest of Furnace Creek 7,500 feet northwest from land monument at old borax works north of furnace Creek, hole 2 feet CLEC Pee NS BO OR CNA Ns poh Om MN eS 33. 28 3.08 339 West side of valley, due west from Furnace Creek Ranch, water from dug hoie thy CVE] RG YE) O eee casio eee aE Su ne SN RL Le Pad eI A See AP Saree eee 2.77 ete 341 Waterfrom dug hole 0.25 mile east of No. 339, 2.5feet deap 15.12 2.38 342 Water from dug hole 0.25 mile east of No. 341, depth 7feet. Onmiain flat 34.18 2.98 343 Water from surface pool at old bridge due west of Furnace Creek Ranch (Skidoo LI B29) ees se ene Ne LRP ea aL ee csa a eh SR yt Med Meee Le Shea ay 32.05 2.25 TaBLE XXIII.—Analyses of muds and clays. [Samples collected by E. E. Free. Analyses by A. R. Merz.] Total aan No. Description. soluble lubl solids. SUI solids. 316 Death Valley fiat, east side, 500 yards west of road, 5.4 miles south of Furnace Per cent. Per cent. @reekabvanch, surface Sal tess a. Oy alae ae A OE ah Mea need Sere eek eee 22.17 0.39 317 665 feet east of Bennetts Wells, salt from surface of slough bottom 10. 65 1.79 319 Clay from 3 feet under surface, 1 mile east of Bennetts Wells 12.16 Doe, 320 Clay from shallow hole 0.25 mile east of No. 319. 21.49 Ii 323 Water squeezed from clay obtained from hole in slough 1,800 feet east of Ben- TICES IW CLES Se eh rN a es BLO ARN gy SEE BRS Fee aR eer aeNte e 18.24 3.03 335 Sandy clay, bottom of hole east side of valley on road from Furnace Creek to ISON DETESEW: Chl sot ease Sa iE A Ae NEE BS PORN Sept oe Ve ENG Sea ys ee 25.54 2.09 TaBLE XXIV.—Analyses of alkaline Death Valley soils. {Parts per 100,000.] No Ca. M K Na SO Cl COs. HCO, Total 6 g. 5 6 4. Zs 3 solid DORs yore rao baie epee 343 44 193 38, 460 823 59,360 None 122 99, 312 Due Re PAG eee ten. 8 456 44 438 14,161 2, 402 21,000 None. 240 38, 678 LONER, ua a Rensy Nara te 3,200 380 3,316 14,364 13,390 19, 740 600 732 55, 239 DP Ree a naeatee eRe 257 35 290 37, 893 987 58,240 None. 122 97, 783 Ut iy TE ae eee 229 35 226 38, 608 527 59,600 None. 122 99, 415 Description: 20. Salt crust from Death Valley 3 to 6 inches thick, opposite Telescope Peak.

21. Clay underlying salt crust.

23. Pothole 5 feet in diameter, 10 feet deep.

Opposite Telescope Peak. 22. Heaved ground near periphery. Opposite Telescope Peak.

24. Hairlike salt from edge of hole.

Analyses by J. A. Cullen.

Salt from margin of pothole.

Samples by G. J. Young.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 87

TABLE XXV.—Analyses of various samples from Searles deep well.

Total. Water soluble. Insoluble. No. 1k Na. K, Na. ree Na. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

AUIS eh aA Sate 8 a Regs mp ee 3.48 4.72 0. 23 2.54 Su25 2.18 TELAT Ses RGIS Sas re Be caer Si Ree pear ate 4. 26 5.96 220 4,81 3.99 1.15 aaa sea LPAI ES Me bs Pare pe Sat i Ee cen a 1.14 29. 94 91 30. 34 23 0

PAN Sem Se ents ee SS ote enter uta Wa 2. 64 14.14 .44 11. 23 2. 20 2.91 TENG pe SRE oa ola ay ee eh ee Se eet ee nee - 46 16.91 . 09 8. 43 .37 8. 48 A eee tke ete eae GAs pt Poe eo ae anerere feels .78 24.05 . 26 11. 81 ele 12. 24 PAG ese RS EI gc ete a See Sattar t eal Nae 3.07 10. 21 42 7.66 2.65 2.55 FANT Es PEE RG SEES Cb emcee ON Le Ya erPen seed Sea 1.58 19.77 .09 T2RZT 1. 49 7.50 Dui rewpesy ct Seteesers ae Btn A nen am ap et a NS EN 3.79 7.31 55 5. 28 3. 20 2.03 ZEAE bs SPS BTR pea MN erect ne ae SAPs OS LA TERE Drs nel pe ae og Deve 9.95 .42 7.94 223K 2.01 PON ase Set ay se sc cre eg atc eV ap ge esa 2.30 9.13 . 43 7.48 1, 87 1.65 TBA AS NT SSNS AUN 7 eri Vag ch eat RA a 1255 6.13 . 06 . 64 1.49 5. 29 YS PAN one ape a) GA pap nce Ph el Bae aes oes 2.98 5.70 25 4, 64 273 1.10 DNS pa aS RE Is 2 CIES IBOLT a oN Aa tr RSE aS oie Ch 1252 6.51 . 28 5. 68 1. 24 . 83 Ry RG en hate eee ERLE) ersty eS eee 2. 28 5.31 . 20 2.34 2.08 2.97 TIAN Ss RS Sc BE RS is AR Gee rar 2.79 Tote .58 5. 70 PAPA 2.05 DAE soca ete A A ea ee SOD ea eae 7 .98 32.03 . 70 31.23 . 28 . 80 PASTE Gee ER Moe ae sey pare a ea ed gl ER eS 1. 44 10. 28 48 6. 40 .96 3.88 TERE Se Age ised irk ees RE Se aa aes MR .19 6.36 33 4.23 3. 86 Dale

209. Marked ''Deep well, Mar. 9, 1896. Soft clay overlying at hard streak 62.5 feet."

211. Marked '' Deep well, Mar. 9, 1896. Clay from bottom of well to date. 227 feet 10 inches. K-S."

212. Marked ''Crystal deposited by standing over night from water taken from well at 600 feet. Source of water we presume at 400 feet." :

213. Marked '' From deep well Sept. 2, 1895, at 409 feet. Depth of deposit 408 to 427 feet."

214. Marked ''Crystal at 427 to 442 feet. Drilling hard as rock."

215. Marked with bed of No.3. 442 to 469 feet.''

216. Marked '' Deep well No. 4. 469 to 500 feet."

217. Marked "'Green mud with No. 5. Strong ammonia smell from 506 feet. Dec. 31, 1895. Depth of deposit 500 to 515 feet."

218. Marked ''Depth of deposit No. 6. 515 to 520 feet."

220. Marked '' From 535 feet on Jan. 8, 1896. Depth of Deposit 530 to feet. No. 8." pee vated ''Rimmings from deep well, Borax Lake, at 540 feet. Showing formation in clear parallel

es.

222. Marked '' Washings from mud of deep well at 540 feet."

223. Marked "Jan. 13, 1895, from 575 feet.'

224. Marked ''Jan. 15, 1896, from 580 feet.''

225. Marked ''Rimmings between 586 and 5*6 feet

226. Marked '' Deep weil at 600 feet, Mar. 5, 1896."

227. Marked ''Crystals from water at 600 feet."

228. Marked '' Deep well at 620 feet, Mar. 9, 1896."

229. Marked '' Black and gray mud taken from deep well at 627 feet. Black turns gray on exposure."'

TaBLE XXVI.—Sodium-potassium ratios for samples from Searles deep well.

No Soluble Insoluble} Total No Soluble Insoluble} Total : Na/K. Na/K Na/K. ; Na/K. Na/K. Na/K. 7AUs eee 10.9 0. 67 1.32 221 17. 42 0. 88 3.97 4 ae 18.1 28 1.40 222 11.35 3.54 4,47 21. 33.2 -0 26.25 223 18. 60 40 1,91 PAB 8 25. 75 1, 32 5.36 224 20. 6 . 67 4,28 214. 98.0 23.0 36. 70 225 11. 85 1.43 2.33 7G ee 46.0 23.5 30.75 226 9. 73 93 2.78 2105-2: 18.5 96 3. 92 227 44.7 2.86 32,75 AY fee 147.0 5. 05 12.5 228 13.5 4.05 7.12 2S ee 8. 95 . 635 1.93 229 12.8 55 1.52 220 19.17 9 3.65

88 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XXVII.—Composition of alkali samples from deep bore in Searles marsh. Total No. Ca. vig. K. Na. Cl. SO4. COs3. HCOs. soluble e salts.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.| Fer cent. 7A moses 0. 094 0.020 0. 23 2.54 3.47 2.40 IME. 0.32 9.07 DINE oe soa ir .010 .27 4.81 27, 2.79 0.12 .36 13. 63 Didegen. se'5 sisi . 008 .91 30. 34 10.73 45.14 1.63 2.64 91. 40 DIQM aL A Tr . 084 44 11. 23 6.36 3.78 3.74 6. 59 32.21 DUAN es: 2 . 038 221 .09 8. 43 2.46 .37 5.34 8.15 25.09 DIG LVS uN .192 26 11.81 3. 96 1.08 6.10 12.10 35. 49 IGEN ns . 038 . 004 . 42 7. 66 7.15 5.31 1.16 2.32 23. 95 A/a . 043 . 006 .09 12.27 9.37 3.00 3.85 5.05 33. 67 DIGta ee: Tr. . 009 .59 5.28 5.27 3.39 a7 85 15.76 Dogue f 'Rr . 045 .42 7.94 7.57 3.94 1.09 1.76 22. 76 DOI a Gee: 'er . 020 . 43 7.48 3.57 1.84 3.61 4.76 21.71 iy Di apse Tr. . 004 .06 . 64 45 21 £15 34 1.97 DORE Ses . 108 .015 525 4.64 4.60 3.56 15 531 13. 64 DOAN FASE ir . 006 . 28 5. 68 5. 82 3. 48 27 52 16.06 Soe tes . 043 . 006 . 20 2.34 2.65 1.43 . 09 .12 6. 88 DIG St . 050 .010 58 5.70 6. 32 3.55 uN 40 16. 82 aaa or: . 008 . 70 31. 23 11.94 45.66 1.63 1.96 93. 12 DIRT RN? TN . 008 .48 6. 40 7.78 2.74 "15 .56 18.12 DIOE ee . 065 . 012 .33 4.23 4.55 2. 98 .06 525 12. 48

TaBLe XX VIII.—Composition of soluble salts in samples from deep bore in Searles marsh.

No. Ca. Ke, Ke Na. Cl. SOx. CO3. HCOs3. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. AU ON ae (ee es Dar 1.04 0. 21 We By 22.93 26. 38 20. 64 "hie. 3.48 SIA EGA Se reece ae Abies .07 1.95 34. 00 39. 76 22.49 0.89 2.61 DD ie ee IA a Aire .01 1.00 28.17 11.70 54.08 Bi 2.88 DiS ies Bra eee nC Abie . 26 1.35 32. 64 19.74 12. 76 TS 20. 41 OIA INE ah DSI ea eas 15 88 35 33.53 9. 80 1.47 21.24 32.45 OO UGS 2.1 a ie Sg a foe "Dore . 54 Se 33.20 11.17 3.14 17.19 34.13 DAG eet nan IEE ARES .16 -01 1.74 34. 03 29.91 24. 34 4.83 9.68 D1 pace ae line GD PG .13 .02 B25 35. 59 27. 84 9.78 11. 43 15.00 CI SNE Deas ee eae a hr: .06 5 31.38 33. 42 23.59 2.31 5. 40 OD (is RRS ih hia ent ke? Thr 1.97 1.79 33. 26 33. 24 25.91 4.67 (ei2 BEAN Vis Set Ee ee are 1-12 1.97 33. 60 16. 43 13.30 16.61 21.93 DD DRI ES Oa I ER AVite a5 2.85 31.63 22.93 11.78 7.74 22.91 PERE ele aig ae nee .72 pli 1.83 32. 55 33. 76 27.55 1.11 2.27 DD Aches epaet a Wc In) artes Abies . 04 Me 7a 33. 82 37.19 23.77 1.69 Ba25 DO pis ETN Wierd Sea orn . 62 . 09 2.87 32.17 38. 48 22.67 ieyl nies 22. GS ee etapa . 29 . 06 3. 44 31. 85 37.53 23.06 1.26 2a DORIA ONE Pe ISS ir: O01 . 74 28. 56 12.79 53.70 1.74 2.10 DoT ie ae ae abies . 04 2.62 33. 83 42.99 16. 61 .83 3.06 DPA Seis Hae ES See .52 - 09 2.66 32.00 36.98 26. 08 . 48 1.98 TaBLE XXIX.—Analyses of water and mud from Searles Lake well, Cal. [Samples collected by E. E. Free. Analyses made by A. R. Merz]. Totals stone Description of samples. soluble 2 os solids. soluble cs solids. Per cent. Per cent. SOG WPA WALT AWA OTAZO TAG GG OWN oe octet sear cee IE aye ne era hs Prey en Ste pet 42.8 6.08 Bole Es Dy TUG TNO) 40 Feebs 2. ie hl ae emmy ARO chy SEN oe i ee BP ee aL 36.88 1.41 Bitch, 19) GD, WAKO UAROMaA LOO ROIIOY, 400) KSEE Sen atin cede naceab sabonoadebeuoedaesoecosecondée 29.98 3. 04 SOO sah ARawalter OTN DO UbOMI /O8eG tae Serer n pemcerneepeer an te Spe e e e eee ea Se 25. 43 2.06 SOO SMA TL Ge [OTH O GLO Lae beeen tiered eh eee tem apereten eg een Nettie nar epee 35. 26 0.50 SOL Water inOMm 42s 1eebs arbeslan: sree kt seve einai Doaeen ie le 2 ee pee ee 29. 60 2.88 PPB yGy AOU KO Gag RONG WZ Pa re )N yey e) RAR pa fas meee Sm ee RL I Lk ee ee 19. 86 2,18 Ee SME N EMU: UROL ETO IML GO LOG bee leer igo ci ciesra oie ES ar oT rT Oe Fe eee 35.9 2.52 om BO ETI Gs MOM QBiTOS tees vs aye ha Sr ch Me rps oo ah Ep 54. 80 2.29 SH OMER MoV LOT THO rn : LOD! TOC tao recreate ee ay ca 25.4 a) BG, [By Tha rea Ko IDG 72) Pee aE ene tee oa ea Trade Mab. e eRe Cee Nae Le ee oe Oaoece 49.52 0. 46 ROW, 18) 2, Tol eal Gays Sato {Oe ooo Cob cesconneosonencsunoeesensuaseneecnue 60. 99 0.516 E 1. Southwest corner section 14, township 26 S., range 43 BE. E 2. Southwest corner section 11, township 26 S., range 43 E. E 3. Southwest corner section 10, township 26 S., range 438 E. E 4. Slightly north and east of middle of west line section 10, township 26 S., range 43 HE. E 5. Slightly north and west of middle of east line, section 17, township 25 S., range 43 E.

Potash Salts And Other Salines In The Great Basin Region. 89

TaBLE XX X.—Petrographic examination of samples from Searles deep well.

Description.

Similar to 221 and 213.

Fine-grained tourmaline, biotite, hornblende, plagioclase, and quartz grains recognized. Major part of material clay cemented by gaylussite.

Larger grains pirssonite. limonite. a few quartz grains.

A fine mud cemented by carbonates with a few fragments of quartz, hornblende, tourmaline, and iron oxide.

Crystals of pirssonite with inclusions of clay and iron oxide.

Mostly erystals of pirssonite, some halite, grains of quartz, clay, and iron oxides.

Pirssonite in broken crystals, limonite, kaolin, biotite, tourmaline, quartz. Fine-grained material average diameter, 0.5 mm.

Crystals of pirssonite. nodules of limonite, a few grains of quartz, hornblende, plagioclase.

Mostly clay and iron oxide cemented by carbonates; some grains of quartz, hornblende, biotite, and a few clouded and decomposed orthoclase crvstals noted.

Mostly clay cemented by pirssonite; mineral fragments of quartz, hornblende, tourmaline, bictite, apatite, and many fresh and clouded fragments of microcline, approximately about 25 per cent of the mineral fragments left after washing out clay and dissolving carbonates. This is the only sample in which feldspar crystals approaching freshness were noted.

A ine mud firmly cemented by carbonates with a few fragments of quartz, hornblende, and hydrated

lotite.

Oolitic sand; rounded grains composed of minute grains of quartz cemented in part by carbonates and iron oxide but retaining form after being acted on by acid. Not a true oolite as no concentric structure could be noted.

Fine-grained clay grains of quartz, hornblende, biotite, cemented by carbonates.

Similar to No. 223.

Beneeerained clay, cemented by carbonates, grains of tourmaline, quartz, hornblende, apatite, and

iotite. '

Similar to No. 223.

Grains about 1 millimeter in diameter, gaylussite, limonite, quartz.

Similar to No. 225.

Reel Fa es

este

Index.

Page Abert Lake, descriptive notes SS lala Sent cies aieibre o ciseaye Scere yale ayaa eee epee RENE 7, 8, 29, 33 Absorption: HVAC HOLS LIAL Ue Ta CUI Oy SULMNIN AMY pare seer oe ns ec cS lesaeoh ee F ee 24 iPhenomenaymeweathenim 17 OMC ss ssn soso se reie ec ara aos re eee a ee pe 21-24 Relationsto saline solutions. 222-55 -eosos5s see ee Ba Ge BS eS Me SCE ia eae Er 21-24 PNGB NTOR} CC tT CONF N FY) ws a SS UO Rn at ag Ni PONG ny le WS eT 35 Adulariazoccurrence. Nevada. potash percentage ss 25 oe ne nn ee ee eee ee ar 65 Alkali crusts, description, occurrence, origin, analyses, etc 33, 36, 43, 45, 60, 66-67, 82, 83, 85 Alkali Lakes, North, Middle, and South, notes SEPARA et UD RS een a 1,7, 19, 33, 64 PATAMES ALCS eT OVE IM CTU GeLIN, SOM Sees eo ee cee) a yy eres ro eon ae SMP gees SI Ve ytpul ed a ay tial ssa er Ran Say 26, 66 Alkali Valley. (See Sand Springs Flat.) Alluvial material as source of'salimes._ 2... 222222222. 52-222-22--2-2-5- A Fp Aes ip pane e peepee 18 Altitude, as factor controlling rainfall in Great Basin region 3, 10 LUTTE ED OSIES Se NCA HE AS LIE By ees eee coe, Vasc eem 2 hse ui Des bate Sacra ea ah Pete Rn a ye ena a can Sn 34-35 PRU LEKOCCURTET COMAG TCA ps ASIM eaten sane eae Ga ope 2 Tare a Oran Se a aaa ot edd Bye ct Fog peer 35-36, 65 Alvord Lake Basin, descriptive notes SSA R ED tay Sia at cS Sica sce Ran Nae ee A Re RNR ac ace A as poem 8, 39 AGHA ATLL OSAP AST CS CEU ELVC TRO LES mya canoe oie fot ea a eee a ee a 1,3, 4, 5, 24, 39, 78 ATM ARE OS APU Yel tC ES CEU UVTI OLES megars ere fece ee rae PI OI ei eee a mre ep elt oe 1,4, 8,9, 29, 32 Analyses: AU AIBC MLONCS COM COS yrs Lee re ae ee isle ore ney nee et ilies tas oe elk anche wae 33, 36, 66-67, 82, 83, 85 BS OG AXA CLE ONCSCOM CE aise ae ely ik atlas Wichaee eee ya hac a Sy eh iy tA ag el Liat et ae te ca aa 33 SB OVEMIOVERSY, TD MDa ey AVANT LE yas A a eae Deen tn a NCR aft ed eye Se a ee ca 54-56 IB OMIM PES SSCAnIeS AUAKe ee ie et ne eee aren Use i Sa aE kee Si inte Sheba Ey NaN Le alesse eR. OU 48, 49, 87, 89 Brimem Owensniakeme sia 5 secre aie) ce cer ceceare, Ss eee cc ee Sane aee ecg Begs Ss eae erecta a Ne 51 STAMOS SCATICS AKC een eS erty icy aya create ee os Ps etn a a es Laas ty pa SUES vba ike Raat Re 52, 53 BrIneSsDeavhnValleyeee mee lee ceo ee ne ns epee wes yal lh Wien PMO a Nae H Dhy en ent ae 45-47, 85-86 Brines, etc., Saline Valley, Cal DE See Te SET ee tre PE RAS AE Ta Non Een aE oe N Oe 43 TIMES MO Tve Tene a ee MATS aes Sh ecg escarole Lea pn col ape ee cel cpa SI Era So tn AS papa agin ra 41 Gay SUIMT SP OSULES GTOe trees AS LMM sy pee eee te he page eh ly eb lig cy ne Ope EE ees 65-66 LOTS pring water-GNeVadasssencsccse sees ose ences SR ee eee aa Sto 4 Seemed Se aE yok eNO, 18, 19,35 DESH CE) OFeG LOKEY OY OSS RSP UE SS IS ig CN ca rae pe re pete Me gt OS Erne a ae 18 Material from deep bore, Searles Marsh i RAS ay Rye Blk ae doe tater ose gL re 88 Matenalbiromulakesbedsmortheast, off Mam aie ssc seo os yale ie as eee ee A cP ol Sy ye Cnt oy 18 Materialuirom> SCanles) GEC Pawel ces spas a iece sists) coe eve Sea yar i ph Real calc ko pala OPaae ar vnel enemy Se Niatia cpee 87, 88, 89 MizdssamplesColumipusyMiarshs ING vies ss eye tse ere yee cae eel OE at ga 54 Murdisamplesssearlesmuakeswelleci ass tenes at Seno ee Velen We Ar ee Ree Oe yas Siegen een es 88 Mudspandecnists black rockubesert N@viesaeten -as-ol esate So on ee eg aes 60 Bo sheaWen tay allege Galea ner Mie cei een ick Rae tine) Seal pe eee 47 Salt, water, and saline crusts, Railroad Valley, Nev., tables + 83-85 Soils, humid and arid regions, comparison. ge sh Ss GT bc 2 a cave eleees Nee aoa eee ae 24-25 Solupleysalitsrimysoilseeee see tee ee ea A rn ee en BOI aes apa nhes Reh ogres Syne tin 78-79 NiatersteblackoRockeDesertaNeVvacesatn 2h ya at AULD Nepe ei iar ne enema eo Bel ace) opin ge eo eee wee 60 MV LEESON OMS PRIM OS tere seer ence eA Lol aes ae geen ee inn S tre coal pa: Uy aa gles 18-19, 35, 60 MWiatersmaketandiniver. COMmparisON sels fesse ne sae s/o oye oe em aes eee 27-30, 80 Wiaterssinderenound: andisuniace nice stay Ces ein bares pl pa cc ale fee cates ks Des see fel ae 24,77, 78 Analysis: ard panegsNe vad Aegean ee Gel gn Py IS aU NVR eye yew eR esa) cack ale apne yale 23 Dalktsamypsan dame od 6Se Mansi eee ee ange Nee wae oe alae 2 BP Ra a a eels Lan ee 43 ATG reston: soliblesaltsin soils, movement, Cte... 2.22.5. 522-6. oe. noes ce ne scenes ccees ee eee eee 25-27 Arid regions, soils, analyses, comparison with soils of humid regions + 24-25 Aridity, high, area in Great Basin ayia Sa cp icy YA NCA nea Uae Ue PMTLCSIAMBORCAS 4 Gta tas ASINURee ION es eas ae ee Soe a ee Leen a Sin cai ine Meyers Sion seiseals Sie EE 13, 58, 63 Atmosphere, contribution to salines of Great Basin 2 2-22---2-eee ee ee cee ences 20 Baley Cob" citation.on salt. bed, San Bernardino, Cal 322. sc.qe ne - ooenesacn te Lesko. eee z IRE YP OTASHAN ALY SCS eae rel ee ear NE Me a, oe NES OE IE a ac Sula aia Sispenn reel ee AT Baker, Charles, Laurence, citation on borax deposits 22-2 eee eee eee 34 Basin systemsicomposine the Great Basin region. 9222.25 22-5. oe ee Sem es ee eee os oe eee 1, 67-68 asins: Desert, formation, typical cases, description, etc GPE LEAP SR EN ie Oly Wa Nas Sa esp li 39-60, 66-67 Mesertstructural development. cos ceed oo na ae econ See ees eee ae Oe Seles 37-39, 67 Lake, composing the Great Basin region, list, areas, etC + 1-3, 67-68 Peariven,<descriptive MOtes oni. sce so ce ceeticee nc dene ee sec we BRS DHE Ni a A Soa Nee ee 29,30, 81 Pan okvey alley Gescriptive NOLES 2255 5e68 ce 52 ania dleleie tee cere eee ticnicne cle Sale ce e eamegeeeeee eae 1,12 pete rmrcariaD Cseni Wake aM LES ccja5 soe cis a sien sos sae Sa cis eis oe ne ciate lee eras Ge ele ane See 1, 3,39, 61, 62 Black Rock Desert, Nev., location, description, analyses, ete + 60, 61, 62, 63 BonnevillesBasin-descriptivemotess.: 2.62... 2222. sees ese ns geese so dee dee cee e es 1,4, 7,8, 30,31, 59, 61 Borates: Absence in certain desert basins see eee a san eC aD ale a aT eer) Sot p gene ey ES 42 METOSIUSMNEG Meat ASIM Re ae a) ee Oe el AAAS N Eat eta ioe cute) Ae SD YL 7, 33-34, 66 IBKESETICOMMBLAKESWIALEES 2.506 soos se ed 2c onc. ies nse beens oe Du See ea Met eat Dale reales anes Re ears 30 Borax: Bedded deposits, location and origin tS ee Riis RIT ne ea TRE OR JSS Deposits, workable, type and locations, etc +-+ ... 33-34, 42,46, 54 FE fflorescences, Searles Lake, analyses (Sai ie Pun rath ge Sot tn HR ea the peepee NS SIRT IR 33. Sresplues GxontpeAcit FECiOn, NOLES 20.5 ays on eins Pere eR eine Satine Seymwlcieeitees eaweon 7,33, 34

Page Boreexplorations for Potash. cmce se eee re ee ee ee te eee ee eee ee 2,13,18, 56-58, 63, 64 Borings: Carson Sink:po tash=stu@ies soe seas ee een ee See reine Raoul sanemese Hae ea 2,185,638, 64 Death V alley, log of Geological: Survey ssi cece as cre oa ee Se ee A6 ree Valley, 'analyses ee ae A SR Ie ACS INE EIS Ee Cee oe ete ees en se 54-56 Railroad V alley, Nev., log of potash GUS So 5 a Boos oe a eho cs oes ae et rn 56-58 Searles Lake, analyses of samples Been yee ae AP Se ep ee eee ie eee eee Re bam we" 48,49, re 89 Silver Peak Marsh, ANALYSES soe SS es ee ee Oe eee ee te eg 1,42 ERTETEVES BOUIN DY SCS ps pee re eet eS Sen Nr ee Pre ee 41, 43,47,51, 52,53, 54-56, $5. 86 IB TOCKIMSFOneM Te i CICA GION ois mene eee aoe gee ay an es Jace eae ae ee 44,46 @alearcous deposits. shores Of lakes Greet es sine eee eee ee ee 65 California: IB Ora GC DOSIUSE ces eae eat Sane eee ns eset terre oe BEA ge Peete RN ei ahr oo 33, 34, 46 Climatie records, precipitation, etc., tables PRE Pa Beccne petite ak Re ee 71-73 Great spasm regions ceochemica Condi HOS ss] sess Sa a ne ene 1-14 Gypsum deposits ss oes 2225s See es Bee a Ss es pee ©, 2 2 OUOE ER Ue TSE Sen ree 66 Nitrate: deposits. location: 222 s22sane ease eos sae eee 2 AN se 8 2 aly es et ee 32 IRIVeES, analyses, €tG-eee PSR Ra ice ee enti he hee Sh Bee se ela ee 8,28, 29, 31, 32, 81 Sali CUSES At ee oar SOs Sel si Sa wet waa es ey Cs ARN male orem AE 7,43, 44-45, 46, 48, 52 Whalers analyses Ue ja sot ssh na sid alah 595 ne a Se Sa WA eee es Oe ee ee en te 24, 77, 78, s Converon sClbabON 22550-4026 242.se2 bra Gl ei sick oe ee ee ee ae Camphellicitations.. 2. 2 Be ee Se ee eee a Carson Basin, GESCEID LIVE! OLES: scars soi wot Ne a eg ee ee 1,3,4,5,9,13,19 - Carson Desert. (See Carson Basin; Carson Sink.) Carsonslake descrip live MOLES 25552. Sek ee Ne on se ee ees ee ee 9,60, 61, 62, 63 Carsonsthiver- GESGriptlv Gm OLCS e538 yr S ane el actenle oe eto 1,8,9,10, 29, 63, 64, 74 CarsonsonTrk area WOne: CxplOovaviONS. . i. lsek. eyes Ss SaaS ee ree 2,18, 63, 64 Catlowavialleyebasint 110 beso a2 fe Se ee ee Atte Neral ee org 8 Chatard, T. M.,citations on analysis of hot spring water, et@ 2-:/ +--+ + 19, 49, 51, 70 @GhewaucanswMarsh notes les 25 522 Sec eS Se eS ee Sa a a ene ee 8 Chiorideshnich-comment ofsome lakes ses Ao a eae oe Se es ie ee See ee 30 Christmas -wakesvalley sround-waterais 25 2. 2a Sse ne ane ie seas eee eo Sa a ee ee ee 12 Clarke: Citationrom decomposition Of TOCKS 2 a52 5225 Sass Sas has Aaa ae eee cise one ee 15 Citations on analyses of hot-spring waters, et@ <..-2sss2l2s.222+-5es + sec ce se eee ee 16,17, 19, 24, 31, 52 Chmatoloay. Great Basin region, factors controlling, et@.s2222---sseecee cees ne eee ene nee eee ae 3-4, 71, 72 @loudibursts. cause oferosion ini Great: Basin iss wean sss a5 SS aaen cee ae cae eee ne ete a eee 3-4, 21 Columbus Marsh, location, characteristics, mud analyses, etc 53-54, 64 Columbus Valley motes asc cstsess 25550305 So 2s HSS Sadie eS ee Se She ee eee eee eee 1,8, 33, 39 Cones of extinct volcanoes found in Great Basin region Sean eae Soe es 19-20, 41 Cooperation: potashum vestigations 2 as sa5sssosc- Uae sks dace ea som Jaca oce ae see see eee ee eee 2,3 Cottonwood Springs. oypSumMsOCCUNren Ce sass ys ss nese tel teens one eee ns nee ee ee rere 7 Craters, extinct, as sources of saline deposits Sa Patents ASS a ee ee SAE es ee ee nee 19-20 Crusts, 'alkali, OCCITFENCe ANdsCOMIPOSIION saz 2a-e ee ee ee ee eee ee eee eee 33, 36, 60, 82, 83, 85 Cullen, j. A., 'citations on hot Springs; analyses eters ins serseaane snes eee ae ee eee 19, 23, 36, 43, 78, 85 Danby. (Basin descriptive NOLS 3268: ao. coc se tee cee eee eS ereeiere eyes eee aie iors eae ne ore erate cere 1,32 DeGrootcitathlones< 2 228 sees thee oss det es de dec ce Saree es loe eee eee ee ero 48 Death Valley: Basin: descriptive NOLES sasss5--cs ob eee ete ee on ee ee 1,4, 12, 19-20, 24, 32, 38, 39, 53, 85, - Borings, Geological Surveyiccscasdxcces 24 bos Saee Sct eee ae ee eter oe ee eine Sete eee erences iIBFines analyses; "tables s 2.222 ssseecteee seca eee eee grees kisioa view celtege eee 78, 95-86 Chemical Gata hoon. tees ek ea Sees ae SR REN. Beare eee Bete eae ers 45-47, 85, 86 hoestion, description,and. analyses of brines, ete: 2.2.22. 2242 ssc. sos Jaws scene ses See 44-47, 85, 86 Desert basin, structural development ou nist ce eee eee oe cee ae ee 37-39, 67 Desert basins, formation. typicalcases, descriptions CiGs-as2- -- eae ase eee ose eee ee 39-60, aed Desert wells, water measurement...3. 0.002065. 2s ooo ahs see une os eee Desiccation of lake waters, formation of desert basin + 40, 42, 47, 49, 51, 52, 56, re & 7 Dinsmore, S. C., citations on analysis of hot-spring waters, etc 4,77 Dixie Valley: Basin, descriptive NOLES soo ws Re I ee oe Oe Be ee Rae ae noe 8,39 location, formation, analyses from borings, tess.-- 322. sess ane see eae £ SU ore Sas 54-56 Dolbear, citations, STOUR WALL; CtO. 2.222% sels se ae ee 12, 33, 48, 53 Dole, citations, geology of Great Basin; 6t@ 625.05 22722 eae ee ee een eee ete 19, 31, 39, 40, 41, 42 Efflorescences, alkali, description, occurrence, analyses, etc 33, 36, 66-67, 82, 83, 2 Erosion, water and wind, in Great Basin... - 20 -- 220-2520 oo ne nn nen Evaporation, Great Basin POSTON oe ee Sa a ee ee a ete cones TS GPC oTE oer 10-12 Fallon: Area, descriptive notes Bsa seta sddselsacaees SSSR TI Ee OS eee 10, 25; 27 SOG. GRUNTS ib iabhts Olena oeoe HacsoeacogeeeLacnoesoohooaeoceas:a6oscC aus ie Sa) MOSSE e Ree eae 27 Fish Lake Malley,.descriptive notes 52225522 - 22 tee ae ae soe eee ine eens nels Se eee 1,39, 42 Fourmile Flat. (See Sand Spring Flat.) Hees cbiesCltablON Saas seo ese atoore ey teal oraieiele ote teeter eee eee 1-3, 36, 49, 52, 58, 54, 75, 86, 88 Furnace Creek, NOLES uetelowietpiee ed Hed eis od ole eA eS eee eee 6,7 Gale 1CleatlOMS ssh ee oe wah ee Eee ee seer 32, 35, 46, 47, 54, 64 Geochemical conditions, Great Basin region ey fa Pee SSE pe GREE OGEE 1-14 Geological Survey: VOTES (Carson Sia Ke hh tag ra ra a hate Se a a Soh 2, 18, 63, ye Barnes: Death Valley. 2... -.2-hoe ee wotsg tarts ae sion Sates Bee ee Oe eee Cooperation with Soils Bureau in potash studies + a 3 Ground-water studies Great Basins. o. 6 ee oe see ee eee ee ele eee 8, 12,13 Potash'studies in) Carson SinksbOkO sac. eee ee ee ae ee ee eee ree 2,13, 18, 63

Geology, Great Basin region; rocks, lakes, et¢ 2... 2 -2202- 2c oa agen ee ee ee 4-8

Index. 93

Gilbert: Page.

Ciiationsroneccolo my4Oly Greate asia mess was es eee hk Ee ee Pee eee ee eee eee cee 15, 59, 61, 65

Monograph on Lake Bonneville, citation s TG By eS A Sg ts Aarne a 7 Great Basin region:

Mreadesenipron ,and basinsanclided -nenos- 222353 ne ne eee See eee ree ae ae eee ae 1-3

Geachentlcat Condit OMS) erm ve erke ey Gey A eo aS oo Sah co) A aa Renee ie See 1-14 Great Salt Lake: :

iB) SCHIP LIVeyMO CES See se eee CRE ca a ee ee eee 7,9, 10, 29, 53, 61

Saltsicomben teenie eee ne eee Ce eee eee pete Se ee peta aleiem ats Bante ae i ante matress 64 Gypsum:

Beds, in Great Basin geological formation, analyses, etc tpaliee poe:

DepositsaGreatebasinsanaly Sess CtCss mae ole Soe tacts 5 ke acs ee Se San See ee ere ree 5-66 lake aC Wes Choa tlOUs 2 eek as Ute ee ee See Se LU ee SER ek SC one, ene ere 33 Hance, J. , Citation Sh Sa yh ete Pe Nt ee oi NE a eS ae PON ey Sr Nt ap ee tere CS sels ar a 36 Hardpan Nevada, analysis A Ae ean HY SR ok RE cat KR IGN CB Sd a ee 23 Harney Lake, PES CELT trlyi UO GCS pce ce ee ee ale er eran et eee ee 29,33 Less shee Re Ci atl OMe ese eersid n eee 0) aes ee news Soe y eS Sk ee eee eee ee ee ae ee eer 66 Hicks, W. B. MDOLAS MAM ALY SES! Sen tee e Sone athe eis Selon see aaa Ee SEA ae Soe a te aE a ie eee 47, 54 Hilgard, citations on decomposition of rocks, ete SEER GS URE eee eee Se ees 15, 25 POtievew DOG eSCripul ye QOLCSS eee niece se oe mene o See eo es sie oor eic teraete nan ee 2 Rete 9,61 Har Gorines eG realebashbrogone ses) 5220224051 7. sa eae ete BB OS Mes as ee ae 135 18-19

Analyses OfeWabers nana see ene SERS Ree a ak Yee ee eS Cae aos Res Le aie teled Naee Sel 18-19, 35, 60 Haim pol dimlvake ydeschip tive NObSic0 sk. 255525501. 2st sella vee eee ece es cue eee ee eck eee 7 29, 60 Elumib Oldiishtivierad escriptavie; nO LESsa- t-te ean eee ee ee eee ey 1, 8,9, 24, 29,30, 31, 64, 74, 81 Humid regions:

Soils, analyses, comparison with SOllsiOfarid TeslOnS oe sree eae caee eens en eee ee eet 24-25

Mineral content of WOLETS a COMMATISONS s CLCseek eae errs ee ye aN See ete 2 PY ee ne eet 28-30 Igneous rocks as source of salines, composition, decomposition, etc 14-16, 76 Ivanpaheb asian O lem tea sa yeas sae Bie ek Re eRe Coe AS a Ue tere ne ae 1 Jarosite occurrence, Nevada, percentage of potash a eee ee ees IS a ey cee 65 TOMES Sie OCH GIO Mee sees elie a beens eee CRI 2S oe a Pee Hee Pree Shep ened arth Ra 49, 86 TOLGeaTPhy ij Or41 O Cees meee cea ce 2 Umeiyen SS eo ee ee I Se ee oe ae eee uate 29 DiEIMpersL tkepls ASME OL aMer ae mee ec: ae emcees sc Sh WaR Atel e e eee ER So en ae ee 8 Kern River descriptive notes 2B om CANN a LN Seles rit OL RSA A, ve eye Ee re CO 10,31, 81 ION CSN CIi ONS ere aenmire Kee ea eked Che RRS SEP NOM hee Rene See Aus an eee ee ema ee 34 King's Pakube lake sonmationet@s vce Ao: 2-42 5 ee 2 NS a ena crete Crate ee ee 6 Kings HEU INV Teepe UIT =O) Thera Set te ete alee ewe RS ale eels See By Oe ek So fee ae pnt cel pe tal 10 Kullenberg, citation on absorption phenomena LRA Mee whe ens Rivas alata eater ee ae 21 Laboratory, Cooperative, potash investigations... Se sn Seared Teh FARE EL Ee Ae eet anne een 3 Taboutans Basin' descriptive Notes: 55562 los se es a-0) 22. - 6235-52 e2ce te 2: 1, 4,7, 8,18, 29, 30, 31, 59, 60, 61 Hehontan Lake, 'descriptiy Gm O hess wes eee Rese Se ere eset Rae CCD Nels yak ctu Sec gtel 59, 60,61

ake:

Basins composing the Great. Basin region, list, areas; ete: :-.-s2 2 2 -5 4- 1-3, 67-68

IB CORGCMOSItS Vana liySeS mcrae Oe na a eA hare ete Ce etc MRM IE or eee ore N erat TA Steet eee ay

Bronles, Mone weyramid= Walker and Winnemucca... 5 10 2+. 222-82 eee s laters; analyses, comparison Wilhirlvercwabers i=. 2527 she os 7 OAR 27-30, 80

akes:

Greabpasimiresion-listyeleyation drainAgvenele oes. n=. 4255 8 e eee a eee ee 7,9, 67, 75

Quatenary, list, description, CLC ora Ape ens ce bie MNT Te Bs Mba Mie open een loey 2 he Sou ye a ea 7-8, 67-68 Large Soda Lake, TLRS Ss Pc Re anne ane ARAS ia aus 33, 64 Latitude as factor GCORLPOMEN SeprecClprlatlOD saa 944 54 keen ange ade 4 oN Oe EON aE ieee 3,72 LAD, GOTG,., CHUB ANOVAS ho S SE aca eg ee a PE ae eS ELS SEIS NS es et 42-43 ECG ATI CACT OC Kes O LOS Awey eaten peas Mia A Rae Renn WS ee se ea ae Ee ae es ete Un in or REY 8, 29 Limestones, Great Basin, composition and losses under weathering 17, 76 Logs, potas borings, SIGE PTET BS EBay Be Si igh Seager gas nema 46, 54-55, 56-58 Long VAT Gets AS Ne O COS ca eee eet a NS Dp gi tet scp tes ey a pei late Aa oN 8 Louderback, citation on SAG SUMMIDGI OCS AT Oey b PES ASLEA Cepstral 7 Lovelock Valley, TENORS we Oe SS a ee a eg MG ice Sag Ann [i Rly a gs fal oa 7,12 Mackay School of Mines, cooperative work with departments + + 3 Madeline Plains Basin, TIGERS threes tice pag ree Pe Raine naaee eee ea Ny 4 ae eh ae 8 Marshes, Great Basin, 'types loca tionkam ded eSeniqy tlonees ee ysee ee rn are rcs fees ere re 39-60 Means, PUR FISTS A Cte OR EN DE ee Oren erie a eRe en Iter Rah oh ek 25,26 BUCO CBE Cl 14 LOS cies nee orate) nee Pte Ain et outa Nt actos Pat's ie nee eae Se Se ee ale eee ; as Merrill, citations on GeCOMIPOSILLOMEOHTOCKS Se etese ee see a ec cee es en ea oie ee 16,17 Merz, ALR. PEGE UD ti OTIS Mmey ga See not tees hal 5 GUNN AS oy is tee ari h oe aR ner PE NOUS ae RNR aM Tet eee 36, 52, a 86, 8 Mill Creek, Fre oor Eee oh ial rk ee eee Naan ce eve. Daren ae 82 Mineralogy TEE MOIS AROS Ee ae ap ee 4 Fas ot te ee Grebe eto ne oa nn Uh eae Ree eee ae 3, 69°70 Minerals:

reais asitl tOCCHERCUCO AT GsASSOCI A GLO 5 sey eee oe oo ere re ae ee eee) een See 69,70

OAS HEGLE DMOCCULRENCO. Grea DAS: oe. 2 8) oes feiss ao eras cise Se ee aS Soe Eee ee 65, 69-70

Saline, temperature CONGO Sf OPIN GLOWS oy oes Fe Saree ene whe a eS ee ere 69

Soluble, OT 1a ed GLO Tate eee eee rams eee EY LH ws A EO SN Bie oe ge ne re noe 70 EES Spe eSapDeU at ShCAL MCD LDS co 2c 4 2 ose s we oe ce woe Dow nee es een eile Sogn ee 13 Seeman omic mec hone crea ish) asim TOPIOM Go ios os ol. satel sls Sele eee ee eee eS 15 WEA OED OSCLG wd CSCEIP ULV OMMOLES! caso shee ace ae keene oe ee SE eS ea Sears eee 1,3, 66 Mojave River, PIERS Mae He eee Pe BBY come COPIER aE SFE PN MIN TOC ae aS 8 Mono Basin, descriptive TAD Eee spose See a COS E ROSS SEE eROE BOSE USC BSH SE CSEEosed Gone HoUsos Seat iaee 1,357, 19 Mono Lake:

PDAS CRITI ONTE LOSER eee oe prereset 9,19, 29, 30, 33, 49, 50, 53, 60, 62, oA

DAESICOMLOM pe Mere Mas soe h le kc et aes we ee bee wleo oe Aa nie ee A ES GORA neta eM a UMS aaa TACOS OR AXGG.C J) OSL ES me ore See So ee ee a et ern eee Ao nN 34 Piper atric aG rea basin TOPION 0.2 2s St Sete BS no eo es cee se cab oe cesaees 4,5,9-10, 73 Mud playas, description Ber eg ee Reef tat ee hs EE RUN RC RCL CL URS ua SOR Seon e 39 ast colineranaiyses, black Rock Desert, Nevada. : 2--2---s-5--5-22---6-20seseeee 60

Nevada: Page. AUT GOPOSItS 2-2 2 -e ee Se pia SiS Sein eth ea ferelaeie tain ce Se slefememre hac ca ape Rea Sg ear aea Pa 35 ATUNI te OCCUITONCE ooo fcia we Wace csv mateo nein te a pe ee eer ee ee coserensrsoeaec 30-36, 67 iB Of a GepOSits 2 oo of ne een oe eee ee em eel Wass enlace Re ae eee rere 33, 34, 42-43, 54 Climaticirecords, precipitation, etes, tables. 252-2255 2 eee ee yn es ee ee 71-73 RO RTINCLICLACOLS LOUIMG 2 oe.) 2 he EN Sa A ia Sea SLL 2 oe ra eg 19-20 Great Basin region, Zeochemicalconditionse. 2222. 2026 2. se yess ese os oe ey ee 1-14 GypsuM deposits): se 5 cc te hs tees age clei sia tec ree cia ne ate a 65, 66 Hardpans, occurrence and:analysis 5-26) ane see oo eee ose ere eee ees 3 Fron Springs, wateranalysis 2. 3002-003: 5 alee een eee ec Saji Se ea tect ieee ee 18,19, 35 Nitrate deposits, location 2... os Ys kT a ae id ae are ea eee 2 Salih deposits ce Sees. oe see icte soem rope lelag ere) okay Searcy ecyor ya rapier Cage 7,17, 40-41, 42, 43,53,54,56 Sollssalimes,-natUne; CbC es So 0 ca Ny aS eu Seen tee ad AS ails ape tee ecau o a e Cal pg 25, 27,78 Waters, QNAlV SOSH ese PAS Nae ear ete cya SU kre Shape Tata te ro eu nce Meas peel cA ORE Ry 24,77, 78 Waters, surface and underground, analyses x. 22 -cis 0 oreo ee ae 24,77, 78

Nitrates, Occurrence im Groat basine /. cease cre ho te ca nit et ee 32-33, 66

OpdenuRiver, NOC. 262s. ace es w viable wt bio tbe prt mibeaisid ere ie hs sw atic Poe ey Sg ea eee 29

Oregon:

BOrates; CEPOSItSs2 sis oo jo oe st wee Siecle ate mete ce arabe Sree ese A ore ores SR re aie ce 33 Climatic records, precipitation, etc., Cables os Lo a ee eg ieee a 71-73 Great Basin region, geochemical Conditions..2.- fhe ee eae ee ee eae ia Nae ae 1-14 iiake basin descriptive Notes. 2.052 loo cin cet aca came oe oe te ae es ee 1, 4,30, 31, tb Lake region, hot springs, water analysis Leyes Bi caters wyele By cecil ree NG ay ape Spa ees La

Lakes, TOES ee es ses a a eer beled aids wel aa win tere eh rele ae rete ea 9, 39 Soils, saline, LEY GUT OE cst PSs ic aus ae apes a ae ay ava My By Sap ee eg 25,79 Southern, APbESIAN AKAs wa Lif neti On Bae eo aie ts Lec irae tang eee Oe eee 13

ID CSCEIPULVIO HOLES 65 da02 oe a ete Ne plea NE nace re ake Raa re pba oer 9, 29, 30, 32, 33, 45, 50, 51, 53, a

DAlCSHCOMLSM GAA sce teeters Cae Marten en arg ee) Geeta DINoNN Fee eae ee A Pet Ss Seat Rn en Owens River, descriptive notes Ea eR U PERG SR tan ag SRE YN al 8S 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 31 Owens Valley Basin MeSCEL pli vienOLESs omc ee a ate/an eters See tera ere ore rn ee 1,3,4, ze 10, 11, 12, 19, 30,31 Panamint Basin, descriptive notes eats a Sal aa oleae dales Nile haven a avo uraye cya va eae apa ce enya ay Se a 1,.7,39 ATACISeMV alle yan CSCLEUP ULVE IO LESS se otter ke omeicie 2 eka hn capaci at Vaya cee cor slp ep 1,33 Playa deposits:

DeEScHipllommec etree 4. wees eee a Siete bi Beit Me ern ee ee etal Ciee ereiele wore eee eens Chere eer eae 36-37, 67

OLA xaVGESCTID FIOM So she Wass Lear eae ats ANS ayaa eels ciaeaicye winnie Shs aeterare ee nae ae nee 33 Eley: muUdvandamarshes 7description slocawOm, ClC eerie see sea ae ee eee ree ee 39-60, 67

otas

Analyses, natural brines, Death Vere Calis Bs. ec ee 5 ciara ee ope See arate ee age 47

Ising WIRING Ree soe ecuaes desceeseuaasc= mecca A cperek ae nye eee a eps 2,13, 18, 46, 54, 56-58, oh 64

ISCOME Tye COLUMUIUISy Marsa, oo a) pacte wn Sia Ete cre Saas oct ge VereOe oie ae atae eoa ee ee 54,64

Dri Railroad Valleys INGvi4 10S ce cee 0 aes sere a eres ore ae Stn re a eA Tn PSI en oe

Inv estigations, cooperative POL ta GaN ENB ATY Ete ABE nN) AD Polar 7 a ee

Studies, CAESOM SiMe DOLGs an ke UE a hee Aa a ri aoe ee ieee nee 2,18, 63 BA Potash-bearing minerals, occurrence, Great Basin ooo. oo sias eee. eee ee ee 65 Potassium:

FATAL A ACCUM aGLO IM Oli GLC bE BS TN eae payee eee a 32

CONbeMtsOMaeposits.. GreabwoEasin, MOLES WeCUCse emia eee kee ee eee 44, 45,49, 51,53, 54, 59, 64, 66, 68

Ratio to sodium, in waters and soils, Gredt Basin ay. sol ee ae eae ore 25, 27 Precipitation, Great Basin region, notesiand tables2. 2252.22 - sexton sees ae eee ee ee ae 3,9; 10, 71, ip Via deb asin COSCHIPEIVIe NOLES sees) aa eee a ea eee Sat eae niceeme Saale Sa ae Reese ree out FAVA TN Gale Ace CeS CRUD ULVIC MO LESe ms ieee eee tea oltre aaa arate ra saa er re ee 9, 29, 30, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63 Quaternary lakes list, GeScripbion MClC ns sac 5a sets ete eee oie ee ee oe ea 7-8, 67 QiwiN MN RAVer \AESCrUP ELVIS MOTE aie cee ester alge ease eye eet re wheats ck te cai Fares aaa ey age ae a 4,8,9, 29 Hetlioad Valley, location, formation, artesian waters, borings, etc 8, 13, 39, 56-59, 64, 83-85

ainfall: ;

AMMA Grea GS ASIMITe OOM: MOLES: aT) CGO Less eee aerate ye aero orate rene re 3,9, 10,71, 72

DIStOUMONVANGTUN-Of \GTCAL HAS MOTE Si OTe ses sere ae aba sper errr ae Saree eee re 9-10 Rams torrential <occurrencein' Great Basin. Wand! eflects essa. sass aoe ae es ee 3-4, 21 Ransomes CitayiOHS — 2 to S222 cies ne bet ee Sac cya e tie Mae clei os iters Shes sich che Rue ay epee Speen ye ere Sep 65 Reactions ol solugionGn rock: wea tinier 2 Seo e eo cee hers eee Siar ara ar 20-21 Reade we MellardGibatiom ss jars Sills AS 2 oo bce teaiete cyaieieie s Riatste sea ays oars anlar ae eet ae ean 31 IVCESes RVers CESCLIPUIVe MOLESEe cs sea—=2 eee sidicigiacojn cis jcicin miata ote ota Se ise tereie e MCT a ae een ae 4,8,9, 29 VCH OM O POSTAL: ee eee ee a ae Se ere iatre ora ate ere lesatacaia taney a apaeeeel ob arat ies Beara e cae are ete rene ree Rhodes Marsh: descriptive motessanalyses: ClGic 2. sao. eee e cis reer en rs are Se eet 1,33, 38, 39, 42-43 River:

Wischarpes (saline cOUveMt sei. sees es cine Sa eiesiere eile ici See clele ene eee eels ee eee ee 30-32, 81

Waters analyses. comparison with lake waters. os. ss— oss ae oe eee ne ener 27-30, 80 Rivers draining into Great Basin region, descriptive notes 1,4, 8,9, 10, 27-30, 73-74, 75 Rock weathering:

Products; Solubility: 2 2222 /2oe oe sie ere cea ee 2 eens re Sh pape ie Sc tn A ge eg a a 20-21, 66

BONES RCACEIONS 22 Sos kone cis eek ee eid ee ella: aydinnra eaters ts clare oe evel ohare ela estates alee ha a ee eS 20-27 Rocks:

Hormation etc: Great Basin Tegiow se oie ses ele eee locie's oo ee retreat ate ee 4,5,6

Great Basin region, extent, distribution, and icharactensss2e> es nae eee eee 13-14, 14-18, 65, 75, 76°

Igneous, composition of acid and basic, discussion and topless mac nl eee ena ee 1415.76

Keneous; decomposition, process and results. 2 .- 2 ccm ece eo eee eel eee eee eee 15-16

Sedamentary, as source of salines, amaly Ses, CtG@ eri. ae2 eee soae oes cae ee ear eee 17-18 OSAMONGE asin deposition.| GeScripbiomie eee ea see ease eee eens ee mieseee eee eae een eee 34 ROSS IW ERS Citations: 2 oars son. sm ute os ves icrc ete he mn ie ele ecient ate eae ee or sere re ree ae 52 Rowe citationmoneypsum beds, Great Basinuese sere] se seen eee eee lath aerial Sonne Se petes 7 IRpn-Of Great OSIM ATCA s ieie ses. seg clone aera soos arate epee ee ee tree er 8-10, 73-74 IRMISHECTOCK MOCES (iis ie parce chess oie Sei a sahara ctetale aha yet ae alia Spey erect ra fey ze a ce es ES Moe 29 Russell:

CitationsionireolosyrotiGreat iB asim. . aetr cere Seeeiee iar ioe eters ae al eer erate err 6,13, 15,18, 61, &

Monosraphyonsbake: Palomar rhe Ornate oer ee ete eet ere er

Index. ; 95

Saline: : Page. GrustseatroadevalleynanalySescte crs sae aot ae ore re ale areata teats eee erarinietet terse cama a eva erarorcels 85 IDGISTMUS. DESTIN ES OES ONIN OEL, GRO 56 Se be ge ens noone 6 sana c cos tease-oasde se deoead 32-37, 66, 67 Segregates, geological fOEMMAEIONS ANG 1OCALILICS Nera ene cae secon ee een ee aeons a aeincenciees

Salinenvelleye basin ad CSCrIPLL Ve MOLES Sco o Santee acess sos eae ee aes nas sce aoe 1,39, 42, 43-44

Salines: : iBunedsdenosits, location explorations, CLG 2 25-5 si. ej acs cee eel ane mae ae pele nina alaata eters ie 60-64 Collection in surface waters tp Ags SSS eee Spe seep eh ese piece See oaecce ator aver bgescd 27-32, 80, 81 IDIScharce TrOMavELVers IMO Ake MASINS Serer fc a nln rs Se Siape alel Acie ne seme eiee eee nae eee ose are aeiate 30, 31, 81 Grea PE ASIN TECTONN SOURCES Sse rae ole oats here arata ee a ls ao aa ge erate ee re a eee rane a rete nee 14-20 inipresent lakes/ot Great (Basi. -- oe se nes 2 SEE BUSS ee tae en are er aera 64-66 Than Gonliy WEARS aoe oe aoa ane ae eae Es cOMC OB REA RE aS SBGBGEe Sp aoa sce eeBacacbooae 25, 27, 66-67, 78-79 IMG Vel al OR isnot HERE RE oc ere La eea eee cee Wee. aac cice es wie ere cee cea Dre cts area eee 3, 69-70

See also Salts. Salt beds:

SilvermbeakyMarshuiN Gur soos ss Sipe ciscactae so cine Aaa Stee Asa ORE Sa Sena een 40-41, 42 DERMeNValley NG V Aes ce Se nano ra aS aS coe Stays cass woe ate Selene eg ajsiei A eS See Oe ae aes Re tars 54-56 Grea Basinigeolosical formations: 2 scans ean Swiss ma cise ae eee nee nee eae 7, 17,18 Searles, Marsh. [ObMaliOH ; LCs one ose ds Aces se oa 2/s ose aes eas Se oa Saale ae Sete ee ee 48, 52 Salt: ORNISTS PATI Ay SOS ete aaa ece eee erat oN eae ren Pee tae e ol ay coe Rees Sarna ey Se 43, 45, 60, 66 Meposits, Deaths Valle yi sss sci sisis aroacc saloons Soe ale aes Sells Se sine ee Oe Ws oe Seem 44-45, 46 Hound inilakesbed: deposits: 75 joc so cee arena tam noise toe eines enemas See see Herne 17,18 Fun od essansliesam al yiSis gets, Soe Na ep or cya at car nv alan a RRR Ia eS MOIS Sk LLG re a eee oe 43 - makes Valleys descriptive MOLES sone ae aoa 5 tee ise ns Rem oeic Mey anne Scho ene Serial eae ements 13, 25 Production from brines of Great Salt Lake and Owens Lake + 64

SAlLLONUSIMK ESCH LIVE MOLES sarctserarst arsine Setter tO ta Natale ara toil omar orn wis ae oe sleet Seen eee 4,16 Salts: Alkalt= movements imssOlls aa. oGeane seis mse oases Sorel Sasoee jecoe seas Satter Ris Gene eee Tees 26, 66 Collected; by rivers of world, per square mile estimate: 222 5-- 2+ -5-5-- ose sees eae cee en eseeee 31 ContentomGreahi sal Galak ese Baal ieiaceae alse ene cla ete es ee Ee Se eS eee Sie SIE ee hae eet Sie 64 Peposits buried. locahien. explorations, peUC ssa Sate See Se Stree Oe rte eens Sent ee 60-64 Deposits, Searles Marsh, formation, etc FERRIS oct SO SE es SSeS Se 48-83, 64 RCAC HONS UN Ger Weaning 2 spies asec en cret Oe Ot. Sess Sie ots ate SP eater SEI Nenu NRE SE A nat 20-24 Solmblexdep thio naccumulatlOMSHMSON asses as eee ee cree a ee ee See ee eee 26-27, 67 Soluble, in soils, analyses POUR Ge eee ak nem ee KER ae SemNet bat Oe eas ace 78-79 Soltubleslossesicansedub yz aDSOLp UlOR ase a roptacrar are ree ra) ape en ee ee ee 21-24 SOlUblE MOV CIMIEM GM ALLUGSOUS ees ces. cee ree eae eee Cen earn =tGhie Is Erato 25-26, 66 POLUpleTratlounani ds an Geb uM 1 ISOUS ha cae ae Sarat evap aoe ora rar oe eee Be as eee 24-25, 78-79 Solublesretentionsby.Sous of. ani@ regions mess. - a eae ease ee en ee eee 25-26, 66 See also Alkali; Salines. j SoM VISR BEI CECE Ko HG LE sage lator Bie Riera tran aise tiated is she atic wile aero RE SN eee oe BAS Slt Nan Gus prin gsehiate Neves! OCA bi OH GESERIP U1 OW s CLG Nemes cecsrcte metas arse cts steer nee ree 39, 59 Salita Yynez Givers Oboes oa Seca een Sie e ews OO Se aS eels seu SE Re oe ee 28 San bAgNPARla sR LVI atl O LO erecta ene ag eee oer Seen eee oP VEE UE Ro nome RT aOR 28 Sealineiovernsalineide posits GeSeht-DasinSs sence Speer rere Se ee ino ra ae ere 45, 52, 66 Searles: IBNXSTE OS OKSGYGr enh a ty Xa YOU Shs ty a eae te ep Ae tet eri hes See 1,7, 12,32, 39, 60 Deep well, analyses of samples, and petographic examination 2 87, 88, 89 Deen-wellscam pleswanalySes bales srs ee rican rata rere Mesto a eon ee oe 87, 88, 89 Hake formationand=various Stages, brines velco 22 2-26 sets s eee. ee oe be ee eee 33, 51-53, 60, 64, 65 Marsh, location, description, chemical data, etc Se ee ae 12, 32, 33, 39, 48-53, 60, 64 Semiarid regions, mineral content of waters, comparisons, ete ++ 28-30 Sevier Lake, Utah, location, description, analyses of saline beds, etc : - 7,9, 29, 59-60 SIGHT AVEC MPSLO DOU Ftp tyre oe he ite oye eG e ale Warbes arian Ee a BEE Sls Vee eae 4-5 Sthvereda Ke a \ictl Oye ESR ID) EL VCstl O LOSS es ASS eee a oats ee SN ee ec Sites Cae Se ce eae 8,12 Silver Peak Marsh, conditions, formation, description, analyses, etc 6, 12,19, 38, 39-43, 53 Smoke Creek Desert, Nev., location, description, analyses, etc 220-.22sce eee ee eee eee 60, 61 Sea WEHUUeEOH at Patre sods: bake, NCViec. 522.0525 o- asc be ccs seek ecinns oe seme snes sueaceeee 64 Sodium: . PUT AACR IIT AL OHIO NG Tet) Es ASIIN nes oe ne in Ses Ste eset slopes Saige Soe eee, oe ee 32 Chloride content, borings from Searles Lake, notes SR RP RN op a tierce ae ed ee 48-53 SEHED RIC CIN COSTES GTO A IES ASU aes cen OE ae Wt ee a Re 17, 18, 42, 60 ChioridesproductionasilversPenks Mars tt. So nyse se Sy ye a ee Sh Si ea Sa een ad 42 Chloride. (See also Sait.) Rao to potacsiumednewaters and sols, Great Basin': 2222222 ce sn ee 24, 25, 27, 87 Salts, products from brines of Great Salt Lake and Owens Lake Bese eate EE See eer 64 a upnale CSTNO SUS IS ear be hee OREO A et ea ee aes Nea cea hee ca epee Beale tle 60 oils: ARAL Ses shen) Goan dear O-TeCl ONS sores sy eee Clave rine E hs eae a hoy ore ears 24-25, 78-79 Arid regions, retention and movement of soluble salts 25-26, 66 Bureau, cooperation with United States Geological Survey in potash studies 2,3 SOLublessalts accu lati Ons dep than... as! Spee ee eae ene ees arin ene eer ce 26-27, 66-67 SOLID Lesa litssaeee a SCS tee tett eo hye yee Ae Taft Ne ney ne or ny eS ag a pet cis Ae eet te 78-79 PPAR ESS ANAEYSES:- QTE AL BASIN: © --oo22 sol ose ee Se eno ah Son ae Se oe 18-19, 35, 43, 60, 77 Springs, Great Basin region : a NSU a SOE shee oe pe eee eae ay 13, 18- PIPER NCHCRTI@ Goer een oe et De Nl Soe epee Oe 7,34, 41, 42 Burkett EN OSL G TG ELIM ANY OIC 4-0 bore cc Nos ne Sepia ae Rete es ie es eed Sh ee ay 66 Streams, Great Basin region, description, run-off, etc 2.2-20---2-0- 1, 4, 8-10, 27-30, 73-74 SIRT ARNE ROE SCRA IONS eae is i yeh th eam opm aem ate eerie ny eg eet 21-23 SUSE EGIy RO EPs TAT Pana be es ree Se SM Rt I UN cs A uc en AR RO 8,33 SPE BEES Vee ES CASEI oT Loy ere sows oo ee On ead trig ae oe hy neat gee 8 pECeT IMRAN C IRM LCSECe cee en Pern ye, eS) Ye Ree TE ree eat a dete aes, ae a Sabed eae tain 8 2 PES LS ig CER CY ae OMT 2 ea ee Ry Ss Seg TY selec Pa ee Dag 1,33, 38, 39, 42 Temperature: E PGK IEO Ms OEUIA Ii ON OL SALINE SIMINGPAlS J. vcan oe es sen eine See ec is ae a ee See aUeke sem ewe ee 69

TEUBEO PGS GRADE BEE WY S ss pc Oe ST eas rR as a ne en eae SO ee 4,73

Page

Mopography, Great. Basin region. . - 2.22 agsise toes oo see ee ee ae ee ee 4,73 iruckeeyMead ows, SrOUMG: WALEL oh saa ce eels sia eee eet PT Ne Oa eo ee ea i 18: Truckee River, descriptive MOPS Saeco 5 gaa ee a a oe eo 1, 8, 9, 10, 24, 29, 30, 31, 62, 74, 81 Tufa deposits on lake shores great Basi SP Face Nase a oa oe Oars hae cee ot 65 Mle aRAVeERs TUM=Ohs 220 BI 3 oN A i ee 8 Say Care WY me Rr cep SL ace dn els UE ec a Oe 10 Tuolumne River,.cUn-olf Cte es. kee aS Lelie ena 10,31, 81 MUMET CUGATIOM Sac. Ses coe lie nS eae es Sits ea aie ae SS eee ae ore Turrentine, J. W., citation on geological formations and saline segregates 6, 49, 70 Utah:

Climatic records, precipitation, Cle. 5 tables soso ye Se a aan 71-73

Hot springs, water Bhat hc) Cen eee ae eee iG Le en LA A aM eA A Le Son oo saucanocoeneccac 18,19

MUNK MII OLE Hes ors eters Sa re Sree ates aha ta ha shasta ale Ste Sas a atest aS Sa eae aT Tea oo ot a or 9

Nitrate deposits; location ee. oie SOMERS are a ehh She SS a Ur Ses a

NOUS SALINeS MATIN OLE Anas Ne ek ys tei ete om slera eyelatealaeyer aay stata vers oe eS oe) aN ee 25, 27, 79 IMATISELISO }CILAtLONS 2) 2 iste site arcisicie elite Sole siciaicve Slee Sin bela ie See RSS See e ee ee eee eee 15, 16,31 Van Winkle and HM atom, Citations) so. asa es cose cee a wigan se Sai ae oases ea eee eee 28, 29, 32, 41 Vegetation:

Absorption of potassium' sal tsitrom Soiliwatelsee cee seceeeee ce ae eee ee eee eee eee ee ee oeeaeeee 22,23

GreatiB asin notes ice se es aes Se Se soya re St rR rt eee eee 11, 23 Volcanic activity, relationstovsalineydepositsiaa cs seeeteereesr tec cecen eee ee eaee eee CCe eae 19-20, 66 Wadsworth; topography, Motes. yor sem sees eotete slates aietes eee sie aaa anata setae eee cee ere 4,5 Walker Basin, CSO RTO NS NOES eee oo ob booosoc ou oueedne nocd ndodecusneomaceoodonesascorcs60s5 1,3,7,9, 12 Walker, D. iC, CiGAGIOM eee ee ESS ae eS Sa ne ele ae Bee ene eee 56 Walker Lake, descriptive TOTES sivas th Be kie toes eS is SS eee Me in oe eee Oe 9, 29, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63 Walker River, Gescriptive sO tesiws2282 see ea aceon Se mee Gee aaa a na nee ee 1, 8,9, 10, 29, 30, 31, 62) 74,81 Walther, J. , citation SSN sich RES wou esas ol a ic see age orem fr lg SN eg a 52 Water:

AT besiall supplies il Great Basin regions case ceanence rece naekee eee eee e tee eres 13, 58, 63

Fissure and rock, Great, basin rer lon 725 vaccine eee ieee eee eae ee ees eees eee ee ee eeeeer 13

Ground, Great Basin region, valleys and sinks, artesian water, springs, etc 12-13

Surfaces, Great Basin resion evaporation rater esse na ane eeene cess ee eeer sete e tee eee eee eee 10-12 Waters:

Hotspring Great) Basinorenion vanalyseSeeee ss sneer ee eee Eee eee eee eee eee eee eer 18-19, 35, 60, 77

ake salts depositions Order acces eee pace eee cee oe eee eae Re Eee Ree eee eee eee 50

River and lake, analyses ANG COMPAriSONS ss. oak sale ce sea e eee LACE ee ee eee Peers 27-30, 80

Surface, Collection of salines. 0c ea ee SS OE aig deh eh agtae Pielinga ea pune 27-32, 80, 81

Surface, Great, Basin region sources, run-oll, et@.. -scene ee eeeeeceeecce cence aeeeeenion 8-10, 73, 74

Surfaceyandi und ersroundamaliysessaac see. ce ne cece cen ease nee oe eeece eee tee eens eeeeee 24,77, 78 Wieathening Zone) reactions. 2-2 occ kee aes eee eee oe eiecic oes ee evs oie emis cio lee else eel eee Beeeee ence 20-27 WIG DeR-RAVeR MObES Soe os NSE sole moines dcie Siac reins sre ee ie eee rice ates le ieee em ee emcees See eerie 8, 29 Well, deep, Searles Basin, samples, analyses, tables... 2. ooo oe a eine eee we eee 87-89 Wells, Great Basin regions, WALET CON GIEIONS (or. soy d le Paha a eet eae ee 12,13, 58, 63 Whitney and Means: citation. so. 20. Soa oe ae 2 rae ye eee Winnemucca Lake, descriptive MLO LOS S52 Se ierae Saree eee oe ale ae me Seee eee eesee saison 7, 29, 30, 53, 60, 61, 62, 63 Younes CG. die Sy Psu ANAlyses. cic. f wach ieh Gea Le aniaaiae os cie eRe Dae cee lee tine erate te seers 65 Yuba River, THOCOS Se eee NNEC SNE Sab 0 a a es SU Ue SR ag Hee VR a eee See 28, 81

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